Wikibooks http://ia.wikibooks.org/wiki/Frontispicio MediaWiki 1.10alpha first-letter Media Special Discussion Usator Discussion Usator Wikibooks Discussion Wikibooks Imagine Discussion Imagine MediaWiki Discussion MediaWiki Patrono Discussion Patrono Adjuta Discussion Adjuta Categoria Discussion Categoria 1 1078 2004-10-05T00:33:07Z ==This subdomain is reserved for the creation of a Wikibooks in the <b>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingua Interlingua]</b> language.== If you speak this language and think it would be cool to have your own Encyclopedia then '''you''' can make it. '''''Go ahead. Translate this page and start working on your Encyclopedia.''''' 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[http://en.wikipedia.org For more information go to the main website] <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 3427 2006-12-24T20:17:27Z 212.238.240.159 Redirecting to [[Frontispicio]] #REDIRECT [[Frontispicio]] 917 11 2005-02-27T19:36:15Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> 12 2005-04-10T10:16:29Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Le_Peregrinage_de_Christiano|Le Peregrinage de Christiano]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Edition bilingue del libro The Pilgrim's Progress de John Bunyan. Traducite ad Interlingua per Paolo Castellina</center></font> </table> 22 2005-04-10T10:17:25Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Le_Pelegrinage_de_Christiano|Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Edition bilingue del libro The Pilgrim's Progress de John Bunyan. Traducite ad Interlingua per Paolo Castellina</center></font> </table> 23 2005-04-10T14:49:50Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingueEdition bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Le_Pelegrinage_de_Christiano|Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Edition bilingue del libro The Pilgrim's Progress de John Bunyan. Traducite ad Interlingua per Paolo Castellina</center></font> </table> 43 2005-04-10T14:50:29Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Le_Pelegrinage_de_Christiano|Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Edition bilingue del libro The Pilgrim's Progress de John Bunyan. Traducite ad Interlingua per Paolo Castellina</center></font> </table> 134 2005-04-12T23:25:08Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> 135 2005-04-21T11:15:23Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Ied_en|Dictionario Interlingua Anglese]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Dictionario de Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> 1994 2005-04-21T11:19:12Z Josu Lavin 2 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Ied|Dictionario Interlingua Anglese]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Dictionario de Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> 2961 2006-02-09T12:32:50Z McDutchie 20 /* Historiettas e contos in interlingua */ <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Ied|Dictionario Interlingua Anglese]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Dictionario de Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> == [[Historiettas e contos in interlingua]] == Un collection de parve historias e contos. 3118 2006-05-26T15:13:50Z 85.250.193.116 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Ied|Dictionario Interlingua Anglese]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Dictionario de Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> == [[Historiettas e contos in interlingua]] == Un collection de parve historias e contos. [[he:]] [[en:]] 3419 2006-12-15T10:20:39Z 212.238.240.159 <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|Grammatica de Interlingua]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Grammatica de Interlingua in Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Ied|Dictionario Interlingua Anglese]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>Dictionario de Interlingua sub le direction de Josu Lavin</center></font> </table> <br> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6">[[Janua_linguarum|Janua linguarum]]</font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#353597"><center>[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups]Textos bilingue</center></font> </table> <br> ;[[Historiettas e contos in interlingua]] :Un collection de parve historias e contos. ;[[Conversationes]] :Alcun conversationes-exemplos in interlingua per Tomch. [[he:]] [[en:]] 918 1 2005-02-27T23:06:58Z Josu Lavin 2 ===GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA=== Nota: On debe traducer toto a interlingua. Iste grammatica es unicamente in interlingua excepte le exemplos que pote apparer in anglese, espaniol, portuguese, francese o italiano. 2 2005-03-12T19:26:20Z Josu Lavin 2 ===GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tbody><tr><td><strong>INTERLINGUA</strong></td><td><strong>ENGLISH </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p>Texto in Interlingua</p><p></p></td><td><p>Texto in English</p><p></p></td></tr> </tbody></table> 124 2005-03-12T19:28:08Z Josu Lavin 2 ===GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong>INTERLINGUA</strong></td><td><strong>ENGLISH </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p>Texto in Interlingua</p><p></p></td><td><p>Texto in English</p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 125 2005-04-21T10:34:42Z Josu Lavin 2 ===INTERLINGUA GRAMMAR=== ===CONTENTS=== *[[Preface|1. PREFACE]] *[[Introduction:_General Principles|2. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL PRINCIPLES]] *[[Spelling_and_Pronunciation|3. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION]] *[[Parts_of_Speech|4. PARTS OF SPEECH]] *[[Grammatical_Words|5. GRAMMATICAL WORDS]] *[[Word_Building|6. WORD BUILDING]] *[[Alphabetical_Index|7. ALPHABETICAL INDEX]] *[[Numerical_Index|8. NUMERICAL INDEX]] ===APPENDICES=== *[[Double-Stem_Verbs|1. DOUBLE-STEM VERBS]] *[[English-Interlingua_Word_List|2. ENGLISH INTERLINGUA WORD LIST]] *[[Sample_Texts|3. SAMPLE TEXTS]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 126 2005-04-21T10:38:26Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] ===INTERLINGUA GRAMMAR=== ===CONTENTS=== *[[Preface|1. PREFACE]] *[[Introduction:_General Principles|2. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL PRINCIPLES]] *[[Spelling_and_Pronunciation|3. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION]] *[[Parts_of_Speech|4. PARTS OF SPEECH]] *[[Grammatical_Words|5. GRAMMATICAL WORDS]] *[[Word_Building|6. WORD BUILDING]] *[[Alphabetical_Index|7. ALPHABETICAL INDEX]] *[[Numerical_Index|8. NUMERICAL INDEX]] ===APPENDICES=== *[[Double-Stem_Verbs|1. DOUBLE-STEM VERBS]] *[[English-Interlingua_Word_List|2. ENGLISH INTERLINGUA WORD LIST]] *[[Sample_Texts|3. SAMPLE TEXTS]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 131 2005-04-21T10:40:06Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 132 2005-04-21T11:05:15Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 148 2005-04-21T11:06:15Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_es|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ESPANIOL]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_it|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ITALIANO]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 152 2005-04-21T17:50:45Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_es|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ESPANIOL]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_it|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ITALIANO]] *[[Dictigramma|DICTIONARIO DE PAROLAS E PARTICULAS GRAMMATICAL]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 153 2005-04-22T08:12:46Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_es|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ESPANIOL]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_it|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ITALIANO]] *[[Dictigramma|DICTIONARIO DE PAROLAS E PARTICULAS GRAMMATICAL]] *[[Breve_Grammatica_de_Interlingua|BREVE GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Editores e collaboratores technic:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 159 2005-04-22T08:13:49Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_es|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ESPANIOL]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_it|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ITALIANO]] *[[Dictigramma|DICTIONARIO DE PAROLAS E PARTICULAS GRAMMATICAL]] *[[Breve_Grammatica_de_Interlingua|BREVE GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA]] <b>Editores e collaboratores technic:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 161 2005-04-23T13:45:42Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_es|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ESPANIOL]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_it|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ITALIANO]] *[[Dictigramma|DICTIONARIO DE PAROLAS E PARTICULAS GRAMMATICAL]] *[[Breve_Grammatica_de_Interlingua|BREVE GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Breve_Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|BREVE GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] <b>Editores e collaboratores technic:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 1995 2005-05-09T06:57:49Z 212.142.143.114 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_es|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ESPANIOL]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_it|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ITALIANO]] *[[Dictigramma|DICTIONARIO DE PAROLAS E PARTICULAS GRAMMATICAL]] *[[Pronunciation_de_Interlingua|PRONUNCIATION DE INTERLINGUA]] *[[Breve_Grammatica_de_Interlingua|BREVE GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Breve_Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|BREVE GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] <b>Editores e collaboratores technic:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 919 3 2005-03-12T19:31:22Z Josu Lavin 2 Le participio presente es formate per adder -nte post le forma del presente. Si iste forma se termina in -i on adde -ente (trovante, vidente, audiente). Iste participios es adjectivos e pote esser usate como substantivos: (1) Duo passantes videva le fugiente captivo. (2) Vidente le casa ardente, illa inviava un alarma al pumperos. (3) Habente terminate su oration, le presidente lassava comenciar le sequente orator. (4) Passante le loco del accidente, nos videva vulneratos. (5) Su actos esseva choccante. (6) Le situation pare esser menaciante. --- The present participle is formed by adding -nte after the present form. If this form ends in -i, the ending is -ente (finding, seeing, hearing). These participles are adjectives and can be used like nouns: (1) Two passers-by saw the fleeing captive. (2) Seeing the burning house, she sent an alarm to the firemen. (3) Having finished his speech, the president let the following speaker (begin)/(start out). (4) Passing the site of the accident, we saw (some) wounded (people). (5) His acts were shocking. (6) The situation appears (to be) menacing. 4 2005-03-12T19:34:26Z Josu Lavin 2 ===GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong>INTERLINGUA</strong></td><td><strong>ENGLISH </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p>Le participio presente es formate per adder -nte post le forma del presente. Si iste forma se termina in -i on adde -ente (trovante, vidente, audiente). Iste participios es adjectivos e pote esser usate como substantivos: (1) Duo passantes videva le fugiente captivo. (2) Vidente le casa ardente, illa inviava un alarma al pumperos. (3) Habente terminate su oration, le presidente lassava comenciar le sequente orator. (4) Passante le loco del accidente, nos videva vulneratos. (5) Su actos esseva choccante. (6) Le situation pare esser menaciante. </p><p></p></td><td><p>The present participle is formed by adding -nte after the present form. If this form ends in -i, the ending is -ente (finding, seeing, hearing). These participles are adjectives and can be used like nouns: (1) Two passers-by saw the fleeing captive. (2) Seeing the burning house, she sent an alarm to the firemen. (3) Having finished his speech, the president let the following speaker (begin)/(start out). (4) Passing the site of the accident, we saw (some) wounded (people). (5) His acts were shocking. (6) The situation appears (to be) menacing. </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 1996 2005-03-12T21:53:29Z Josu Lavin 2 ===GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong>INTERLINGUA</strong></td><td><strong>ENGLISH </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p>Le participio presente es formate per adder -nte post le forma del presente. Si iste forma se termina in -i on adde -ente(trovante, vidente, audiente). Iste participios es adjectivos e pote esser usate como substantivos: (1) Duo passantes videva le fugiente captivo. (2) Vidente le casa ardente, illa inviava un alarma al pumperos. (3) Habente terminate su oration, le presidente lassava comenciar le sequente orator. (4) Passante le loco del accidente, nos videva vulneratos. (5) Su actos esseva choccante. (6) Le situation pare esser menaciante. </p><p></p></td><td><p>The present participle is formed by adding -nte after the present form. If this form ends in -i, the ending is -ente (finding, seeing, hearing). These participles are adjectives and can be used like nouns: (1) Two passers-by saw the fleeing captive. (2) Seeing the burning house, she sent an alarm to the firemen. (3) Having finished his speech, the president let the following speaker (begin)/(start out). (4) Passing the site of the accident, we saw (some) wounded (people). (5) His acts were shocking. (6) The situation appears (to be) menacing. </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 920 1997 2005-03-12T23:20:26Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong><b>Le sonio del princessa </b></strong></td><td><strong><b>The princess dreams on</b> </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p>Pro dicer le veritate, illa non esseva completemente un princessa. Illa anque non habeva le imagine de un princessa. Illa non esseva gracile, delicate, e palide ma robuste con le pelle bronzate. In despecto de isto illa viveva in un castello antique que dominava le valle, e on la appellava princessa desde su infantia.<br> <br> Un via scarpate e roccose vadeva del village a iste citadella edificate al summitate de un precipitio abrupte. Cata die visitantes ascendeva pro vider le castello.<br> <br> Le patre del princessa aperiva le portales de ligno e guidava le visitatores trans le cortes interior, le grande salas e le cameras diverse, le prision subterranee, e le turres de guarda, durante que ille narrava le eventos tumultuose que habeva occurrite illac.<br> <br> Ma durante iste visitas, le princessa vadeva al village. Non placeva a illa visitas a su castello per estranieros. Illa prefereva adjuvar le costuriera con su labor, mulger vaccas con le sponsas del fermeros, e adjuvar le infantes con lor lectiones. Omnes esseva contente de vider la. E si on non la videva un certe die, on demandava a illa le proxime die: "Princessa, ubi esseva tu? Tu nos ha mancate."<br> <br> Durante le postmeridie illa curreva in retorno a su castello, post le departita del ultime traino del station del village e post que le pulvore altiate per le automobiles del estranieros habeva cadite un altere vice sur le via campestre del village.<br> <br> Illa passava rapidemente le casa del guardianos del castello, glissava a in su castello trans un porta de ligno decadite, e descendeva a su cocina enorme, cuje muros esseva adornate con plattos e pottos de stanno. Illa faceva rotar le vetule spito ferruginose que poteva rostir omne un porco integre.<br> <br> Illa poteva facilemente imaginar omne le activitate que il habeva hic quando resonava le ruito de festas in le sala grande. Illa quasi poteva vider le garsones de cocina qui montava rapidemente le scalas con plattos de alimentos fumante, collidente con le servas pulchre qui portava le plattos immunde e con le bottiliero vetule portante con se urceos plen de vino, pausante pro recuperar su halito e inglutir un bon quantitate del vino que ille portava.<br> <br> Imaginante omne iste activitate, le princessa debeva rider. Tunc illa montava le scala stricte que conduceva al sala de banchetto. Illa se accommodava in un banco de ligno sculpite e examinava le ricamente brodate bandieras que sperava undular de novo.<br> <br> Le sol ponente inundava le camera con un luce rosee, e il semblava al princessa que le blocos de ligno in le camino aperite iva a comburer.<br> <br> Un calor agradabile animava le sala; e durante que le princessa reguardava soniosemente le picturas obscur, le cavalieros e castellanas in illos descendeva e formava un cortege regal. Un ex illes offereva le brachio al princessa, e illes se dirigeva con dignitate al festino del postmeridie. Unes pages in uniformes apportava un succession continue de plattos, e le vino rubie circulava circum le tabula.<br> <br> Illa non poteva dicer quante tempore durava le festino, ma le voce de su patre la eveliava.<br> <br> "Princessa, io te ha cercate ubique. Nos esseva preoccupate a causa de te," le reprimendava su patre. Ma al mesme tempore ille la imbraciava fortemente, e illa se sentiva tranquille e secur.<br> <br> Illes tunc reguardava trans le fenestra ultra le valle, ultra le tectos del village, verso le brumas lontan.<br> <br> "De ubi veni le bruma?" voleva saper le princessa.<br> <br> "Illo veni del undas del mar que batte le costa, multo lontan de hic," respondeva su patre a illa.<br> <br> "E que ha il sub le bruma?" voleva illa anque saper.<br> <br> "Le grande citate, ubi vive milles e milles de personas," respondeva ille.<br> <br> "Lassa me restar un pauco," supplicava le princessa. Illa esseva agitate per un desiro inexplicabile de vider le grande citate. E le undas distante pareva attraher la con un fortia quasi magnetic.<br> <br> In solitude un altere vice, le princessa se lassava cader sur su banco. Illa claudeva le oculos e ascoltava le musicos durante que illes invitava omnes a dansar. Le cortege colorate e gaudiose sequeva le portator del standardo. Ma illac le princessa se separava del procession.<br> <br> Illa passava le vallettos qui custodiava le cavallos, montava le melior cavallo nigre, e galopava trans le portas aperite del castello. Illa galopava sur le via rural pulvorose e passava le village sin stoppar usque illa jam non poteva vider le castello. Illa curreva al latere de un fluvio large, transversava un ponte, e videva in le distantia le luces del citate.<br> <br> Illa tremeva con excitation durante que illa se precipitava verso le attractiones del citate. Luces brillante inundava le stratas, plenate de gente qui se hastava in omne directiones.<br> <br> Arrivante al cathedral, le princessa lo contemplava stupefacite. Illo esseva splendide, pensava illa, comparate con le ecclesia modeste del village. Illa meravillava al palatios al latere del avenues, al fontanas magnific con su sculpturas, al parcos con su exuberantia floral. Le gente passava ante illa, juvene e vetule, allegre e grave, ma nemo la notava, nemo prestava attention a illa.<br> <br> Illa tunc se sentiva multo sol. "Si solmente mi patre esseva hic! Le citate me placerea etiam plus. Felicitate possedite in commun es gaudio duple," pensava illa.<br> <br> Illa sasiva le redinas e continuava su calvacada, le cavallo vadente in avante como si illo esseva pulsate per le vento. Le ruitos del citate disappareva e grande pratos verde veniva verso illa. Le cavallo saltava sur rivettos, sepes, fossatos, e petras grosse. Unes laros comenciava a accompaniar los in su curso rapide, e subito le princessa discoperiva le superficie infinite del oceano que se extendeva ante illa.<br> <br> Le spuma del undas flagellava le litore roccose con forte colpos e reflueva, accumulante fortia nove pro batter le costa de novo.<br> <br> Le princessa esseva tan impressionate per le undas del mar e lor spuma que illa oblidava un momento descender de su cavallo. Ma su stupefaction subsideva, illa saltava al terra, removeva su scarpas, e, pedes nude, illa vadeva de un petra grosse al altere. Le aqua irrovava su gambas durante que illa essayava evitar le undas. Finalmente illa se installava sur un petra grande e ascoltava le musica del mar. La commoveva de maniera estranie le extension del mar sin limites. Illa se sentiva sol e pensava:<br> <br> "Si solmente mi matre esseva hic, con me, me placerea le mar multo plus fortemente. Le felicitate possedite in commun es gaudio duple," pensava illa un altere vice. In silentio illa scrutava le horizonte, essayante conjecturar lo que il habeva ultra le extension interminabile del mar.<br> <br> Illa non haberea potite dicer quante tempore illa restava sedite illac. Ma subito illa videva un pisce grande que natava presso le costa. Rapidemente illa vadeva verso le pisce e saltava sur su dorso.<br> <br> "Porta me al altere latere del oceano," diceva illa al pisce. "Io debe saper lo que il ha al altere latere."<br> <br> Le pisce la lassava seder se sur su dorso e la portava trans le undas. Illes natava omne le die usque le nocte. Al alba illa videva le sol durante que illo surgeva como un explosion de foco. Al fin del die le princessa lo videva quando illo submergeva in le mar como un ballon orange incandescente. Illa passava presso insulas meraviliose con plagias de sablo blanc caressate per le undas. Illa natava trans scolios de corallo e se trovava circumferite per bancos de pisces de multe colores.<br> <br> Ben que iste spectaculos la incantava, le pisce non diceva ni un sol parola, e illa se sentiva completemente sol.<br> <br> "Si mi amicos solmente poteva vider iste spectaculo con me," pensava illa, "me placerea multo lo que me circumfere etiam plus intensemente. Felicitate possedite in commun es gaudio duple. Iste spectaculo es troppo meraviliose pro un sol persona. Illo es como si on habeva un grande festino e nemo con qui posseder lo in commun. "Nata, pisce grande," illa supplicava quasi disculpante se. "Porta me al altere litore. Omne iste beltate es troppo pro un persona completemente sol."<br> <br> Un grande nostalgia la invadeva de novo. Illa sapeva tamen que illo esseva non per le grande citate al altere latere del mar, ma pro le personas qui la amava e qui a illa importava.<br> <br> Illa sentiva un pavor tremende. Esque illa esseva ancora importante a su familia e amicos? Esque illes ancora se preoccupava pro illa? Subito illa voleva retornar a casa con un minimo de demora. "Hasta vos," diceva illa al pisce. "Io debe retornar tan promptemente que sia possibile."<br> <br> Quando illes finalmente arrivava al litore, illa se lassava glissar ab le dorso del pisce, e illa se hastava al terra. Illa cercava le cavallo ma non poteva trovar lo. Illa poteva incontrar solmente un vetule tortuca grande que veniva verso illa lentissimemente.<br> <br> "Porta me a mi focar tan rapidemente como tu pote," implorava le princessa, levante se sur su grande carapace.<br> <br> Complacente le princessa, le tortuca extendeva su capite e advantiava lentemente, passo a passo. Quando le princessa jam non poteva continer su impatientia, illa descendeva de su carapace e curreva in avante.<br> <br> Ma quando finalmente illa debeva facer halto al latere del via a causa de fatiga extreme, le tortuca la attingeva, e le princessa se levava de novo sur su carapace e continuava su viage.<br> <br> Le dies, le horas, e le minutas nunquam habeva apparite tan longe a illa in le passato. Su impatientia augmentava con cata passo, con cata curva del cammino.<br> <br> Esque illes la recognoscerea post tante tempore? Stava ben su patres, su amicos? Illa esseva plen de un grande incertitude. A vices illa essayava vider le castello in le distantia. Finalmente, illo appareva.<br> <br> Illa tunc curreva phreneticamente verso le summitate del collina, ascendente le scalas, sin halito, baniate in sudor. Su patre esseva illac. Le oculos plenate de gratitude, ille se inclinava verso su filia e separava su capillos de su facie.<br> <br> "Esque tu te senti ben, princessa?" ille demandava sollicitemente a causa de haber la eveliate. "Io veniva pro cercar te. On te attende in le village. Il ha un dansa iste nocte."<br> <br> Sin un altere parola, le princessa se levantava subito e imbraciava su patre. Postea, felice, illa curreva al village pro vider un altere vice le gente qui la amava.<br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> </p><p></p></td><td><p>To tell the truth, she wasn't a real princess. She didn't even look like a princess. She wasn't delicate, graceful, and pale, but robust with hair the color of bronze. Despite this, she lived in an old castle high over the valley, and she was called "Princess" ever since she was a child.<br> <br> A steep and rocky road went from the village to this citadel built on the side of a rugged cliff. Every day people hiked up to see the castle.<br> <br> The princess's father opened the wooden doors of the castle and guided visitors through the interior courts, the great halls and other rooms, the dungeon below, and the guard towers while he told stories about the stormy events that used to take place there.<br> <br> But during these visits the princess went to the village. She didn't enjoy the visits to her castle by strangers. She preferred instead to help the seamstress with her work, to milk cows with the farmers' wives, and to help the children with their school work. Everyone was happy to see her. And if she did not show up on a certain day, everyone asked her the next time she came, "Where have you been, Princess? We have missed you."<br> <br> In the afternoons, the princess would run home again after the last train had left the village station and after the dust raised by the departing cars of strangers had settled down on the quiet country road of the village.<br> <br> She went rapidly by the guard house of the castle, slipped into the castle through a decaying wooden door, and went down to its enormous kitchen, whose walls were lined with pewter plates and pots. She would turn the old rusty spit that could roast an entire pig.<br> <br> She could easily imagine all the activities that took place here in the midst of all the happy sound of celebration coming in from the great hall. She could almost see the kitchen boys who would rapidly climb the stairs with steaming plates of food and run into the beautiful servant girls who carried down the dirty dishes, as well as the old cellarman carrying jugs full of wine as he paused to catch his breath while drinking a lot of the wine he was carrying.<br> <br> As she imagined all this activity, the princess broke out laughing. Then she went up the narrow stairs leading to the banquet room. She sat down on a carved wooden bench and examined the richly embroidered flags that were awaiting the chance to wave once again.<br> <br> The setting sun flooded the room with red-yellow light, and it seemed to the princess that the logs in the fireplace were about to catch fire.<br> <br> The cozy warmth made the hall come alive; and while the princess in her reverie looked at the dark pictures, the knights and chatelaines they depicted came down and formed a truly regal procession. One of them offered his arm to the princess, and they made their way in great dignity to the evening's feast.<br> <br> Pages in uniform brought a continuing parade of plates of food, and ruby red wine circulated around the table.<br> <br> She could not tell how long the eating and drinking lasted, but her father's voice broke her reverie.<br> <br> "Princess, I have been looking for you everywhere. You had us worried," her father scolded. But at the same time he gave her a big hug, and she felt happy and secure.<br> <br> They then gazed through the window beyond the valley, beyond the roofs in the village, toward the mists in the distance.<br> <br> "Where does the fog come from?" the princess wanted to know.<br> <br> "It comes from the waves that batter the coast far away from here," her father answered.<br> <br> "And what is there under the fog?" she also wanted to know.<br> <br> "The big city, where thousands of people live," he answered.<br> <br> "Let me stay here a little longer," the princess asked. She was filled with an unexplainable longing to see the big city. And the distant waves beckoned to her with an almost magnetic force.<br> <br> Alone once again, the princess stretched out on her bench. She closed her eyes as the musicians invited everyone to start dancing. The happy and colorful guests followed the standard bearer, but the princess broke away from the procession.<br> <br> She passed by the grooms taking care of the horses, got on the most beautiful black horse, and galloped through the open doors of the castle. She ran along the edge of a lengthy river, crossed a bridge, and saw in the distance the lights of the city.<br> <br> She trembled with excitement as she threw herself into the attractions of the city. Brilliant light flooded the streets, filled with people who hurried everywhere.<br> <br> As she arrived at the cathedral, the princess looked at it in wonder. It was splendid, she thought, compared with the modest church of the village. She marveled at the palaces bordering the avenues, at the magnificent fountains with their sculptures, at the parks with their floral exuberance. The people passed her by, young and old, happy and sad, but nobody noticed her, no one paid her any attention.<br> <br> She then felt very lonely. "If only my father were here, the city would be so much nicer! Happiness shared," she thought, "is double the joy."<br> <br> She held onto the reins and continued her ride, her horse running ahead as if pushed by the wind. The noise of the city grew dim, and green fields without end kept coming toward her. Her horse galloped over streams, hedges, ditches, and large stones. Some seagulls started following them as they went quickly by. Suddenly, the princess discovered the unending surface of the ocean spreading out into the distance.<br> <br> The foamy waves beat heavily against the rocky shore, flowed back, then pounded the shore once again.<br> <br> The princess was so impressed by the rushing breakers that she forgot for a moment to get off her horse. But her excitement subsided, and she jumped down from her horse, took off her shoes, and went barefoot from one large rock to another. The water sprayed her legs as she tried to avoid the waves. Finally, she sat down on a boulder and listened to the music of the sea. She was strangely moved as it continued endlessly in front of her.<br> <br> "If only my mother were here with me, the sea would be so much nicer. Happiness together is happiness doubled," she thought once again. She looked toward the horizon in silence as she wondered what there was to see in the endless ocean beyond.<br> <br> She could not say how long she sat there, but suddenly she saw a big fish swimming near the coast. She quickly ran toward it and jumped on its back.<br> <br> "Take me to the other side of the sea," she said to the fish. "I have to know what lies on the other side."<br> <br> The fish let her climb onto its back and carried her through the waves. They swam all day long and into the night. At dawn they saw the sun come up in a surge of fire. At the end of the day the princess saw it as it sank into the sea like an incandescent orange ball. She went by wonderful islands with white sandy beaches that were caressed by the waves. She swam through the coral reefs and found herself surrounded by schools of fish in many colors.<br> <br> Though these spectacles enchanted her, the fish said absolutely nothing, and she felt utterly alone.<br> <br> If my friends could see this spectacle with me, she thought, I would be much happier with all that I see around me. Happiness together has double the pleasure. This spectacle is too much for just a single person. It is as if I were at a great feast with no one to share it with. "Keep on swimming, big fish," she said almost as if apologizing. "Take me to the shore beyond. All this beauty is too much for just a single person."<br> <br> Great feelings of nostalgia came over her again. She knew, however, that they were not for the great city on the other side of the sea but for the people who loved her and for whom she was important.<br> <br> She was tremendously gripped by fear. Was she still important to her family and friends? Were they still worried about her? Suddenly she wanted to return home as soon as possible. "Hurry up," she said to the fish. "I must return home as soon as I can."<br> <br> When they finally reached her home shore once again, she slipped off the back of the fish and quickly ran ashore. She looked for her horse but couldn't find it. She could only find a big old tortoise that came toward her slowly.<br> <br> "Take me home as quickly as you can," the princess begged as she climbed onto his big shell.<br> <br> Obligingly, the tortoise extended his head and plodded slowly onward. When the princess could no longer contain her impatience, she got off his shell and ran forward.<br> <br> But when she finally had to stop at the side of the road out of exhaustion, the tortoise came up to her, and the princess climbed onto his shell once again and continued her voyage.<br> <br> The days, the hours, and the minutes never had seemed this long in the past. Her impatience grew with every step, with each curve in the road.<br> <br> Would they recognize her after so much time had gone by? Were her parents and friends feeling well? She was filled with great uncertainty. At times she tried to see the castle in the distance. Finally, it came into view.<br> <br> She then hurried frantically toward the top of the hill and went up the stairs, breathless and soaked with sweat. Her father was there. His eyes filled with gratitude, he bent down toward his daughter and brushed her hair away from her face.<br> <br> "Are you feeling all right, Princess?" he asked almost apologetically as he worke her up. "I came to get you. Everyone is waiting for you in the village. They are having a dance this evening."<br> <br> Without another word, the princess quickly got up and embraced her father. Then she happily ran toward the village to see once again the people who loved her.</p><p></p></td></tr> </table> <br> <br> 921 5 2005-03-14T19:17:37Z Josu Lavin 2 <!-- <?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> --> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <title>Grammar of Interlingua</title> <script type="text/javascript">window.onerror = null;</script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../inclusos/menu.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript">actualisaNav('4','2','2')</script> </head> <body bgcolor="#ffffff" onload="indicaNav()"> <div id="navigation"> <script type="text/javascript">scribeNav()</script> <noscript><strong><a href="../home/entry_page.html">Menu</a></strong></noscript> </div><!-- fin de 'navigation' --> <hr /> <div id="receptaculoA"> <div id="barraSuperior"> <h1><span class="a">A </span><span class="b">Grammar</span><span class="c"> of </span><span class="d">Interlingua</span></h1> <p id="publication"><span class="a">Alexander Gode &#038; Hugh Blair</span><span class="pipe"> | </span><span class="b">IALA 1951</span></p> <h5><em>version non-graphic pro vetule navigatores (que non comprende folios de stilo)</em></h5> <script type="text/javascript">scribeSelection()</script> </div> <!-- fin de 'barraSuperior' --> <hr /> <div id="receptaculoB"> <div id="textoPrincipal"> <a name="culmine"></a> <h2>Word Building</h2> <script type="text/javascript">scribeTertie()</script> <h3>Compounding by means of compounding forms</h3> <a name="159"></a><h4>&sect;159</h4> <p>Compounds which result from the COMBINATION OF TWO FULL-FLEDGED WORDS are formed either by simple juxtaposition - as illustrated by English 'teapot,' 'thunderstorm,' 'goose flesh,' etc. - or involve the use of a compounding feature - <span class="eg">e.g.</span> 'cylindr-o-cellular,' 'man-i-cure,' etc. Interlingua lacks the unlimited possibility of active compounding by simple juxtaposition which is characteristic (although not a distinctive feature) of the Teutonic languages. Among the expressive devices available in Interlingua as complements of its compounding system, the following are to be noted:</p> <ol> <li> <p>English compounds often correspond to Interlingua suffix formations.</p> <ul class="alinea"> <li>'milkman' <em>lactero</em></li> <li>'milkmaid' <em>lactera</em></li> <li>'(milk shop) dairy' <em>lacteria</em></li> <li>'rice field'<em> risiera</em></li> <li>'swineherd' <em>porchero</em></li> <li>'pigsty' <em>porchiera</em></li> <li>'pork shop' <em>porcheria</em></li> <li>'plum tree' <em>pruniero</em></li> <li>'raspberry bush' <em>frambesiero</em></li> </ul> </li> <li> <p>English compounds correspond very frequently to Interlingua prepositional phrases. The choice of the preposition permits often a clear statement of the relationship between the elements which in English is left to context and common sense. <span class="eg">e.g.</span>: it is not the words 'seaman' and 'milkman' which tell us that the latter does not sail on milk and that the former does not sell sea water.</p> <ul class="alinea"> <li>'bus station' <em>station de omnibus</em></li> <li>'cashbook' <em>libro de cassa</em></li> <li>'caterpillar tractor' <em>tractor a erucas</em></li> <li>'chamber music' <em>musica de camera</em></li> <li>'waiting room' <em>sala a attender</em></li> <li>'handbag' <em>sacco a mano</em></li> </ul> </li> <li> <p>In numerous instances English compounds are best rendered in Interlingua by nouns modified by adjectives.</p> <ul class="alinea"> <li>'sunlight' <em>lumine solar</em></li> <li>'tearpit' <em>sacco lacrimal</em></li> <li>'redskin' <em>pelle rubie</em></li> <li>'blood vessel' <em>vaso sanguinari</em></li> </ul> </li> </ol> <a name="160"></a><h4>&sect;160</h4> <p>Active compounding in Interlingua is bound to, but completely free within the limits of, analogical patterns. This means that - apart from compounding forms which function as virtual affixes (see <a href="../word_building/compounding_forms.html#161">&sect;161</a>, <a href="../word_building/compounding_derivation.html#164">&sect;164</a> below) - the elements to be joined in a new compound must each occur in one or several traditional compounds which serve to show under what form the separate words enter into the compound. Note that most compounds are linked by a vowel compounding feature. This disappears generally when the first sound of the second element is again a vowel. The compounding vowel is often but not necessarily the normal ending of the first element when used as an independent word. In the great majority of compounds the vowel link is o or i.</p> <p>In the following examples active compounding is illustrated within the pattern of the equation: traditional compound A and traditional compound B permit the formation of the new compound C.<br /> <em class="nota">Note:</em> Some of the compounds given as new Interlingua formations may naturally exist in the vocabulary of one or another ethnic language.</p> <table class="alinea" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" border="0"> <tr> <td><em>hepatologia</em></td> <td><em>appendicectomia</em></td> <td><em>hepatectomia</em></td> <td>'removal of the liver'</td> </tr> <tr> <td><em>cyanotypo</em></td> <td><em>claustrophobia</em></td> <td><em>cyanophobia</em></td> <td>'fear of the color blue'</td> </tr> <tr> <td><em>sciamachia</em></td> <td><em>necromantia</em></td> <td><em>sciamantia</em></td> <td>'prophecy by shadows'</td> </tr> <tr> <td><em>genealogo</em></td> <td><em>idolatria</em></td> <td><em>genealatria</em></td> <td>'worship of descent'</td> </tr> <tr> <td><em>agricultura</em></td> <td><em>lignicole</em></td> <td><em>lignicultura</em></td> <td>'cultivation of wood'</td> </tr> <tr> <td><em>microcosmic</em></td> <td><em>pseudoclassic</em></td> <td><em>pseudocosmic</em></td> <td>'pseudocosmic'</td> </tr> </table> <a name="161"></a><h4>&sect;161</h4> <p>A considerable number of words occur so frequently in compounds that their compounding form (together with the compounding vowel if any) differs little from a prefix or suffix. Those to be used freely in any meaningful combination with another element (which may but need not occur in traditional compounds) are listed below followed by one or several traditional examples and new formations. They will prove especially useful for various scientific and technical requirements. Cf. also <a href="../word_building/compounding_derivation.html#164">&sect;164</a> below.</p> <h4>First elements or prefixes.</h4> <dl> <dt>aero-</dt> <dd>(combining form of <em>aere</em> 'air'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>aeronave</em> 'airship,'</dd> <dd><em>aerodynamic</em>, <em>aerostatica</em> 'aerostatics'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>aeropression</em> 'air pressure'</dd> <dd><em>aerophobia</em>, <em>aerotherapia</em> 'aerotherapy,'</dd> <dd><em>aerotransporto</em> 'air transport'</dd> <dt>archi-</dt> <dd>('arch-, archi-'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>archiepiscopo</em> 'archbishop'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>archidarwinista</em> 'arch-Darwinist'</dd> <dd><em>archilegal</em> 'archlegal, legal beyond the shadow of a doubt'</dd> <dt>electro-</dt> <dd>(combining form of <em>electric, electricitate</em>, etc. 'electric, electricity, etc.'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>electromotor</em>, <em>electrotherapia</em> 'electrotherapy'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>electropropulsion</em> 'propulsion by electricity'</dd> <dd><em>electropiano</em> 'electric piano'</dd> <dt>equi-</dt> <dd>(combining form of <em>eque</em> with the meaning of <em>equal</em> 'equal, equally'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>equilateral</em>, <em>equivaler</em> 'to be equivalent'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>equicurvate</em> 'having two equal curves'</dd> <dd><em>equisonantia</em> 'equal sounding'</dd> <dt>hetero-</dt> <dd>('other, different'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>heterosexual</em></dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formation:</strong></dd> <dd><em>heteroracial</em> 'of different races'</dd> <dt>homo-</dt> <dd>(before vowels hom-; 'same'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>homologe</em> 'homologous', <em>homocentric</em></dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>homolithic</em> 'consisting of the same stone'</dd> <dd><em>homopersonal</em> 'having one person'</dd> <dt>homeo-</dt> <dd>(before vowels <em>home-</em>; 'like, similar'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>homeopathic</em></dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>homeolithic</em> 'consisting of similar stone'</dd> <dd><em>homeoracial</em> 'of similar races'</dd> <dt>hydro-</dt> <dd>('water'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>hydroelectric</em>, <em>hydrocephalo</em> 'hydrocephalus'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>hydrosaturate</em> 'water-saturated'</dd> <dd><em>hydrochimia</em> 'chemistry of water'</dd> <dt>iso-</dt> <dd>(synonym of <em>equi-</em>; 'equal'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>isometric</em>, <em>isodynamic</em></dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>isoradial</em> 'having equal radii'</dd> <dd><em>isoglotte</em> 'speaking the same language'</dd> <dt>macro-</dt> <dd>('long, large,' often contrasted with <em>micro-</em>), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>macroscopic</em>, <em>macroseismo</em> 'major earthquake'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>macroorganismo</em> 'large organism (visible to the naked eye)'</dd> <dd><em>macropetale</em> 'large-petaled'</dd> <dt>micro-</dt> <dd>('small; microscopic,' often contrasted with <em>macro-</em>), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>microcosmo</em> 'microcosm',</dd> <dd><em>microcephale</em> 'small-skulled'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>microcellular</em> 'of microscopic cells,'</dd> <dd><em>microphono</em> 'microphone'</dd> <dt>neo-</dt> <dd>('new, modern'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>neolatin</em>, <em>neonato</em> 'new-born baby'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>neoromantic</em></dd> <dd><em>neo-jeffersonismo</em> 'neo-Jeffersonianism'</dd> <dt>omni-</dt> <dd>(combining form of <em>omne</em> 'all, every'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>omnivore</em> 'eating anything,'</dd> <dd><em>omnipotente</em> 'onmipotent'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>omniaudiente</em> 'hearing everything,'</dd> <dd><em>omniprotector</em> 'all-protector'</dd> <dt>paleo-</dt> <dd>('old, ancient'; often contrasted with <em>neo-</em>), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>paleozoic</em></dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>paleohistoria</em> 'early history,'</dd> <dd><em>paleoindoeuropean</em> 'primitive Indo-European'</dd> <dt>pan-</dt> <dd>('including all'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>panamerican</em> 'Pan-American'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>pandualismo</em> 'universal dualism,'</dd> <dd><em>panarchia</em> 'universal rule'</dd> <dt>photo-</dt> <dd>(1. 'light'; 2. 'photography'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>photographia</em> 'photography'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>photoanalyse</em> 'analysis of or by means of light'</dd> <dd><em>photosculptura</em> 'photosculpture'</dd> <dt>proto-</dt> <dd>('first, primitive, prototypal'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>prototypo</em> 'prototype'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>protoanimal</em></dd> <dd><em>protoreligion</em> 'prototype of religion'</dd> <dt>pseudo-</dt> <dd>('pseudo-'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>pseudoclassic</em></dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>pseudohuman</em> 'pseudohuman(e),'</dd> <dd><em>pseudotolerantia</em> 'pseudotolerance'</dd> <dt>quasi-</dt> <dd>('quasi-'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>quasi-delicto</em> 'quasi delict'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>quasi-ver</em> 'quasi true,'</dd> <dd><em>quasi-confidentia</em> 'quasi trust'</dd> <dt>radio-</dt> <dd>(1. 'ray'; 2. 'radio'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>radiographia</em> 'x-ray photography'</dd> <dd><em>radiodiffunder</em> 'to broadcast'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>radiotheoria</em> 'ray theory'</dd> <dd><em>radiopropaganda</em> 'radio publicity'</dd> <dt>tele-</dt> <dd>('far off'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>telescopio</em> 'telescope,'</dd> <dd><em>television</em></dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>telediffunder</em> 'to broadcast long-distance,'</dd> <dd><em>teleanalyse</em> 'analysis at a distance'</dd> </dl> <h4>Second elements or suffixes.</h4> <p><em class="nota">Note:</em> The initial vowels indicated in the form below are the norm. In combinations with first elements which have an established compounding pattern, the normal vowel may disappear or be replaced by another. <span class="eg">e.g.</span> <em>tele-</em> (which enters into compounds without a compounding vowel) plus <em>-ometro</em> would yield <em>telemetro</em>.</p> <dl> <dt>-icida</dt> <dd>('killer'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>matricida</em> 'killer of his mother'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>bufonicida</em> 'toad killer,'</dd> <dd><em>draconicida</em> 'dragon killer'</dd> <dt>-icidio</dt> <dd>('killing'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>matricidio</em> 'killing of one's mother'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>odoricidio</em> 'killing of odors,'</dd> <dd><em>hippicidio</em> 'killing of horses'</dd> <dt>-omanev <dd>('mad'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>megalomane</em> 'megalomaniac (adj.)'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>alcoholomane</em> 'alcohol-craving,'</dd> <dd><em>telephonomane</em> 'madly addicted to the use of the telephone.'</dd> <dd><em class="nota">Note:</em> The derivatives <em>-omano</em> 'a man thus afflicted,' <em>-omana</em> 'a woman thus afflicted,' and <em>-omania</em> 'the affliction itself' may likewise be used as suffixes.</dd> <dt>-ometro</dt> <dd>('measuring instrument'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>serometro</em> 'serometer'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>crystallometro</em> 'crystallometer,'</dd> <dd><em>cardiometro</em> 'cardiometer'</dd> <dt>-ographo</dt> <dd>(1. 'instrument that writes or records'; 2. '-grapher'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>seismographo</em> 'seismograph,'</dd> <dd><em>biographo</em> 'biographer'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>heliographo</em> 'heliograph,'</dd> <dd><em>fluxographo</em> 'instrument measuring quantity or speed of flow.'</dd> <dd><em class="nota">Note:</em> The derivative <em>-ographia</em> 'system or technique of recording' may likewise be used as a suffix.</dd> <dt>-ologo</dt> <dd>('-ologue, -ologer, -ologist'), <em>graphologo</em> 'graphologist'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>petroleologo</em> 'oil expert'</dd> <dd><em>scientiologo</em> 'student of the organization of the sciences.'</dd> <dd><em class="nota">Note:</em> The derivative <em>-ologia</em> 'science' may likewise be used as a suffix.</dd> <dt>-ophile</dt> <dd>('loving, fond of'; often contrasted with <em>-ophobe</em>), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>bibliophile</em> (adj.)</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formations:</strong></dd> <dd><em>heliophile</em> 'fond of the sun,'</dd> <dd><em>palestinophile</em> 'Palestinophile.'</dd> <dd><em class="nota">Note:</em> The derivatives <em>-ophilo</em> 'a man thus characterized,' <em>-ophila</em> 'a woman thus characterized,' and <em>-ophilia</em> 'the tendency itself' may likewise be used as suffixes.</dd> <dt>-ophobe <dd>('fearing, disliking'; often contrasted with <em>-ophile</em>), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>anglophobe</em><br /> new formartion:</dd> <dd><em>hispanophobe</em> 'Hispanophobe.'</dd> <dd><em class="nota">Note:</em> The derivatives <em>-ophobo</em> 'a man thus characterized,' <em>-ophoba</em> 'a woman thus characterized,' and <em>-ophobia</em> 'the tendency itself' may likewise be used as suffixes.</dd> <dt>-oscopo</dt> <dd>('-oscopist'), <span class="eg">e.g.</span></dd> <dd><em>cranioscopo</em> 'cranioscopist'</dd> <dd><strong class="nove">new formation:</strong></dd> <dd><em>r&ouml;ntgenoscopo</em> 'x-ray examiner.'</dd> <dd><em class="nota">Note:</em> The derivatives <em>-oscopio</em> 'the instrument serving the -oscopist,' <em>-oscopia</em> 'the field of study,' and <em>-oscopic</em> 'pertaining to the study' may likewise be used as suffixes.</dd> </dl> <a name="162"></a> <h4>&sect;162</h4> <p>On compound numerals, cf. <a href="../parts_of_speech/numerals.html#119">&sect;119</a> above; on numerals as compounding elements <a href="../parts_of_speech/numerals.html#128">&sect;128</a>.</p> </div><!-- fin de 'textoPrincipal' --> <hr /> <div id="barraInferior"> <div id="supraPS"> <a href="#culmine" id="supra">SUPRA</a> <span id="supraSpatia"> | </span> <a href="../word_building/technical_prefixes.html" id="PP">&laquo; pagina previe</a> <span id="paginaSpatia"> | </span> <a href="../word_building/compounding_derivation.html" id="PS">pagina sequente &raquo;</a> <span class="pipe"> | </span> <a href="../home/entry_page.html" id="retorna">Retorna al pagina de entrata</a> </div> <hr /> <p id="commentos" class="small">Vole ben inviar commentos e suggestiones a <a href="mailto:edoneilson@hotmail.com" id="AH">Ado Hall</a>.</p> </div><!-- fin de 'barraInferior' --> </div><!-- fin de 'receptaculoB' --> </div><!-- fin de 'receptaculoA' --> </body> </html> 6 2005-03-14T19:19:34Z Josu Lavin 2 56 2005-04-07T11:01:42Z 212.142.143.114 ===TITULO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> ENGLISH TEXT </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 1998 2005-04-14T12:50:57Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 922 7 2005-04-07T11:19:35Z Josu Lavin 2 ===LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== 8 2005-04-07T11:20:38Z Josu Lavin 2 ===LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> ENGLISH TEXT </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 9 2005-04-07T11:21:50Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> ENGLISH TEXT </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 13 2005-04-07T11:32:30Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS </strong></td><td><strong> LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS FROM THIS WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME; DELIVERED UNDER THE SIMILTUDE OF A DREAM. BY JOHN BUNYAN. CONTENTS. Author's Apology for his Book PART I. THE FIRST STAGE. - Christian's deplorable condition - Evangelist directs him - Obstinate and Pliable - Slough of Despond - Worldly Wiseman - Mount Sinai - Conversation with Evangelist THE SECOND STAGE. - The Gate - conversation with Good-Will - the Interpreter's House - Christian entertained - the sights there shown him THE THIRD STAGE. - Loses his burden at the Cross - Simple, Sloth, Presumption, Formalist, Hypocrisy - hill Difficulty - the Arbor - misses his roll - the palace Beautiful - the lions - talk with Discretion, Piety, Prudence, and Charity - wonders shown to Christian - he is armed THE FOURTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - conflict with Apollyon - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giants Pope and Pagan THE FIFTH STAGE. - Discourse with Faithful - Talkative and Faithful - Talkative's character THE SIXTH STAGE. - Evangelist overtakes Christian and Faithful - Vanity Fair - the Pilgrims brought to trial - Faithful's martyrdom THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful - By-ends and his companions - plain of Ease - Lucre-hill - Demas - the River of Life - Vain- Confidence - Giant Despair - the Pilgrims beaten - the Dungeon - the Key of Promise THE EIGHTH STAGE. - The Delectable Mountains - entertained by the Shepherds - a by-way to Hell THE NINTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful meet Ignorance - Turn-away - Little-Faith - the Flatterer - the net - chastised by a Shining One - Atheist - Enchanted Ground - Hopeful's account of his conversion - discourse of Christian and Ignorance THE TENTH STAGE. - Talk of Christian and Hopeful - Temporary - the backslider - the land of Beulah - Christian and Hopeful pass the River - welcome to the Celestial city Conclusion of Part First PART II. Author's Apology for the Second Part Pilgrimage of Christiana and her children THE FIRST STAGE. - Christiana and Mercy - Slough of Despond - knocking at the gate - the Dog - talk between the Pilgrims THE SECOND STAGE. - The Devil's garden - two ill-favored ones assault them - the Reliever - entertainment at the Interpreter's house - the Significant Rooms - Christiana and Mercy's experience THE THIRD STAGE. - Accompanied by Great-Heart - the Cross - justified by Christ - Sloth and his companions hung - the hill Difficulty - the Arbor THE FOURTH STAGE. - The Lions - Giant Grim slain by Great-Heart - the Pilgrims entertained - the children catechized by Prudence - Mr. Brisk - Matthew sick - the remedy - sights shown the Pilgrims THE FIFTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giant Maul slain THE SIXTH STAGE. - Discourse with Old Honest - character and history of Mr. Fearing - Mr. Self-will and some professors - Gaius' house - conversation - the supper - Old Honest and Great-Heart's riddles and discourse - Giant Slay-good killed - Mr. Feeble-mind's history - Mr. Ready-to-halt - Vanity Fair - Mr. Mnason's house - cheering entertainment and converse - a Monster THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Hill Lucre - River of Life - Giant Despair killed - the Delectable Mountains - entertainment by the Shepherds THE EIGHTH STAGE. - Valiant-for-Truth's-Victory - his talk with Great- Heart - the Enchanted Ground - Heedless and Too-bold - Mr. Stand-fast - Madam Bubble's temptations - the land of Beulah - Christiana summoned - her parting addresses - she passes the River - she is followed by Ready- to-halt, Feeble-mind, Despondency and his daughter, Honest, Valiant, Steadfast Author's Farewell THE AUTHOR'S APOLOGY FOR HIS BOOK. WHEN at the first I took my pen in hand Thus for to write, I did not understand That I at all should make a little book In such a mode: nay, I had undertook To make another; which, when almost done, Before I was aware I this begun. And thus it was: I, writing of the way And race of saints in this our gospel-day, Fell suddenly into an allegory About their journey, and the way to glory, In more than twenty things which I set down This done, I twenty more had in my crown, And they again began to multiply, Like sparks that from the coals of fire do fly. Nay, then, thought I, if that you breed so fast, I'll put you by yourselves, lest you at last Should prove ad infinitum, 1 and eat out The book that I already am about. Well, so I did; but yet I did not think To show to all the world my pen and ink In such a mode; I only thought to make I knew not what: nor did I undertake Thereby to please my neighbor; no, not I; I did it my own self to gratify. Neither did I but vacant seasons spend In this my scribble; nor did I intend But to divert myself, in doing this, From worser thoughts, which make me do amiss. Thus I set pen to paper with delight, And quickly had my thoughts in black and white; For having now my method by the end, Still as I pull'd, it came; and so I penned It down; until it came at last to be, For length and breadth, the bigness which you see. Well, when I had thus put mine ends together I show'd them others, that I might see whether They would condemn them, or them justify: And some said, let them live; some, let them die: Some said, John, print it; others said, Not so: Some said, It might do good; others said, No. Now was I in a strait, and did not see Which was the best thing to be done by me: At last I thought, Since ye are thus divided, I print it will; and so the case decided. For, thought I, some I see would have it done, Though others in that channel do not run: To prove, then, who advised for the best, Thus I thought fit to put it to the test. I further thought, if now I did deny Those that would have it, thus to gratify; I did not know, but hinder them I might Of that which would to them be great delight. For those which were not for its coming forth, I said to them, Offend you, I am loath; Yet since your brethren pleased with it be, Forbear to judge, till you do further see. If that thou wilt not read, let it alone; Some love the meat, some love to pick the bone. Yea, that I might them better palliate, I did too with them thus expostulate: May I not write in such a style as this? In such a method too, and yet not miss My end-thy good? Why may it not be done? Dark clouds bring waters, when the bright bring none. Yea, dark or bright, if they their silver drops Cause to descend, the earth, by yielding crops, Gives praise to both, and carpeth not at either, But treasures up the fruit they yield together; Yea, so commixes both, that in their fruit None can distinguish this from that; they suit Her well when hungry; but if she be full, She spews out both, and makes their blessing null. You see the ways the fisherman doth take To catch the fish; what engines doth he make! Behold how he engageth all his wits; Also his snares, lines, angles, hooks, and nets: Yet fish there be, that neither hook nor line, Nor snare, nor net, nor engine can make thine: They must be groped for, and be tickled too, Or they will not be catch'd, whate'er you do. How does the fowler seek to catch his game By divers means! all which one cannot name. His guns, his nets, his lime-twigs, light and bell: He creeps, he goes, he stands; yea, who can tell Of all his postures? yet there's none of these Will make him master of what fowls he please. Yea, he must pipe and whistle, to catch this; Yet if he does so, that bird he will miss. If that a pearl may in toad's head dwell, And may be found too in an oyster-shell; If things that promise nothing, do contain What better is than gold; who will disdain, That have an inkling 2 of it, there to look, That they may find it. Now my little book, (Though void of all these paintings that may make It with this or the other man to take,) Is not without those things that do excel What do in brave but empty notions dwell. "Well, yet I am not fully satisfied That this your book will stand, when soundly tried." Why, what's the matter? "It is dark." What though? "But it is feigned." What of that? I trow Some men by feigned words, as dark as mine, Make truth to spangle, and its rays to shine. "But they want solidness." Speak, man, thy mind. "They drown the weak; metaphors make us blind." Solidity, indeed, becomes the pen Of him that writeth things divine to men: But must I needs want solidness, because By metaphors I speak? Were not God's laws, His gospel laws, in olden time held forth By types, shadows, and metaphors? Yet loth Will any sober man be to find fault With them, lest he be found for to assault The highest wisdom! No, he rather stoops, And seeks to find out what, by pins and loops, By calves and sheep, by heifers, and by rams, By birds and herbs, and by the blood of lambs, God speaketh to him; and happy is he That finds the light and grace that in them be. But not too forward, therefore, to conclude That I want solidness-that I am rude; All things solid in show, not solid be; All things in parable despise not we, Lest things most hurtful lightly we receive, And things that good are, of our souls bereave. My dark and cloudy words they do but hold The truth, as cabinets inclose the gold. The prophets used much by metaphors To set forth truth: yea, who so considers Christ, his apostles too, shall plainly see, That truths to this day in such mantles be. Am I afraid to say, that holy writ, Which for its style and phrase puts down all wit, Is everywhere so full of all these things, Dark figures, allegories? Yet there springs From that same book, that lustre, and those rays Of light, that turn our darkest nights to days. Come, let my carper to his life now look, And find there darker lines than in my book He findeth any; yea, and let him know, That in his best things there are worse lines too. May we but stand before impartial men, To his poor one I durst adventure ten, That they will take my meaning in these lines Far better than his lies in silver shrines. Come, truth, although in swaddling-clothes, I find Informs the judgment, rectifies the mind; Pleases the understanding, makes the will Submit, the memory too it doth fill With what doth our imagination please; Likewise it tends our troubles to appease. Sound words, I know, Timothy is to use, And old wives' fables he is to refuse; But yet grave Paul him nowhere doth forbid The use of parables, in which lay hid That gold, those pearls, and precious stones that were Worth digging for, and that with greatest care. Let me add one word more. O man of God, Art thou offended? Dost thou wish I had Put forth my matter in another dress? Or that I had in things been more express? Three things let me propound; then I submit To those that are my betters, as is fit. 1. I find not that I am denied the use Of this my method, so I no abuse Put on the words, things, readers, or be rude In handling figure or similitude, In application; but all that I may Seek the advance of truth this or that way. Denied, did I say? Nay, I have leave, (Example too, and that from them that have God better pleased, by their words or ways, Than any man that breatheth now-a-days,) Thus to express my mind, thus to declare Things unto thee that excellentest are. 2. I find that men as high as trees will write Dialogue-wise; yet no man doth them slight For writing so. Indeed, if they abuse Truth, cursed be they, and the craft they use To that intent; but yet let truth be free To make her sallies upon thee and me, Which way it pleases God: for who knows how, Better than he that taught us first to plough, To guide our minds and pens for his designs? And he makes base things usher in divine. 3. I find that holy writ, in many places, Hath semblance with this method, where the cases Do call for one thing to set forth another: Use it I may then, and yet nothing smother Truth's golden beams: nay, by this method may Make it cast forth its rays as light as day. And now, before I do put up my pen, I'll show the profit of my book; and then Commit both thee and it unto that hand That pulls the strong down, and makes weak ones stand. This book it chalketh out before thine eyes The man that seeks the everlasting prize: It shows you whence he comes, whither he goes, What he leaves undone; also what he does: It also shows you how he runs, and runs, Till he unto the gate of glory comes. It shows, too, who set out for life amain, As if the lasting crown they would obtain; Here also you may see the reason why They lose their labor, and like fools do die. This book will make a traveler of thee, If by its counsel thou wilt ruled be; It will direct thee to the Holy Land, If thou wilt its directions understand Yea, it will make the slothful active be; The blind also delightful things to see. Art thou for something rare and profitable? Or would'st thou see a truth within a fable? Art thou forgetful? Wouldest thou remember From New-Year's day to the last of December? Then read my fancies; they will stick like burs, And may be, to the helpless, comforters. This book is writ in such a dialect As may the minds of listless men affect: It seems a novelty, and yet contains Nothing but sound and honest gospel strains. Would'st thou divert thyself from melancholy? Would'st thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly? Would'st thou read riddles, and their explanation? Or else be drowned in thy contemplation? Dost thou love picking meat? Or would'st thou see A man i' the clouds, and hear him speak to thee? Would'st thou be in a dream, and yet not sleep? Or would'st thou in a moment laugh and weep? Would'st thou lose thyself and catch no harm, And find thyself again without a charm? Would'st read thyself, and read thou know'st not what, And yet know whether thou art blest or not, By reading the same lines? O then come hither, And lay my book, thy head, and heart together. JOHN BUNYAN. THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. THE FIRST STAGE. As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, 3 and laid me down in that place to sleep; and as I slept, I dreamed a dream. I dreamed, and behold, I saw a man clothed with rags, standing in a certain place, with his face from his own house, a book in his hand, and a great burden upon his back. Isa 64:6; Luke 14:33; Psalm 38:4. I looked and saw him open the book, and read therein; and as he read, he wept and trembled; and not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying, "What shall I do?" Acts 2:37; 16:30; Habak 1:2,3. In this plight, therefore, he went home, and restrained himself as long as he could, that his wife and children should not perceive his distress; but he could not be silent long, because that his trouble increased. Wherefore at length he brake his mind to his wife and children; and thus he began to talk to them: "O, my dear wife," said he, "and you the children of my bowels, I, your dear friend, am in myself undone by reason of a burden that lieth hard upon me; moreover, I am certainly informed that this our city will be burnt with fire from heaven; in which fearful overthrow, both myself, with thee my wife, and you my sweet babes, shall miserably come to ruin, except (the which yet I see not) some way of escape can be found whereby we may be delivered." At this his relations were sore amazed; not for that they believed that what he had said to them was true, but because they thought that some frenzy distemper had got into his head; therefore, it drawing towards night, and they hoping that sleep might settle his brains, with all haste they got him to bed. But the night was as troublesome to him as the day; wherefore, instead of sleeping, he spent it in sighs and tears. So when the morning was come, they would know how he did. He told them, "Worse and worse:" he also set to talking to them again; but they began to be hardened. They also thought to drive away his distemper by harsh and surly carriage to him; sometimes they would deride, sometimes they would chide, and sometimes they would quite neglect him. Wherefore he began to retire himself to his chamber to pray for and pity them, and also to condole his own misery; he would also walk solitarily in the fields, sometimes reading, and sometimes praying: and thus for some days he spent his time. Now I saw, upon a time, when he was walking in the fields, that he was (as he was wont) reading in his book, and greatly distressed in his mind; and as he read, he burst out, as he had done before, crying, "What shall I do to be saved?" Acts 16:30,31. I saw also that he looked this way, and that way, as if he would run; yet he stood still because (as I perceived) he could not tell which way to go. I looked then, and saw a man named Evangelist coming to him, and he asked, "Wherefore dost thou cry?" He answered, "Sir, I perceive, by the book in my hand, that I am condemned to die, and after that to come to judgment, Heb. 9:27; and I find that I am not willing to do the first, Job 10: 21,22, nor able to do the second." Ezek. 22:14. Then said Evangelist, "Why not willing to die, since this life is attended with so many evils?" The man answered, "Because, I fear that this burden that is upon my back will sink me lower than the grave, and I shall fall into Tophet. Isa. 30:33. And Sir, if I be not fit to go to prison, I am not fit to go to judgment, and from thence to execution; and the thoughts of these things make me cry." Then said Evangelist, "If this be thy condition, why standest thou still?" He answered, "Because I know not whither to go." Then he gave him a parchment roll, and there was written within, "Fly from the wrath to come." Matt. 3:7. The man therefore read it, and looking upon Evangelist very carefully, said, "Whither must I fly?" Then said Evangelist, (pointing with his finger over a very wide field,) "Do you see yonder wicket-gate?" Matt. 7:13,14. The man said, "No." Then said the other, "Do you see yonder shining light?" Psalm 119:105; 2 Pet. 1:19. He said, "I think I do." Then said Evangelist, "Keep that light in your eye, and go up directly thereto, so shalt thou see the gate; at which, when thou knockest, it shall be told thee what thou shalt do." So I saw in my dream that the man began to run. Now he had not run far from his own door when his wife and children, perceiving it, began to cry after him to return; but the man put his fingers in his ears, and ran on crying, Life! life! eternal life! Luke 14:26. So he looked not behind him, Gen. 19:17, but fled towards the middle of the plain. The neighbors also came out to see him run, Jer. 20:10; and as he ran, some mocked, others threatened, and some cried after him to return; and among those that did so, there were two that were resolved to fetch him back by force. The name of the one was Obstinate and the name of the other Pliable. Now by this time the man was got a good distance from them; but, however, they were resolved to pursue him, which they did, and in a little time they overtook him. Then said the man, "Neighbors, wherefore are you come?" They said, "To persuade you to go back with us." But he said, "That can by no means be: you dwell," said he, "in the city of Destruction, the place also where I was born: I see it to be so; and dying there, sooner or later, you will sink lower than the grave, into a place that burns with fire and brimstone: be content, good neighbors, and go along with me." OBST. What, said Obstinate, and leave our friends and our comforts behind us! CHR. Yes, said Christian, (for that was his name,) because that all which you forsake is not worthy to be compared with a little of that I am seeking to enjoy, 2 Cor. 4:18; and if you will go along with me, and hold it, you shall fare as I myself; for there, where I go, is enough and to spare. Luke 15:17. Come away, and prove my words. OBST. What are the things you seek, since you leave all the world to find them? CHR. I seek an inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away, 1 Peter 1:4; and it is laid up in heaven, and safe there, Heb. 11:16, to be bestowed, at the time appointed, on them that diligently seek it. Read it so, if you will, in my book. OBST. Tush, said Obstinate, away with your book; will you go back with us or no? CHR. No, not I, said the other, because I have laid my hand to the plough. Luke 9:62. OBST. Come then, neighbor Pliable, let us turn again, and go home without him: there is a company of these crazy-headed coxcombs, that when they take a fancy by the end, are wiser in their own eyes than seven men that can render a reason. PLI. Then said Pliable, Don't revile; if what the good Christian says is true, the things he looks after are better than ours: my heart inclines to go with my neighbor. OBST. What, more fools still! Be ruled by me, and go back; who knows whither such a brain-sick fellow will lead you? Go back, go back, and be wise. CHR. Nay, but do thou come with thy neighbor Pliable; there are such things to be had which I spoke of, and many more glories besides. If you believe not me, read here in this book, and for the truth of what is expressed therein, behold, all is confirmed by the blood of Him that made it. Heb. 9: 17-21. PLI. Well, neighbor Obstinate, said Pliable, I begin to come to a point; I intend to go along with this good man, and to cast in my lot with him: but, my good companion, do you know the way to this desired place? CHR. I am directed by a man whose name is Evangelist, to speed me to a little gate that is before us, where we shall receive instructions about the way. PLI. Come then, good neighbor, let us be going. Then they went both together. OBST. And I will go back to my place, said Obstinate: I will be no companion of such misled, fantastical fellows. Now I saw in my dream, that when Obstinate was gone back, Christian and Pliable went talking over the plain; and thus they began their discourse. CHR. Come, neighbor Pliable, how do you do? I am glad you are persuaded to go along with me. Had even Obstinate himself but felt what I have felt of the powers and terrors of what is yet unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the back. PLI. Come, neighbor Christian, since there are none but us two here, tell me now farther, what the things are, and how to be enjoyed, whither we are going. CHR. I can better conceive of them with my mind, than speak of them with my tongue: but yet, since you are desirous to know, I will read of them in my book. PLI. And do you think that the words of your book are certainly true? CHR. Yes, verily; for it was made by Him that cannot lie. Tit. 1:2. PLI. Well said; what things are they? CHR. There is an endless kingdom to be inhabited, and everlasting life to be given us, that we may inhabit that kingdom for ever. Isa. 65:17; John 10: 27-29. PLI. Well said; and what else? CHR. There are crowns of glory to be given us; and garments that will make us shine like the sun in the firmament of heaven. 2 Tim. 4:8; Rev. 22:5; Matt. 13:43. PLI. This is very pleasant; and what else? CHR. There shall be no more crying, nor sorrow; for he that is owner of the place will wipe all tears from our eyes. Isa. 25:8; Rev 7:16, 17; 21:4. PLI. And what company shall we have there? CHR. There we shall be with seraphims and cherubims, Isaiah 6:2; 1 Thess. 4:16,17; Rev. 5:11; creatures that will dazzle your eyes to look on them. There also you shall meet with thousands and ten thousands that have gone before us to that place; none of them are hurtful, but loving and holy; every one walking in the sight of God, and standing in his presence with acceptance for ever. In a word, there we shall see the elders with their golden crowns, Rev. 4:4; there we shall see the holy virgins with their golden harps, Rev. 14:1-5; there we shall see men, that by the world were cut in pieces, burnt in flames, eaten of beasts, drowned in the seas, for the love they bare to the Lord of the place, John 12:25; all well, and clothed with immortality as with a garment. 2 Cor. 5:2. PLI. The hearing of this is enough to ravish one's heart. But are these things to be enjoyed? How shall we get to be sharers thereof? CHR. The Lord, the governor of the country, hath recorded that in this book, Isaiah 55:1,2; John 6:37; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; the substance of which is, if we be truly willing to have it, he will bestow it upon us freely. PLI. Well, my good companion, glad am I to hear of these things: come on, let us mend our pace. CHR. I cannot go as fast as I would, by reason of this burden that is on my back. Now I saw in my dream, that just as they had ended this talk, they drew nigh to a very miry slough that was in the midst of the plain: and they being heedless, did both fall suddenly into the bog. The name of the slough was Despond. Here, therefore, they wallowed for a time, being grievously bedaubed with the dirt; and Christian, because of the burden that was on his back, began to sink in the mire. PLI. Then said Pliable, Ah, neighbor Christian, where are you now? CHR. Truly, said Christian, I do not know. PLI. At this Pliable began to be offended, and angrily said to his fellow, Is this the happiness you have told me all this while of? If we have such ill speed at our first setting out, what may we expect between this and our journey's end? May I get out again with my life, you shall possess the brave country alone for me. And with that he gave a desperate struggle or two, and got out of the mire on that side of the slough which was next to his own house: so away he went, and Christian saw him no more. Wherefore Christian was left to tumble in the Slough of Despond alone; but still he endeavored to struggle to that side of the slough that was farthest from his own house, and next to the wicket-gate; the which he did, but could not get out because of the burden that was upon his back: but I beheld in my dream, that a man came to him, whose name was Help, and asked him what he did there. CHR. Sir, said Christian, I was bid to go this way by a man called Evangelist, who directed me also to yonder gate, that I might escape the wrath to come. And as I was going thither, I fell in here. HELP. But why did not you look for the steps? CHR. Fear followed me so hard that I fled the next way, and fell in. HELP. Then, said he, Give me thine hand: so he gave him his hand, and he drew him out, Psalm 40:2, and he set him upon sound ground, and bid him go on his way. Then I stepped to him that plucked him out, and said, "Sir, wherefore, since over this place is the way from the city of Destruction to yonder gate, is it, that this plat is not mended, that poor travellers might go thither with more security?" And he said unto me, "This miry slough is such a place as cannot be mended: it is the descent whither the scum and filth that attends conviction for sin doth continually run, and therefore it is called the Slough of Despond; for still, as the sinner is awakened about his lost condition, there arise in his soul many fears and doubts, and discouraging apprehensions, which all of them get together, and settle in this place: and this is the reason of the badness of this ground. "It is not the pleasure of the King that this place should remain so bad. Isa. 35:3,4. His laborers also have, by the direction of his Majesty's surveyors, been for above this sixteen hundred years employed about this patch of ground, if perhaps it might have been mended: yea, and to my knowledge," said he, "there have been swallowed up at least twenty thousand cart loads, yea, millions of wholesome instructions, that have at all seasons been brought from all places of the King's dominions, (and they that can tell, say, they are the best materials to make good ground of the place,) if so be it might have been mended; but it is the Slough of Despond still, and so will be when they have done what they can. "True, there are, by the direction of the Lawgiver, certain good and substantial steps, placed even through the very midst of this slough; but at such time as this place doth much spew out its filth, as it doth against change of weather, these steps are hardly seen; or if they be, men, through the dizziness of their heads, step beside, and then they are bemired to purpose, notwithstanding the steps be there: but the ground is good when they are once got in at the gate." 1 Sam. 12:23. Now I saw in my dream, that by this time Pliable was got home to his house. So his neighbors came to visit him; and some of them called him wise man for coming back, and some called him fool for hazarding himself with Christian: others again did mock at his cowardliness, saying, "Surely, since you began to venture, I would not have been so base as to have given out for a few difficulties:" so Pliable sat sneaking among them. But at last he got more confidence, and then they all turned their tales, and began to deride poor Christian behind his back. And thus much concerning Pliable. Now as Christian was walking solitary by himself, he espied one afar off come crossing over the field to meet him; and their hap was to meet just as they were crossing the way of each other. The gentleman's name that met him was Mr. Wordly Wiseman: he dwelt in the town of Carnal Policy, a very great town, and also hard by from whence Christian came. This man then, meeting with Christian, and having some inkling 4 of him, (for Christian's setting forth from the city of Destruction was much noised abroad, not only in the town where he dwelt, but also it began to be the town-talk in some other places) - Mr. Worldly Wiseman, therefore, having some guess of him, by beholding his laborious going, by observing his sighs and groans, and the like, began thus to enter into some talk with Christian. WORLD. How now, good fellow, whither away after this burdened manner? CHR. A burdened manner indeed, as ever I think poor creature had! And whereas you ask me, Whither away? I tell you, sir, I am going to yonder wicket-gate before me; for there, as I am informed, I shall be put into a way to be rid of my heavy burden. WORLD. Hast thou a wife and children? CHR. Yes; but I am so laden with this burden, that I cannot take that pleasure in them as formerly: methinks I am as if I had none. 1 Cor. 7:29. WORLD. Wilt thou hearken to me, if I give thee counsel? CHR. If it be good, I will; for I stand in need of good counsel. WORLD. I would advise thee, then, that thou with all speed get thyself rid of thy burden; for thou wilt never be settled in thy mind till then: nor canst thou enjoy the benefits of the blessings which God hath bestowed upon thee till then. CHR. That is that which I seek for, even to be rid of this heavy burden: but get it off myself I cannot, nor is there any man in our country that can take it off my shoulders; therefore am I going this way, as I told you, that I may be rid of my burden. WORLD. Who bid thee go this way to be rid of thy burden? CHR. A man that appeared to me to be a very great and honorable person: his name, as I remember, is Evangelist. I beshrew 5 him for his counsel! there is not a more dangerous and troublesome way in the world than is that into which he hath directed thee; and that thou shalt find, if thou wilt be ruled by his counsel. Thou hast met with something, as I perceive, already; for I see the dirt of the Slough of Despond is upon thee: but that slough is the beginning of the sorrows that do attend those that go on in that way. Hear me; I am older than thou: thou art like to meet with, in the way which thou goest, wearisomeness, painfulness, hunger, perils, nakedness, sword, lions, dragons, darkness, and, in a word, death, and what not. These things are certainly true, having been confirmed by many testimonies. And should a man so carelessly cast away himself, by giving heed to a stranger? CHR. Why, sir, this burden on my back is more terrible to me than are all these things which you have mentioned: nay, methinks I care not what I meet with in the way, if so be I can also meet with deliverance from my burden. WORLD. How camest thou by thy burden at first? CHR. By reading this book in my hand. WORLD. I thought so; and it has happened unto thee as to other weak men, who, meddling with things too high for them, do suddenly fall into thy distractions; which distractions do not only unman men, as thine I perceive have done thee, but they run them upon desperate ventures, to obtain they know not what. CHR. I know what I would obtain; it is ease from my heavy burden. WORLD. But why wilt thou seek for ease this way, seeing so many dangers attend it? especially since (hadst thou but patience to hear me) I could direct thee to the obtaining of what thou desirest, without the dangers that thou in this way wilt run thyself into. Yea, and the remedy is at hand. Besides, I will add, that instead of those dangers, thou shalt meet with much safety, friendship, and content. CHR. Sir, I pray open this secret to me. WORLD. Why, in yonder village (the village is named Morality) there dwells a gentleman whose name is Legality, a very judicious man, and a man of a very good name, that has skill to help men off with such burdens as thine is from their shoulders; yea to my knowledge, he hath done a great deal of good this way; aye, and besides, he hath skill to cure those that are somewhat crazed in their wits with their burdens. To him, as I said, thou mayest go, and be helped presently. His house is not quite a mile from this place; and if he should not be at home himself, he hath a pretty young man to his son, whose name is Civility, that can do it (to speak on) as well as the old gentleman himself: there, I say, thou mayest be eased of thy burden; and if thou art not minded to go back to thy former habitation, (as indeed I would not wish thee,) thou mayest send for thy wife and children to this village, where there are houses now standing empty, one of which thou mayest have at a reasonable rate: provision is there also cheap and good; and that which will make thy life the more happy is, to be sure there thou shalt live by honest neighbors, in credit and good fashion. Now was Christian somewhat at a stand; but presently he concluded, If this be true which this gentleman hath said, my wisest course is to take his advice: and with that he thus farther spake. CHR. Sir, which is my way to this honest man's house? WORLD. Do you see yonder high hill? CHR. Yes, very well. WORLD. By that hill you must go, and the first house you come at is his. So Christian turned out of his way to go to Mr. Legality's house for help: but, behold, when he was got now hard by the hill, it seemed so high, and also that side of it that was next the way-side did hang so much over, that Christian was afraid to venture further, lest the hill should fall on his head; wherefore there he stood still, and wotted not what to do. Also his burden now seemed heavier to him than while he was in his way. There came also flashes of fire, Ex. 19:16, 18, out of the hill, that made Christian afraid that he should be burnt: here therefore he did sweat and quake for fear. Heb. 12:21. And now he began to be sorry that he had taken Mr. Worldly Wiseman's counsel; and with that he saw Evangelist coming to meet him, at the sight also of whom he began to blush for shame. So Evangelist drew nearer and nearer; and coming up to him, he looked upon him, with a severe and dreadful countenance, and thus began to reason with Christian. EVAN. What doest thou here, Christian? said he: at which words Christian knew not what to answer; wherefore at present he stood speechless before him. Then said Evangelist farther, Art not thou the man that I found crying without the walls of the city of Destruction? CHR. Yes, dear sir, I am the man. EVAN. Did not I direct thee the way to the little wicket-gate? CHR. Yes, dear sir, said Christian. EVAN. How is it then thou art so quickly turned aside? For thou art now out of the way. CHR. I met with a gentleman so soon as I had got over the Slough of Despond, who persuaded me that I might, in the village before me, find a man that could take off my burden. EVAN. What was he? CHR. He looked like a gentleman, and talked much to me, and got me at last to yield: so I came hither; but when I beheld this hill, and how it hangs over the way, I suddenly made a stand, lest it should fall on my head. EVAN. What said that gentleman to you? CHR. Why, he asked me whither I was going; and I told him. EVAN. And what said he then? CHR. He asked me if I had a family; and I told him. But, said I, I am so laden with the burden that is on my back, that I cannot take pleasure in them as formerly. EVAN. And what said he then? CHR. He bid me with speed get rid of my burden; and I told him it was ease that I sought. And, said I, I am therefore going to yonder gate, to receive farther direction how I may get to the place of deliverance. So he said that he would show me a better way, and short, not so attended with difficulties as the way, sir, that you set me in; which way, said he, will direct you to a gentleman's house that hath skill to take off these burdens: so I believed him, and turned out of that way into this, if haply I might be soon eased of my burden. But when I came to this place, and beheld things as they are, I stopped, for fear (as I said) of danger: but I now know not what to do. EVAN. Then said Evangelist, Stand still a little, that I show thee the words of God. So he stood trembling. Then said Evangelist, "See that ye refuse not Him that speaketh; for if they escaped not who refused him that spake on earth, much more shall not we escape, if we turn away from Him that speaketh from heaven." Heb. 12:25. He said, moreover, "Now the just shall live by faith; but if any man draw back, my soul shall have no pleasure in him." Heb. 10:38. He also did thus apply them: Thou art the man that art running into this misery; thou hast begun to reject the counsel of the Most High, and to draw back thy foot from the way of peace, even almost to the hazarding of thy perdition. Then Christian fell down at his feet as dead, crying, Woe is me, for I am undone! At the sight of which Evangelist caught him by the right hand, saying, "All manner of sin and blasphemies shall be forgiven unto men." Matt. 12:31. "Be not faithless, but believing." John 20:27. Then did Christian again a little revive, and stood up trembling, as at first, before Evangelist. Then Evangelist proceeded, saying, Give more earnest heed to the things that I shall tell thee of. I will now show thee who it was that deluded thee, and who it was also to whom he sent thee. The man that met thee is one Worldly Wiseman, and rightly is he so called; partly because he savoreth only the doctrine of this world, 1 John 4:5, (therefore he always goes to the town of Morality to church;) and partly because he loveth that doctrine best, for it saveth him best from the cross, Gal. 6:12: and because he is of this carnal temper, therefore he seeketh to pervert my ways, though right. Now there are three things in this man's counsel that thou must utterly abhor. 1. His turning thee out of the way. 2. His laboring to render the cross odious to thee. 3. And his setting thy feet in that way that leadeth unto the administration of death. First, Thou must abhor his turning thee out of the way; yea, and thine own consenting thereto; because this is to reject the counsel of God for the sake of the counsel of a Worldly Wiseman. The Lord says, "Strive to enter in at the straight gate," Luke 13:24, the gate to which I send thee; "for strait is the gate that leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it." Matt. 7:13,14. From this little wicket-gate, and from the way thereto, hath this wicked man turned thee, to the bringing of thee almost to destruction: hate, therefore, his turning thee out of the way, and abhor thyself for hearkening to him. Secondly, Thou must abhor his laboring to render the cross odious unto thee; for thou art to prefer it before the treasures of Egypt. Heb. 11:25,26. Besides, the King of glory hath told thee, that he that will save his life shall lose it. And he that comes after him, and hates not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be his disciple. Mark 8:38; John 12:25; Matt. 10:39; Luke 14:26. I say, therefore, for a man to labor to persuade thee that that shall be thy death, without which, the truth hath said, thou canst not have eternal life, this doctrine thou must abhor. Thirdly, Thou must hate his setting of thy feet in the way that leadeth to the ministration of death. And for this thou must consider to whom he sent thee, and also how unable that person was to deliver thee from thy burden. He to whom thou wast sent for ease, being by name Legality, is the son of the bond-woman which now is, and is in bondage with her children, Gal. 4:21-27, and is, in a mystery, this Mount Sinai, which thou hast feared will fall on thy head. Now if she with her children are in bondage, how canst thou expect by them to be made free? This Legality, therefore, is not able to set thee free from thy burden. No man was as yet ever rid of his burden by him; no, nor ever is like to be: ye cannot be justified by the works of the law; for by the deeds of the law no man living can be rid of his burden: Therefore Mr. Worldly Wiseman is an alien, and Mr. Legality is a cheat; and for his son Civility, notwithstanding his simpering looks, he is but a hypocrite, and cannot help thee. Believe me, there is nothing in all this noise that thou hast heard of these sottish men, but a design to beguile thee of thy salvation, by turning thee from the way in which I had set thee. After this, Evangelist called aloud to the heavens for confirmation of what he had said; and with that there came words and fire out of the mountain under which poor Christian stood, which made the hair of his flesh stand up. The words were pronounced: "As many as are of the works of the law, are under the curse; for it is written, Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things which are written in the book of the law to do them." Gal. 3:10. Now Christian looked for nothing but death, and began to cry out lamentably; even cursing the time in which he met with Mr. Worldly Wiseman; still calling himself a thousand fools for hearkening to his counsel. He also was greatly ashamed to think that this gentleman's arguments, flowing only from the flesh, should have the prevalency with him so far as to cause him to forsake the right way. This done, he applied himself again to Evangelist in words and sense as follows. CHR. Sir, what think you? Is there any hope? May I now go back, and go up to the wicket-gate? Shall I not be abandoned for this, and sent back from thence ashamed? I am sorry I have hearkened to this man's counsel; but may my sin be forgiven? EVAN. Then said Evangelist to him, Thy sin is very great, for by it thou hast committed two evils: thou hast forsaken the way that is good, to tread in forbidden paths. Yet will the man at the gate receive thee, for he has good-will for men; only, said he, take heed that thou turn not aside again, lest thou "perish from the way, when his wrath is kindled but a little." Psalm 2:12. THE SECOND STAGE. Then did Christian address himself to go back; and Evangelist, after he had kissed him, gave him one smile, and bid him God speed; So he went on with haste, neither spake he to any man by the way; nor if any asked him, would he vouchsafe them an answer. He went like one that was all the while treading on forbidden ground, and could by no means think himself safe, till again he was got into the way which he had left to follow Mr. Worldly Wiseman's counsel. So, in process of time, Christian got up to the gate. Now, over the gate there was written, "Knock, and it shall be opened unto you." Matt. 7:7. He knocked, therefore, more than once or twice, saying, "May I now enter here? Will he within Open to sorry me, though I have been An undeserving rebel? Then shall I Not fail to sing his lasting praise on high." At last there came a grave person to the gate, named Goodwill, who asked who was there, and whence he came, and what he would have. CHR. Here is a poor burdened sinner. I come from the city of Destruction, but am going to Mount Zion, that I may be delivered from the wrath to come; I would therefore, sir, since I am informed that by this gate is the way thither, know if you are willing to let me in. GOOD. I am willing with all my heart, said he; and with that he opened the gate. So when Christian was stepping in, the other gave him a pull. Then said Christian, What means that? The other told him, A little distance from this gate there is erected a strong castle, of which Beelzebub is the captain: from thence both he and they that are with him, shoot arrows at those that come up to this gate, if haply they may die before they can enter in. Then said Christian, I rejoice and tremble. So when he was got in, the man of the Gate asked him who directed him thither. CHR. Evangelist bid me come hither and knock, as I did: and he said, that you, sir, would tell me what I must do. GOOD. An open door is set before thee, and no man can shut it. CHR. Now I begin to reap the benefits of my hazards. GOOD. But how is it that you came alone? CHR. Because none of my neighbors saw their danger as I saw mine. GOOD. Did any of them know of your coming? CHR. Yes, my wife and children saw me at the first, and called after me to turn again: also, some of my neighbors stood crying and calling after me to return; but I put my fingers in my ears, and so came on my way. GOOD. But did none of them follow you, to persuade you to go back? CHR. Yes, both Obstinate and Pliable; but when they saw that they could not prevail, Obstinate went railing back; but Pliable came with me a little way. GOOD. But why did he not come through? CHR. We indeed came both together until we came to the Slough of Despond, into the which we also suddenly fell. And then was my neighbor Pliable discouraged, and would not venture farther. Wherefore, getting out again on the side next to his own house, he told me I should possess the brave country alone for him: so he went his way, and I came mine; he after Obstinate, and I to this gate. GOOD. Then said Goodwill, Alas, poor man; is the celestial glory of so little esteem with him, that he counteth it not worth running the hazard of a few difficulties to obtain it? CHR. Truly, said Christian, I have said the truth of Pliable; and if I should also say all the truth of myself, it will appear there is no betterment betwixt him and myself. It is true, he went back to his own house, but I also turned aside to go in the way of death, being persuaded thereto by the carnal arguments of one Mr. Worldly Wiseman. GOOD. Oh, did he light upon you? What, he would have had you have seek for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality! They are both of them a very cheat. But did you take his counsel? CHR. Yes, as far as I durst. I went to find out Mr. Legality, until I thought that the mountain that stands by his house would have fallen upon my head; wherefore there I was forced to stop. GOOD. That mountain has been the death of many, and will be the death of many more: it is well you escaped being by it dashed in pieces. CHR. Why truly I do not know what had become of me there, had not Evangelist happily met me again as I was musing in the midst of my dumps; but it was God's mercy that he came to me again, for else I had never come hither. But now I am come, such a one as I am, more fit indeed for death by that mountain, than thus to stand talking with my Lord. But O, what a favor is this to me, that yet I am admitted entrance here! GOOD. We make no objections against any, notwithstanding all that they have done before they come hither; they in no wise are cast out. John 6:37. And therefore good Christian, come a little way with me, and I will teach thee about the way thou must go. Look before thee; dost thou see this narrow way? That is the way thou must go. It was cast up by the patriarchs, prophets, Christ, and his apostles, and it is as strait as a rule can make it; this is the way thou must go. CHR. But, said Christian, are there no turnings nor windings, by which a stranger may lose his way? GOOD. Yes, there are many ways butt down upon this, and they are crooked and wide: but thus thou mayest distinguish the right from the wrong, the right only being strait and narrow. Matt. 7:14. Then I saw in my dream, that Christian asked him further, if he could not help him off with his burden that was upon his back. For as yet he had not got rid thereof; nor could he by any means get it off without help. He told him, "As to thy burden, be content to bear it until thou comest to the place of deliverance; for there it will fall from thy back of itself." Then Christian began to gird up his loins, and to address himself to his journey. So the other told him, that by that he was gone some distance from the gate, he would come to the house of the Interpreter, at whose door he should knock, and he would show him excellent things. Then Christian took his leave of his friend, and he again bid him God speed. Then he went on till he came at the house of the Interpreter, 6 where he knocked over and over. At last one came to the door, and asked who was there. CHR. Sir, here is a traveller, who was bid by an acquaintance of the good man of this house to call here for my profit; I would therefore speak with the master of the house. So he called for the master of the house, who, after a little time, came to Christian, and asked him what he would have. CHR. Sir, said Christian, I am a man that am come from the city of Destruction, and am going to the Mount Zion; and I was told by the man that stands at the gate at the head of this way, that if I called here you would show me excellent things, such as would be helpful to me on my journey. INTER. Then said Interpreter, Come in; I will show thee that which will be profitable to thee. So he commanded his man to light the candle, and bid Christian follow him; so he had him into a private room, and bid his man open a door; the which when he had done, Christian saw the picture a very grave person hang up against the wall; and this was the fashion of it: It had eyes lifted up to heaven, the best of books in his hand, the law of truth was written upon its lips, the world was behind its back; it stood as if it pleaded with men, and a crown of gold did hang over its head. CHR. Then said Christian, What means this? INTER. The man whose picture this is, is one of a thousand: he can beget children, 1 Cor. 4:15, travail in birth with children, Gal. 4:19, and nurse them himself when they are born. And whereas thou seest him with his eyes lift up to heaven, the best of books in his hand, and the law of truth writ on his lips: it is to show thee, that his work is to know, and unfold dark things to sinners; even as also thou seest him stand as if he pleaded with men. And whereas thou seest the world as cast behind him, and that a crown hangs over his head; that is to show thee, that slighting and despising the things that are present, for the love that he hath to his Master's service, he is sure in the world that comes next, to have glory for his reward. Now, said the Interpreter, I have showed thee this picture first, because the man whose picture this is, is the only man whom the Lord of the place whither thou art going hath authorized to be thy guide in all difficult places thou mayest meet with in the way: wherefore take good heed to what I have showed thee, and bear well in thy mind what thou hast seen, lest in thy journey thou meet with some that pretend to lead thee right, but their way goes down to death. Then he took him by the hand, and led him into a very large parlor that was full of dust, because never swept; the which after he had reviewed it a little while, the Interpreter called for a man to sweep. Now, when he began to sweep, the dust began so abundantly to fly about, that Christian had almost therewith been choked. Then said the Interpreter to a damsel that stood by, "Bring hither water, and sprinkle the room;" the which when she had done, it was swept and cleansed with pleasure. CHR. Then said Christian, What means this? INTER. The Interpreter answered, This parlor is the heart of a man that was never sanctified by the sweet grace of the Gospel. The dust is his original sin, and inward corruptions, that have defiled the whole man. He that began to sweep at first, is the law; but she that brought water, and did sprinkle it, is the Gospel. Now whereas thou sawest, that so soon as the first began to sweep, the dust did so fly about that the room by him could not be cleansed, but that thou wast almost choked therewith; this is to show thee, that the law, instead of cleansing the heart (by its working) from sin, doth revive, Rom. 7:9, put strength into, 1 Cor. 15:56, and increase it in the soul, Rom. 5:20, even as it doth discover and forbid it; for it doth not give power to subdue. Again, as thou sawest the damsel sprinkle the room with water, upon which it was cleansed with pleasure, this is to show thee, that when the Gospel comes in the sweet and precious influences thereof to the heart, then, I say, even as thou sawest the damsel lay the dust by sprinkling the floor with water, so is sin vanquished and subdued, and the soul made clean, through the faith of it, and consequently fit for the King of glory to inhabit. John 15:3; Eph. 5:26; Acts 15:9; Rom. 16:25,26. I saw moreover in my dream, that the Interpreter took him by the hand, and had him into a little room, where sat two little children, each one in his chair. The name of the eldest was Passion, and the name of the other Patience. Passion seemed to be much disconted, but Patience was very quiet. Then Christian asked, "What is the reason of the discontent of Passion?" The Interpreter answered, "The governor of them would have him stay for his best things till the beginning of the next year, but he will have all now; but Patience is willing to wait." Then I saw that one came to Passion, and brought him a bag of treasure, and poured it down at his feet: the which he took up, and rejoiced therein, and withal laughed Patience to scorn. But I beheld but a while, and he had lavished all away, and had nothing left him but rags. CHR. Then said Christian to the Interpreter, Expound this matter more fully to me. INTER. So he said, These two lads are figures; Passion of the men of this world, and Patience of the men of that which is to come; for, as here thou seest, passion will have all now, this year, that is to say, in this world; so are the men of this world: They must have all their good things now; they cannot stay till the next year, that is, until the next world, for their portion of good. That proverb, "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," is of more authority with them than are all the divine testimonies of the good of the world to come. But as thou sawest that he had quickly lavished all away, and had presently left him nothing but rags, so will it be with all such men at the end of this world. CHR. Then said Christian, Now I see that Patience has the best wisdom, and that upon many accounts. 1. Because he stays for the best things. 2. And also because he will have the glory of his, when the other has nothing but rags. INTER. Nay, you may add another, to wit, the glory of the next world will never wear out; but these are suddenly gone. Therefore Passion had not so much reason to laugh at Patience because he had his good things first, as Patience will have to laugh at Passion because he had his best things last; for first must give place to last, because last must have his time to come: but last gives place to nothing, for there is not another to succeed. He, therefore, that hath his portion first, must needs have a time to spend it; but he that hath his portion last, must have it lastingly: therefore it is said of Dives, "In thy lifetime thou receivedst thy good things, and likewise Lazarus evil things; but now he is comforted, and thou art tormented." Luke 16:25. CHR. Then I perceive it is not best to cover things that are now, but to wait for things to come. INTER. You say truth: for the things that are seen are temporal, but the things that are not seen are eternal. 2 Cor. 4:18. But though this be so, yet since things present and our fleshly appetite are such near neighbors one to another; and again, because things to come and carnal sense are such strangers one to another; therefore it is, that the first of these so suddenly fall into amity, and that distance is so continued between the second. Then I saw in my dream, that the Interpreter took Christian by the hand, and led him into a place where was a fire burning against a wall, and one standing by it, always casting much water upon it, to quench it; yet did the fire burn higher and hotter. Then said Christian, What means this? The Interpreter answered, This fire is the work of grace that is wrought in the heart; he that casts water upon it, to extinguish and put it out, is the devil: but in that thou seest the fire, notwithstanding, burn higher and hotter, thou shalt also see the reason of that. So he had him about to the back side of the wall, where he saw a man with a vessel of oil in his hand, of the which he did also continually cast (but secretly) into the fire. Then said Christian, What means this? The Interpreter answered, This is Christ, who continually, with the oil of his grace, maintains the work already begun in the heart; by the means of which, notwithstanding what the devil can do, the souls of his people prove gracious still. 2 Cor. 12:9. And in that thou sawest that the man stood behind the wall to maintain the fire; this is to teach thee, that it is hard for the tempted to see how this work of grace is maintained in the soul. I saw also, that the Interpreter took him again by the hand, and led him into a pleasant place, where was built a stately palace, beautiful to behold; at the sight of which Christian was greatly delighted. He saw also upon the top thereof certain persons walking, who were clothed all in gold. Then said Christian may we go in thither? Then the Interpreter took him, and led him up towards the door of the palace; and behold, at the door stood a great company of men, as desirous to go in, but durst not. There also sat a man at a little distance from the door, at a table-side, with a book and his inkhorn before him, to take the names of them that should enter therein; he saw also that in the doorway stood many men in armor to keep it, being resolved to do to the men that would enter, what hurt and mischief they could. Now was Christian somewhat in amaze. At last, when every man started back for fear of the armed men, Christian saw a man of a very stout countenance come up to the man that sat there to write, saying, "Set down my name, sir;" the which when he had done, he saw the man draw his sword, and put a helmet on his head, and rush towards the door upon the armed men, who laid upon him with deadly force; but the man, not at all discouraged, fell to cutting and hacking most fiercely. So after he had received and given many wounds to those that attempted to keep him out, Matt. 11:12; Acts 14:22; he cut his way through them all, and pressed forward into the palace; at which there was a pleasant voice heard from those that were within, even of those that walked upon the top of the palace, saying, "Come in, come in, Eternal glory thou shalt win." So he went in, and was clothed with such garments as they. Then Christian smiled, and said, I think verily I know the meaning of this. Now, said Christian, let me go hence. Nay, stay, said the Interpreter, till I have showed thee a little more, and after that thou shalt go on thy way. So he took him by the hand again, and led him into a very dark room, where there sat a man in an iron cage. Now the man, to look on, seemed very sad; he sat with his eyes looking down to the ground, his hands folded together, and he sighed as if he would break his heart. Then said Christian, What means this? At which the Interpreter bid him talk with the man. Then said Christian to the man, What art thou? The man answered, I am what I was not once. CHR. What wast thou once? MAN. The man said, I was once a fair and flourishing professor, Luke 8:13, both in mine own eyes, and also in the eyes of others: I once was, as I thought, fair for the celestial city, and had then even joy at the thoughts that I should get thither. CHR. Well, but what art thou now? MAN. I am now a man of despair, and am shut up in it, as in this iron cage. I cannot get out; Oh now I cannot! CHR. But how camest thou into this condition? MAN. I left off to watch and be sober: I laid the reins upon the neck of my lusts; I sinned against the light of the word, and the goodness of God; I have grieved the Spirit, and he is gone; I tempted the devil, and he is come to me; I have provoked God to anger, and he has left me: I have so hardened my heart, that I cannot repent. Then said Christian to the Interpreter, But is there no hope for such a man as this? Ask him, said the Interpreter. CHR. Then said Christian, Is there no hope, but you must be kept in the iron cage of despair? MAN. No, none at all. CHR. Why, the Son of the Blessed is very pitiful. MAN. I have crucified him to myself afresh, Heb. 6:6; I have despised his person, Luke 19:14; I have despised his righteousness; I have counted his blood an unholy thing; I have done despite to the spirit of grace, Heb. 10:29: therefore I have shut myself out of all the promises and there now remains to me nothing but threatenings, dreadful threatenings, faithful threatenings of certain judgment and fiery indignation, which shall devour me as an adversary. CHR. For what did you bring yourself into this condition? MAN. For the lusts, pleasures, and profits of this world; in the enjoyment of which I did then promise myself much delight: but now every one of those things also bite me, and gnaw me like a burning worm. CHR. But canst thou not now repent and turn? MAN. God hath denied me repentance. His word gives me no encouragement to believe; yea, himself hath shut me up in this iron cage: nor can all the men in the world let me out. Oh eternity! eternity! how shall I grapple with the misery that I must meet with in eternity? INTER. Then said the Interpreter to Christian, Let this man's misery be remembered by thee, and be an everlasting caution to thee. CHR. Well, said Christian, this is fearful! God help me to watch and to be sober, and to pray that I may shun the cause of this man's misery. Sir, is it not time for me to go on my way now? INTER. Tarry till I shall show thee one thing more, and then thou shalt go on thy way. So he took Christian by the hand again and led him into a chamber where there was one rising out of bed; and as he put on his raiment, he shook and trembled. Then said Christian, Why doth this man thus tremble? The Interpreter then bid him tell to Christian the reason of his so doing. So he began, and said, "This night, as I was in my sleep, I dreamed, and behold the heavens grew exceeding black; also it thundered and lightened in most fearful wise, that it put me into an agony. So I looked up in my dream, and saw the clouds rack at an unusual rate; upon which I heard a great sound of a trumpet, and saw also a man sitting upon a cloud, attended with the thousands of heaven: they were all in flaming fire; also the heavens were in a burning flame. I heard then a voice, saying, 'Arise, ye dead, and come to judgment.' And with that the rocks rent, the graves opened, and the dead that were therein came forth: some of them were exceeding glad, and looked upward; and some sought to hide themselves under the mountains. Then I saw the man that sat upon the cloud open the book, and bid the world draw near. Yet there was, by reason of a fierce flame that issued out and came from before him, a convenient distance between him and them, as between the judge and the prisoners at the bar. 1 Cor. 15; 1 Thess. 4:16; Jude 15; John 5: 28,29; 2 Thess. 1:8-10; Rev. 20:11-14; Isa. 26:21; Micah 7:16,17; Psa. 5:4; 50:1-3; Mal. 3:2,3; Dan. 7:9,10. I heard it also proclaimed to them that attended on the man that sat on the cloud, 'Gather together the tares, the chaff, and stubble, and cast them into the burning lake.' Matt. 3:12; 18:30; 24:30; Mal. 4:1. And with that the bottomless pit opened, just whereabout I stood; out of the mouth of which there came, in an abundant manner, smoke, and coals of fire, with hideous noises. It was also said to the same persons, 'Gather my wheat into the garner.' Luke 3:17. And with that I saw many catched up and carried away into the clouds, but I was left behind. 1 Thess. 4:16,17. I also sought to hide myself, but I could not, for the man that sat upon the cloud still kept his eye upon me; my sins also came into my mind, and my conscience did accuse me on every side. Rom. 2:14,15. Upon this I awakened from my sleep." CHR. But what was it that made you so afraid of this sight? MAN. Why, I thought that the day of judgment was come, and that I was not ready for it: but this frightened me most, that the angels gathered up several, and left me behind; also the pit of hell opened her mouth just where I stood. My conscience too afflicted me; and, as I thought, the Judge had always his eye upon me, showing indignation in his countenance. Then said the Interpreter to Christian, "Hast thou considered all these things?" CHR. Yes, and they put me in hope and fear. INTER. Well, keep all things so in thy mind, that they may be as a goad in thy sides, to prick thee forward in the way thou must go. Then Christian began to gird up his loins, and to address himself to his journey. Then said the Interpreter, "The Comforter be always with thee, good Christian, to guide thee in the way that leads to the city." So Christian went on his way, saying, "Here I have seen things rare and profitable, Things pleasant, dreadful, things to make me stable In what I have begun to take in hand: Then let me think on them, and understand Wherefore they showed me were, and let me be Thankful, O good Interpreter, to thee." THE THIRD STAGE. Now I saw in my dream, that the highway up which Christian was to go, was fenced on either side with a wall, and that wall was called Salvation. Isaiah 26:1. Up this way, therefore, did burdened Christian run, but not without great difficulty, because of the load on his back. He ran thus till he came at a place somewhat ascending; and upon that place stood a cross, and a little below, in the bottom, a sepulchre. So I saw in my dream, that just as Christian came up with the cross, his burden loosed from off his shoulders, and fell from off his back, and began to tumble, and so continued to do till it came to the mouth of the sepulchre, where it fell in, and I saw it no more. Then was Christian glad and lightsome, and said with a merry heart, "He hath given me rest by his sorrow, and life by his death." Then he stood still a while, to look and wonder; for it was very surprising to him that the sight of the cross should thus ease him of his burden. He looked, therefore, and looked again, even till the springs that were in his head sent the waters down his cheeks. Zech. 12:10. Now as he stood looking and weeping, behold, three Shining Ones came to him, and saluted him with, "Peace be to thee." So the first said to him, "Thy sins be forgiven thee," Mark 2:5; the second stripped him of his rags, and clothed him with change of raiment, Zech. 3:4; the third also set a mark on his forehead, Eph. 1:13, and gave him a roll with a seal upon it, which he bid him look on as he ran, and that he should give it in at the celestial gate: so they went their way. Then Christian gave three leaps for joy, and went on singing, "Thus far did I come laden with my sin, Nor could aught ease the grief that I was in, Till I came hither. What a place is this! Must here be the beginning of my bliss? Must here the burden fall from off my back? Must here the strings that bound it to me crack? Blest cross! blest sepulchre! blest rather be The Man that there was put to shame for me!" I saw then in my dream, that he went on thus, even until he came at the bottom, where he saw, a little out of the way, three men fast asleep, with fetters upon their heels. The name of the one was Simple, of another Sloth, and of the third Presumption. Christian then seeing them lie in this case, went to them, if peradventure he might awake them, and cried, you are like them that sleep on the top of a mast, Prov. 23:34, for the Dead Sea is under you, a gulf that hath no bottom: awake, therefore, and come away; be willing also, and I will help you off with your irons. He also told them, If he that goeth about like a roaring lion, 1 Pet. 5:8, comes by, you will certainly become a prey to his teeth. With that they looked upon him, and began to reply in this sort: Simple said, I see no danger; Sloth said, Yet a little more sleep; and Presumption said, Every tub must stand upon its own bottom. And so they lay down to sleep again, and Christian went on his way. Yet he was troubled to think that men in that danger should so little esteem the kindness of him that so freely offered to help them, both by awakening of them, counselling of them, and proffering to help them off with their irons. And as he was troubled thereabout, he espied two men come tumbling over the wall, on the left hand of the narrow way; and they made up apace to him. The name of the one was Formalist, and the name of the other Hypocrisy. So, as I said, they drew up unto him, who thus entered with them into discourse. CHR. Gentlemen, whence came you, and whither do you go? FORM. AND HYP. We were born in the land of Vain-glory, and are going, for praise, to Mount Zion. CHR. Why came you not in at the gate which standeth at the beginning of the way? Know ye not that it is written, that "he that cometh not in by the door, but climbeth up some other way, the same is a thief and a robber?" John 10:1. FORM. AND HYP. They said, that to go to the gate for entrance was by all their countrymen counted too far about; and that therefore their usual way was to make a short cut of it, and to climb over the wall, as they had done. CHR. But will it not be counted a trespass against the Lord of the city whither we are bound, thus to violate his revealed will? FORM. AND HYP. They told him, that as for that, he needed not to trouble his head thereabout: for what they did they had custom for, and could produce, if need were, testimony that would witness it for more than a thousand years. CHR. But, said Christian, will you stand a trial at law? FORM. AND HYP. They told him, that custom, it being of so long standing as above a thousand years, would doubtless now be admitted as a thing legal by an impartial judge: and besides, said they, if we get into the way, what matter is it which way we get in? If we are in, we are in: thou art but in the way, who, as we perceive, came in at the gate; and we also are in the way, that came tumbling over the wall: wherein now is thy condition better than ours? CHR. I walk by the rule of my Master: you walk by the rude working of your fancies. You are counted thieves already by the Lord of the way: therefore I doubt you will not be found true men at the end of the way. You come in by yourselves without his direction, and shall go out by yourselves without his mercy. To this they made him but little answer; only they bid him look to himself. Then I saw that they went on, every man in his way, without much conference one with another, save that these two men told Christian, that as to laws and ordinances, they doubted not but that they should as conscientiously do them as he. Therefore, said they, we see not wherein thou differest from us, but by the coat that is on thy back, which was, as we trow, given thee by some of thy neighbors, to hide the shame of thy nakedness. CHR. By laws and ordinances you will not be saved, since you came not in by the door. Gal. 2:16. And as for this coat that is on my back, it was given me by the Lord of the place whither I go; and that, as you say, to cover my nakedness with. And I take it as a token of kindness to me; for I had nothing but rags before. And besides, thus I comfort myself as I go. Surely, think I, when I come to the gate of the city, the Lord thereof will know me for good, since I have his coat on my back; a coat that he gave me freely in the day that he stripped me of my rags. I have, moreover, a mark in my forehead, of which perhaps you have taken no notice, which one of my Lord's most intimate associates fixed there in the day that my burden fell off my shoulders. I will tell you, moreover, that I had then given me a roll sealed, to comfort me by reading as I go on the way; I was also bid to give it in at the celestial gate, in token of my certain going in after it: all which things I doubt you want, and want them because you came not in at the gate. To these things they gave him no answer; only they looked upon each other, and laughed. Then I saw that they went all on, save that Christian kept before, who had no more talk but with himself, and that sometimes sighingly, and sometimes comfortably: also he would be often reading in the roll that one of the Shining Ones gave him, by which he was refreshed. I beheld then, that they all went on till they came to the foot of the hill Difficulty, at the bottom of which there was a spring. There were also in the same place two other ways besides that which came straight from the gate: one turned to the left hand, and the other to the right, at the bottom of the hill; but the narrow way lay right up the hill, and the name of the going up the side of the hill is called Difficulty. Christian now went to the spring, Isa. 49:10, and drank thereof to refresh himself, and then began to go up the hill, saying, "The hill, though high, I covet to ascend; The difficulty will not me offend; For I perceive the way to life lies here: Come, pluck up heart, let's neither faint nor fear. Better, though difficult, the right way to go, Than wrong, though easy, where the end is woe." The other two also came to the foot of the hill. But when they saw that the hill was steep and high, and that there were two other ways to go; and supposing also that these two ways might meet again with that up which Christian went, on the other side of the hill; therefore they were resolved to go in those ways. Now the name of one of those ways was Danger, and the name of the other Destruction. So the one took the way which is called Danger, which led him into a great wood; and the other took directly up the way to Destruction, which led him into a wide field, full of dark mountains, where he stumbled and fell, and rose no more. I looked then after Christian, to see him go up the hill, where I perceived he fell from running to going, and from going to clambering upon his hands and his knees, because of the steepness of the place. Now about the midway to the top of the hill was a pleasant Arbor, made by the Lord of the hill for the refreshment of weary travellers. Thither, therefore, Christian got, where also he sat down to rest him: then he pulled his roll out of his bosom, and read therein to his comfort; he also now began afresh to take a review of the coat or garment that was given to him as he stood by the cross. Thus pleasing himself awhile, he at last fell into a slumber, and thence into a fast sleep, which detained him in that place until it was almost night; and in his sleep his roll fell out of his hand. Now, as he was sleeping, there came one to him, and awaked him, saying, "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise." Prov. 6:6. And with that, Christian suddenly started up, and sped him on his way, and went apace till he came to the top of the hill. Now when he was got up to the top of the hill, there came two men running amain; the name of the one was Timorous, and of the other Mistrust: to whom Christian said, Sirs, what's the matter? you run the wrong way. Timorous answered, that they were going to the city of Zion, and had got up that difficult place: but, said he, the farther we go, the more danger we meet with; wherefore we turned, and are going back again. Yes, said Mistrust, for just before us lie a couple of lions in the way, whether sleeping or waking we know not; and we could not think, if we came within reach, but they would presently pull us in pieces. CHR. Then said Christian, You make me afraid; but whither shall I fly to be safe? If I go back to mine own country, that is prepared for fire and brimstone, and I shall certainly perish there; if I can get to the celestial city, I am sure to be in safety there: I must venture. To go back is nothing but death: to go forward is fear of death, and life everlasting beyond it: I will yet go forward. So Mistrust and Timorous ran down the hill, and Christian went on his way. But thinking again of what he had heard from the men, he felt in his bosom for his roll, that he might read therein and be comforted; but he felt, and found it not. Then was Christian in great distress, and knew not what to do; for he wanted that which used to relieve him, and that which should have been his pass into the celestial city. Here, therefore, he began to be much perplexed, and knew not what to do. At last he bethought himself that he had slept in the arbor that is on the side of the hill; and falling down upon his knees, he asked God forgiveness for that foolish act, and then went back to look for his roll. But all the way he went back, who can sufficiently set forth the sorrow of Christian's heart? Sometimes he sighed, sometimes he wept, and oftentimes he chid himself for being so foolish to fall asleep in that place, which was erected only for a little refreshment from his weariness. Thus, therefore, he went back, carefully looking on this side and on that, all the way as he went, if happily he might find his roll, that had been his comfort so many times in his journey. He went thus till he came again in sight of the arbor where he sat and slept; but that sight renewed his sorrow the more, by bringing again, even afresh, his evil of sleeping unto his mind. Rev. 2:4; 1 Thess. 5:6-8. Thus, therefore, he now went on, bewailing his sinful sleep, saying, O wretched man that I am, that I should sleep in the daytime! that I should sleep in the midst of difficulty! that I should so indulge the flesh as to use that rest for ease to my flesh which the Lord of the hill hath erected only for the relief of the spirits of pilgrims! How many steps have I taken in vain! Thus it happened to Israel; for their sin they were sent back again by the way of the Red Sea; and I am made to tread those steps with sorrow, which I might have trod with delight, had it not been for this sinful sleep. How far might I have been on my way by this time! I am made to tread those steps thrice over, which I needed not to have trod but once: yea, now also I am like to be benighted, for the day is almost spent. O that I had not slept! Now by this time he was come to the arbor again, where for a while he sat down and wept; but at last, (as Providence would have it,) looking sorrowfully down under the settle, there he espied his roll, the which he with trembling and haste catched up, and put it into his bosom. But who can tell how joyful this man was when he had gotten his roll again? For this roll was the assurance of his life, and acceptance at the desired haven. Therefore he laid it up in his bosom, gave thanks to God for directing his eye to the place where it lay, and with joy and tears betook himself again to his journey. But O how nimbly did he go up the rest of the hill! Yet before he got up, the sun went down upon Christian; and this made him again recall the vanity of his sleeping to his remembrance; and thus he again began to condole with himself: Oh thou sinful sleep! how for thy sake am I like to be benighted in my journey! I must walk without the sun, darkness must cover the path of my feet, and I must hear the noise of the doleful creatures, because of my sinful sleep! Now also he remembered the story that Mistrust and Timorous told him of, how they were frighted with the sight of the lions. Then said Christian to himself again, These beasts range in the night for their prey; and if they should meet with me in the dark, how should I shift them? how should I escape being by them torn in pieces? Thus he went on his way. But while he was bewailing his unhappy miscarriage, he lift up his eyes, and behold there was a very stately palace before him, the name of which was Beautiful, and it stood by the highway-side. So I saw in my dream that he made haste, and went forward, that if possible he might get lodging there. Now before he had gone far, he entered into a very narrow passage, which was about a furlong off the Porter's lodge, and looking very narrowly before him as he went, he espied two lions in the way. Now, thought he, I see the dangers that Mistrust and Timorous were driven back by. (The lions were chained, but he saw not the chains.) Then he was afraid, and thought also himself to go back after them; for he thought nothing but death was before him. But the Porter at the lodge, whose name is Watchful, perceiving that Christian made a halt, as if he would go back, cried unto him, saying, Is thy strength so small? Mark 4:40. Fear not the lions, for they are chained, and are placed there for trial of faith where it is, and for discovery of those that have none: keep in the midst of the path, and no hurt shall come unto thee. Then I saw that he went on, trembling for fear of the lions, but taking good heed to the directions of the Porter; he heard them roar, but they did him no harm. Then he clapped his hands, and went on till he came and stood before the gate where the Porter was. Then said Christian to the Porter, Sir, what house is this? and may I lodge here to-night? The Porter answered, This house was built by the Lord of the hill, and he built it for the relief and security of pilgrims. The Porter also asked whence he was, and whither he was going. CHR. I am come from the city of Destruction, and am going to Mount Zion: but because the sun is now set, I desire, if I may, to lodge here to- night. PORT. What is your name? CHR. My name is now Christian, but my name at the first was Graceless: I came of the race of Japheth, whom God will persuade to dwell in the tents of Shem. Gen. 9:27. PORT. But how does it happen that you come so late? The sun is set. CHR. I had been here sooner, but that, wretched man that I am, I slept in the arbor that stands on the hill-side! Nay, I had, notwithstanding that, been here much sooner, but that in my sleep I lost my evidence, and came without it to the brow of the hill; and then feeling for it, and not finding it, I was forced with sorrow of heart to go back to the place where I slept my sleep, where I found it; and now I am come. PORT. Well, I will call out one of the virgins of this place, who will, if she likes your talk, bring you in to the rest of the family, according to the rules of the house. So Watchful the Porter rang a bell, at the sound of which came out of the door of the house a grave and beautiful damsel, named Discretion, and asked why she was called. The Porter answered, This man is on a journey from the city of Destruction to Mount Zion; but being weary and benighted, he asked me if he might lodge here to-night: so I told him I would call for thee, who, after discourse had with him, mayest do as seemeth thee good, even according to the law of the house. Then she asked him whence he was, and whither he was going; and he told her. She asked him also how he got into the way; and he told her. Then she asked him what he had seen and met with in the way, and he told her. And at last she asked his name. So he said, It is Christian; and I have so much the more a desire to lodge here to-night, because, by what I perceive, this place was built by the Lord of the hill for the relief and security of pilgrims. So she smiled, but the water stood in her eyes; and after a little pause she said, I will call forth two or three more of the family. So she ran to the door, and called out Prudence, Piety, and Charity, who, after a little more discourse with him, had him into the family; and many of them meeting him at the threshold of the house, said, Come in, thou blessed of the Lord; this house was built by the Lord of the hill on purpose to entertain such pilgrims in. Then he bowed his head, and followed them into the house. So when he was come in and sat down, they gave him something to drink, and consented together that, until supper was ready, some of them should have some particular discourse with Christian, for the best improvement of time; and they appointed Piety, Prudence, and Charity to discourse with him: and thus they began. PIETY. Come, good Christian, since we have been so loving to you as to receive you into our house this night, let us, if perhaps we may better ourselves thereby, talk with you of all things that have happened to you in your pilgrimage. CHR. With a very good will; and I am glad that you are so well disposed. PIETY. What moved you at first to betake yourself to a pilgrim's life? CHR. I was driven out of my native country by a dreadful sound that was in mine ears; to wit, that unavoidable destruction did attend me, if I abode in that place where I was. PIETY. But how did it happen that you came out of your country this way? CHR. It was as God would have it; for when I was under the fears of destruction, I did not know whither to go; but by chance there came a man, even to me, as I was trembling and weeping, whose name is Evangelist, and he directed me to the Wicket-gate, which else I should never have found, and so set me into the way that hath led me directly to this house. PIETY. But did you not come by the house of the Interpreter? CHR. Yes, and did see such things there, the remembrance of which will stick by me as long as I live, especially three things: to wit, how Christ, in despite of Satan, maintains his work of grace in the heart; how the man had sinned himself quite out of hopes of God's mercy; and also the dream of him that thought in his sleep the day of judgment was come. PIETY. Why, did you hear him tell his dream? CHR. Yes, and a dreadful one it was, I thought; it made my heart ache as he was telling of it, but yet I am glad I heard it. PIETY. Was this all you saw at the house of the Interpreter? CHR. No; he took me, and had me where he showed me a stately palace, and how the people were clad in gold that were in it; and how there came a venturous man, and cut his way through the armed men that stood in the door to keep him out; and how he was bid to come in, and win eternal glory. Methought those things did ravish my heart. I would have stayed at that good man's house a twelvemonth, but that I knew I had farther to go. PIETY. And what saw you else in the way? CHR. Saw? Why, I went but a little farther, and I saw One, as I thought in my mind, hang bleeding upon a tree; and the very sight of him made my burden fall off my back; for I groaned under a very heavy burden, but then it fell down from off me. It was a strange thing to me, for I never saw such a thing before: yea, and while I stood looking up, (for then I could not forbear looking,) three Shining Ones came to me. One of them testified that my sins were forgiven me; another stripped me of my rags, and gave me this broidered coat which you see; and the third set the mark which you see in my forehead, and gave me this sealed roll, (and with that he plucked it out of his bosom.) PIETY. But you saw more than this, did you not? CHR. The things that I have told you were the best: yet some other I saw, as, namely, I saw three men, Simple, Sloth, and Presumption, lie asleep, a little out of the way, as I came, with irons upon their heels; but do you think I could awake them? I also saw Formality and Hypocrisy come tumbling over the wall, to go, as they pretended, to Zion; but they were quickly lost, even as I myself did tell them, but they would not believe. But, above all, I found it hard work to get up this hill, and as hard to come by the lions' mouths; and, truly, if it had not been for the good man, the porter that stands at the gate, I do not know but that, after all, I might have gone back again; but I thank God I am here, and thank you for receiving me. Then Prudence thought good to ask him a few questions, and desired his answer to them. PRU. Do you not think sometimes of the country from whence you came? CHR. Yea, but with much shame and detestation. Truly, if I had been mindful of that country from whence I came out, I might have had opportunity to have returned; but now I desire a better country, that is, a heavenly one. Heb. 11:15,16. PRU. Do you not yet bear away with you some of the things that then you were conversant withal? CHR. Yes, but greatly against my will; especially my inward and carnal cogitations, with which all my countrymen, as well as myself, were delighted. But now all those things are my grief; and might I but choose mine own things, I would choose never to think of those things more: but when I would be a doing that which is best, that which is worst is with me. Rom. 7:15, 21. PRU. Do you not find sometimes as if those things were vanquished, which at other times are your perplexity? CHR. Yes, but that is but seldom; but they are to me golden hours in which such things happen to me. PRU. Can you remember by what means you find your annoyances at times as if they were vanquished? CHR. Yes: when I think what I saw at the cross, that will do it; and when I look upon my broidered coat, that will do it; and when I look into the roll that I carry in my bosom, that will do it; and when my thoughts wax warm about whither I am going, that will do it. PRU. And what is it that makes you so desirous to go to Mount Zion? CHR. Why, there I hope to see Him alive that did hang dead on the cross; and there I hope to be rid of all those things that to this day are in me an annoyance to me: there they say there is no death, Isa. 25:8; Rev. 21:4; and there I shall dwell with such company as I like best. For, to tell you the truth, I love Him because I was by Him eased of my burden; and I am weary of my inward sickness. I would fain be where I shall die no more, and with the company that shall continually cry, Holy, holy, holy. Then said Charity to Christian, Have you a family; Are you a married man? CHR. I have a wife and four small children. CHAR. And why did you not bring them along with you? CHR. Then Christian wept, and said, Oh, how willingly would I have done it! but they were all of them utterly averse to my going on pilgrimage. CHAR. But you should have talked to them, and have endeavored to show them the danger of staying behind. CHR. So I did; and told them also what God had shown to me of the destruction of our city; but I seemed to them as one that mocked, and they believed me not. Gen. 19:14. CHAR. And did you pray to God that he would bless your counsel to them? CHR. Yes, and that with much affection; for you must think that my wife and poor children were very dear to me. CHAR. But did you tell them of your own sorrow, and fear of destruction? for I suppose that destruction was visible enough to you. CHR. Yes, over, and over, and over. They might also see my fears in my countenance, in my tears, and also in my trembling under the apprehension of the judgment that did hang over our heads; but all was not sufficient to prevail with them to come with me. CHAR. But what could they say for themselves, why they came not? CHR. Why, my wife was afraid of losing this world, and my children were given to the foolish delights of youth; so, what by one thing, and what by another, they left me to wander in this manner alone. CHAR. But did you not, with your vain life, damp all that you, by words, used by way of persuasion to bring them away with you? CHR. Indeed, I cannot commend my life, for I am conscious to myself of many failings therein. I know also, that a man, by his conversation, may soon overthrow what, by argument or persuasion, he doth labor to fasten upon others for their good. Yet this I can say, I was very wary of giving them occasion, by any unseemly action, to make them averse to going on pilgrimage. Yea, for this very thing, they would tell me I was too precise, and that I denied myself of things (for their sakes) in which they saw no evil. Nay, I think I may say, that if what they saw in me did hinder them, it was my great tenderness in sinning against God, or of doing any wrong to my neighbor. CHAR. Indeed, Cain hated his brother, because his own works were evil, and his brother's righteous, 1 John, 3:12; and if thy wife and children have been offended with thee for this, they thereby show themselves to be implacable to good; thou hast delivered thy soul from their blood. Ezek. 3:19. Now I saw in my dream, that thus they sat talking together until supper was ready. So when they had made ready, they sat down to meat. Now the table was furnished with fat things, and with wine that was well refined; and all their talk at the table was about the Lord of the hill; as, namely, about what he had done, and wherefore he did what he did, and why he had builded that house; and by what they said, I perceived that he had been a great warrior, and had fought with and slain him that had the power of death, Heb. 2:14,15; but not without great danger to himself, which made me love him the more. For, as they said, and as I believe, said Christian, he did it with the loss of much blood. But that which put the glory of grace into all he did, was, that he did it out of pure love to his country. And besides, there were some of them of the household that said they had been and spoke with him since he did die on the cross; and they have attested that they had it from his own lips, that he is such a lover of poor pilgrims, that the like is not to be found from the east to the west. They, moreover, gave an instance of what they affirmed; and that was, he had stripped himself of his glory that he might do this for the poor; and that they heard him say and affirm, that he would not dwell in the mountain of Zion alone. They said, moreover, that he had made many pilgrims princes, though by nature they were beggars born, and their original had been the dunghill. 1 Sam. 2:8; Psa. 113:7. Thus they discoursed together till late at night; and after they had committed themselves to their Lord for protection, they betook themselves to rest. The pilgrim they laid in a large upper chamber, whose window opened towards the sun-rising. The name of the chamber was Peace, where he slept till break of day, and then he awoke and sang, "Where am I now? Is this the love and care Of Jesus, for the men that pilgrims are, Thus to provide that I should be forgiven, And dwell already the next door to heaven!" So in the morning they all got up; and, after some more discourse, they told him that he should not depart till they had shown him the rarities of that place. And first they had him into the study, where they showed him records of the greatest antiquity; in which, as I remember my dream, they showed him the pedigree of the Lord of the hill, that he was the Son of the Ancient of days, and came by eternal generation. Here also was more fully recorded the acts that he had done, and the names of many hundreds that he had taken into his service; and how he had placed them in such habitations that could neither by length of days, nor decays of nature, be dissolved. Then they read to him some of the worthy acts that some of his servants had done; as how they had subdued kingdoms, wrought righteousness, obtained promises, stopped the mouths of lions, quenched the violence of fire, escaped the edge of the sword, out of weakness were made strong, waxed valiant in fight, and turned to flight the armies of the aliens. Heb. 11:33,34. Then they read again another part of the records of the house, where it was shown how willing their Lord was to receive into his favor any, even any, though they in time past had offered great affronts to his person and proceedings. Here also were several other histories of many other famous things, of all which Christian had a view; as of things both ancient and modern, together with prophecies and predictions of things that have their certain accomplishment, both to the dread and amazement of enemies, and the comfort and solace of pilgrims. The next day they took him, and had him into the armory, where they showed him all manner of furniture which their Lord had provided for pilgrims, as sword, shield, helmet, breastplate, all-prayer, and shoes that would not wear out. And there was here enough of this to harness out as many men for the service of their Lord as there be stars in the heaven for multitude. They also showed him some of the engines with which some of his servants had done wonderful things. They showed him Moses' rod; the hammer and nail with which Jael slew Sisera; the pitchers, trumpets, and lamps too, with which Gideon put to flight the armies of Midian. Then they showed him the ox-goad wherewith Shamgar slew six hundred men. They showed him also the jawbone with which Samson did such mighty feats. They showed him moreover the sling and stone with which David slew Goliath of Gath; and the sword also with which their Lord will kill the man of sin, in the day that he shall rise up to the prey. They showed him besides many excellent things, with which Christian was much delighted. This done, they went to their rest again. Then I saw in my dream, that on the morrow he got up to go forward, but they desired him to stay till the next day also; and then, said they, we will, if the day be clear, show you the Delectable Mountains; which, they said, would yet farther add to his comfort, because they were nearer the desired haven than the place where at present he was; so he consented and stayed. When the morning was up, they had him to the top of the house, and bid him look south. So he did, and behold, at a great distance, he saw a most pleasant mountainous country, beautified with woods, vineyards, fruits of all sorts, flowers also, with springs and fountains, very delectable to behold. Isa. 33:16,17. Then he asked the name of the country. They said it was Immanuel's land; and it is as common, said they, as this hill is, to and for all the pilgrims. And when thou comest there, from thence thou mayest see to the gate of the celestial city, as the shepherds that live there will make appear. Now he bethought himself of setting forward, and they were willing he should. But first, said they, let us go again into the armory. So they did; and when he came there, they harnessed him from head to foot with what was of proof, lest perhaps he should meet with assaults in the way. He being therefore thus accoutred, walked out with his friends to the gate; and there he asked the Porter if he saw any pilgrim pass by. Then the Porter answered, Yes. CHR. Pray, did you know him? said he. PORT. I asked his name, and he told me it was Faithful. CHR. O, said Christian, I know him; he is my townsman, my near neighbor; he comes from the place where I was born. How far do you think he may be before? PORT. He is got by this time below the hill. CHR. Well, said Christian, good Porter, the Lord be with thee, and add to all thy plain blessings much increase for the kindness that thou hast showed me. THE FOURTH STAGE. Then he began to go forward; but Discretion, Piety, Charity, and Prudence would accompany him down to the foot of the hill. So they went on together, reiterating their former discourses, till they came to go down the hill. Then said Christian, As it was difficult coming up, so, so far as I can see, it is dangerous going down. Yes, said Prudence, so it is; for it is a hard matter for a man to go down into the valley of Humiliation, as thou art now, and to catch no slip by the way; therefore, said they, we are come out to accompany thee down the hill. So he began to go down, but very warily; yet he caught a slip or two. Then I saw in my dream, that these good companions, when Christian was got down to the bottom of the hill, gave him a loaf of bread, a bottle of wine, and a cluster of raisins; and then he went on his way, "Whilst Christian is among his godly friends, Their golden mouths make him sufficient mends For all his griefs; and when they let him go, He's clad with northern steel from top to toe." But now, in this valley of Humiliation, poor Christian was hard put to it; for he had gone but a little way before he espied a foul fiend coming over the field to meet him: his name is Apollyon. Then did Christian begin to be afraid, and to cast in his mind whether to go back, or to stand his ground. But he considered again, that he had no armor for his back, and therefore thought that to turn the back to him might give him greater advantage with ease to pierce him with his darts; therefore he resolved to venture and stand his ground: for, thought he, had I no more in mine eye than the saving of my life, it would be the best way to stand. So he went on, and Apollyon met him. Now the monster was hideous to behold: he was clothed with scales like a fish, and they are his pride; he had wings like a dragon, and feet like a bear, and out of his belly came fire and smoke; and his mouth was as the mouth of a lion. When he was come up to Christian, he beheld him with a disdainful countenance, and thus began to question him. APOL. Whence came you, and whither are you bound? CHR. I am come from the city of Destruction, which is the place of all evil, and I am going to the city of Zion. APOL. By this I perceive thou art one of my subjects; for all that country is mine, and I am the prince and god of it. How is it, then, that thou hast run away from thy king? Were it not that I hope thou mayest do me more service, I would strike thee now at one blow to the ground. CHR. I was, indeed, born in your dominions, but your service was hard, and your wages such as a man could not live on; for the wages of sin is death, Rom. 6:23; therefore, when I was come to years, I did, as other considerate persons do, look out if perhaps I might mend myself. APOL. There is no prince that will thus lightly lose his subjects, neither will I as yet lose thee; but since thou complainest of thy service and wages, be content to go back, and what our country will afford I do here promise to give thee. CHR. But I have let myself to another, even to the King of princes; and how can I with fairness go back with thee? APOL. Thou hast done in this according to the proverb, "changed a bad for a worse;" but it is ordinary for those that have professed themselves his servants, after a while to give him the slip, and return again to me. Do thou so to, and all shall be well. CHR. I have given him my faith, and sworn my allegiance to him; how then can I go back from this, and not be hanged as a traitor. APOL. Thou didst the same by me, and yet I am willing to pass by all, if now thou wilt yet turn again and go back. CHR. What I promised thee was in my non-age: and besides, I count that the Prince, under whose banner I now stand, is able to absolve me, yea, and to pardon also what I did as to my compliance with thee. And besides, O thou destroying Apollyon, to speak truth, I like his service, his wages, his servants, his government, his company, and country, better than thine; therefore leave off to persuade me farther: I am his servant, and I will follow him. APOL. Consider again, when thou art in cool blood, what thou art like to meet with in the way that thou goest. Thou knowest that for the most part his servants come to an ill end, because they are transgressors against me and my ways. How many of them have been put to shameful deaths! And besides, thou countest his service better than mine; whereas he never yet came from the place where he is, to deliver any that served him out of their enemies' hands: but as for me, how many times, as all the world very well knows, have I delivered, either by power or fraud, those that have faithfully served me, from him and his, though taken by them! And so will I deliver thee. CHR. His forbearing at present to deliver them, is on purpose to try their love, whether they will cleave to him to the end: and as for the ill end thou sayest they come to, that is most glorious in their account. For, for present deliverance, they do not much expect it; for they stay for their glory; and then they shall have it, when their Prince comes in his and the glory of the angels. APOL. Thou hast already been unfaithful in thy service to him; and how dost thou think to receive wages of him? CHR. Wherein, O Apollyon, have I been unfaithful to him? APOL. Thou didst faint at first setting out, when thou wast almost choked in the gulf of Despond. Thou didst attempt wrong ways to be rid of thy burden, whereas thou shouldst have stayed till thy Prince had taken it off. Thou didst sinfully sleep, and lose thy choice things. Thou wast almost persuaded also to go back at the sight of the lions. And when thou talkest of thy journey, and of what thou hast seen and heard, thou art inwardly desirous of vainglory in all that thou sayest or doest. CHR. All this is true, and much more which thou hast left out; but the Prince whom I serve and honor is merciful, and ready to forgive. But besides, these infirmities possessed me in thy country, for there I sucked them in, and I have groaned under them, been sorry for them, and have obtained pardon of my Prince. APOL. Then Apollyon broke out into a grievous rage, saying, I am an enemy to this Prince; I hate his person, his laws, and people: I am come out on purpose to withstand thee. CHR. Apollyon, beware what you do, for I am in the King's highway, the way of holiness; therefore take heed to yourself. APOL. Then Apollyon straddled quite over the whole breadth of the way, and said, I am void of fear in this matter. Prepare thyself to die; for I swear by my infernal den, that thou shalt go no farther: here will I spill thy soul. And with that he threw a flaming dart at his breast; but Christian had a shield in his hand, with which he caught it, and so prevented the danger of that. Then did Christian draw, for he saw it was time to bestir him; and Apollyon as fast made at him, throwing darts as thick as hail; by the which, notwithstanding all that Christian could do to avoid it, Apollyon wounded him in his head, his hand, and foot. This made Christian give a little back: Apollyon, therefore, followed his work amain, and Christian again took courage, and resisted as manfully as he could. This sore combat lasted for above half a day, even till Christian was almost quite spent: for you must know, that Christian, by reason of his wounds, must needs grow weaker and weaker. Then Apollyon, espying his opportunity, began to gather up close to Christian, and wrestling with him, gave him a dreadful fall; and with that Christian's sword flew out of his hand. Then said Apollyon, I am sure of thee now: and with that he had almost pressed him to death, so that Christian began to despair of life. But, as God would have it, while Apollyon was fetching his last blow, thereby to make a full end of this good man, Christian nimbly reached out his hand for his sword, and caught it, saying, Rejoice not against me, O mine enemy: when I fall, I shall arise, Mic. 7:8; and with that gave him a deadly thrust, which made him give back, as one that had received his mortal wound. Christian perceiving that, made at him again, saying, Nay, in all these things we are more than conquerors, through Him that loved us. Rom. 8:37. And with that Apollyon spread forth his dragon wings, and sped him away, that Christian saw him no more. James 4:7. In this combat no man can imagine, unless he had seen and heard, as I did, what yelling and hideous roaring Apollyon made all the time of the fight; he spake like a dragon: and on the other side, what sighs and groans burst from Christian's heart. I never saw him all the while give so much as one pleasant look, till he perceived he had wounded Apollyon with his two-edged sword; then, indeed, he did smile, and look upward! But it was the dreadfullest sight that ever I saw. So when the battle was over, Christian said, I will here give thanks to him that hath delivered me out of the mouth of the lion, to him that did help me against Apollyon. And so he did, saying, "Great Beelzebub, the captain of this fiend, Designed my ruin; therefore to this end He sent him harness'd out; and he, with rage That hellish was, did fiercely me engage: But blessed Michael helped me, and I, By dint of sword, did quickly make him fly: Therefore to Him let me give lasting praise, And thank and bless his holy name always." Then there came to him a hand with some of the leaves of the tree of life, the which Christian took and applied to the wounds that he had received in the battle, and was healed immediately. He also sat down in that place to eat bread, and to drink of the bottle that was given him a little before: so, being refreshed, he addressed himself to his journey with his sword drawn in his hand; for he said, I know not but some other enemy may be at hand. But he met with no other affront from Apollyon quite through this valley. Now at the end of this valley was another, called the Valley of the Shadow of Death; and Christian must needs go through it, because the way to the Celestial City lay through the midst of it. Now, this valley is a very solitary place. The prophet Jeremiah thus describes it: "A wilderness, a land of deserts and pits, a land of drought, and of the Shadow of Death, a land that no man" (but a Christian) "passeth through, and where no man dwelt." Jer. 2:6. Now here Christian was worse put to it than in his fight with Apollyon, as by the sequel you shall see. I saw then in my dream, that when Christian was got to the borders of the Shadow of Death, there met him two men, children of them that brought up an evil report of the good land Num.13:32, making haste to go back; to whom Christian spake as follows. CHR. Whither are you going? MEN. They said, Back, back; and we would have you do so too, if either life or peace is prized by you. CHR. Why, what's the matter? said Christian. MEN. Matter! said they; we were going that way as you are going, and went as far as we durst: and indeed we were almost past coming back; for had we gone a little further, we had not been here to bring the news to thee. CHR. But what have you met with? said Christian. MEN. Why, we were almost in the Valley of the Shadow of Death, but that by good hap we looked before us, and saw the danger before we came to it. Psa. 44:19; 107:19. CHR. But what have you seen? said Christian. MEN. Seen! why the valley itself, which is as dark as pitch: we also saw there the hobgoblins, satyrs, and dragons of the pit: we heard also in that valley a continual howling and yelling, as of a people under unutterable misery, who there sat bound in affliction and irons: and over that valley hang the discouraging clouds of confusion: Death also doth always spread his wings over it. In a word, it is every whit dreadful, being utterly without order. Job 3:5; 10:22. CHR. Then, said Christian, I perceive not yet, by what you have said, but that this is my way to the desired haven. Psalm 44:18,19; Jer. 2:6. MEN. Be it thy way; we will not choose it for ours. So they parted, and Christian went on his way, but still with his sword drawn in his hand, for fear lest he should be assaulted. I saw then in my dream, so far as this valley reached, there was on the right hand a very deep ditch; that ditch is it into which the blind have led the blind in all ages, and have both there miserably perished. Again, behold, on the left hand there was a very dangerous quag, into which, if even a good man falls, he finds no bottom for his foot to stand on: into that quag king David once did fall, and had no doubt therein been smothered, had not He that is able plucked him out. Psa. 69:14. The pathway was here also exceeding narrow, and therefore good Christian was the more put to it; for when he sought, in the dark, to shun the ditch on the one hand, he was ready to tip over into the mire on the other; also, when he sought to escape the mire, without great carefulness he would be ready to fall into the ditch. Thus he went on, and I heard him here sigh bitterly; for besides the danger mentioned above, the pathway was here so dark, that ofttimes when he lifted up his foot to go forward, he knew not where, or upon what he should set it next. About the midst of this valley I perceived the mouth of hell to be, and it stood also hard by the wayside. Now, thought Christian, what shall I do? And ever and anon the flame and smoke would come out in such abundance, with sparks and hideous noises, (things that cared not for Christian's sword, as did Apollyon before,) that he was forced to put up his sword, and betake himself to another weapon, called All-prayer, Eph. 6:18; so he cried, in my hearing, O Lord, I beseech thee, deliver my soul. Psa. 116:4. Thus he went on a great while, yet still the flames would be reaching towards him; also he heard doleful voices, and rushings to and fro, so that sometimes he thought he should be torn in pieces, or trodden down like mire in the streets. This frightful sight was seen, and these dreadful noises were heard by him for several miles together; and coming to a place where he thought he heard a company of fiends coming forward to meet him, he stopped, and began to muse what he had best to do. Sometimes he had half a thought to go back; then again he thought he might be half-way through the valley. He remembered also, how he had already vanquished many a danger; and that the danger of going back might be much more than for to go forward. So he resolved to go on; yet the fiends seemed to come nearer and nearer. But when they were come even almost at him, he cried out with a most vehement voice, I will walk in the strength of the Lord God. So they gave back, and came no farther. One thing I would not let slip. I took notice that now poor Christian was so confounded that he did not know his own voice; and thus I perceived it. Just when he was come over against the mouth of the burning pit, one of the wicked ones got behind him, and stepped up softly to him, and whisperingly suggested many grievous blasphemies to him, which he verily thought had proceeded from his own mind. This put Christian more to it than any thing that he met with before, even to think that he should now blaspheme Him that he loved so much before. Yet if he could have helped it, he would not have done it; but he had not the discretion either to stop his ears, or to know from whence these blasphemies came. When Christian had travelled in this disconsolate condition some considerable time, he thought he heard the voice of a man, as going before him, saying, Though I walk through the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I will fear no evil, for thou art with me. Psa. 23:4. Then was he glad, and that for these reasons: First, Because he gathered from thence, that some who feared God were in this valley as well as himself. Secondly, For that he perceived God was with them, though in that dark and dismal state. And why not, thought he, with me? though by reason of the impediment that attends this place, I cannot perceive it. Job 9:11. Thirdly, For that he hoped (could he overtake them) to have company by and by. So he went on, and called to him that was before; but he knew not what to answer, for that he also thought himself to be alone. And by and by the day broke: then said Christian, "He hath turned the shadow of death into the morning." Amos 5:8. Now morning being come, he looked back, not out of desire to return, but to see, by the light of the day, what hazards he had gone through in the dark. So he saw more perfectly the ditch that was on the one hand, and the quag that was on the other; also how narrow the way was which led betwixt them both. Also now he saw the hobgoblins, and satyrs, and dragons of the pit, but all afar off; for after break of day they came not nigh; yet they were discovered to him, according to that which is written, "He discovereth deep things out of darkness, and bringeth out to light the shadow of death." Job 12:22. Now was Christian much affected with this deliverance from all the dangers of his solitary way; which dangers, though he feared them much before, yet he saw them more clearly now, because the light of the day made them conspicuous to him. And about this time the sun was rising, and this was another mercy to Christian; for you must note, that though the first part of the Valley of the Shadow of Death was dangerous, yet this second part, which he was yet to go, was, if possible, far more dangerous; for, from the place where he now stood, even to the end of the valley, the way was all along set so full of snares, traps, gins, and nets here, and so full of pits, pitfalls, deep holes, and shelvings- down there, that had it now been dark, as it was when he came the first part of the way, had he had a thousand souls, they had in reason been cast away; but, as I said, just now the sun was rising. Then said he, "His Candle shineth on my head, and by his light I go through darkness." Job 29:3. In this light, therefore, he came to the end of the valley. Now I saw in my dream, that at the end of the valley lay blood, bones, ashes, and mangled bodies of men, even of pilgrims that had gone this way formerly; and while I was musing what should be the reason, I espied a little before me a cave, where two giants, Pope and Pagan, dwelt in old times; by whose power and tyranny the men whose bones, blood, ashes, etc., lay there, were cruelly put to death. But by this place Christian went without much danger, whereat I somewhat wondered; but I have learnt since, that Pagan has been dead many a day; and as for the other, though he be yet alive, he is, by reason of age, and also of the many shrewd brushes that he met with in his younger days, grown so crazy and stiff in his joints that he can now do little more than sit in his cave's mouth, grinning at pilgrims as they go by, and biting his nails because he cannot come at them. So I saw that Christian went on his way; yet, at the sight of the old man that sat at the mouth of the cave, he could not tell what to think, especially because he spoke to him, though he could not go after him, saying, You will never mend, till more of you be burned. But he held his peace, and set a good face on it; and so went by, and catched no hurt. Then sang Christian, "O world of wonders, (I can say no less,) That I should be preserved in that distress That I have met with here! O blessed be That hand that from it hath delivered me! Dangers in darkness, devils, hell, and sin, Did compass me, while I this vale was in; Yea, snares, and pits, and traps, and nets did lie My path about, that worthless, silly I Might have been catch'd, entangled, and cast down; But since I live, let Jesus wear the crown." THE FIFTH STAGE. Now, as Christian went on his way, he came to a little ascent, which was cast up on purpose that pilgrims might see before them: up there, therefore, Christian went; and looking forward, he saw Faithful before him upon his journey: Then said Christian aloud, Ho, ho; so-ho; stay, and I will be your companion. At that Faithful looked behind him; to whom Christian cried again, Stay, stay, till I come up to you. But Faithful answered, No, I am upon my life, and the avenger of blood is behind me. At this Christian was somewhat moved, and putting to all his strength, he quickly got up with Faithful, and did also overrun him; so the last was first. Then did Christian vaingloriously smile, because he had gotten the start of his brother; but not taking good heed to his feet, he suddenly stumbled and fell, and could not rise again until Faithful came up to help him. Then I saw in my dream, they went very lovingly on together, and had sweet discourse of all things that had happened to them in their pilgrimage; and thus Christian began. CHR. My honored and well-beloved brother Faithful, I am glad that I have overtaken you, and that God has so tempered our spirits that we can walk as companions in this so pleasant a path. FAITH. I had thought, my dear friend, to have had your company quite from our town, but you did get the start of me; wherefore I was forced to come thus much of the way alone. CHR. How long did you stay in the city of Destruction before you set out after me on your pilgrimage? FAITH. Till I could stay no longer; for there was a great talk presently after you were gone out, that our city would, in a short time, with fire from heaven, be burnt down to the ground. CHR. What, did your neighbors talk so? FAITH. Yes, it was for a while in every body's mouth. CHR. What, and did no more of them but you come out to escape the danger? FAITH. Though there was, as I said, a great talk thereabout, yet I do not think they did firmly believe it; for, in the heat of the discourse, I heard some of them deridingly speak of you and of your desperate journey, for so they called this your pilgrimage. But I did believe, and do still, that the end of our city will be with fire and brimstone from above; and therefore I have made my escape. CHR. Did you hear no talk of neighbor Pliable? FAITH. Yes, Christian, I heard that he followed you till he came to the Slough of Despond, where, as some said, he fell in; but he would not be known to have so done: but I am sure he was soundly bedabbled with that kind of dirt. CHR. And what said the neighbors to him? FAITH. He hath, since his going back, been had greatly in derision, and that among all sorts of people: some do mock and despise him, and scarce will any set him on work. He is now seven times worse than if he had never gone out of the city. CHR. But why should they be so set against him, since they also despise the way that he forsook? FAITH. O, they say, Hang him; he is a turncoat; he was not true to his profession! I think God has stirred up even His enemies to hiss at him, and make him a proverb, because he hath forsaken the way. Jer. 29:18,19. CHR. Had you no talk with him before you came out? FAITH. I met him once in the streets, but he leered away on the other side, as one ashamed of what he had done; So I spake not to him. CHR. Well, at my first setting out I had hopes of that man; but now I fear he will perish in the overthrow of the city. For it has happened to him according to the true proverb, The dog is turned to his vomit again, and the sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire. 2 Pet. 2:22. FAITH. These are my fears of him too; but who can hinder that which will be? CHR. Well, neighbor Faithful, said Christian, let us leave him, and talk of things that more immediately concern ourselves. Tell me now what you have met with in the way as you came; for I know you have met with some things, or else it may be writ for a wonder. FAITH. I escaped the slough that I perceive you fell into, and got up to the gate without that danger; only I met with one whose name was Wanton, that had like to have done me mischief. CHR. It was well you escaped her net: Joseph was hard put to it by her, and he escaped her as you did; but it had like to have cost him his life. Gen. 39:11-13. But what did she do to you? FAITH. You cannot think (but that you know something) what a flattering tongue she had; she lay at me hard to turn aside with her, promising me all manner of content. CHR. Nay, she did not promise you the content of a good conscience. FAITH. You know what I mean; all carnal and fleshly content. CHR. Thank God that you escaped her: the abhorred of the Lord shall fall into her pit. Prov. 22:14. FAITH. Nay, I know not whether I did wholly escape her or no. CHR. Why, I trow you did not consent to her desires? FAITH. No, not to defile myself; for I remembered an old writing that I had seen, which said, "Her steps take hold on Hell." Prov. 5:5. So I shut mine eyes, because I would not be bewitched with her looks. Job 31:1. Then she railed on me, and I went my way. CHR. Did you meet with no other assault as you came? FAITH. When I came to the foot of the hill called Difficulty, I met with a very aged man, who asked me what I was, and whither bound. I told him that I was a pilgrim, going to the Celestial City. Then said the old man, Thou lookest like an honest fellow; wilt thou be content to dwell with me for the wages that I shall give thee? Then I asked his name, and where he dwelt? He said his name was Adam the First, and that he dwelt in the town of Deceit. Eph. 4:22. I asked him then what was his work, and what the wages that he would give. He told me that his work was many delights; and his wages, that I should be his heir at last. I further asked him, what house he kept, and what other servants he had. So he told me that his house was maintained with all the dainties of the world, and that his servants were those of his own begetting. Then I asked how many children he had. He said that he had but three daughters, the Lust of the Flesh, the Lust of the Eyes, and the Pride of Life, 1 John, 2:16; and that I should marry them if I would. Then I asked, how long time he would have me live with him; And he told me, as long as he lived himself. CHR. Well, and what conclusion came the old man and you to at last? FAITH. Why, at first I found myself somewhat inclinable to go with the man, for I thought he spake very fair; but looking in his forehead, as I talked with him, I saw there written, "Put off the old man with his deeds." CHR. And how then? FAITH. Then it came burning hot into my mind, that, whatever he said, and however he flattered, when he got me home to his house he would sell me for a slave. So I bid him forbear to talk, for I would not come near the door of his house. Then he reviled me, and told me that he would send such a one after me that should make my way bitter to my soul. So I turned to go away from him; but just as I turned myself to go thence, I felt him take hold of my flesh, and give me such a deadly twitch back, that I thought he had pulled part of me after himself: this made me cry, "O wretched man." Rom. 7:24. So I went on my way up the hill. Now, when I had got above half-way up, I looked behind me, and saw one coming after me, swift as the wind; so he overtook me just about the place where the settle stands. CHR. Just there, said Christian, did I sit down to rest me; but being overcome with sleep, I there lost this roll out of my bosom. FAITH. But, good brother, hear me out. So soon as the man overtook me, it was but a word and a blow; for down he knocked me, and laid me for dead. But when I was a little come to myself again I asked him wherefore he served me so. He said because of my secret inclining to Adam the First. And with that he struck me another deadly blow on the breast, and beat me down backward; so I lay at his foot as dead as before. So when I came to myself again I cried him mercy: but he said, I know not how to show mercy; and with that he knocked me down again. He had doubtless made an end of me, but that one came by and bid him forbear. CHR. Who was that that bid him forbear? FAITH. I did not know him at first: but as he went by, I perceived the holes in his hands and in his side: Then I concluded that he was our Lord. So I went up the hill. CHR. That man that overtook you was Moses. He spareth none; neither knoweth he how to shew mercy to those that transgress the law. FAITH. I know it very well; it was not the first time that he has met with me. 'Twas he that came to me when I dwelt securely at home, and that told me he would burn my house over my head if I stayed there. CHR. But did you not see the house that stood there on the top of the hill, on the side of which Moses met you? FAITH. Yes, and the lions too, before I came at it. But, for the lions, I think they were asleep, for it was about noon; and because I had so much of the day before me, I passed by the Porter, and came down the hill. CHR. He told me, indeed, that he saw you go by; but I wish you had called at the house, for they would have showed you so many rarities that you would scarce have forgot them to the day of your death. But pray tell me, Did you meet nobody in the Valley of Humility? FAITH. Yes, I met with one Discontent, who would willingly have persuaded me to go back again with him: his reason was, for that the valley was altogether without honor. He told me, moreover, that to go there was the way to disoblige all my friends, as Pride, Arrogancy, Self -Conceit, Worldly Glory, with others, who he knew, as he said, would be very much offended if I made such a fool of myself as to wade through this valley. CHR. Well, and how did you answer him? FAITH. I told him, that although all these that he named, might claim a kindred of me, and that rightly, (for indeed they were my relations according to the flesh,) yet since I became a pilgrim they have disowned me, and I also have rejected them; and therefore they were to me now no more than if they had never been of my lineage. I told him, moreover, that as to this valley, he had quite misrepresented the thing; for before honor is humility, and a haughty spirit before a fall. Therefore, said I, I had rather go through this valley to the honor that was so accounted by the wisest, than choose that which he esteemed most worthy of our affections. CHR. Met you with nothing else in that valley? FAITH. Yes, I met with Shame; but of all the men that I met with on my pilgrimage, he, I think, bears the wrong name. The other would be said nay, after a little argumentation, and somewhat else; but this bold- faced Shame would never have done. CHR. Why, what did he say to you? FAITH. What? why, he objected against religion itself. He said it was a pitiful, low, sneaking business for a man to mind religion. He said, that a tender conscience was an unmanly thing; and that for a man to watch over his words and ways, so as to tie up himself from that hectoring liberty that the brave spirits of the times accustomed themselves unto, would make him the ridicule of the times. He objected also, that but few of the mighty, rich, or wise, were ever of my opinion; nor any of them neither, before they were persuaded to be fools, and to be of a voluntary fondness to venture the loss of all for nobody knows what. 1 Cor. 1:26; 3:18; Phil. 3:7-9; John 7:48. He, moreover, objected the base and low estate and condition of those that were chiefly the pilgrims of the times in which they lived; also their ignorance and want of understanding in all natural science. Yea, he did hold me to it at that rate also, about a great many more things than here I relate; as, that it was a shame to sit whining and mourning under a sermon, and a shame to come sighing and groaning home; that it was a shame to ask my neighbor forgiveness for petty faults, or to make restitution where I have taken from any. He said also, that religion made a man grow strange to the great, because of a few vices, which he called by finer names, and made him own and respect the base, because of the same religious fraternity: And is not this, said he, a shame? CHR. And what did you say to him? FAITH. Say? I could not tell what to say at first. Yea, he put me so to it, that my blood came up in my face; even this Shame fetched it up, and had almost beat me quite off. But at last I began to consider, that that which is highly esteemed among men, is had in abomination with God. Luke 16:15. And I thought again, this Shame tells me what men are; but he tells me nothing what God, or the word of God is. And I thought, moreover, that at the day of doom we shall not be doomed to death or life according to the hectoring spirits of the world, but according to the wisdom and law of the Highest. Therefore, thought I, what God says is best, is indeed best, though all the men in the world are against it. Seeing, then, that God prefers his religion; seeing God prefers a tender Conscience; seeing they that make themselves fools for the kingdom of heaven are wisest, and that the poor man that loveth Christ is richer than the greatest man in the world that hates him; Shame, depart, thou art an enemy to my salvation. Shall I entertain thee against my sovereign Lord? How then shall I look him in the face at his coming? Mark 8:38. Should I now be ashamed of his ways and servants, how can I expect the blessing? But indeed this Shame was a bold villain; I could scarcely shake him out of my company; yea, he would be haunting of me, and continually whispering me in the ear, with some one or other of the infirmities that attend religion. But at last I told him, that it was but in vain to attempt farther in this business; for those things that he disdained, in those did I see most glory: and so at last I got past this importunate one. And when I had shaken him off, then I began to sing, "The trials that those men do meet withal, That are obedient to the heavenly call, Are manifold, and suited to the flesh, And come, and come, and come again afresh; That now, or some time else, we by them may Be taken, overcome, and cast away. O let the pilgrims, let the pilgrims then, Be vigilant, and quit themselves like men." CHR. I am glad, my brother, that thou didst withstand this villain so bravely; for of all, as thou sayest, I think he has the wrong name; for he is so bold as to follow us in the streets, and to attempt to put us to shame before all men; that is, to make us ashamed of that which is good. But if he was not himself audacious, he would never attempt to do as he does. But let us still resist him; for, notwithstanding all his bravadoes, he promoteth the fool, and none else. "The wise shall inherit glory," said Solomon; "but shame shall be the promotion of fools." Prov. 3:35. FAITH. I think we must cry to Him for help against Shame, that would have us to be valiant for truth upon the earth. CHR. You say true; but did you meet nobody else in that valley? FAITH. No, not I; for I had sunshine all the rest of the way through that, and also through the Valley of the Shadow of Death. CHR. 'Twas well for you; I am sure it fared far otherwise with me. I had for a long season, as soon almost as I entered into that valley, a dreadful combat with that foul fiend Apollyon; yea, I thought verily he would have killed me, especially when he got me down, and crushed me under him, as if he would have crushed me to pieces; for as he threw me, my sword flew out of my hand: nay, he told me he was sure of me; but I cried to God, and he heard me, and delivered me out of all my troubles. Then I entered into the Valley of the Shadow of Death, and had no light for almost half the way through it. I thought I should have been killed there over and over; but at last day brake, and the sun rose, and I went through that which was behind with far more ease and quiet. Moreover, I saw in my dream, that as they went on, Faithful, as he chanced to look on one side, saw a man whose name was Talkative, walking at a distance beside them; for in this place there was room enough for them all to walk. He was a tall man, and something more comely at a distance than at hand. To this man Faithful addressed himself in this manner. FAITH. Friend, whither away? Are you going to the heavenly country? TALK. I am going to the same place. FAITH. That is well; then I hope we shall have your good company? TALK. With a very good will, will I be your companion. FAITH. Come on, then, and let us go together, and let us spend our time in discoursing of things that are profitable. TALK. To talk of things that are good, to me is very acceptable, with you or with any other; and I am glad that I have met with those that incline to so good a work; for, to speak the truth, there are but few who care thus to spend their time as they are in their travels, but choose much rather to be speaking of things to no profit; and this hath been a trouble to me. FAITH. That is, indeed, a thing to be lamented; for what thing so worthy of the use of the tongue and mouth of men on earth, as are the things of the God of heaven? TALK. I like you wonderful well, for your saying is full of conviction; and I will add, What thing is so pleasant, and what so profitable, as to talk of the things of God? What things so pleasant? that is, if a man hath any delight in things that are wonderful. For instance, if a man doth delight to talk of the history, or the mystery of things; or if a man doth love to talk of miracles, wonders, or signs, where shall he find things recorded so delightful, and so sweetly penned, as in the holy Scripture? FAITH. That is true; but to be profited by such things in our talk, should be our chief design. TALK. That's it that I said; for to talk of such things is most profitable; for by so doing a man may get knowledge of many things; as of the vanity of earthly things, and the benefit of things above. Thus in general; but more particularly, by this a man may learn the necessity of the new birth, the insufficiency of our works, the need of Christ's righteousness, etc. Besides, by this a man may learn what it is to repent, to believe, to pray, to suffer, or the like: by this, also, a man may learn what are the great promises and consolations of the Gospel, to his own comfort. Farther, by this a man may learn to refute false opinions, to vindicate the truth, and also to instruct the ignorant. FAITH. All this is true; and glad am I to hear these things from you. TALK. Alas! the want of this is the cause that so few understand the need of faith, and the necessity of a work of grace in their soul, in order to eternal life; but ignorantly live in the works of the law, by which a man can by no means obtain the kingdom of heaven. FAITH. But, by your leave, heavenly knowledge of these is the gift of God; no man attaineth to them by human industry, or only by the talk of them. TALK. All this I know very well; for a man can receive nothing, except it be given him from heaven: all is of grace, not of works. I could give you a hundred scriptures for the confirmation of this. FAITH. Well, then, said Faithful, what is that one thing that we shall at this time found our discourse upon? TALK. What you will. I will talk of things heavenly, or things earthly; things moral, or things evangelical; things sacred, or things profane; things past, or things to come; things foreign, or things at home; things more essential, or things circumstantial: provided that all be done to our profit. FAITH. Now did Faithful begin to wonder; and stepping to Christian, (for he walked all this while by himself,) he said to him, but softly, What a brave companion have we got! Surely, this man will make a very excellent pilgrim. CHR. At this Christian modestly smiled, and said, This man, with whom you are so taken, will beguile with this tongue of his, twenty of them that know him not. FAITH. Do you know him, then? CHR. Know him? Yes, better than he knows himself. FAITH. Pray what is he? CHR. His name is Talkative: he dwelleth in our town. I wonder that you should be a stranger to him, only I consider that our town is large. FAITH. Whose son is he? And whereabout doth he dwell? CHR. He is the son of one Say-well. He dwelt in Prating-Row; and he is known to all that are acquainted with him by the name of Talkative of Prating-Row; and, notwithstanding his fine tongue, he is but a sorry fellow. FAITH. Well, he seems to be a very pretty man. CHR. That is, to them that have not a thorough acquaintance with him, for he is best abroad; near home he is ugly enough. Your saying that he is a pretty man, brings to my mind what I have observed in the work of a painter, whose pictures show best at a distance; but very near, more unpleasing. FAITH. But I am ready to think you do but jest, because you smiled. CHR. God forbid that I should jest (though I smiled) in this matter, or that I should accuse any falsely. I will give you a further discovery of him. This man is for any company, and for any talk; as he talketh now with you, so will he talk when he is on the ale-bench; and the more drink he hath in his crown, the more of these things he hath in his mouth. Religion hath no place in his heart, or house, or conversation; all he hath lieth in his tongue, and his religion is to make a noise therewith. FAITH. Say you so? Then am I in this man greatly deceived. CHR. Deceived! you may be sure of it. Remember the proverb, "They say, and do not;" but the kingdom of God is not in word, but in power. Matt. 23:3; 1 Cor. 4:20. He talketh of prayer, of repentance, of faith, and of the new birth; but he knows but only to talk of them. I have been in his family, and have observed him both at home and abroad; and I know what I say of him is the truth. His house is as empty of religion as the white of an egg is of savor. There is there neither prayer, nor sign of repentance for sin; yea, the brute, in his kind, serves God far better than he. He is the very stain, reproach, and shame of religion to all that know him, Rom. 2:24,25; it can hardly have a good word in all that end of the town where he dwells, through him. Thus say the common people that know him, "A saint abroad, and a devil at home." His poor family finds it so; he is such a churl, such a railer at, and so unreasonable with his servants, that they neither know how to do for or speak to him. Men that have any dealings with him say, It is better to deal with a Turk than with him, for fairer dealings they shall have at their hands. This Talkative (if it be possible) will go beyond them, defraud, beguile, and overreach them. Besides, he brings up his sons to follow his steps; and if he finds in any of them a foolish timorousness, (for so he calls the first appearance of a tender conscience,) he calls them fools and blockheads, and by no means will employ them in much, or speak to their commendation before others. For my part, I am of opinion that he has, by his wicked life, caused many to stumble and fall; and will be, if God prevents not, the ruin of many more. FAITH. Well, my brother, I am bound to believe you, not only because you say you know him, but also because, like a Christian, you make your reports of men. For I cannot think that you speak these things of ill- will, but because it is even so as you say. CHR. Had I known him no more than you, I might, perhaps, have thought of him as at the first you did; yea, had I received this report at their hands only that are enemies to religion, I should have thought it had been a slander-a lot that often falls from bad men's mouths upon good men's names and professions. But all these things, yea, and a great many more as bad, of my own knowledge, I can prove him guilty of. Besides, good men are ashamed of him; they can neither call him brother nor friend; the very naming of him among them makes them blush, if they know him. FAITH. Well, I see that saying and doing are two things, and hereafter I shall better observe this distinction. CHR. They are two things indeed, and are as diverse as are the soul and the body; for, as the body without the soul is but a dead carcass, so saying, if it be alone, is but a dead carcass also. The soul of religion is the practical part. "Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father is this, to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep himself unspotted from the world." James 1:27; see also verses 22-26. This, Talkative is not aware of; he thinks that hearing and saying will make a good Christian; and thus he deceiveth his own soul. Hearing is but as the sowing of the seed; talking is not sufficient to prove that fruit is indeed in the heart and life. And let us assure ourselves, that at the day of doom men shall be judged according to their fruits. Matt. 13:23. It will not be said then, Did you believe? but, Were you doers, or talkers only? and accordingly shall they be judged. The end of the world is compared to our harvest, Matt. 13:30, and you know men at harvest regard nothing but fruit. Not that any thing can be accepted that is not of faith; but I speak this to show you how insignificant the profession of Talkative will be at that day. FAITH. This brings to my mind that of Moses, by which he describeth the beast that is clean. Lev. 11; Deut. 14. He is such an one that parteth the hoof, and cheweth the cud; not that parteth the hoof only, or that cheweth the cud only. The hare cheweth the cud, but yet is unclean, because he parteth not the hoof. And this truly resembleth Talkative: he cheweth the cud, he seeketh knowledge; he cheweth upon the word, but he divideth not the hoof. He parteth not with the way of sinners; but, as the hare, he retaineth the foot of the dog or bear, and therefore he is unclean. CHR. You have spoken, for aught I know, the true gospel sense of these texts. And I will add another thing: Paul calleth some men, yea, and those great talkers too, sounding brass, and tinkling cymbals, 1 Cor. 13:1, 3; that is, as he expounds them in another place, things without life giving sound. 1 Cor. 14:7. Things without life; that is, without the true faith and grace of the gospel; and consequently, things that shall never be placed in the kingdom of heaven among those that are the children of life; though their sound, by their talk, be as if it were the tongue or voice of an angel. FAITH. Well, I was not so fond of his company at first, but I am as sick of it now. What shall we do to be rid of him? CHR. Take my advice, and do as I bid you, and you shall find that he will soon be sick of your company too, except God shall touch his heart, and turn it. FAITH. What would you have me to do? CHR. Why, go to him, and enter into some serious discourse about the power of religion; and ask him plainly, (when he has approved of it, for that he will,) whether this thing be set up in his heart, house, or conversation. FAITH. Then Faithful stepped forward again, and said to Talkative, Come, what cheer? How is it now? TALK. Thank you, well: I thought we should have had a great deal of talk by this time. FAITH. Well, if you will, we will fall to it now; and since you left it with me to state the question, let it be this: How doth the saving grace of God discover itself when it is in the heart of man? TALK. I perceive, then, that our talk must be about the power of things. Well, it is a very good question, and I shall be willing to answer you. And take my answer in brief, thus: First, where the grace of God is in the heart, it causeth there a great outcry against sin. Secondly- FAITH. Nay, hold; let us consider of one at once. I think you should rather say, it shows itself by inclining the soul to abhor its sin. TALK. Why, what difference is there between crying out against, and abhorring of sin? FAITH. Oh! a great deal. A man may cry out against sin, of policy; but he cannot abhor it but by virtue of a godly antipathy against it. I have heard many cry out against sin in the pulpit, who yet can abide it well enough in the heart, house, and conversation. Gen. 39:15. Joseph's mistress cried out with a loud voice, as if she had been very holy; but she would willingly, notwithstanding that, have committed uncleanness with him. Some cry out against sin, even as the mother cries out against her child in her lap, when she calleth it slut and naughty girl, and then falls to hugging and kissing it. TALK. You lie at the catch, I perceive. FAITH. No, not I; I am only for setting things right. But what is the second thing whereby you would prove a discovery of a work of grace in the heart? TALK. Great knowledge of gospel mysteries. FAITH. This sign should have been first: but, first or last, it is also false; for knowledge, great knowledge, may be obtained in the mysteries of the Gospel, and yet no work of grace in the soul. Yea, if a man have all knowledge, he may yet be nothing, and so, consequently, be no child of God. 1 Cor. 13:2. When Christ said, "Do you know all these things?" and the disciples answered, Yes, he added, "Blessed are ye if ye do them." He doth not lay the blessing in the knowing of them, but in the doing of them. For there is a knowledge that is not attended with doing: "He that knoweth his Master's will, and doeth it not." A man may know like an angel, and yet be no Christian: therefore your sign of it is not true. Indeed, to know is a thing that pleaseth talkers and boasters; but to do is that which pleaseth God. Not that the heart can be good without knowledge, for without that the heart is naught. There are, therefore, two sorts of knowledge, knowledge that resteth in the bare speculation of things, and knowledge that is accompanied with the grace of faith and love, which puts a man upon doing even the will of God from the heart: the first of these will serve the talker; but without the other, the true Christian is not content. "Give me understanding, and I shall keep thy law; yea, I shall observe it with my whole heart." Psa. 119:34. TALK. You lie at the catch again: this is not for edification. FAITH. Well, if you please, propound another sign how this work of grace discovereth itself where it is. TALK. Not I, for I see we shall not agree. FAITH. Well, if you will not, will you give me leave to do it? TALK. You may use your liberty. FAITH. A work of grace in the soul discovereth itself, either to him that hath it, or to standers-by. To him that hath it, thus: It gives him conviction of sin, especially the defilement of his nature, and the sin of unbelief, for the sake of which he is sure to be damned, if he findeth not mercy at God's hand, by faith in Jesus Christ. This sight and sense of things worketh in him sorrow and shame for sin. Psa. 38:18; Jer. 31:19; John 16:8; Rom. 7:24; Mark 16:16; Gal. 2:16; Rev. 1:6. He findeth, moreover, revealed in him the Saviour of the world, and the absolute necessity of closing with him for life; at the which he findeth hungerings and thirstings after him; to which hungerings, etc., the promise is made. Now, according to the strength or weakness of his faith in his Saviour, so is his joy and peace, so is his love to holiness, so are his desires to know him more, and also to serve him in this world. But though, I say, it discovereth itself thus unto him, yet it is but seldom that he is able to conclude that this is a work of grace; because his corruptions now, and his abused reason, make his mind to misjudge in this matter: therefore in him that hath this work there is required a very sound judgment, before he can with steadiness conclude that this is a work of grace. John 16:9; Gal. 2:15,16; Acts 4:12; Matt. 5:6; Rev. 21:6. To others it is thus discovered: 1. By an experimental confession of his faith in Christ. 2. By a life answerable to that confession; to wit, a life of holiness-heart- holiness, family-holiness, (if he hath a family,) and by conversation- holiness in the world; which in the general teacheth him inwardly to abhor his sin, and himself for that, in secret; to suppress it in his family, and to promote holiness in the world: not by talk only, as a hypocrite or talkative person may do, but by a practical subjection in faith and love to the power of the word. Job 42:5,6; Psa. 50:23; Ezek. 20:43; Matt. 5:8; John 14:15; Rom. 10:10; Ezek. 36:25; Phil. 1:27; 3:17-20. And now, sir, as to this brief description of the work of grace, and also the discovery of it, if you have aught to object, object; if not, then give me leave to propound to you a second question. TALK. Nay, my part is not now to object, but to hear; let me, therefore, have your second question. FAITH. It is this: Do you experience this first part of the description of it; and doth your life and conversation testify the same? Or standeth your religion in word or tongue, and not in deed and truth? Pray, if you incline to answer me in this, say no more than you know the God above will say Amen to, and also nothing but what your conscience can justify you in; for not he that commendeth himself is approved, but whom the Lord commendeth. Besides, to say I am thus and thus, when my conversation, and all my neighbors, tell me I lie, is great wickedness. Then Talkative at first began to blush; but, recovering himself, thus he replied: You come now to experience, to conscience, and to God; and to appeal to him for justification of what is spoken. This kind of discourse I did not expect; nor am I disposed to give an answer to such questions, because I count not myself bound thereto, unless you take upon you to be a catechiser; and though you should so do, yet I may refuse to make you my judge. But I pray, will you tell me why you ask me such questions? FAITH. Because I saw you forward to talk, and because I knew not that you had aught else but notion. Besides, to tell you all the truth, I have heard of you that you are a man whose religion lies in talk, and that your conversation gives this your mouth-profession the lie. They say you are a spot among Christians, and that religion fareth the worse for your ungodly conversation; that some have already stumbled at your wicked ways, and that more are in danger of being destroyed thereby: your religion, and an ale-house, and covetousness, and uncleanness, and swearing, and lying, and vain company-keeping, etc., will stand together. The proverb is true of you which is said of a harlot, to wit, "That she is a shame to all women:" so are you a shame to all professors. TALK. Since you are so ready to take up reports, and to judge so rashly as you do, I cannot but conclude you are some peevish or melancholy man, not fit to be discoursed with; and so adieu. Then up came Christian, and said to his brother, I told you how it would happen; your words and his lusts could not agree. He had rather leave your company than reform his life. But he is gone, as I said: let him go; the loss is no man's but his own. He has saved us the trouble of going from him; for he continuing (as I suppose he will do) as he is, would have been but a blot in our company: besides, the apostle says, "From such withdraw thyself." FAITH. But I am glad we had this little discourse with him; it may happen that he will think of it again: however, I have dealt plainly with him, and so am clear of his blood if he perisheth. CHR. You did well to talk so plainly to him as you did. There is but little of this faithful dealing with men now-a-days, and that makes religion to stink so in the nostrils of many as it doth; for they are these talkative fools, whose religion is only in word, and who are debauched and vain in their conversation, that (being so much admitted into the fellowship of the godly) do puzzle the world, blemish Christianity, and grieve the sincere. I wish that all men would deal with such as you have done; then should they either be made more conformable to religion, or the company of saints would be too hot for them. Then did Faithful say, "How Talkative at first lifts up his plumes! How bravely doth he speak! How he presumes To drive down all before him! But so soon As Faithful talks of heart-work, like the moon That's past the full, into the wane he goes; And so will all but he that heart-work know." Thus they went on, talking of what they had seen by the way, and so made that way easy, which would otherwise no doubt have been tedious to them, for now they went through a wilderness. THE SIXTH STAGE. Now when they were got almost quite out of this wilderness, Faithful chanced to cast his eye back, and espied one coming after them, and he knew him. Oh! said Faithful to his brother, who comes yonder? Then Christian looked, and said, It is my good friend Evangelist. Aye, and my good friend too, said Faithful, for 'twas he that set me on the way to the gate. Now was Evangelist come up unto them, and thus saluted them. EVAN. Peace be with you, dearly beloved, and peace be to your helpers. CHR. Welcome, welcome, my good Evangelist: the sight of thy countenance brings to my remembrance thy ancient kindness and unwearied labors for my eternal good. FAITH. And a thousand times welcome, said good Faithful, thy company, O sweet Evangelist; how desirable is it to us poor pilgrims! EVAN. Then said Evangelist, How hath it fared with you, my friends, since the time of our last parting? What have you met with, and how have you behaved yourselves? Then Christian and Faithful told him of all things that had happened to them in the way; and how, and with what difficulty, they had arrived to that place. Right glad am I, said Evangelist, not that you have met with trials, but that you have been victors, and for that you have, notwithstanding many weaknesses, continued in the way to this very day. I say, right glad am I of this thing, and that for mine own sake and yours: I have sowed, and you have reaped; and the day is coming, when "both he that soweth, and they that reap, shall rejoice together," John 4:36; that is, if you hold out: "for in due season ye shall reap, if ye faint not." Gal. 6:9. The crown is before you, and it is an incorruptible one; "so run that ye may obtain it." 1 Cor. 9:24-27. Some there be that set out for this crown, and after they have gone far for it, another comes in and takes it from them: "hold fast, therefore, that you have; let no man take your crown." Rev. 3:11. You are not yet out of the gunshot of the devil; "you have not resisted unto blood, striving against sin." Let the kingdom be always before you, and believe steadfastly concerning the things that are invisible. Let nothing that is on this side the other world get within you. And, above all, look well to your own hearts and to the lusts thereof; for they are "deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked." Set your faces like a flint; you have all power in heaven and earth on your side. CHR. Then Christian thanked him for his exhortations; but told him withal, that they would have him speak farther to them for their help the rest of the way; and the rather, for that they well knew that he was a prophet, and could tell them of things that might happen unto them, and also how they might resist and overcome them. To which request Faithful also consented. So Evangelist began as followeth. EVAN. My sons, you have heard in the word of the truth of the Gospel, that you must "through many tribulations enter into the kingdom of heaven;" and again, that "in every city, bonds and afflictions abide you;" and therefore you cannot expect that you should go long on your pilgrimage without them, in some sort or other. You have found something of the truth of these testimonies upon you already, and more will immediately follow: for now, as you see, you are almost out of this wilderness, and therefore you will soon come into a town that you will by and by see before you; and in that town you will be hardly beset with enemies, who will strain hard but they will kill you; and be you sure that one or both of you must seal the testimony which you hold, with blood; but "be you faithful unto death, and the King will give you a crown of life." He that shall die there, although his death will be unnatural, and his pain, perhaps, great, he will yet have the better of his fellow; not only because he will be arrived at the Celestial City soonest, but because he will escape many miseries that the other will meet with in the rest of his journey. But when you are come to the town, and shall find fulfilled what I have here related, then remember your friend, and quit yourselves like men, and "commit the keeping of your souls to God in well doing, as unto a faithful Creator." Then I saw in my dream, that when they were got out of the wilderness, they presently saw a town before them, and the name of that town is Vanity; and at the town there is a fair kept, called Vanity Fair. It is kept all the year long. It beareth the name of Vanity Fair, because the town where it is kept is lighter than vanity, Psa. 62:9; and also because all that is there sold, or that cometh thither, is vanity; as is the saying of the wise, "All that cometh is vanity." Eccl. 11:8; see also 1:2-14; 2:11-17; Isa. 40:17. This fair is no new-erected business but a thing of ancient standing. I will show you the original of it. Almost five thousand years ago there were pilgrims walking to the Celestial City, as these two honest persons are: and Beelzebub, Apollyon, and Legion, with their companions, perceiving by the path that the pilgrims made, that their way to the city lay through this town of Vanity, they contrived here to set up a fair; a fair wherein should be sold all sorts of vanity, and that it should last all the year long. Therefore, at this fair are all such merchandise sold as houses, lands, trades, places, honors, preferments, titles, countries, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures; and delights of all sorts, as harlots, wives, husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls, silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not. And moreover, at this fair there is at all times to be seen jugglings, cheats, games, plays, fools, apes, knaves, and rogues, and that of every kind. Here are to be seen, too, and that for nothing, thefts, murders, adulteries, false-swearers, and that of a blood-red color. And, as in other fairs of less moment, there are the several rows and streets under their proper names, where such and such wares are vended; so here, likewise, you have the proper places, rows, streets, (namely, countries and kingdoms,) where the wares of this fair are soonest to be found. Here is the Britain Row, the French Row, the Italian Row, the Spanish Row, the German Row, where several sorts of vanities are to be sold. But, as in other fairs, some one commodity is as the chief of all the fair; so the ware of Rome and her merchandise is greatly promoted in this fair; only our English nation, with some others, have taken a dislike thereat. Now, as I said, the way to the Celestial City lies just through this town, where this lusty fair is kept; and he that will go to the city, and yet not go through this town, "must needs go out of the world." 1 Cor. 4:10. The Prince of princes himself, when here, went through this town to his own country, and that upon a fair-day too; yea, and, as I think, it was Beelzebub, the chief lord of this fair, that invited him to buy of his vanities, yea, would have made him lord of the fair, would he but have done him reverence as he went through the town. Yea, because he was such a person of honor, Beelzebub had him from street to street, and showed him all the kingdoms of the world in a little time, that he might, if possible, allure that blessed One to cheapen and buy some of his vanities; but he had no mind to the merchandise, and therefore left the town, without laying out so much as one farthing upon these vanities. Matt. 4:8,9; Luke 4:5-7. This fair, therefore, is an ancient thing, of long standing, and a very great fair. Now, these pilgrims, as I said, must needs go through this fair. Well, so they did; but behold, even as they entered into the fair, all the people in the fair were moved; and the town itself, as it were, in a hubbub about them, and that for several reasons: for, First, The Pilgrims were clothed with such kind of raiment as was diverse from the raiment of any that traded in that fair. The people, therefore, of the fair made a great gazing upon them: some said they were fools; 1 Cor. 4:9,10; some, they were bedlams; and some, they were outlandish men. Secondly, And as they wondered at their apparel, so they did likewise at their speech; for few could understand what they said. They naturally spoke the language of Canaan; but they that kept the fair were the men of this world: so that from one end of the fair to the other, they seemed barbarians each to the other. 1 Cor. 2:7,8. Thirdly, But that which did not a little amuse the merchandisers was, that these pilgrims set very light by all their wares. They cared not so much as to look upon them; and if they called upon them to buy, they would put their fingers in their ears, and cry, "Turn away mine eyes from beholding vanity," Psa. 119:37, and look upward, signifying that their trade and traffic was in heaven. Phil. 3: 20,21. One chanced, mockingly, beholding the carriage of the men, to say unto them, "What will ye buy?" But they, looking gravely upon him, said, "We buy the truth." Prov. 23:23. At that there was an occasion taken to despise the men the more; some mocking, some taunting, some speaking reproachfully, and some calling upon others to smite them. At last, things came to an hubbub and great stir in the fair, insomuch that all order was confounded. Now was word presently brought to the great one of the fair, who quickly came down, and deputed some of his most trusty friends to take those men into examination about whom the fair was almost overturned. So the men were brought to examination; and they that sat upon them asked them whence they came, whither they went, and what they did there in such an unusual garb. The men told them they were pilgrims and strangers in the world, and that they were going to their own country, which was the heavenly Jerusalem, Heb. 11:13-16; and that they had given no occasion to the men of the town, nor yet to the merchandisrs, thus to abuse them, and to let them in their journey, except it was for that, when one asked them what they would buy, they said they would buy the truth. But they that were appointed to examine them did not believe them to be any other than bedlams and mad, or else such as came to put all things into a confusion in the fair. Therefore they took them and beat them, and besmeared them with dirt, and then put them into the cage, that they might be made a spectacle to all the men of the fair. There, therefore, they lay for some time, and were made the objects of any man's sport, or malice, or revenge; the great one of the fair laughing still at all that befell them. But the men being patient, and "not rendering railing for railing, but contrariwise blessing," and giving good words for bad, and kindness for injuries done, some men in the fair, that were more observing and less prejudiced than the rest, began to check and blame the baser sort for their continual abuses done by them to the men. They, therefore, in an angry manner let fly at them again, counting them as bad as the men in the cage, and telling them that they seemed confederates, and should be made partakers of their misfortunes. The others replied that, for aught they could see, the men were quiet and sober, and intended nobody any harm; and that there were many that traded in their fair that were more worthy to be put into the cage, yea, and pillory too, than were the men that they had abused. Thus, after divers words had passed on both sides, (the men behaving themselves all the while very wisely and soberly before them,) they fell to some blows among themselves, and did harm one to another. Then were these two poor men brought before their examiners again, and were charged as being guilty of the late hubbub that had been in the fair. So they beat them pitifully, and hanged irons upon them, and led them in chains up and down the fair, for an example and terror to others, lest any should speak in their behalf, or join themselves unto them. But Christian and Faithful behaved themselves yet more wisely, and received the ignominy and shame that was cast upon them with so much meekness and patience, that it won to their side (though but few in comparison of the rest) several of the men in the fair. This put the other party yet into a greater rage, insomuch that they concluded the death of these two men. Wherefore they threatened that neither cage nor irons should serve their turn, but that they should die for the abuse they had done, and for deluding the men of the fair. Then were they remanded to the cage again, until further order should be taken with them. So they put them in, and made their feet fast in the stocks. Here, also, they called again to mind what they had heard from their faithful friend Evangelist, and were the more confirmed in their way and sufferings by what he told them would happen to them. They also now comforted each other, that whose lot it was to suffer, even he should have the best of it: therefore each man secretly wished that he might have that preferment. But committing themselves to the all-wise disposal of Him that ruleth all things, with much content they abode in the condition in which they were, until they should be otherwise disposed of. Then a convenient time being appointed, they brought them forth to their trial, in order to their condemnation. When the time was come, they were brought before their enemies and arraigned. The judge's name was Lord Hate-good; their indictment was one and the same in substance, though somewhat varying in form; the contents whereof was this: "That they were enemies to, and disturbers of, the trade; that they had made commotions and divisions in the town, and had won a party to their own most dangerous opinions, in contempt of the law of their prince." Then Faithful began to answer, that he had only set himself against that which had set itself against Him that is higher than the highest. And, said he, as for disturbance, I make none, being myself a man of peace: the parties that were won to us, were won by beholding our truth and innocence, and they are only turned from the worse to the better. And as to the king you talk of, since he is Beelzebub, the enemy of our Lord, I defy him and all his angels. Then proclamation was made, that they that had ought to say for their lord the king against the prisoner at the bar, should forthwith appear, and give in their evidence. So there came in three witnesses, to wit, Envy, Superstition, and Pickthank. They were then asked if they knew the prisoner at the bar; and what they had to say for their lord the king against him. Then stood forth Envy, and said to this effect: My lord, I have known this man a long time, and will attest upon my oath before this honorable bench, that he is- JUDGE. Hold; give him his oath. So they sware him. Then he said, My lord, this man, notwithstanding his plausible name, is one of the vilest men in our country; he neither regardeth prince nor people, law nor custom, but doeth all that he can to possess all men with certain of his disloyal notions, which he in the general calls principles of faith and holiness. And in particular, I heard him once myself affirm, that Christianity and the customs of our town of Vanity were diametrically opposite, and could not be reconciled. By which saying, my lord, he doth at once not only condemn all our laudable doings, but us in the doing of them. Then did the judge say to him, Hast thou any more to say? ENVY. My lord, I could say much more, only I would not be tedious to the court. Yet if need be, when the other gentlemen have given in their evidence, rather than any thing shall be wanting that will dispatch him, I will enlarge my testimony against him. So he was bid to stand by. Then they called Superstition, and bid him look upon the prisoner. They also asked, what he could say for their lord the king against him. Then they sware him; so he began. SUPER. My lord, I have no great acquaintance with this man, nor do I desire to have further knowledge of him. However, this I know, that he is a very pestilent fellow, from some discourse that I had with him the other day, in this town; for then, talking with him, I heard him say, that our religion was naught, and such by which a man could by no means please God. Which saying of his, my lord, your lordship very well knows what necessarily thence will follow, to wit, that we still do worship in vain, are yet in our sins, and finally shall be damned: and this is that which I have to say. Then was Pickthank sworn, and bid say what he knew in the behalf of their lord the king against the prisoner at the bar. PICK. My lord, and you gentlemen all, this fellow I have known of a long time, and have heard him speak things that ought not to be spoken; for he hath railed on our noble prince Beelzebub, and hath spoken contemptibly of his honorable friends, whose names are, the Lord Old Man, the Lord Carnal Delight, the Lord Luxurious, the Lord Desire of Vain Glory, my old Lord Lechery, Sir Having Greedy, with all the rest of our nobility: and he hath said, moreover, that if all men were of his mind, if possible, there is not one of these noblemen should have any longer a being in this town. Besides, he hath not been afraid to rail on you, my lord, who are now appointed to be his judge, calling you an ungodly villain, with many other such like vilifying terms, with which he hath bespattered most of the gentry of our town. When this Pickthank had told his tale, the judge directed his speech to the prisoner at the bar, saying, Thou runagate, heretic, and traitor, hast thou heard what these honest gentlemen have witnessed against thee? FAITH. May I speak a few words in my own defence? JUDGE. Sirrah, sirrah, thou deservest to live no longer, but to be slain immediately upon the place; yet, that all men may see our gentleness towards thee, let us hear what thou, vile runagate, hast to say. FAITH. 1. I say, then, in answer to what Mr. Envy hath spoken, I never said aught but this, that what rule, or laws, or custom, or people, were flat against the word of God, are diametrically opposite to Christianity. If I have said amiss in this, convince me of my error, and I am ready here before you to make my recantation. 2. As to the second, to wit, Mr. Superstition, and his charge against me, I said only this, that in the worship of God there is required a divine faith; but there can be no divine faith without a divine revelation of the will of God. Therefore, whatever is thrust into the worship of God that is not agreeable to divine revelation, cannot be done but by a human faith; which faith will not be profitable to eternal life. 3. As to what Mr. Pickthank hath said, I say, (avoiding terms, as that I am said to rail, and the like,) that the prince of this town, with all the rabblement, his attendants, by this gentleman named, are more fit for a being in hell than in this town and country. And so the Lord have mercy upon me. Then the judge called to the jury, (who all this while stood by to hear and observe,) Gentlemen of the jury, you see this man about whom so great an uproar hath been made in this town; you have also heard what these worthy gentlemen have witnessed against him; also, you have heard his reply and confession: it lieth now in your breasts to hang him, or save his life; but yet I think meet to instruct you in our law. There was an act made in the days of Pharaoh the Great, servant to our prince, that, lest those of a contrary religion should multiply and grow too strong for him, their males should be thrown into the river. Exod. 1:22. There was also an act made in the days of Nebuchadnezzar the Great, another of his servants, that whoever would not fall down and worship his golden image, should be thrown into a fiery furnace. Dan. 3:6. There was also an act made in the days of Darius, that whoso for some time called upon any god but him, should be cast into the lion's den. Dan. 6:7. Now, the substance of these laws this rebel has broken, not only in thought, (which is not to be borne,) but also in word and deed; which must, therefore, needs be intolerable. For that of Pharaoh, his law was made upon a supposition to prevent mischief, no crime being yet apparent; but here is a crime apparent. For the second and third, you see he disputeth against our religion; and for the treason that he hath already confessed, he deserveth to die the death. Then went the jury out, whose names were Mr. Blindman, Mr. No-good, Mr. Malice, Mr. Love-lust, Mr. Live-loose, Mr. Heady, Mr. High- mind, Mr. Enmity, Mr. Liar, Mr. Cruelty, Mr. Hate-light, and Mr. Implacable; who every one gave in his private verdict against him among themselves, and afterwards unanimously concluded to bring him in guilty before the judge. And first among themselves, Mr. Blindman, the foreman, said, I see clearly that this man is a heretic. Then said Mr. No-good, Away with such a fellow from the earth. Aye, said Mr. Malice, for I hate the very looks of him. Then said Mr. Love-lust, I could never endure him. Nor I, said Mr. Live-loose, for he would always be condemning my way. Hang him, hang him, said Mr. Heady. A sorry scrub, said Mr. High-mind. My heart riseth against him, said Mr. Enmity. He is a rogue, said Mr. Liar. Hanging is too good for him, said Mr. Cruelty. Let us dispatch him out of the way, said Mr. Hate-light. Then said Mr. Implacable, Might I have all the world given me, I could not be reconciled to him; therefore let us forthwith bring him in guilty of death. And so they did; therefore he was presently condemned to be had from the place where he was, to the place from whence he came, and there to be put to the most cruel death that could be invented. They therefore brought him out, to do with him according to their law; and first they scourged him, then they buffeted him, then they lanced his flesh with knives; after that, they stoned him with stones, then pricked him with their swords; and last of all, they burned him to ashes at the stake. Thus came Faithful to his end. Now I saw, that there stood behind the multitude a chariot and a couple of horses waiting for Faithful, who (so soon as his adversaries had dispatched him) was taken up into it, and straightway was carried up through the clouds with sound of trumpet, the nearest way to the celestial gate. But as for Christian, he had some respite, and was remanded back to prison: so he there remained for a space. But he who overrules all things, having the power of their rage in his own hand, so wrought it about, that Christian for that time escaped them, and went his way. And as he went, he sang, saying, "Well, Faithful, thou hast faithfully profest Unto thy Lord, with whom thou shalt be blest, When faithless ones, with all their vain delights, Are crying out under their hellish plights: Sing, Faithful, sing, and let thy name survive; For though they killed thee, thou art yet alive." THE SEVENTH STAGE. Now I saw in my dream, that Christian went not forth alone; for there was one whose name was Hopeful, (being so made by the beholding of Christian and Faithful in their words and behavior, in their sufferings at the fair,) who joined himself unto him, and entering into a brotherly covenant, told him that he would be his companion. Thus one died to bear testimony to the truth, and another rises out of his ashes to be a companion with Christian in his pilgrimage. This Hopeful also told Christian, that there were many more of the men in the fair that would take their time, and follow after. So I saw, that quickly after they were got out of the fair, they overtook one that was going before them, whose name was By-ends; so they said to him, What countryman, sir? and how far go you this way? He told them, that he came from the town of Fair-speech, and he was going to the Celestial City; but told them not his name. From Fair-speech? said Christian; is there any good that lives there? Prov. 26:25. BY. Yes, said By-ends, I hope so. CHR. Pray, sir, what may I call you? said Christian. BY. I am a stranger to you, and you to me: if you be going this way, I shall be glad of your company; if not, I must be content. CHR. This town of Fair-speech, said Christian, I have heard of; and, as I remember, they say it's a wealthy place. BY. Yes, I will assure you that it is; and I have very many rich kindred there. CHR. Pray, who are your kindred there, if a man may be so bold? BY. Almost the whole town; and in particular my Lord Turn-about, my Lord Time-server, my Lord Fair-speech, from whose ancestors that town first took its name; also, Mr. Smooth-man, Mr. Facing-both-ways, Mr. Any- thing; and the parson of our parish, Mr. Two-tongues, was my mother's own brother, by father's side; and, to tell you the truth, I am become a gentleman of good quality; yet my great-grandfather was but a waterman, looking one way and rowing another, and I got most of my estate by the same occupation. CHR. Are you a married man. BY. Yes, and my wife is a very virtuous woman, the daughter of a virtuous woman; she was my Lady Feigning's daughter; therefore she came of a very honorable family, and is arrived to such a pitch of breeding, that she knows how to carry it to all, even to prince and peasant. 'Tis true, we somewhat differ in religion from those of the stricter sort, yet but in two small points: First, we never strive against wind and tide. Secondly, we are always most zealous when religion goes in his silver slippers; we love much to walk with him in the street, if the sun shines and the people applaud him. Then Christian stepped a little aside to his fellow Hopeful, saying, it runs in my mind that this is one By-ends, of Fair-speech; and if it be he, we have as very a knave in our company as dwelleth in all these parts. Then said Hopeful, Ask him; methinks he should not be ashamed of his name. So Christian came up with him again, and said, Sir, you talk as if you knew something more than all the world doth; and, if I take not my mark amiss, I deem I have half a guess of you. Is not your name Mr. By-ends of Fair-speech? BY. This is not my name, but indeed it is a nickname that is given me by some that cannot abide me, and I must be content to bear it as a reproach, as other good men have borne theirs before me. CHR. But did you never give an occasion to men to call you by this name? BY. Never, never! The worst that ever I did to give them an occasion to give me this name was, that I had always the luck to jump in my judgment with the present way of the times, whatever it was, and my chance was to get thereby: but if things are thus cast upon me, let me count them a blessing; but let not the malicious load me therefore with reproach. CHR. I thought, indeed, that you were the man that I heard of; and to tell you what I think, I fear this name belongs to you more properly than you are willing we should think it doth. BY. Well if you will thus imagine, I cannot help it; you shall find me a fair company-keeper, if you will still admit me your associate. CHR. If you will go with us, you must go against wind and tide; the which, I perceive, is against your opinion: you must also own Religion in his rags, as well as when in his silver slippers; and stand by him, too, when bound in irons, as well as when he walketh the streets with applause. BY. You must not impose, nor lord it over my faith; leave me to my liberty, and let me go with you. CHR. Not a step farther, unless you will do, in what I propound, as we. Then said By-ends, I shall never desert my old principles, since they are harmless and profitable. If I may not go with you, I must do as I did before you overtook me, even go by myself, until some overtake me that will be glad of my company. Now I saw in my dream, that Christian and Hopeful forsook him, and kept their distance before him; but one of them, looking back, saw three men following Mr. By-ends; and, behold, as they came up with him, he made them a very low congee; and they also gave him a compliment. The men's names were, Mr. Hold-the-world, Mr. Money-love, and Mr. Save-all, men that Mr. By-ends had formerly been acquainted with; for in their minority they were schoolfellows, and taught by one Mr. Gripeman, a schoolmaster in Lovegain, which is a market-town in the county of Coveting, in the North. This Schoolmaster taught them the art of getting, either by violence, cozenage, flattering, lying, or by putting on a guise of religion; and these four gentlemen had attained much of the art of their master, so that they could each of them have kept such a school themselves. Well, when they had, as I said, thus saluted each other, Mr. Money-love said to Mr. By-ends, Who are they upon the road before us? For Christian and Hopeful were yet within view. BY. They are a couple of far country-men, that, after their mode, are going on pilgrimage. MONEY. Alas! why did they not stay, that we might have had their good company? for they, and we, and you, sir, I hope, are all going on pilgrimage. BY. We are so, indeed; but the men before us are so rigid, and love so much their own notions, and do also so lightly esteem the opinions of others, that let a man be ever so godly, yet if he jumps not with them in all things, they thrust him quite out of their company. SAVE. That is bad; but we read of some that are righteous overmuch, and such men's rigidness prevails with them to judge and condemn all but themselves. But I pray, what, and how many, were the things wherein you differed? BY. Why, they, after their headstrong manner, conclude that it is their duty to rush on their journey all weathers, and I am for waiting for wind and tide. They are for hazarding all for God at a clap; and I am for taking all advantages to secure my life and estate. They are for holding their notions, though all other men be against them; but I am for religion in what, and so far as the times and my safety will bear it. They are for religion when in rags and contempt; but I am for him when he walks in his silver slippers, in the sunshine, and with applause. HOLD-THE-WORLD. Aye, and hold you there still, good Mr. By-ends; for, for my part, I can count him but a fool, that having the liberty to keep what he has, shall be so unwise as to lose it. Let us be wise as serpents. It is best to make hay while the sun shines. You see how the bee lieth still in winter, and bestirs her only when she can have profit with pleasure. God sends sometimes rain, and sometimes sunshine: if they be such fools to go through the first, yet let us be content to take fair weather along with us. For my part, I like that religion best that will stand with the security of God's good blessings unto us; for who can imagine, that is ruled by his reason, since God has bestowed upon us the good things of this life, but that he would have us keep them for his sake? Abraham and Solomon grew rich in religion; and Job says, that a good man shall lay up gold as dust; but he must not be such as the men before us, if they be as you have described them. SAVE. I think that we are all agreed in this matter; and therefore there needs no more words about it. MONEY. No, there needs no more words about this matter, indeed; for he that believes neither Scripture nor reason, (and you see we have both on our side,) neither knows his own liberty nor seeks his own safety. BY. My brethren, we are, as you see, going all on pilgrimage; and for our better diversion from things that are bad, give me leave to propound unto you this question. Suppose a man, a minister, or a tradesman, etc., should have an advantage lie before him to get the good blessings of this life, yet so as that he can by no means come by them, except, in appearance at least, he becomes extraordinary zealous in some points of religion that he meddled not with before; may he not use this means to attain his end, and yet be a right honest man? MONEY. I see the bottom of your question; and with these gentlemen's good leave, I will endeavor to shape you an answer. And first, to speak to your question as it concerneth a minister himself: suppose a minister, a worthy man, possessed but of a very small benefice, and has in his eye a greater, more fat and plump by far; he has also now an opportunity of getting it, yet so as by being more studious, by preaching more frequently and zealously, and, because the temper of the people requires it, by altering of some of his principles; for my part, I see no reason why a man may not do this, provided he has a call, aye, and more a great deal besides, and yet be an honest man. For why? 1. His desire of a greater benefice is lawful, (this cannot be contradicted,) since it is set before him by Providence; so then he may get it if he can, making no question for conscience' sake. 2. Besides, his desire after that benefice makes him more studious, a more zealous preacher, etc., and so makes him a better man, yea, makes him better improve his parts, which is according to the mind of God. 3. Now, as for his complying with the temper of his people, by deserting, to serve them, some of his principles, this argueth, 1. That he is of a self-denying temper. 2. Of a sweet and winning deportment. And, 3. So more fit for the ministerial function. 4. I conclude, then, that a minister that changes a small for a great, should not, for so doing, be judged as covetous; but rather, since he is improved in his parts and industry thereby, be counted as one that pursues his call, and the opportunity put into his hand to do good. And now to the second part of the question, which concerns the tradesman you mentioned. Suppose such an one to have but a poor employ in the world, but by becoming religious he may mend his market, perhaps get a rich wife, or more and far better customers to his shop; for my part, I see no reason but this may be lawfully done. For why? 1. To become religious is a virtue, by what means soever a man becomes so. 2. Nor is it unlawful to get a rich wife, or more custom to my shop. 3. Besides, the man that gets these by becoming religious, gets that which is good of them that are good, by becoming good himself; so then here is a good wife, and good customers, and good gain, and all these by becoming religious, which is good: therefore, to become religious to get all these is a good and profitable design. This answer, thus made by Mr. Money-love to Mr. By-ends' question, was highly applauded by them all; wherefore they concluded, upon the whole, that it was most wholesome and advantageous. And because, as they thought, no man was able to contradict it; and because Christian and Hopeful were yet within call, they jointly agreed to assault them with the question as soon as they overtook them; and the rather, because they had opposed Mr. By-ends before. So they called after them, and they stopped and stood still till they came up to them; but they concluded, as they went, that not Mr. By-ends, but old Mr. Hold-the-world should propound the question to them, because, as they supposed, their answer to him would be without the remainder of that heat that was kindled betwixt Mr. By-ends and them at their parting a little before. So they came up to each other, and after a short salutation, Mr. Hold- the-world propounded the question to Christian and his fellow, and then bid them to answer if they could. Then said Christian, Even a babe in religion may answer ten thousand such questions. For if it be unlawful to follow Christ for loaves, as it is, John 6:26; how much more abominable is it to make of him and religion a stalking-horse to get and enjoy the world! Nor do we find any other than heathens, hypocrites, devils, and wizards, that are of this opinion. 1. Heathens: for when Hamor and Shechem had a mind to the daughter and cattle of Jacob, and saw that there was no way for them to come at them but by being circumcised, they said to their companions, If every male of us be circumcised, as they are circumcised, shall not their cattle, and their substance, and every beast of theirs be ours? Their daughters and their cattle were that which they sought to obtain, and their religion the stalking-horse they made use of to come at them. Read the whole story, Gen. 34:20-24. 2. The hypocritical Pharisees were also of this religion: long prayers were their pretence, but to get widows' houses was their intent; and greater damnation was from God their judgment. Luke 20:46,47. 3. Judas the devil was also of this religion: he was religious for the bag, that he might be possessed of what was put therein; but he was lost, cast away, and the very son of perdition. 4. Simon the wizard was of this religion too; for he would have had the Holy Ghost, that he might have got money therewith: and his sentence from Peter's mouth was according. Acts 8:19-22. 5. Neither will it go out of my mind, but that that man who takes up religion for the world, will throw away religion for the world; for so surely as Judas designed the world in becoming religious, so surely did he also sell religion and his Master for the same. To answer the question, therefore, affirmatively, as I perceive you have done, and to accept of, as authentic, such answer, is heathenish, hypocritical, and devilish; and your reward will be according to your works. Then they stood staring one upon another, but had not wherewith to answer Christian. Hopeful also approved of the soundness of Christian's answer; so there was a great silence among them. Mr. By-ends and his company also staggered and kept behind, that Christian and Hopeful might outgo them. Then said Christian to his fellow, If these men cannot stand before the sentence of men, what will they do with the sentence of God? And if they are mute when dealt with by vessels of clay, what will they do when they shall be rebuked by the flames of a devouring fire? Then Christian and Hopeful outwent them again, and went till they came at a delicate plain, called Ease, where they went with much content; but that plain was but narrow, so they were quickly got over it. Now at the farther side of that plain was a little hill, called Lucre, and in that hill a silver-mine, which some of them that had formerly gone that way, because of the rarity of it, had turned aside to see; but going too near the brim of the pit, the ground, being deceitful under them, broke, and they were slain: some also had been maimed there, and could not, to their dying day, be their own men again. Then I saw in my dream, that a little off the road, over against the silver-mine, stood Demas (gentleman-like) to call passengers to come and see; who said to Christian and his fellow, Ho! turn aside hither, and I will show you a thing. CHR. What thing so deserving as to turn us out of the way to see it? DEMAS. Here is a silver-mine, and some digging in it for treasure; if you will come, with a little pains you may richly provide for yourselves. HOPE. Then said Hopeful, let us go see. CHR. Not I, said Christian: I have heard of this place before now, and how many there have been slain; and besides, that treasure is a snare to those that seek it, for it hindereth them in their pilgrimage. Then Christian called to Demas, saying, Is not the place dangerous? Hath it not hindered many in their pilgrimage? Hosea 9:6. DEMAS. Not very dangerous, except to those that are careless; but withal he blushed as he spake. CHR. Then said Christian to Hopeful, Let us not stir a step, but still keep on our way. HOPE. I will warrant you, when By-ends comes up, if he hath the same invitation as we, he will turn in thither to see. CHR. No doubt thereof, for his principles lead him that way, and a hundred to one but he dies there. DEMAS. Then Demas called again, saying, But will you not come over and see? CHR. Then Christian roundly answered, saying, Demas, thou art an enemy to the right ways of the Lord of this way, and hast been already condemned for thine own turning aside, by one of his Majesty's judges, 2 Tim. 4:10; and why seekest thou to bring us into the like condemnation? Besides, if we at all turn aside, our Lord the King will certainly hear thereof, and will there put us to shame, where we would stand with boldness before him. Demas cried again, that he also was one of their fraternity; and that if they would tarry a little, he also himself would walk with them. CHR. Then said Christian, What is thy name? Is it not the same by which I have called thee? DEMAS. Yes, my name is Demas; I am the son of Abraham. CHR. I know you; Gehazi was your great-grandfather, and Judas your father, and you have trod in their steps; it is but a devilish prank that thou usest: thy father was hanged for a traitor, and thou deservest no better reward. 2 Kings 5:20-27; Matt.26:14,15; 27:3-5. Assure thyself, that when we come to the King, we will tell him of this thy behavior. Thus they went their way. By this time By-ends and his companions were come again within sight, and they at the first beck went over to Demas. Now, whether they fell into the pit by looking over the brink thereof, or whether they went down to dig, or whether they were smothered in the bottom by the damps that commonly arise, of these things I am not certain; but this I observed, that they were never seen again in the way. Then sang Christian, "By-ends and silver Demas both agree; One calls, the other runs, that he may be A sharer in his lucre: so these two Take up in this world, and no farther go." Now I saw that, just on the other side of this plain, the pilgrims came to a place where stood an old monument, hard by the highway-side, at the sight of which they were both concerned, because of the strangeness of the form thereof; for it seemed to them as if it had been a woman transformed into the shape of a pillar. Here, therefore, they stood looking and looking upon it, but could not for a time tell what they should make thereof. At last Hopeful espied, written above upon the head thereof, a writing in an unusual hand; but he being no scholar, called to Christian (for he was learned) to see if he could pick out the meaning: so he came, and after a little laying of letters together, he found the same to be this, "Remember Lot's wife." So he read it to his fellow; after which they both concluded that that was the pillar of salt into which Lot's wife was turned, for her looking back with a covetous heart when she was going from Sodom for safety. Gen. 19:26. Which sudden and amazing sight gave them occasion for this discourse. CHR. Ah, my brother, this is a seasonable sight: it came opportunely to us after the invitation which Demas gave us to come over to view the hill Lucre; and had we gone over, as he desired us, and as thou wast inclined to do, my brother, we had, for aught I know, been made, like this woman, a spectacle for those that shall come after to behold. HOPE. I am sorry that I was so foolish, and am made to wonder that I am not now as Lot's wife; for wherein was the difference betwixt her sin and mine? She only looked back, and I had a desire to go see. Let grace be adored; and let me be ashamed that ever such a thing should be in mine heart. CHR. Let us take notice of what we see here, for our help from time to come. This woman escaped one judgment, for she fell not by the destruction of Sodom; yet she was destroyed by another, as we see: she is turned into a pillar of salt. HOPE. True, and she may be to us both caution and example; caution, that we should shun her sin; or a sign of what judgment will overtake such as shall not be prevented by this caution: so Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, with the two hundred and fifty men that perished in their sin, did also become a sign or example to others to beware. Numb. 16:31,32; 26:9,10. But above all, I muse at one thing, to wit, how Demas and his fellows can stand so confidently yonder to look for that treasure, which this woman but for looking behind her after, (for we read not that she stepped one foot out of the way,) was turned into a pillar of salt; especially since the judgment which overtook her did make her an example within sight of where they are; for they cannot choose but see her, did they but lift up their eyes. CHR. It is a thing to be wondered at, and it argueth that their hearts are grown desperate in the case; and I cannot tell who to compare them to so fitly, as to them that pick pockets in the presence of the judge, or that will cut purses under the gallows. It is said of the men of Sodom, that they were "sinners exceedingly," because they were sinners "before the Lord," that is, in his eyesight, and notwithstanding the kindnesses that he had shown them; for the land of Sodom was now like the garden of Eden as heretofore. Gen. 13:10-13. This, therefore, provoked him the more to jealousy, and made their plague as hot as the fire of the Lord out of heaven could make it. And it is most rationally to be concluded, that such, even such as these are, that shall sin in the sight, yea, and that too in despite of such examples that are set continually before them, to caution them to the contrary, must be partakers of severest judgments. HOPE. Doubtless thou hast said the truth; but what a mercy is it, that neither thou, but especially I, am not made myself this example! This ministereth occasion to us to thank God, to fear before him, and always to remember Lot's wife. I saw then that they went on their way to a pleasant river, which David the king called "the river of God;" but John, "the river of the water of life." Psa. 65:9; Rev. 22:1; Ezek. 47:1-9. Now their way lay just upon the bank of this river: here, therefore, Christian and his companion walked with great delight; they drank also of the water of the river, which was pleasant and enlivening to their weary spirits. Besides, on the banks of this river, on either side, were green trees with all manner of fruit; and the leaves they ate to prevent surfeits, and other diseases that are incident to those that heat their blood by travel. On either side of the river was also a meadow, curiously beautified with lilies; and it was green all the year long. In this meadow they lay down and slept, for here they might lie down safely. Psa. 23:2; Isa. 14:30. When they awoke they gathered again of the fruit of the trees, and drank again of the water of the river, and then lay down again to sleep. Thus they did several days and nights. Then they sang; "Behold ye, how these Crystal Streams do glide, To comfort pilgrims by the highway-side. The meadows green, besides their fragrant smell, Yield dainties for them; And he that can tell What pleasant fruit, yea, leaves these trees do yield, Will soon sell all, that he may buy this field." So when they were disposed to go on, (for they were not as yet at their journey's end,) they ate, and drank, and departed. Now I beheld in my dream, that they had not journeyed far, but the river and the way for a time parted, at which they were not a little sorry; yet they durst not go out of the way. Now the way from the river was rough, and their feet tender by reason of their travels; so the souls of the pilgrims were much discouraged because of the way. Numb. 21:4. Wherefore, still as they went on, they wished for a better way. Now, a little before them, there was on the left hand of the road a meadow, and a stile to go over into it, and that meadow is called By-path meadow. Then said Christian to his fellow, If this meadow lieth along by our wayside, let's go over into it. Then he went to the stile to see, and behold a path lay along by the way on the other side of the fence. It is according to my wish, said Christian; here is the easiest going; come, good Hopeful, and let us go over. HOPE. But how if this path should lead us out of the way? CHR. That is not likely, said the other. Look, doth it not go along by the wayside? So Hopeful, being persuaded by his fellow, went after him over the stile. When they were gone over, and were got into the path, they found it very easy for their feet; and withal, they, looking before them, espied a man walking as they did, and his name was Vain- Confidence: so they called after him, and asked him whither that way led. He said, To the Celestial Gate. Look, said Christian, did not I tell you so? by this you may see we are right. So they followed, and he went before them. But behold the night came on, and it grew very dark; so that they that went behind lost the sight of him that went before. He therefore that went before, (Vain-Confidence by name,) not seeing the way before him, fell into a deep pit, which was on purpose there made, by the prince of those grounds, to catch vain-glorious fools withal, and was dashed in pieces with his fall. Isa. 9:16. Now, Christian and his fellow heard him fall. So they called to know the matter, but there was none to answer, only they heard a groaning. Then said Hopeful, Where are we now? Then was his fellow silent, as mistrusting that he had led him out of the way; and now it began to rain, and thunder, and lighten in a most dreadful manner, and the water rose amain. Then Hopeful groaned in himself, saying, Oh that I had kept on my way! CHR. Who could have thought that this path should have led us out of the way? HOPE. I was afraid on't at the very first, and therefore gave you that gentle caution. I would have spoke plainer, but that you are older than I. CHR. Good brother, be not offended; I am sorry I have brought thee out of the way, and that I have put thee into such imminent danger. Pray, my brother, forgive me; I did not do it of an evil intent. HOPE. Be comforted, my brother, for I forgive thee; and believe, too, that this shall be for our good. CHR. I am glad I have with me a merciful brother: but we must not stand here; let us try to go back again. HOPE. But, good brother, let me go before. CHR. No, if you please, let me go first, that if there be any danger, I may be first therein, because by my means we are both gone out of the way. HOPE. No, said Hopeful, you shall not go first, for your mind being troubled may lead you out of the way again. Then for their encouragement they heard the voice of one saying, "Let thine heart be toward the highway, even the way that thou wentest: turn again." Jer. 31:21. But by this time the waters were greatly risen, by reason of which the way of going back was very dangerous. (Then I thought that it is easier going out of the way when we are in, than going in when we are out.) Yet they adventured to go back; but it was so dark, and the flood was so high, that in their going back they had like to have been drowned nine or ten times. Neither could they, with all the skill they had, get again to the stile that night. Wherefore at last, lighting under a little shelter, they sat down there till the day brake; but being weary, they fell asleep. Now there was, not far from the place where they lay, a castle, called Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair, and it was in his grounds they now were sleeping: wherefore he, getting up in the morning early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep in his grounds. Then with a grim and surly voice, he bid them awake, and asked them whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told him they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. Then said the giant, You have this night trespassed on me by trampling in and lying on my grounds, and therefore you must go along with me. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. They also had but little to say, for they knew themselves in a fault. The giant, therefore, drove them before him, and put them into his castle, into a very dark dungeon, nasty and stinking to the spirits of these two men. Here, then, they lay from Wednesday morning till Saturday night, without one bit of bread, or drop of drink, or light, or any to ask how they did; they were, therefore, here in evil case, and were far from friends and acquaintance. Psa. 88:18. Now in this place Christian had double sorrow, because it was through his unadvised counsel that they were brought into this distress. Now Giant Despair had a wife, and her name was Diffidence: so when he was gone to bed he told his wife what he had done, to wit, that he had taken a couple of prisoners, and cast them into his dungeon for trespassing on his grounds. Then he asked her also what he had best do further to them. So she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound, and he told her. Then she counseled him, that when he arose in the morning he should beat them without mercy. So when he arose, he getteth him a grievous crab-tree cudgel, and goes down into the dungeon to them, and there first falls to rating of them as if they were dogs, although they gave him never a word of distaste. Then he falls upon them, and beats them fearfully, in such sort that they were not able to help themselves, or to turn them upon the floor. This done, he withdraws and leaves them there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress: so all that day they spent the time in nothing but sighs and bitter lamentations. The next night, she, talking with her husband further about them, and understanding that they were yet alive, did advise him to counsel them to make away with themselves. So when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly manner, as before, and perceiving them to be very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day before, he told them, that since they were never like to come out of that place, their only way would be forthwith to make an end of themselves, either with knife, halter, or poison; for why, said he, should you choose to live, seeing it is attended with so much bitterness? But they desired him to let them go. With that he looked ugly upon them, and rushing to them, had doubtless made an end of them himself, but that he fell into one of his fits, (for he sometimes in sunshiny weather fell into fits,) and lost for a time the use of his hands; wherefore he withdrew, and left them as before to consider what to do. Then did the prisoners consult between themselves whether it was best to take his counsel or no; and thus they began to discourse: CHR. Brother, said Christian, what shall we do? The life that we now live is miserable. For my part, I know not whether it is best to live thus, or to die out of hand. My soul chooseth strangling rather than life, and the grave is more easy for me than this dungeon. Job. 7:15. Shall we be ruled by the giant? HOPE. Indeed our present condition is dreadful, and death would be far more welcome to me than thus for ever to abide; but yet, let us consider, the Lord of the country to which we are going hath said, "Thou shalt do no murder," no, not to another man's person; much more, then, are we forbidden to take his counsel to kill ourselves. Besides, he that kills another, can but commit murder upon his body; but for one to kill himself, is to kill body and soul at once. And moreover, my brother, thou talkest of ease in the grave; but hast thou forgotten the hell whither for certain the murderers go? for "no murderer hath eternal life," etc. And let us consider again, that all the law is not in the hand of Giant Despair: others, so far as I can understand, have been taken by him as well as we, and yet have escaped out of his hands. Who knows but that God, who made the world, may cause that Giant Despair may die; or that, at some time or other, he may forget to lock us in; or that he may, in a short time, have another of his fits before us, and may lose the use of his limbs? And if ever that should come to pass again, for my part, I am resolved to pluck up the heart of a man, and to try my utmost to get from under his hand. I was a fool that I did not try to do it before. But, however, my brother, let us be patient, and endure a while: the time may come that may give us a happy release; but let us not be our own murderers. With these words Hopeful at present did moderate the mind of his brother; so they continued together in the dark that day, in their sad and doleful condition. Well, towards evening the giant goes down into the dungeon again, to see if his prisoners had taken his counsel. But when he came there he found them alive; and truly, alive was all; for now, what for want of bread and water, and by reason of the wounds they received when he beat them, they could do little but breathe. But I say, he found them alive; at which he fell into a grievous rage, and told them, that seeing they had disobeyed his counsel, it should be worse with them than if they had never been born. At this they trembled greatly, and I think that Christian fell into a swoon; but coming a little to himself again, they renewed their discourse about the giant's counsel, and whether yet they had best take it or no. Now Christian again seemed for doing it; but Hopeful made his second reply as followeth: HOPE. My brother, said he, rememberest thou not how valiant thou hast been heretofore? Apollyon could not crush thee, nor could all that thou didst hear, or see, or feel, in the Valley of the Shadow of Death. What hardship, terror, and amazement hast thou already gone through; and art thou now nothing but fears! Thou seest that I am in the dungeon with thee, a far weaker man by nature than thou art. Also this giant hath wounded me as well as thee, and hath also cut off the bread and water from my mouth, and with thee I mourn without the light. But let us exercise a little more patience. Remember how thou playedst the man at Vanity Fair, and wast neither afraid of the chain nor cage, nor yet of bloody death: wherefore let us (at least to avoid the shame that it becomes not a Christian to be found in) bear up with patience as well as we can. Now night being come again, and the giant and his wife being in bed, she asked him concerning the prisoners, and if they had taken his counsel: to which he replied, They are sturdy rogues; they choose rather to bear all hardships than to make away with themselves. Then said she, Take them into the castle-yard to-morrow, and show them the bones and skulls of those that thou hast already dispatched, and make them believe, ere a week comes to an end, thou wilt tear them in pieces, as thou hast done their fellows before them. So when the morning was come, the giant goes to them again, and takes them into the castle-yard, and shows them as his wife had bidden him. These, said he, were pilgrims, as you are, once, and they trespassed on my grounds, as you have done; and when I thought fit I tore them in pieces; and so within ten days I will do you: get you down to your den again. And with that he beat them all the way thither. They lay, therefore, all day on Saturday in a lamentable case, as before. Now, when night was come, and when Mrs. Diffidence and her husband the giant was got to bed, they began to renew their discourse of their prisoners; and withal, the old giant wondered that he could neither by his blows nor counsel bring them to an end. And with that his wife replied, I fear, said she, that they live in hopes that some will come to relieve them; or that they have picklocks about them, by the means of which they hope to escape. And sayest thou so, my dear? said the giant; I will therefore search them in the morning. Well, on Saturday, about midnight they began to pray, and continued in prayer till almost break of day. Now, a little before it was day, good Christian, as one half amazed, brake out into this passionate speech: What a fool, quoth he, am I, thus to lie in a stinking dungeon, when I may as well walk at liberty! I have a key in my bosom, called Promise, that will, I am persuaded, open any lock in Doubting Castle. Then said Hopeful, That is good news; good brother, pluck it out of thy bosom, and try. Then Christian pulled it out of his bosom, and began to try at the dungeon-door, whose bolt, as he turned the key, gave back, and the door flew open with ease, and Christian and Hopeful both came out. Then he went to the outward door that leads into the castle-yard, and with his key opened that door also. After he went to the iron gate, for that must be opened too; but that lock went desperately hard, yet the key did open it. They then thrust open the gate to make their escape with speed; but that gate, as it opened, made such a creaking, that it waked Giant Despair, who hastily rising to pursue his prisoners, felt his limbs to fail, for his fits took him again, so that he could by no means go after them. Then they went on, and came to the King's highway, and so were safe, because they were out of his jurisdiction. Now, when they were gone over the stile, they began to contrive with themselves what they should do at that stile, to prevent those that shall come after from falling into the hands of Giant Despair. So they consented to erect there a pillar, and to engrave upon the side thereof this sentence: "Over this stile is the way to Doubting Castle, which is kept by Giant Despair, who despiseth the King of' the Celestial country, and seeks to destroy his holy pilgrims." Many, therefore, that followed after, read what was written, and escaped the danger. This done, they sang as follows: "Out of the way we went, and then we found What 'twas to tread upon forbidden ground: And let them that come after have a care, Lest heedlessness makes them as we to fare; Lest they, for trespassing, his prisoners are, Whose castle's Doubting, and whose name's Despair." THE EIGHTH STAGE. They went then till they came to the Delectable Mountains, which mountains belong to the Lord of that hill of which we have spoken before. So they went up to the mountains, to behold the gardens and orchards, the vineyards and fountains of water; where also they drank and washed themselves, and did freely eat of the vineyards. Now, there were on the tops of these mountains shepherds feeding their flocks, and they stood by the highway-side. The pilgrims, therefore, went to them, and leaning upon their staffs, (as is common with weary pilgrims when they stand to talk with any by the way,) they asked, Whose Delectable Mountains are these; and whose be the sheep that feed upon them? SHEP. These mountains are Emmanuel's land, and they are within sight of his city; and the sheep also are his, and he laid down his life for them. John 10:11,15. CHR. Is this the way to the Celestial City? SHEP. You are just in your way. CHR. How far is it thither? SHEP. Too far for any but those who shall get thither indeed. CHR. Is the way safe or dangerous? SHEP. Safe for those for whom it is to be safe; but transgressors shall fall therein. Hos. 14:9. CHR. Is there in this place any relief for pilgrims that are weary and faint in the way? SHEP. The Lord of these mountains hath given us a charge not to be forgetful to entertain strangers, Heb. 13:2; therefore the good of the place is before you . I saw also in my dream, that when the shepherds perceived that they were wayfaring men, they also put questions to them, (to which they made answer as in other places,) as, Whence came you? and, How got you into the way? and, By what means have you so persevered therein? for but few of them that begin to come hither, do show their face on these mountains. But when the shepherds heard their answers, being pleased therewith, they looked very lovingly upon them, and said, Welcome to the Delectable Mountains. The shepherds, I say, whose names were Knowledge, Experience, Watchful, and Sincere, took them by the hand, and had them to their tents, and made them partake of that which was ready at present. They said moreover, We would that you should stay here a while, to be acquainted with us, and yet more to solace yourselves with the good of these Delectable Mountains. Then they told them that they were content to stay. So they went to their rest that night, because it was very late. Then I saw in my dream, that in the morning the shepherds called up Christian and Hopeful to walk with them upon the mountains. So they went forth with them, and walked a while, having a pleasant prospect on every side. Then said the shepherds one to another, Shall we show these pilgrims some wonders? So when they had concluded to do it, they had them first to the top of a hill called Error, which was very steep on the farthest side, and bid them look down to the bottom. So Christian and Hopeful looked down, and saw at the bottom several men dashed all to pieces by a fall that they had had from the top. Then said Christian, What meaneth this? The shepherds answered, Have you not heard of them that were made to err, by hearkening to Hymenius and Philetus, as concerning the faith of the resurrection of the body? 2 Tim. 2:17,18. They answered, Yes. Then said the shepherds, Those that you see lie dashed in pieces at the bottom of this mountain are they; and they have continued to this day unburied, as you see, for an example to others to take heed how they clamber too high, or how they come too near the brink of this mountain. Then I saw that they had them to the top of another mountain, and the name of that is Caution, and bid them look afar off; which, when they did, they perceived, as they thought, several men walking up and down among the tombs that were there; and they perceived that the men were blind, because they stumbled sometimes upon the tombs, and because they could not get out from among them. Then said Christian, What means this? The shepherds then answered, Did you not see, a little below these mountains, a stile that led into a meadow, on the left hand of this way? They answered, Yes. Then said the shepherds, From that stile there goes a path that leads directly to Doubting Castle, which is kept by Giant Despair; and these men (pointing to them among the tombs) came once on pilgrimage, as you do now, even until they came to that same stile. And because the right way was rough in that place, they chose to go out of it into that meadow, and there were taken by Giant Despair, and cast into Doubting Castle; where after they had a while been kept in the dungeon, he at last did put out their eyes, and led them among those tombs, where he has left them to wander to this very day, that the saying of the wise man might be fulfilled, "He that wandereth out of the way of understanding shall remain in the congregation of the dead." Prov. 21:16. Then Christian and Hopeful looked upon one another, with tears gushing out, but yet said nothing to the shepherds. Then I saw in my dream, that the shepherds had them to another place in a bottom, where was a door on the side of a hill; and they opened the door, and bid them look in. They looked in, therefore, and saw that within it was very dark and smoky; they also thought that they heard there a rumbling noise, as of fire, and a cry of some tormented, and that they smelt the scent of brimstone. Then said Christian, What means this? The shepherds told them, This is a by-way to hell, a way that hypocrites go in at; namely, such as sell their birthright, with Esau; such as sell their Master, with Judas; such as blaspheme the Gospel, with Alexander; and that lie and dissemble, with Ananias and Sapphira his wife. Then said Hopeful to the shepherds, I perceive that these had on them, even every one, a show of pilgrimage, as we have now; had they not? SHEP. Yes, and held it a long time, too. HOPE. How far might they go on in pilgrimage in their day, since they, notwithstanding, were miserably cast away? SHEP. Some farther, and some not so far as these mountains. Then said the pilgrims one to the other, We had need to cry to the Strong for strength. SHEP. Aye, and you will have need to use it, when you have it, too. By this time the pilgrims had a desire to go forward, and the shepherds a desire they should; so they walked together towards the end of the mountains. Then said the shepherds one to another, Let us here show the pilgrims the gates of the Celestial City, if they have skill to look through our perspective glass. The pilgrims lovingly accepted the motion: so they had them to the top of a high hill, called Clear, and gave them the glass to look. Then they tried to look; but the remembrance of that last thing that the shepherds had shown them made their hands shake, by means of which impediment they could not look steadily through the glass; yet they thought they saw something like the gate, and also some of the glory of the place. Then they went away, and sang, "Thus by the shepherds secrets are reveal'd, Which from all other men are kept concealed: Come to the shepherds then, if you would see Things deep, things hid, and that mysterious be." When they were about to depart, one of the shepherds gave them a note of the way. Another of them bid them beware of the Flatterer. The third bid them take heed that they slept not upon Enchanted Ground. And the fourth bid them God speed. So I awoke from my dream. THE NINTH STAGE. And I slept, and dreamed again, and saw the same two pilgrims going down the mountains along the highway towards the city. Now, a little below these mountains, on the left hand, lieth the country of Conceit, from which country there comes into the way in which the pilgrims walked, a little crooked lane. Here, therefore, they met with a very brisk lad that came out of that country, and his name was Ignorance. So Christian asked him from what parts he came, and whither he was going. IGNOR. Sir, I was born in the country that lieth off there, a little on the left hand, and I am going to the Celestial City. CHR. But how do you think to get in at the gate, for you may find some difficulty there? IGNOR. As other good people do, said he. CHR. But what have you to show at that gate, that the gate should be opened to you? IGNOR. I know my Lord's will, and have been a good liver; I pay every man his own; I pray, fast, pay tithes, and give alms, and have left my country for whither I am going. CHR. But thou camest not in at the wicket-gate, that is at the head of this way; thou camest in hither through that same crooked lane, and therefore I fear, however thou mayest think of thyself, when the reckoning-day shall come, thou wilt have laid to thy charge, that thou art a thief and a robber, instead of getting admittance into the city. IGNOR. Gentlemen, ye be utter strangers to me; I know you not: be content to follow the religion of your country, and I will follow the religion of mine. I hope all will be well. And as for the gate that you talk of, all the world knows that is a great way off of our country. I cannot think that any man in all our parts doth so much as know the way to it; nor need they matter whether they do or no, since we have, as you see, a fine, pleasant, green lane, that comes down from our country, the next way into the way. When Christian saw that the man was wise in his own conceit, he said to Hopeful whisperingly, "There is more hope of a fool than of him." Prov. 26:12. And said, moreover, "When he that is a fool walketh by the way, his wisdom faileth him, and he saith to every one that he is a fool. Eccles. 10:3. What, shall we talk farther with him, or outgo him at present, and so leave him to think of what he hath heard already, and then stop again for him afterwards, and see if by degrees we can do any good to him? Then said Hopeful, "Let Ignorance a little while now muse On what is said, and let him not refuse Good counsel to embrace, lest he remain Still ignorant of what's the chiefest gain. God saith, those that no understanding have, (Although he made them,) them he will not save." HOPE. He further added, It is not good, I think, to say so to him all at once; let us pass him by, if you will, and talk to him anon, even as he is able to bear it. So they both went on, and Ignorance he came after. Now, when they had passed him a little way, they entered into a very dark lane, where they met a man whom seven devils had bound with seven strong cords, and were carrying him back to the door that they saw on the side of the hill. Matt. 12:45; Prov. 5:22. Now good Christian began to tremble, and so did Hopeful, his companion; yet, as the devils led away the man, Christian looked to see if he knew him; and he thought it might be one Turn-away, that dwelt in the town of Apostacy. But he did not perfectly see his face, for he did hang his head like a thief that is found; but being gone past, Hopeful looked after him, and espied on his back a paper with this inscription, "Wanton professor, and damnable apostate." Then said Christian to his fellow, Now I call to remembrance that which was told me of a thing that happened to a good man hereabout. The name of the man was Little-Faith; but a good man, and he dwelt in the town of Sincere. The thing was this. At the entering in at this passage, there comes down from Broadway-gate, a lane, called Dead-Man's lane; so called because of the murders that are commonly done there; and this Little- Faith going on pilgrimage, as we do now, chanced to sit down there and sleep. Now there happened at that time to come down the lane from Broadway-gate, three sturdy rogues, and their names were Faint-Heart, Mistrust, and Guilt, three brothers; and they, espying Little-Faith where he was, came galloping up with speed. Now the good man was just awaked from his sleep, and was getting up to go on his journey. So they came up all to him, and with threatening language bid him stand. At this, Little-Faith looked as white as a sheet, and had neither power to fight nor fly. Then said Faint-Heart, Deliver thy purse; but he making no haste to do it, (for he was loth to lose his money,) Mistrust ran up to him, and thrusting his hand into his pocket, pulled out thence a bag of silver. Then he cried out, Thieves, thieves! With that, Guilt, with a great club that was in his hand, struck Little-Faith on the head, and with that blow felled him flat to the ground, where he lay bleeding as one that would bleed to death. All this while the thieves stood by. But at last, they hearing that some were upon the road, and fearing lest it should be one Great-Grace, that dwells in the town of Good- Confidence, they betook themselves to their heels, and left this good man to shift for himself. Now, after a while, Little-Faith came to himself, and getting up, made shift to scramble on his way. This was the story. HOPE. But did they take from him all that ever he had? CHR. No; the place where his jewels were they never ransacked; so those he kept still. But, as I was told, the good man was much afflicted for his loss; for the thieves got most of his spending-money. That which they got not, as I said, were jewels; also, he had a little odd money left, but scarce enough to bring him to his journey's end. Nay, (if I was not misinformed,) he was forced to beg as he went, to keep himself alive, for his jewels he might not sell; but beg and do what he could, he went, as we say, with many a hungry belly the most part of the rest of the way. 1 Pet. 4:18. HOPE. But is it not a wonder they got not from him his certificate, by which he was to receive his admittance at the Celestial Gate? CHR. It is a wonder; but they got not that, though they missed it not through any good cunning of his; for he, being dismayed by their coming upon him, had neither power nor skill to hide any thing; so it was more by good providence than by his endeavor that they missed of that good thing. 2 Tim. 1:12-14; 2 Pet. 2:9. HOPE. But it must needs be a comfort to him they got not this jewel from him. CHR. It might have been great comfort to him, had he used it as he should; but they that told me the story said that he made but little use of it all the rest of the way, and that because of the dismay that he had in their taking away his money. Indeed, he forgot it a great part of the rest of his journey; and besides, when at any time it came into his mind, and he began to be comforted therewith, then would fresh thoughts of his loss come again upon him, and these thoughts would swallow up all. HOPE. Alas, poor man, this could not but be a great grief to him. CHR. Grief? Aye, a grief indeed! Would it not have been so to any of us, had we been used as he, to be robbed and wounded too, and that in a strange place, as he was? It is a wonder he did not die with grief, poor heart. I was told that he scattered almost all the rest of the way with nothing but doleful and bitter complaints; telling, also, to all that overtook him, or that he overtook in the way as he went, where he was robbed, and how; who they were that did it, and what he had lost; how he was wounded, and that he hardly escaped with life. HOPE. But it is a wonder that his necessity did not put him upon selling or pawning some of his jewels, that he might have wherewith to relieve himself in his journey. CHR. Thou talkest like one upon whose head is the shell to this very day. For what should he pawn them? or to whom should he sell them? In all that country where he was robbed, his jewels were not accounted of; nor did he want that relief which could from thence be administered to him. Besides, had his jewels been missing at the gate of the Celestial City, he had (and that he knew well enough) been excluded from an inheritance there, and that would have been worse to him than the appearance and villany of ten thousand thieves. HOPE. Why art thou so tart, my brother? Esau sold his birthright, and that for a mess of pottage, Heb. 12:16; and that birthright was his greatest jewel: and if he, why might not Little-Faith do so too? CHR. Esau did sell his birthright indeed, and so do many besides, and by so doing exclude themselves from the chief blessing, as also that caitiff did; but you must put a difference betwixt Esau and Little- Faith, and also betwixt their estates. Esau's birthright was typical; but Little-Faith's jewels were not so. Esau's belly was his god; but Little-Faith's belly was not so. Esau's want lay in his fleshy appetite; Little-Faith's did not so. Besides, Esau could see no further than to the fulfilling of his lusts: For I am at the point to die, said he: and what good will this birthright do me? Gen. 25:32. But Little- Faith, though it was his lot to have but a little faith, was by his little faith kept from such extravagances, and made to see and prize his jewels more than to sell them, as Esau did his birthright. You read not any where that Esau had faith, no, not so much as a little; therefore no marvel, where the flesh only bears sway, (as it will in that man where no faith is to resist,) if he sells his birthright and his soul and all, and that to the devil of hell; for it is with such as it is with the ass, who in her occasion cannot be turned away, Jer. 2:24: when their minds are set upon their lusts, they will have them, whatever they cost. But Little-Faith was of another temper; his mind was on things divine; his livelihood was upon things that were spiritual, and from above: therefore, to what end should he that is of such a temper sell his jewels (had there been any that would have bought them) to fill his mind with empty things? Will a man give a penny to fill his belly with hay? or can you persuade the turtle-dove to live upon carrion, like the crow? Though faithless ones can, for carnal lusts, pawn, or mortgage, or sell what they have, and themselves outright to boot; yet they that have faith, saving faith, though but a little of it, cannot do so. Here, therefore, my brother, is thy mistake. HOPE. I acknowledge it; but yet your severe reflection had almost made me angry. CHR. Why, I did but compare thee to some of the birds that are of the brisker sort, who will run to and fro in untrodden paths with the shell upon their heads: but pass by that, and consider the matter under debate, and all shall be well betwixt thee and me. HOPE. But, Christian, these three fellows, I am persuaded in my heart, are but a company of cowards: would they have run else, think you, as they did, at the noise of one that was coming on the road? Why did not Little-Faith pluck up a greater heart? He might, methinks, have stood one brush with them, and have yielded when there had been no remedy. CHR. That they are cowards, many have said, but few have found it so in the time of trial. As for a great heart, Little-Faith had none; and I perceive by thee, my brother, hadst thou been the man concerned, thou art but for a brush, and then to yield. And verily, since this is the height of thy stomach now they are at a distance from us, should they appear to thee as they did to him, they might put thee to second thoughts. But consider again, that they are but journeymen thieves; They serve under the king of the bottomless pit, who, if need be, will come to their aid himself, and his voice is as the roaring of a lion. 1 Pet. 5:8. I myself have been engaged as this Little-Faith was, and I found it a terrible thing. These three villains set upon me, and I beginning like a Christian to resist, they gave but a call, and in came their master. I would, as the saying is, have given my life for a penny, but that, as God would have it, I was clothed with armor of proof. Aye, and yet, though I was so harnessed, I found it hard work to quit myself like a man: no man can tell what in that combat attends us, but he that hath been in the battle himself. HOPE. Well, but they ran, you see, when they did but suppose that one Great-Grace was in the way. CHR. True, they have often fled, both they and their master, when Great- Grace hath but appeared; and no marvel, for he is the King's champion. But I trow you will put some difference between Little-Faith and the King's champion. All the King's subjects are not his champions; nor can they, when tried, do such feats of war as he. Is it meet to think that a little child should handle Goliath as David did? or that there should be the strength of an ox in a wren? Some are strong, some are weak; some have great faith, some have little: this man was one of the weak, and therefore he went to the wall. HOPE. I would it had been Great-Grace, for their sakes. CHR. If it had been he, he might have had his hands full: for I must tell you, that though Great-Grace is excellent good at his weapons, and has, and can, so long as he keeps them at sword's point, do well enough with them; yet if they get within him, even Faint-Heart, Mistrust, or the other, it shall go hard but they will throw up his heels. And when a man is down, you know, what can he do? Whoso looks well upon Great-Grace's face, will see those scars and cuts there that shall easily give demonstration of what I say. Yea, once I heard that he should say, (and that when he was in the combat,) We despaired even of life. How did these sturdy rogues and their fellows make David groan, mourn, and roar! Yea, Heman, Psa. 88, and Hezekiah too, though champions in their days, were forced to bestir them when by these assaulted; and yet, notwithstanding, they had their coats soundly brushed by them. Peter, upon a time, would go try what he could do; but though some do say of him that he is the prince of the apostles, they handled him so that they made him at last afraid of a sorry girl. Besides, their king is at their whistle; he is never out of hearing; and if at any time they be put to the worst, he, if possible, comes in to help them; and of him it is said, "The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold; the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon. He esteemeth iron as straw, and brass as rotten wood. The arrow cannot make him fly; sling-stones are turned with him into stubble. Darts are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a spear." Job 41:26-29. What can a man do in this case? It is true, if a man could at every turn have Job's horse, and had skill and courage to ride him, he might do notable things. "For his neck is clothed with thunder. He will not be afraid as a grasshopper: the glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength; he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha! and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shoutings." Job 39:19-25. But for such footmen as thee and I are, let us never desire to meet with an enemy, nor vaunt as if we could do better, when we hear of others that have been foiled, nor be tickled at the thoughts of our own manhood; for such commonly come by the worst when tried. Witness Peter, of whom I made mention before: he would swagger, aye, he would; he would, as his vain mind prompted him to say, do better and stand more for his Master than all men: but who so foiled and run down by those villains as he? When, therefore, we hear that such robberies are done on the King's highway, two things become us to do. 1. To go out harnessed, and be sure to take a shield with us: for it was for want of that, that he who laid so lustily at Leviathan could not make him yield; for, indeed, if that be wanting, he fears us not at all. Therefore, he that had skill hath said, "Above all, take the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked." Eph. 6:16. 2. It is good, also, that we desire of the King a convoy, yea, that he will go with us himself. This made David rejoice when in the Valley of the Shadow of Death; and Moses was rather for dying where he stood, than to go one step without his God. Exod. 33:15. O, my brother, if he will but go along with us, what need we be afraid of ten thousands that shall set themselves against us? Psa. 3:5-8; 27:1-3. But without him, the proud helpers fall under the slain. Isa. 10:4. I, for my part, have been in the fray before now; and though (through the goodness of Him that is best) I am, as you see, alive, yet I cannot boast of any manhood. Glad shall I be if I meet with no more such brunts; though I fear we are not got beyond all danger. However, since the lion and the bear have not as yet devoured me, I hope God will also deliver us from the next uncircumcised Philistine. Then sang Christian, "Poor Little-Faith! hast been among the thieves? Wast robb'd? Remember this, whoso believes, And get more faith; then shall you victors be Over ten thousand-else scarce over three." So they went on, and Ignorance followed. They went then till they came at a place where they saw a way put itself into their way, and seemed withal to lie as strait as the way which they should go; and here they knew not which of the two to take, for both seemed strait before them: therefore here they stood still to consider. And as they were thinking about the way, behold a man black of flesh, but covered with a very light robe, come to them, and asked them why they stood there. They answered, they were going to the Celestial City, but knew not which of these ways to take. "Follow me," said the man, "it is thither that I am going." So they followed him in the way that but now came into the road, which by degrees turned, and turned them so far from the city that they desired to go to, that in a little time their faces were turned away from it; yet they follow him. But by and by, before they were aware, he led them both within the compass of a net, in which they were both so entangled that they knew not what to do; and with that the white robe fell off the black man's back. Then they saw where they were. Wherefore there they lay crying some time, for they could not get themselves out. CHR. Then said Christian to his fellow, Now do I see myself in an error. Did not the shepherds bid us beware of the Flatterer? As is the saying of the wise man, so we have found it this day: "A man that flattereth his neighbor, spreadeth a net for his feet." Prov. 29:5. HOPE. They also gave us a note of directions about the way, for our more sure finding thereof; but therein we have also forgotten to read, and have not kept ourselves from the paths of the destroyer. Here David was wiser than we; for saith he, "Concerning the works of men, by the word of thy lips I have kept me from the paths of the Destroyer." Psa. 17:4. Thus they lay bewailing themselves in the net. At last they espied a Shining One coming towards them with a whip of small cords in his hand. When he was come to the place where they were, he asked them whence they came, and what they did there. They told him that they were poor pilgrims going to Zion, but were led out of their way by a black man clothed in white, who bid us, said they, follow him, for he was going thither too. Then said he with the whip, It is Flatterer, a false apostle, that hath transformed himself into an angel of light. Dan. 11:32; 2 Cor. 11:13,14. So he rent the net, and let the men out. Then said he to them, Follow me, that I may set you in your way again. So he led them back to the way which they had left to follow the Flatterer. Then he asked them, saying, Where did you lie the last night? They said, With the shepherds upon the Delectable Mountains. He asked them then if they had not of the shepherds a note of direction for the way. They answered, Yes. But did you not, said he, when you were at a stand, pluck out and read your note? They answered, No. He asked them, Why? They said they forgot. He asked, moreover, if the shepherds did not bid them beware of the Flatterer. They answered, Yes; but we did not imagine, said they, that this fine-spoken man had been he. Rom. 16:17,18. Then I saw in my dream, that he commanded them to lie down; which when they did, he chastised them sore, to teach them the good way wherein they should walk, Deut. 25:2; 2 Chron. 6:27; and as he chastised them, he said, "As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten; be zealous, therefore, and repent." Rev. 3:19. This done, he bids them to go on their way, and take good heed to the other directions of the shepherds. So they thanked him for all his kindness, and went softly along the right way, singing, "Come hither, you that walk along the way, See how the pilgrims fare that go astray: They catched are in an entangling net, Cause they good counsel lightly did forget: 'Tis true, they rescued were; but yet, you see, They're scouged to boot; let this your caution be." Now, after awhile, they perceived afar off, one coming softly, and alone, all along the highway, to meet them. Then said Christian to his fellow, Yonder is a man with his back towards Zion, and he is coming to meet us. HOPE. I see him; let us take heed to ourselves now, lest he should prove a Flatterer also. So he drew nearer and nearer, and at last came up to them. His name was Atheist, and he asked them whither they were going. CHR. We are going to Mount Zion. Then Atheist fell into a very great laughter. CHR. What's the meaning of your laughter? ATHEIST. I laugh to see what ignorant persons you are, to take upon you so tedious a journey, and yet are like to have nothing but your travel for your pains. CHR. Why, man, do you think we shall not be received? ATHEIST. Received! There is not such a place as you dream of in all this world. CHR. But there is in the world to come. ATHEIST. When I was at home in mine own country I heard as you now affirm, and from that hearing went out to see, and have been seeking this city these twenty years, but find no more of it than I did the first day I set out. Eccles. 10:15; Jer. 17:15. CHR. We have both heard, and believe, that there is such a place to be found. ATHEIST. Had not I, when at home, believed, I had not come thus far to seek; but finding none, (and yet I should, had there been such a place to be found, for I have gone to seek it farther than you,) I am going back again, and will seek to refresh myself with the things that I then cast away for hopes of that which I now see is not. CHR. Then said Christian to Hopeful his companion, Is it true which this man hath said? HOPE. Take heed, he is one of the Flatterers. Remember what it cost us once already for our hearkening to such kind of fellows. What! no Mount Zion? Did we not see from the Delectable Mountains the gate of the city? Also, are we not now to walk by faith? 2 Cor. 5:7. Let us go on, lest the man with the whip overtake us again. You should have taught me that lesson, which I will sound you in the ears withal: "Cease, my son, to hear the instruction that causeth to err from the words of knowledge." Prov. 19:27. I say, my brother, cease to hear him, and let us believe to the saving of the soul. CHR. My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of our belief myself, but to prove thee, and to fetch from thee a fruit of the honesty of thy heart. As for this man, I know that he is blinded by the God of this world. Let thee and me go on, knowing that we have belief of the truth; and no lie is of the truth. 1 John, 5:21. HOPE. Now do I rejoice in hope of the glory of God. So they turned away from the man; and he, laughing at them, went his way. I then saw in my dream, that they went on until they came into a certain country whose air naturally tended to make one drowsy, if he came a stranger into it. And here Hopeful began to be very dull, and heavy to sleep: wherefore he said unto Christian, I do now begin to grow so drowsy that I can scarcely hold open mine eyes; let us lie down here, and take one nap. CHR. By no means, said the other; lest, sleeping, we never awake more. HOPE. Why, my brother? sleep is sweet to the laboring man; we may be refreshed, if we take a nap. CHR. Do you not remember that one of the shepherds bid us beware of the Enchanted Ground? He meant by that, that we should beware of sleeping; wherefore "let us not sleep, as do others; but let us watch and be sober." 1 Thess. 5:6. HOPE. I acknowledge myself in a fault; and had I been here alone, I had by sleeping run the danger of death. I see it is true that the wise man saith, "Two are better than one." Eccl. 4:9. Hitherto hath thy company been my mercy; and thou shalt have a good reward for thy labor. CHR. Now, then, said Christian, to prevent drowsiness in this place, let us fall into good discourse. HOPE. With all my heart, said the other. CHR. Where shall we begin? HOPE. Where God began with us. But do you begin, if you please. CHR. I will sing you first this song: "When saints do sleepy grow, let them come hither, And hear how these two pilgrims talk together; Yea, let them learn of them in any wise, Thus to keep ope their drowsy, slumb'ring eyes. Saints' fellowship, if it be managed well, Keeps them awake, and that in spite of hell." Then Christian began, and said, I will ask you a question. How came you to think at first of doing what you do now? HOPE. Do you mean, how came I at first to look after the good of my soul? CHR. Yes, that is my meaning. HOPE. I continued a great while in the delight of those things which were seen and sold at our fair; things which I believe now would have, had I continued in them still, drowned me in perdition and destruction. CHR. What things were they? HOPE. All the treasures and riches of the world. Also I delighted much in rioting, reveling, drinking, swearing, lying, uncleanness, Sabbath- breaking, and what not, that tended to destroy the soul. But I found at last, by hearing and considering of things that are divine, which, indeed, I heard of you, as also of beloved Faithful, that was put to death for his faith and good living in Vanity Fair, that the end of these things is death, Rom. 6:21-23; and that for these things' sake, the wrath of God cometh upon the children of disobedience. Eph. 5:6. CHR. And did you presently fall under the power of this conviction? HOPE. No, I was not willing presently to know the evil of sin, nor the damnation that follows upon the commission of it; but endeavored, when my mind at first began to be shaken with the word, to shut mine eyes against the light thereof. CHR. But what was the cause of your carrying of it thus to the first workings of God's blessed Spirit upon you? HOPE. The causes were, 1. I was ignorant that this was the work of God upon me. I never thought that by awakenings for sin, God at first begins the conversion of a sinner. 2. Sin was yet very sweet to my flesh, and I was loth to leave it. 3. I could not tell how to part with mine old companions, their presence and actions were so desirable unto me. 4. The hours in which convictions were upon me, were such troublesome and such heart-affrighting hours, that I could not bear, no not so much as the remembrance of them upon my heart. CHR. Then, as it seems, sometimes you got rid of your trouble? HOPE. Yes, verily, but it would come into my mind again; and then I should be as bad, nay, worse than I was before. CHR. Why, what was it that brought your sins to mind again? HOPE. Many things; as, 1. If I did but meet a good man in the streets; or, 2. If I have heard any read in the Bible; or, 3. If mine head did begin to ache; or, 4. If I were told that some of my neighbors were sick; or, 5. If I heard the bell toll for some that were dead; or, 6. If I thought of dying myself; or, 7. If I heard that sudden death happened to others. 8. But especially when I thought of myself, that I must quickly come to judgment. CHR. And could you at any time, with ease, get off the guilt of sin, when by any of these ways it came upon you? HOPE. No, not I; for then they got faster hold of my conscience; and then, if I did but think of going back to sin, (though my mind was turned against it,) it would be double torment to me. CHR. And how did you do then? HOPE. I thought I must endeavor to mend my life; for else, thought I, I am sure to be damned. CHR. And did you endeavor to mend? HOPE. Yes, and fled from, not only my sins, but sinful company too, and betook me to religious duties, as praying, reading, weeping for sin, speaking truth to my neighbors, etc. These things did I, with many others, too much here to relate. CHR. And did you think yourself well then? HOPE. Yes, for a while; but at the last my trouble came tumbling upon me again, and that over the neck of all my reformations. CHR. How came that about, since you were now reformed? HOPE. There were several things brought it upon me, especially such sayings as these: "All our righteousnesses are as filthy rags." Isa. 64:6. "By the works of the law shall no flesh be justified." Gal. 2:16. "When ye have done all these things, say, We are unprofitable," Luke 17:10; with many more such like. From whence I began to reason with myself thus: If all my righteousnesses are as filthy rags; if by the deeds of the law no man can be justified; and if, when we have done all, we are yet unprofitable, then is it but a folly to think of heaven by the law. I farther thought thus: If a man runs a hundred pounds into the shopkeeper's debt, and after that shall pay for all that he shall fetch; yet if his old debt stands still in the book uncrossed, the shopkeeper may sue him for it, and cast him into prison, till he shall pay the debt. CHR. Well, and how did you apply this to yourself? HOPE. Why, I thought thus with myself: I have by my sins run a great way into God's book, and my now reforming will not pay off that score; therefore I should think still, under all my present amendments, But how shall I be freed from that damnation that I brought myself in danger of by my former transgressions? CHR. A very good application: but pray go on. HOPE. Another thing that hath troubled me ever since my late amendments, is, that if I look narrowly into the best of what I do now, I still see sin, new sin, mixing itself with the best of that I do; so that now I am forced to conclude, that notwithstanding my former fond conceits of myself and duties, I have committed sin enough in one day to send me to hell, though my former life had been faultless. CHR. And what did you do then? HOPE. Do! I could not tell what to do, until I broke my mind to Faithful; for he and I were well acquainted. And he told me, that unless I could obtain the righteousness of a man that never had sinned, neither mine own, nor all the righteousness of the world, could save me. CHR. And did you think he spake true? HOPE. Had he told me so when I was pleased and satisfied with my own amendments, I had called him fool for his pains; but now, since I see my own infirmity, and the sin which cleaves to my best performance, I have been forced to be of his opinion. CHR. But did you think, when at first he suggested it to you, that there was such a man to be found, of whom it might justly be said, that he never committed sin? HOPE. I must confess the words at first sounded strangely; but after a little more talk and company with him, I had full conviction about it. CHR. And did you ask him what man this was, and how you must be justified by him? HOPE. Yes, and he told me it was the Lord Jesus, that dwelleth on the right hand of the Most High. Heb. 10:12-21. And thus, said he, you must be justified by him, even by trusting to what he hath done by himself in the days of his flesh, and suffered when he did hang on the tree. Rom. 4:5; Col. 1:14; 1 Pet. 1:19. I asked him further, how that man's righteousness could be of that efficacy, to justify another before God. And he told me he was the mighty God, and did what he did, and died the death also, not for himself, but for me; to whom his doings, and the worthiness of them, should be imputed, if I believed on him. CHR. And what did you do then? HOPE. I made my objections against my believing, for that I thought he was not willing to save me. CHR. And what said Faithful to you then? HOPE. He bid me go to him and see. Then I said it was presumption. He said, No; for I was invited to come. Matt. 11:28. Then he gave me a book of Jesus' inditing, to encourage me the more freely to come; and he said concerning that book, that every jot and tittle thereof stood firmer than heaven and earth. Matt. 24:35. Then I asked him what I must do when I came; and he told me I must entreat upon my knees, Psa. 95:6; Dan. 6:10, with all my heart and soul, Jer. 29:12,13, the Father to reveal him to me. Then I asked him further, how I must make my supplications to him; and he said, Go, and thou shalt find him upon a mercy-seat, where he sits all the year long to give pardon and forgiveness to them that come. Exod. 25:22; Lev. 16:2; Num. 7:89; Heb. 4:16. I told him, that I knew not what to say when I came; and he bid say to this effect: God be merciful to me a sinner, and make me to know and believe in Jesus Christ; for I see, that if his righteousness had not been, or I have not faith in that righteousness, I am utterly cast away. Lord, I have heard that thou art a merciful God, and hast ordained that thy Son Jesus Christ should be the Saviour of the world; and moreover, that thou art willing to bestow him upon such a poor sinner as I am-and I am a sinner indeed. Lord, take therefore this opportunity, and magnify thy grace in the salvation of my soul, through thy Son Jesus Christ. Amen. CHR. And did you do as you were bidden? HOPE. Yes, over, and over, and over. CHR. And did the Father reveal the Son to you? HOPE. Not at the first, nor second, nor third, nor fourth, nor fifth, no, nor at the sixth time neither. CHR. What did you do then? HOPE. What? why I could not tell what to do. CHR. Had you not thoughts of leaving off praying? HOPE. Yes; an hundred times twice told. CHR. And what was the reason you did not? HOPE. I believed that it was true which hath been told me, to wit, that without the righteousness of this Christ, all the world could not save me; and therefore, thought I with myself, if I leave off, I die, and I can but die at the throne of grace. And withal this came into my mind, "If it tarry, wait for it; because it will surely come, and will not tarry." Hab. 2:3. So I continued praying until the Father showed me his Son. CHR. And how was he revealed unto you? HOPE. I did not see him with my bodily eyes, but with the eyes of my understanding, Eph. 1:18,19; and thus it was. One day I was very sad, I think sadder than at any one time in my life; and this sadness was through a fresh sight of the greatness and vileness of my sins. And as I was then looking for nothing but hell, and the everlasting damnation of my soul, suddenly, as I thought, I saw the Lord Jesus looking down from heaven upon me, and saying, "Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved." Acts 16:31. But I replied, Lord, I am a great, a very great sinner: and he answered, "My grace is sufficient for thee." 2 Cor. 12:9. Then I said, But, Lord, what is believing? And then I saw from that saying, "He that cometh to me shall never hunger, and he that believeth on me shall never thirst," John 6:35, that believing and coming was all one; and that he that came, that is, that ran out in his heart and affections after salvation by Christ, he indeed believed in Christ. Then the water stood in mine eyes, and I asked further, But, Lord, may such a great sinner as I am be indeed accepted of thee, and be saved by thee? And I heard him say, "And him that cometh to me, I will in no wise cast out." John 6:37. Then I said, But how, Lord, must I consider of thee in my coming to thee, that my faith may be placed aright upon thee? Then he said, "Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners." 1 Tim. 1:15. He is the end of the law for righteousness to every one that believes. Rom.10:4, and chap. 4. He died for our sins, and rose again for our justification. Rom. 4:25. He loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood. Rev. 1:5. He is the Mediator between God and us. 1 Tim. 2:5. He ever liveth to make intercession for us. Heb. 7:25. From all which I gathered, that I must look for righteousness in his person, and for satisfaction for my sins by his blood: that what he did in obedience to his Father's law, and in submitting to the penalty thereof, was not for himself, but for him that will accept it for his salvation, and be thankful. And now was my heart full of joy, mine eyes full of tears, and mine affections running over with love to the name, people, and ways of Jesus Christ. CHR. This was a revelation of Christ to your soul indeed. But tell me particularly what effect this had upon your spirit. HOPE. It made me see that all the world, notwithstanding all the righteousness thereof, is in a state of condemnation. It made me see that God the Father, though he be just, can justly justify the coming sinner. It made me greatly ashamed of the vileness of my former life, and confounded me with the sense of mine own ignorance; for there never came a thought into my heart before now that showed me so the beauty of Jesus Christ. It made me love a holy life, and long to do something for the honor and glory of the name of the Lord Jesus. Yea, I thought that had I now a thousand gallons of blood in my body, I could spill it all for the sake of the Lord Jesus. I saw then in my dream, that Hopeful looked back, and saw Ignorance, whom they had left behind, coming after. Look, said he to Christian, how far yonder youngster loitereth behind. CHR. Aye, aye, I see him: he careth not for our company. HOPE. But I trow it would not have hurt him, had he kept pace with us hitherto. CHR. That is true; but I warrant you he thinketh otherwise. HOPE. That I think he doth; but, however, let us tarry for him. (So they did.) Then Christian said to him, Come away, man; why do you stay so behind? IGNOR. I take my pleasure in walking alone, even more a great deal than in company, unless I like it the better. Then said Christian to Hopeful, (but softly,) Did I not tell you he cared not for our company? But, however, said he, come up, and let us talk away the time in this solitary place. Then, directing his speech to Ignorance, he said, Come, how do you do? How stands it between God and your soul now? IGNOR. I hope, well; for I am always full of good motions, that come into my mind to comfort me as I walk. CHR. What good motions? Pray tell us. IGNOR. Why, I think of God and heaven. CHR. So do the devils and damned souls. IGNOR. But I think of them, and desire them. CHR. So do many that are never like to come there. "The soul of the sluggard desireth, and hath nothing." Prov. 13:4. IGNOR. But I think of them, and leave all for them. CHR. That I doubt: for to leave all is a very hard matter; yea, a harder matter than many are aware of. But why, or by what, art thou persuaded that thou hast left all for God and heaven? IGNOR. My heart tells me so. CHR. The wise man says, "He that trusteth in his own heart is a fool." Prov. 28:26. IGNOR. That is spoken of an evil heart; but mine is a good one. CHR. But how dost thou prove that? IGNOR. It comforts me in hopes of heaven. CHR. That may be through its deceitfulness; for a man's heart may minister comfort to him in the hopes of that thing for which he has yet no ground to hope. IGNOR. But my heart and life agree together; and therefore my hope is well-grounded. CHR. Who told thee that thy heart and life agree together? IGNOR. My heart tells me so. CHR. "Ask my fellow if I be a thief." Thy heart tells thee so! Except the word of God beareth witness in this matter, other testimony is of no value. IGNOR. But is it not a good heart that hath good thoughts? and is not that a good life that is according to God's commandments? CHR. Yes, that is a good heart that hath good thoughts, and that is a good life that is according to God's commandments; but it is one thing indeed to have these, and another thing only to think so. IGNOR. Pray, what count you good thoughts, and a life according to God's commandments? CHR. There are good thoughts of divers kinds; some respecting ourselves, some God, some Christ, and some other things. IGNOR. What be good thoughts respecting ourselves? CHR. Such as agree with the word of God. IGNOR. When do our thoughts of ourselves agree with the word of God? CHR. When we pass the same judgment upon ourselves which the word passes. To explain myself: the word of God saith of persons in a natural condition, "There is none righteous, there is none that doeth good." It saith also, that, "every imagination of the heart of man is only evil, and that continually." Gen. 6:5; Rom. 3. And again, "The imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth." Gen. 8:21. Now, then, when we think thus of ourselves, having sense thereof, then are our thoughts good ones, because according to the word of God. IGNOR. I will never believe that my heart is thus bad. CHR. Therefore thou never hadst one good thought concerning thyself in thy life. But let me go on. As the word passeth a judgment upon our hearts, so it passeth a judgment upon our ways; and when the thoughts of our hearts and ways agree with the judgment which the word giveth of both, then are both good, because agreeing thereto. IGNOR. Make out your meaning. CHR. Why, the word of God saith, that man's ways are crooked ways, not good but perverse; it saith, they are naturally out of the good way, that they have not known it. Psa. 125:5; Prov. 2:15; Rom. 3:12. Now, when a man thus thinketh of his ways, I say, when he doth sensibly, and with heart-humiliation, thus think, then hath he good thoughts of his own ways, because his thoughts now agree with the judgment of the word of God. IGNOR. What are good thoughts concerning God? CHR. Even, as I have said concerning ourselves, when our thoughts of God do agree with what the word saith of him; and that is, when we think of his being and attributes as the word hath taught, of which I cannot now discourse at large. But to speak of him with reference to us: then have we right thoughts of God when we think that he knows us better than we know ourselves, and can see sin in us when and where we can see none in ourselves; when we think he knows our inmost thoughts, and that our heart, with all its depths, is always open unto his eyes; also when we think that all our righteousness stinks in his nostrils, and that therefore he cannot abide to see us stand before him in any confidence, even in all our best performances. IGNOR. Do you think that I am such a fool as to think that God can see no further than I; or that I would come to God in the best of my performances? CHR. Why, how dost thou think in this matter? IGNOR. Why, to be short, I think I must believe in Christ for justification. CHR. How! think thou must believe in Christ, when thou seest not thy need of him! Thou neither seest thy original nor actual infirmities; but hast such an opinion of thyself, and of what thou doest, as plainly renders thee to be one that did never see the necessity of Christ's personal righteousness to justify thee before God. How, then, dost thou say, I believe in Christ? IGNOR. I believe well enough, for all that. CHR. How dost thou believe? IGNOR. I believe that Christ died for sinners; and that I shall be justified before God from the curse, through his gracious acceptance of my obedience to his laws. Or thus, Christ makes my duties, that are religious, acceptable to his Father by virtue of his merits, and so shall I be justified. CHR. Let me give an answer to this confession of thy faith. 1. Thou believest with a fantastical faith; for this faith is nowhere described in the word. 2. Thou believest with a false faith; because it taketh justification from the personal righteousness of Christ, and applies it to thy own. 3. This faith maketh not Christ a justifier of thy person, but of thy actions; and of thy person for thy action's sake, which is false. 4. Therefore this faith is deceitful, even such as will leave thee under wrath in the day of God Almighty: for true justifying faith puts the soul, as sensible of its lost condition by the law, upon flying for refuge unto Christ's righteousness; (which righteousness of his is not an act of grace by which he maketh, for justification, thy obedience accepted with God, but his personal obedience to the law, in doing and suffering for us what that required at our hands;) this righteousness, I say, true faith accepteth; under the skirt of which the soul being shrouded, and by it presented as spotless before God, it is accepted, and acquitted from condemnation. IGNOR. What! would you have us trust to what Christ in his own person has done without us? This conceit would loosen the reins of our lust, and tolerate us to live as we list: for what matter how we live, if we may be justified by Christ's personal righteousness from all, when we believe it? CHR. Ignorance is thy name, and as thy name is, so art thou: even this thy answer demonstrateth what I say. Ignorant thou art of what justifying righteousness is, and as ignorant how to secure thy soul, through the faith of it, from the heavy wrath of God. Yea, thou also art ignorant of the true effects of saving faith in this righteousness of Christ, which is to bow and win over the heart to God in Christ, to love his name, his word, ways, and people, and not as thou ignorantly imaginest. HOPE. Ask him if ever he had Christ revealed to him from heaven. IGNOR. What! you are a man for revelations! I do believe, that what both you and all the rest of you say about that matter, is but the fruit of distracted brains. HOPE. Why, man, Christ is so hid in God from the natural apprehensions of the flesh, that he cannot by any man be savingly known, unless God the Father reveals him to him. IGNOR. That is your faith, but not mine, yet mine, I doubt not, is as good as yours, though I have not in my head so many whimsies as you. CHR. Give me leave to put in a word. You ought not so slightly to speak of this matter: for this I will boldly affirm, even as my good companion hath done, that no man can know Jesus Christ but by the revelation of the Father: yea, and faith too, by which the soul layeth hold upon Christ, (if it be right,) must be wrought by the exceeding greatness of his mighty power, Matt. 11:27; 1 Cor. 12:3; Eph. 1:17-19; the working of which faith, I perceive, poor Ignorance, thou art ignorant of. Be awakened, then, see thine own wretchedness, and fly to the Lord Jesus; and by his righteousness, which is the righteousness of God, (for he himself is God,) thou shalt be delivered from condemnation. IGNOR.You go so fast I cannot keep pace with you; do you go on before: I must stay a while behind. Then they said, "Well, Ignorance, wilt thou yet foolish be, To slight good counsel, ten times given thee? And if thou yet refuse it, thou shalt know, Ere long, the evil of thy doing so. Remember, man, in time: stoop, do not fear: Good counsel, taken well, saves; therefore hear. But if thou yet shalt slight it, thou wilt be The loser, Ignorance, I'll warrant thee." THE TENTH STAGE. Then Christian addressed himself thus to his fellow: CHR. Well, come, my good Hopeful, I perceive that thou and I must walk by ourselves again. So I saw in my dream, that they went on apace before, and Ignorance he came hobbling after. Then said Christian to his companion, I much pity this poor man: it will certainly go ill with him at last. HOPE. Alas! there are abundance in our town in his condition, whole families, yea, whole streets, and that of pilgrims too; and if there be so many in our parts, how many, think you, must there be in the place where he was born? CHR. Indeed, the word saith, "He hath blinded their eyes, lest they should see," etc. But, now we are by ourselves, what do you think of such men? Have they at no time, think you, convictions of sin, and so, consequently, fears that their state is dangerous? HOPE. Nay, do you answer that question yourself, for you are the elder man. CHR. Then I say, sometimes (as I think) they may; but they being naturally ignorant, understand not that such convictions tend to their good; and therefore they do desperately seek to stifle them, and presumptuously continue to flatter themselves in the way of their own hearts. HOPE. I do believe, as you say, that fear tends much to men's good, and to make them right at their beginning to go on pilgrimage. CHR. Without all doubt it doth, if it be right; for so says the word, "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." Job 28:28; Psalm 111:10; Prov. 1:7; 9:10. HOPE. How will you describe right fear? CHR. True or right fear is discovered by three things: 1. By its rise; it is caused by saving convictions for sin. 2. It driveth the soul to lay fast hold of Christ for salvation. 3. It begetteth and continueth in the soul a great reverence of God, his word, and ways; keeping it tender, and making it afraid to turn from them, to the right hand or to the left, to any thing that may dishonor God, break its peace, grieve the Spirit, or cause the enemy to speak reproachfully. HOPE. Well said; I believe you have said the truth. Are we now almost got past the Enchanted Ground? CHR. Why? are you weary of this discourse? HOPE. No, verily, but that I would know where we are. CHR. We have not now above two miles further to go thereon. But let us return to our matter. Now, the ignorant know not that such conviction as tend to put them in fear, are for their good, and therefore they seek to stifle them. HOPE. How do they seek to stifle them? CHR. 1. They think that those fears are wrought by the devil, (though indeed they are wrought of God,) and thinking so, they resist them, as things that directly tend to their overthrow. 2. They also think that these fears tend to the spoiling of their faith; when, alas for them, poor men that they are, they have none at all; and therefore they harden their hearts against them. 3. They presume they ought not to fear, and therefore, in despite of them, wax presumptuously confident. 4. They see that those fears tend to take away from them their pitiful old self- holiness, and therefore they resist them with all their might. HOPE. I know something of this myself; for before I knew myself it was so with me. CHR. Well, we will leave, at this time, our neighbor Ignorance by himself, and fall upon another profitable question. HOPE. With all my heart; but you shall still begin. CHR. Well then, did you not know, about ten years ago, one Temporary in your parts, who was a forward man in religion then? HOPE. Know him! yes; he dwelt in Graceless, a town about two miles off of Honesty, and he dwelt next door to one Turnback. CHR. Right; he dwelt under the same roof with him. Well, that man was much awakened once: I believe that then he had some sight of his sins, and of the wages that were due thereto. HOPE. I am of your mind, for (my house not being above three miles from him) he would oft-times come to me, and that with many tears. Truly I pitied the man, and was not altogether without hope of him; but one may see, it is not every one that cries, "Lord, Lord!" CHR. He told me once that he was resolved to go on pilgrimage, as we go now; but all of a sudden he grew acquainted with one Save-self, and then he became a stranger to me. HOPE. Now, since we are talking about him, let us a little inquire into the reason of the sudden backsliding of him and such others. CHR. It may be very profitable; but do you begin. HOPE. Well, then, there are, in my judgment, four reasons for it: 1. Though the consciences of such men are awakened, yet their minds are not changed: therefore, when the power of guilt weareth away, that which provoked them to be religious ceaseth; wherefore they naturally turn to their own course again; even as we see the dog that is sick of what he hath eaten, so long as his sickness prevails, he vomits and casts up all; not that he doth this of a free mind, (if we may say a dog has a mind,) but because it troubleth his stomach: but now, when his sickness is over, and so his stomach eased, his desires being not at all alienated from his vomit, he turns him about, and licks up all; and so it is true which is written, "The dog is turned to his own vomit again." 2 Pet. 2:22. Thus, I say, being hot for heaven, by virtue only of the sense and fear of the torments of hell, as their sense and fear of damnation chills and cools, so their desires for heaven and salvation cool also. So then it comes to pass, that when their guilt and fear is gone, their desires for heaven and happiness die, and they return to their course again. 2. Another reason is, they have slavish fears that do overmaster them: I speak now of the fears that they have of men; "For the fear of man bringeth a snare." Prov. 29:25. So then, though they seem to be hot for heaven so long as the flames of hell are about their ears, yet, when that terror is a little over, they betake themselves to second thoughts, namely, that it is good to be wise and not to run (for they know not what) the hazard of losing all, or at least of bringing themselves into unavoidable and unnecessary troubles; and so they fall in with the world again. 3. The shame that attends religion lies also as a block in their way: they are proud and haughty, and religion in their eye is low and contemptible: therefore when they have lost their sense of hell and the wrath to come, they return again to their former course. 4. Guilt, and to meditate terror, are grievous to them; they like not to see their misery before they come into it; though perhaps the sight of at it first, if they loved that sight, might make them fly whither the righteous fly and are safe; but because they do, as I hinted before, even shun the thoughts of guilt and terror, therefore, when once they are rid of their awakenings about the terrors and wrath of God, they harden their hearts gladly, and choose such ways as will harden them more and more. CHR. You are pretty near the business, for the bottom of all is for want of a change in their mind and will. And therefore they are but like the felon that standeth before the judge: he quakes and trembles, and seems to repent most heartily, but the bottom of all is the fear of the halter: not that he hath any detestation of the offence, as it is evident; because, let but this man have his liberty, and he will be a thief, and so a rogue still; whereas, if his mind was changed, he would be otherwise. HOPE. Now I have showed you the reason of their going back, do you show me the manner thereof. CHR. So I will willingly. 1. They draw off their thoughts, all that they may, from the remembrance of God, death, and judgment to come. 2. Then they cast off by degrees private duties, as closet prayer, curbing their lusts, watching, sorrow for sin, and the like. 3. Then they shun the company of lively and warm Christians. 4. After that, they grow cold to public duty, as hearing, reading, godly conference, and the like. 5. They then begin to pick holes, as we say, in the coats of some of the godly, and that devilishly, that they may have a seeming color to throw religion (for the sake of some infirmities they have espied in them) behind their backs. 6. Then they begin to adhere to, and associate themselves with, carnal, loose, and wanton men. 7. Then they give way to carnal and wanton discourses in secret; and glad are they if they can see such things in any that are counted honest, that they may the more boldly do it through their example. 8. After this they begin to play with little sins openly. 9. And then, being hardened, they show themselves as they are. Thus, being launched again into the gulf of misery, unless a miracle of grace prevent it, they everlastingly perish in their own deceivings. Now I saw in my dream, that by this time the pilgrims were got over the Enchanted Ground, and entering into the country of Beulah, whose air was very sweet and pleasant, Isaiah 62:4-12; Song 2:10-12; the way lying directly through it, they solaced themselves there for a season. Yea, here they heard continually the singing of birds, and saw every day the flowers appear in the earth, and heard the voice of the turtle in the land. In this country the sun shineth night and day: wherefore this was beyond the Valley of the Shadow of Death, and also out of the reach of Giant Despair; neither could they from this place so much as see Doubting Castle. Here they were within sight of the city they were going to; also here met them some of the inhabitants thereof; for in this land the shining ones commonly walked, because it was upon the borders of heaven. In this land also the contract between the Bride and the Bridegroom was renewed; yea, here, "as the bridegroom rejoiceth over the bride, so doth God rejoice over them." Here they had no want of corn and wine; for in this place they met with abundance of what they had sought for in all their pilgrimage. Here they heard voices from out of the city, loud voices, saying, "Say ye to the daughter of Zion, Behold, thy salvation cometh! Behold, his reward is with him!" Here all the inhabitants of the country called them "the holy People, the redeemed of the Lord, sought out," etc. Now, as they walked in this land, they had more rejoicing than in parts more remote from the kingdom to which they were bound; and drawing near to the city, they had yet a more perfect view thereof: It was builded of pearls and precious stones, also the streets thereof were paved with gold; so that, by reason of the natural glory of the city, and the reflection of the sunbeams upon it, Christian with desire fell sick; Hopeful also had a fit or two of the same disease: wherefore here they lay by it a while, crying out because of their pangs, "If you see my Beloved, tell him that I am sick of love." But, being a little strengthened, and better able to bear their sickness, they walked on their way, and came yet nearer and nearer, where were orchards, vineyards, and gardens, and their gates opened into the highway. Now, as they came up to these places, behold the gardener stood in the way; to whom the pilgrims said, Whose goodly vineyards and gardens are these? He answered, they are the King's, and are planted here for his own delight, and also for the solace of pilgrims. So the gardener had them into the vineyards, and bid them refresh themselves with the dainties, Deut. 23:24; he also showed them there the King's walks and arbors where he delighted to be: And here they tarried and slept. Now I beheld in my dream, that they talked more in their sleep at this time than ever they did in all their journey; and, being in a muse thereabout, the gardener said even to me, Wherefore musest thou at the matter? It is the nature of the fruit of the grapes of these vineyards, "to go down so sweetly as to cause the lips of them that are asleep to speak." Song 7:9. So I saw that when they awoke, they addressed themselves to go up to the city. But, as I said, the reflection of the sun upon the city (for the city was pure gold, Rev. 21:18,) was so extremely glorious, that they could not as yet with open face behold it, but through an instrument made for that purpose. 2 Cor. 3:18. So I saw, that as they went on, there met them two men in raiment that shone like gold, also their faces shone as the light. These men asked the pilgrims whence they came; and they told them. They also asked them where they had lodged, what difficulties and dangers, what comforts and pleasures, they had met with in the way; and they told them. Then said the men that met them, You have but two difficulties more to meet with, and then you are in the City. Christian then and his companion asked the men to go along with them: so they told them that they would; But, said they, you must obtain it by your own faith. So I saw in my dream, that they went on together till they came in sight of the gate. Now I further saw, that betwixt them and the gate was a river; but there was no bridge to go over, and the river was very deep. At the sight, therefore, of this river the pilgrims were much stunned; but the men that went with them said, You must go through, or you cannot come at the gate. The pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other way to the gate. To which they answered, Yes; but there hath not any, save two, to wit, Enoch and Elijah, been permitted to tread that path since the foundation of the world, nor shall until the last trumpet shall sound. The pilgrims then, especially Christian, began to despond in their mind, and looked this way and that, but no way could be found by them by which they might escape the river. Then they asked the men if the waters were all of a depth. They said, No; yet they could not help them in that case; for, said they, you shall find it deeper or shallower as you believe in the King of the place. Then they addressed themselves to the water, and entering, Christian began to sink, and crying out to his good friend Hopeful, he said, I sink in deep waters; the billows go over my head; all his waves go over me. Selah. Then said the other, Be of good cheer, my brother: I feel the bottom, and it is good. Then said Christian, Ah! my friend, the sorrows of death have compassed me about, I shall not see the land that flows with milk and honey. And with that a great darkness and horror fell upon Christian, so that he could not see before him. Also here he in a great measure lost his senses, so that he could neither remember nor orderly talk of any of those sweet refreshments that he had met with in the way of his pilgrimage. But all the words that he spoke still tended to discover that he had horror of mind, and heart-fears that he should die in that river, and never obtain entrance in at the gate. Here also, as they that stood by perceived, he was much in the troublesome thoughts of the sins that he had committed, both since and before he began to be a pilgrim. It was also observed that he was troubled with apparitions of hobgoblins and evil spirits; for ever and anon he would intimate so much by words. Hopeful therefore here had much ado to keep his brother's head above water; yea, sometimes he would be quite gone down, and then, ere a while, he would rise up again half dead. Hopeful did also endeavor to comfort him, saying, Brother, I see the gate, and men standing by to receive us; but Christian would answer, It is you, it is you they wait for; for you have been hopeful ever since I knew you. And so have you, said he to Christian. Ah, brother, (said he,) surely if I was right he would now arise to help me; but for my sins he hath brought me into the snare, and hath left me. Then said Hopeful, My brother, you have quite forgot the text where it is said of the wicked, "There are no bands in their death, but their strength is firm; they are not troubled as other men, neither are they plagued like other men." Psa. 73:4,5. These troubles and distresses that you go through in these waters, are no sign that God hath forsaken you; but are sent to try you, whether you will call to mind that which heretofore you have received of his goodness, and live upon him in your distresses. Then I saw in my dream, that Christian was in a muse a while. To whom also Hopeful added these words, Be of good cheer, Jesus Christ maketh thee whole. And with that Christian brake out with a loud voice, Oh, I see him again; and he tells me, "When thou passest through the waters, I will be with thee; and through the rivers, they shall not overflow thee." Isa. 43:2. Then they both took courage, and the enemy was after that as still as a stone, until they were gone over. Christian, therefore, presently found ground to stand upon, and so it followed that the rest of the river was but shallow. Thus they got over. Now, upon the bank of the river, on the other side, they saw the two shining men again, who there waited for them. Wherefore, being come out of the river, they saluted them, saying, We are ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for those that shall be the heirs of salvation. Thus they went along towards the gate. Now you must note, that the city stood upon a mighty hill; but the pilgrims went up that hill with ease, because they had these two men to lead them up by the arms: they had likewise left their mortal garments behind them in the river; for though they went in with them, they came out without them. They therefore went up here with much agility and speed, though the foundation upon which the city was framed was higher than the clouds; they therefore went up through the region of the air, sweetly talking as they went, being comforted because they safely got over the river, and had such glorious companions to attend them. The talk that they had with the shining ones was about the glory of the place; who told them that the beauty and glory of it was inexpressible. There, said they, is "Mount Sion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the innumerable company of angels, and the spirits of just men made perfect." Heb. 12:22-24. You are going now, said they, to the paradise of God, wherein you shall see the tree of life, and eat of the never-fading fruits thereof: and when you come there you shall have white robes given you, and your walk and talk shall be every day with the King, even all the days of eternity. Rev. 2:7; 3:4,5; 22:5. There you shall not see again such things as you saw when you were in the lower region upon earth; to wit, sorrow, sickness, affliction, and death; "For the former things are passed away." Rev. 21:4. You are going now to Abraham, to Isaac, and Jacob, and to the prophets, men that God hath taken away from the evil to come, and that are now "resting upon their beds, each one walking in his righteousness." The men then asked, What must we do in the holy place? To whom it was answered, You must there receive the comfort of all your toil, and have joy for all your sorrow; you must reap what you have sown, even the fruit of all your prayers, and tears, and sufferings for the King by the way. Gal. 6:7,8. In that place you must wear crowns of gold, and enjoy the perpetual sight and vision of the Holy One; for "there you shall see him as he is." 1 John, 3:2. There also you shall serve him continually with praise, with shouting and thanksgiving, whom you desired to serve in the world, though with much difficulty, because of the infirmity of your flesh. There your eyes shall be delighted with seeing, and your ears with hearing the pleasant voice of the Mighty One. There you shall enjoy your friends again that are gone thither before you; and there you shall with joy receive even every one that follows into the holy place after you. There also you shall be clothed with glory and majesty, and put into an equipage fit to ride out with the King of Glory. When he shall come with sound of trumpet in the clouds, as upon the wings of the wind, you shall come with him; and when he shall sit upon the throne of judgment, you shall sit by him; yea, and when he shall pass sentence upon all the workers of iniquity, let them be angels or men, you also shall have a voice in that judgment, because they were his and your enemies. Also, when he shall again return to the city, you shall go too with sound of trumpet, and be ever with him. 1 Thess. 4:14-17; Jude 14,15; Dan. 7:9,10; 1 Cor. 6:2,3. Now, while they were thus drawing towards the gate, behold a company of the heavenly host came out to meet them: to whom it was said by the other two shining ones, These are the men that have loved our Lord when they were in the world, and that have left all for his holy name; and he hath sent us to fetch them, and we have brought them thus far on their desired journey, that they may go in and look their Redeemer in the face with joy. Then the heavenly host gave a great shout, saying, "Blessed are they that are called to the marriage-supper of the Lamb." Rev. 19:9. There came out also at this time to meet them several of the King's trumpeters, clothed in white and shining raiment, who, with melodious noises and loud, made even the heavens to echo with their sound. These trumpeters saluted Christian and his fellow with ten thousand welcomes from the world; and this they did with shouting and sound of trumpet. This done, they compassed them round on every side; some went before, some behind, and some on the right hand, and some on the left, (as it were to guard them through the upper regions,) continually sounding as they went, with melodious noise, in notes on high; so that the very sight was to them that could behold it as if heaven itself was come down to meet them. Thus, therefore, they walked on together; and, as they walked, ever and anon these trumpeters, even with joyful sound, would, by mixing their music with looks and gestures, still signify to Christian and his brother how welcome they were into their company, and with what gladness they came to meet them. And now were these two men, as it were, in heaven, before they came to it, being swallowed up with the sight of angels, and with hearing of their melodious notes. Here also they had the city itself in view; and they thought they heard all the bells therein to ring, to welcome them thereto. But, above all, the warm and joyful thoughts that they had about their own dwelling there with such company, and that for ever and ever; oh, by what tongue or pen can their glorious joy be expressed! Thus they came up to the gate. Now when they were come up to the gate, there was written over it, in letters of gold, "BLESSED ARE THEY THAT DO HIS COMMANDMENTS, THAT THEY MAY HAVE RIGHT TO THE TREE OF LIFE, AND MAY ENTER IN THROUGH THE GATES INTO THE CITY." Then I saw in my dream, that the shining men bid them call at the gate: the which when they did, some from above looked over the gate, to wit, Enoch, Moses, and Elijah, etc., to whom it was said, These pilgrims are come from the City of Destruction, for the love that they bear to the King of this place; and then the pilgrims gave in unto them each man his certificate, which they had received in the beginning: those therefore were carried in unto the King, who, when he had read them, said, Where are the men? To whom it was answered, They are standing without the gate. The King then commanded to open the gate, "That the righteous nation (said he) that keepeth the truth may enter in." Isa. 26:2. Now I saw in my dream, that these two men went in at the gate; and lo, as they entered, they were transfigured; and they had raiment put on that shone like gold. There were also that met them with harps and crowns, and gave them to them; the harps to praise withal, and the crowns in token of honor. Then I heard in my dream, that all the bells in the city rang again for joy, and that it was said unto them, "ENTER YE INTO THE JOY OF YOUR LORD." I also heard the men themselves, that they sang with a loud voice, saying, "BLESSING, AND HONOR, AND GLORY, AND POWER, BE UNTO HIM THAT SITTETH UPON THE THRONE, AND UNTO THE LAMB, FOR EVER AND EVER." Now, just as the gates were opened to let in the men, I looked in after them, and behold the city shone like the sun; the streets also were paved with gold; and in them walked many men, with crowns on their heads, palms in their hands, and golden harps, to sing praises withal. There were also of them that had wings, and they answered one another without intermission, saying, Holy, holy, holy is the Lord. And after that they shut up the gates; which, when I had seen, I wished myself among them. Now, while I was gazing upon all these things, I turned my head to look back, and saw Ignorance come up to the river side; but he soon got over, and that without half the difficulty which the other two men met with. For it happened that there was then in that place one Vain-Hope, a ferryman, that with his boat helped him over; so he, as the other I saw, did ascend the hill, to come up to the gate; only he came alone, neither did any man meet him with the least encouragement. When he was come up to the gate, he looked up to the writing that was above, and then began to knock, supposing that entrance should have been quickly administered to him; but he was asked by the men that looked over the top of the gate, Whence come you? and what would you have? He answered, I have ate and drank in the presence of the King, and he has taught in our streets. Then they asked him for his certificate, that they might go in and show it to the King: so he fumbled in his bosom for one, and found none. Then said they, Have you none? but the man answered never a word. So they told the King, but he would not come down to see him, but commanded the two shining ones, that conducted Christian and Hopeful to the city, to go out and take Ignorance, and bind him hand and foot, and have him away. Then they took him up, and carried him through the air to the door that I saw in the side of the hill, and put him in there. Then I saw that there was a way to hell, even from the gate of heaven, as well as from the City of Destruction. So I awoke, and behold it was a dream. CONCLUSION. Now, reader, I have told my dream to thee, See if thou canst interpret it to me, Or to thyself, or neighbor: but take heed Of misinterpreting; for that, instead Of doing good, will but thyself abuse: By misinterpreting, evil ensues. Take heed, also, that thou be not extreme In playing with the outside of my dream; Nor let my figure or similitude Put thee into a laughter, or a feud. Leave this for boys and fools; but as for thee, Do thou the substance of my matter see. Put by the curtains, look within my veil, Turn up my metaphors, and do not fail. There, if thou seekest them, such things thou'lt find As will be helpful to an honest mind. What of my dross thou findest there, be bold To throw away, but yet preserve the gold. What if my gold be wrapped up in ore? None throw away the apple for the core: But if thou shalt cast all away as vain, I know not but 't will make me dream again. THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS FROM THIS WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME; DELIVERED UNDER THE SIMILTUDE OF A DREAM. PART II. WHEREIN IS SET FORTH THE MANNER OF THE SETTING OUT OF CHRISTIAN'S WIFE AND CHILDREN; THEIR DANGEROUS JOURNEY, AND SAFE ARRIVAL AT THE DESIRED COUNTRY. I have used similtudes.-Hos. 12:10. THE THE AUTHOR'S WAY OF SENDING FORTH HIS SECOND PART OF THE PILGRIM. Go, now, my little Book, to every place Where my first Pilgrim has but shown his face: Call at their door: if any say, Who's there? Then answer thou, Christiana is here. If they bid thee come in, then enter thou, With all thy boys; and then, as thou know'st how, Tell who they are, also from whence they came; Perhaps they'll know them by their looks, or name: But if they should not, ask them yet again, If formerly they did not entertain One Christian, a Pilgrim? If they say They did, and were delighted in his way; Then let them know that these related were Unto him; yea, his wife and children are. Tell them, that they have left their house and home; Are turned Pilgrims; seek a world to come; That they have met with hardships in the way; That they do meet with troubles night and day; That they have trod on serpents; fought with devils; Have also overcome a many evils; Yea, tell them also of the next who have, Of love to pilgrimage, been stout and brave Defenders of that way; and how they still Refuse this world to do their Father's will. Go tell them also of those dainty things That pilgrimage unto the Pilgrim brings. Let them acquainted be, too, how they are Beloved of their King, under his care; What goodly mansions he for them provides; Though they meet with rough winds and swelling tides, How brave a calm they will enjoy at last, Who to their Lord, and by his ways hold fast. Perhaps with heart and hand they will embrace Thee, as they did my firstling; and will grace Thee and thy fellows with such cheer and fare, As show well, they of Pilgrims lovers are. OBJECTION I. But how if they will not believe of me That I am truly thine? 'cause some there be That counterfeit the Pilgrim and his name, Seek, by disguise, to seem the very same; And by that means have wrought themselves into The hands and houses of I know not who. ANSWER. 'Tis true, some have, of late, to counterfeit My Pilgrim, to their own my title set; Yea, others half my name, and title too, Have stitched to their books, to make them do. But yet they, by their features, do declare Themselves not mine to be, whose'er they are. If such thou meet'st with, then thine only way Before them all, is, to say out thy say In thine own native language, which no man Now useth, nor with ease dissemble can. If, after all, they still of you shall doubt, Thinking that you, like gypsies, go about, In naughty wise the country to defile; Or that you seek good people to beguile With things unwarrantable; send for me, And I will testify you pilgrims be; Yea, I will testify that only you My Pilgrims are, and that alone will do. OBJECTION II. But yet, perhaps, I may enquire for him Of those who wish him damned life and limb. What shall I do, when I at such a door For Pilgrims ask, and they shall rage the more? ANSWER. Fright not thyself, my Book, for such bugbears Are nothing else but groundless fears. My Pilgrim's book has traveled sea and land, Yet could I never come to understand That it was slighted or turned out of door By any Kingdom, were they rich or poor. In France and Flanders, where men kill each other, My Pilgrim is esteemed a friend, a brother. In Holland, too, 'tis said, as I am told, My Pilgrim is with some, worth more than gold. Highlanders and wild Irish can agree My Pilgrim should familiar with them be. 'Tis in New England under such advance, Receives there so much loving countenance, As to be trimm'd, newcloth'd, and deck'd with gems, That it might show its features, and its limbs. Yet more: so comely doth my Pilgrim walk, That of him thousands daily sing and talk. If you draw nearer home, it will appear My Pilgrim knows no ground of shame or fear: City and country will him entertain, With Welcome, Pilgrim; yea, they can't refrain From smiling, if my Pilgrim be but by, Or shows his head in any company. Brave gallants do my Pilgrim hug and love, Esteem it much, yea, value it above Things of greater bulk; yea, with delight Say, my lark's leg is better than a kite. Young ladies, and young gentlewomen too, Do not small kindness to my Pilgrim show; Their cabinets, their bosoms, and their hearts, My Pilgrim has; 'cause he to them imparts His pretty riddles in such wholsome strains, As yield them profit double to thetr pains Of reading; yea, I think I may be bold To say some prize him far above their gold. The very children that do walk the street, If they do but my holy Pilgrim meet, Salute him will; will wish him well, and say, He is the only stripling of the day. They that have never seen him, yet admire What they have heard of him, and much desire To have his company, and hear him tell Those Pilgrim stories which he knows so well. Yea, some that did not love him at first, But call'd him fool and noddy, say they must, Now they have seen and heard him, him commend And to those whom they love they do him send. Wherefore, my Second Part, thou need'st not be Afraid to show thy head: none can hurt thee, That wish but well to him that went before; 'Cause thou com'st after with a second store Of things as good, as rich, as profitable, For young, for old, for stagg'ring, and for stable. OBJECTION III. But some there be that say, He laughs too loud And some do say, His Head is in a cloud. Some say, His words and stories are so dark, They know not how, by them, to find his mark. ANSWER. One may, I think, say, Both his laughs and cries May well be guess'd at by his wat'ry eyes. Some things are of that nature, as to make One's fancy chuckle, while his heart doth ache: When Jacob saw his Rachel with the sheep, He did at the same time both kiss and weep. Whereas some say, A cloud is in his head; That doth but show his wisdom's covered With its own mantles-and to stir the mind To search well after what it fain would find, Things that seem to be hid in words obscure Do but the godly mind the more allure To study what those sayings should contain, That speak to us in such a cloudy strain. I also know a dark similitude Will on the curious fancy more intrude, And will stick faster in the heart and head, Than things from similes not borrowed. Wherefore, my Book, let no discouragement Hinder thy travels. Behold, thou art sent To friends, not foes; to friends that will give place To thee, thy pilgrims, and thy words embrace. Besides, what my first Pilgrim left conceal'd, Thou, my brave second Pilgrim, hast reveal'd; What Christian left lock'd up, and went his way, Sweet Christiana opens with her key. OBJECTION IV. But some love not the method of your first: Romance they count it; throw't away as dust. If I should meet with such, what should I say? Must I slight them as they slight me, or nay? ANSWER. My Christiana, if with such thou meet, By all means, in all loving wise them greet; Render them not reviling for revile, But, if they frown, I prithee on them smile: Perhaps 'tis nature, or some ill report, Has made them thus despise, or thus retort. Some love no fish, some love no cheese, and some Love not their friends, nor their own house or home; Some start at pig, slight chicken, love not fowl More than they love a cuckoo or an owl. Leave such, my Christiana, to their choice, And seek those who to find thee will rejoice; By no means strive, but, in most humble wise, Present thee to them in thy Pilgrim's guise. Go then, my little Book, and show to all That entertain and bid thee welcome shall, What thou shalt keep close shut up from the rest; And wish what thou shalt show them may be bless'd To them for good, and make them choose to be Pilgrims, by better far than thee or me. Go, then, I say, tell all men who thou art: Say, I am Christiana; and my part Is now, with my four sons, to tell you what It is for men to take a Pilgrim's lot. Go, also, tell them who and what they be That now do go on pilgrimage with thee; Say, Here's my neighbor Mercy: she is one That has long time with me a pilgrim gone: Come, see her in her virgin face, and learn 'Twixt idle ones and pilgrims to discern. Yea, let young damsels learn of her to prize The world which is to come, in any wise. When little tripping maidens follow God, And leave old doting sinners to his rod, 'Tis like those days wherein the young ones cried Hosanna! when the old ones did deride. Next tell them of old Honest, whom you found With his white hairs treading the Pilgrim's ground; Yea, tell them how plain-hearted this man was; How after his good Lord he bare the cross. Perhaps with some gray head, this may prevail With Christ to fall in love, and sin bewail. Tell them also, how Master Fearing went On pilgrimage, and how the time he spent In solitariness, with fears and cries; And how, at last, he won the joyful prize. He was a good man, though much down in spirit; He is a good man, and doth life inherit. Tell them of Master Feeble-mind also, Who not before, but still behind would go. Show them also, how he had like been slain, And how one Great-Heart did his life regain. This man was true of heart; though weak in grace, One might true godliness read in his face. Then tell them of Master Ready-to-Halt, A man with crutches, but much without fault. Tell them how Master Feeble-mind and he Did love, and in opinion much agree. And let all know, though weakness was their chance, Yet sometimes one could sing, the other dance. Forget not Master Valiant-for-the-Truth, That man of courage, though a very youth: Tell every one his spirit was so stout, No man could ever make him face about; And how Great-Heart and he could not forbear, But pull down Doubting-Castle, slay Despair! Overlook not Master Despondency, Nor Much-afraid, his daughter, though they lie Under such mantles, as may make them look (With some) as if their God had them forsook. They softly went, but sure; and, at the end, Found that the Lord of Pilgrims was their friend. When thou hast told the world of all these things, Then turn about, my Book, and touch these strings; Which, if but touched, will such music make, They'll make a cripple dance, a giant quake. Those riddles that lie couched within thy breast, Freely propound, expound; and for the rest Of thy mysterious lines, let them remain For those whose nimble fancies shall them gain. Now may this little Book a blessing be To those who love this little Book and me; And may its buyer have no cause to say, His money is but lost or thrown away. Yea, may this second Pilgrim yield that fruit As may with each good Pilgrim's fancy suit; And may it some persuade, that go astray, To turn their feet and heart to the right way, Is the hearty prayer of The Author, JOHN BUNYAN. THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. PART II. COURTEOUS COMPANIONS, Some time since, to tell you my dream that I had of Christian the pilgrim, and of his dangerous journey towards the Celestial country, was pleasant to me and profitable to you. I told you then also what I saw concerning his wife and children, and how unwilling they were to go with him on pilgrimage; insomuch that he was forced to go on his progress without them; for he durst not run the danger of that destruction which he feared would come by staying with them in the City of Destruction: wherefore, as I then showed you, he left them and departed. Now it hath so happened, through the multiplicity of business, that I have been much hindered and kept back from my wonted travels into those parts whence he went, and so could not, till now, obtain an opportunity to make further inquiry after those whom he left behind, that I might give you an account of them. But having had some concerns that way of late, I went down again thitherward. Now, having taken up my lodging in a wood about a mile off the place, as I slept, I dreamed again. And as I was in my dream, behold, an aged gentleman came by where I lay; and, because he was to go some part of the way that I was traveling, methought I got up and went with him. So, as we walked, and as travelers usually do, I was as if we fell into a discourse; and our talk happened to be about Christian and his travels; for thus I began with the old man: Sir, said I, what town is that there below, that lieth on the left hand of our way? Then said Mr. Sagacity, (for that was his name,) It is the City of Destruction, a populous place, but possessed with a very ill-conditioned and idle sort of people. I thought that was that city, quoth I; I went once myself through that town; and therefore know that this report you give of it is true. SAG. Too true! I wish I could speak truth in speaking better of them that dwell therein. Well, sir, quoth I, then I perceive you to be a well-meaning man, and so one that takes pleasure to hear and tell of that which is good. Pray, did you never hear what happened to a man some time ago of this town, (whose name was Christian,) that went on a pilgrimage up towards the higher regions? SAG. Hear of him! Aye, and I also heard of the molestations, troubles, wars, captivities, cries, groans, frights, and fears, that he met with and had on his journey. Besides, I must tell you, all our country rings of him; there are but few houses that have heard of him and his doings, but have sought after and got the records of his pilgrimage; yea, I think I may say that his hazardous journey has got many well-wishers to his ways; for, though when he was here he was fool in every man's mouth, yet now he is gone he is highly commended of all. For 'tis said he lives bravely where he is: yea, many of them that are resolved never to run his hazards, yet have their mouths water at his gains. They may, quoth I, well think, if they think any thing that is true, that he liveth well where he is; for he now lives at, and in the fountain of life, and has what he has without labor and sorrow, for there is no grief mixed therewith. But, pray what talk have the people about him? SAG. Talk! the people talk strangely about him: some say that he now walks in white, Rev. 3:4; that he has a chain of gold about his neck; that he has a crown of gold, beset with pearls, upon his head: others say, that the shining ones, who sometimes showed themselves to him in his journey, are become his companions, and that he is as familiar with them where he is, as here one neighbor is with another. Besides, it is confidently affirmed concerning him, that the King of the place where he is has bestowed upon him already a very rich and pleasant dwelling at court, and that he every day eateth and drinketh, and walketh and talketh with him, and receiveth of the smiles and favors of him that is Judge of all there. Zech. 3:7; Luke 14:14,15. Moreover, it is expected of some, that his Prince, the Lord of that country, will shortly come into these parts, and will know the reason, if they can give any, why his neighbors set so little by him, and had him so much in derision, when they perceived that he would be a pilgrim. Jude, 14,15. For they say, that now he is so in the affections of his Prince, that his Sovereign is so much concerned with the indignities that were cast upon Christian when he became a pilgrim, that he will look upon all as if done unto himself, Luke 10:16; and no marvel, for it was for the love that he had to his Prince that he ventured as he did. I dare say, quoth I; I am glad on't; I am glad for the poor man's sake, for that now he has rest from his labor, and for that he now reapeth the benefit of his tears with joy; and for that he has got beyond the gun- shot of his enemies, and is out of the reach of them that hate him. Rev. 14:13; Psa. 126:5,6. I also am glad for that a rumor of these things is noised abroad in this country; who can tell but that it may work some good effect on some that are left behind? But pray, sir, while it is fresh in my mind, do you hear anything of his wife and children? Poor hearts! I wonder in my mind what they do. SAG. Who? Christiana and her sons? They are like to do as well as Christian did himself; for though they all played the fool at first, and would by no means be persuaded by either the tears or entreaties of Christian, yet second thoughts have wrought wonderfully with them: so they have packed up, and are also gone after him. Better and better, quoth I: but, what! wife and children, and all? SAG. It is true: I can give you an account of the matter, for I was upon the spot at the instant, and was thoroughly acquainted with the whole affair. Then, said I, a man, it seems, may report it for a truth. SAG. You need not fear to affirm it: I mean, that they are all gone on pilgrimage, both the good woman and her four boys. And being we are, as I perceive, going some considerable way together, I will give you an account of the whole matter. This Christiana, (for that was her name from the day that she with her children betook themselves to a pilgrim's life,) after her husband was gone over the river, and she could hear of him no more, her thoughts began to work in her mind. First, for that she had lost her husband, and for that the loving bond of that relation was utterly broken betwixt them. For you know, said he to me, nature can do no less but entertain the living with many a heavy cogitation, in the remembrance of the loss of loving relations. This, therefore, of her husband did cost her many a tear. But this was not all; for Christiana did also begin to consider with herself, whether her unbecoming behavior towards her husband was not one cause that she saw him no more, and that in such sort he was taken away from her. And upon this came into her mind, by swarms, all her unkind, unnatural, and ungodly carriage to her dear friend; which also clogged her conscience, and did load her with guilt. She was, moreover, much broken with recalling to remembrance the restless groans, brinish tears, and self-bemoanings of her husband, and how she did harden her heart against all his entreaties and loving persuasions of her and her sons to go with him; yea, there was not any thing that Christian either said to her, or did before her, all the while that his burden did hang on his back, but it returned upon her like a flash of lightning, and rent the caul of her heart in sunder; especially that bitter outcry of his, "What shall I do to be saved?" did ring in her ears most dolefully. Then said she to her children, Sons, we are all undone. I have sinned away your father, and he is gone: he would have had us with him, but I would not go myself: I also have hindered you of life. With that the boys fell into tears, and cried out to go after their father. Oh, said Christiana, that it had been but our lot to go with him! then had it fared well with us, beyond what it is like to do now. For, though I formerly foolishly imagined, concerning the troubles of your father, that they proceeded of a foolish fancy that he had, or for that he was overrun with melancholy humors; yet now it will not out of my mind, but that they sprang from another cause; to wit, for that the light of life was given him, James 1:23-25; John 8:12; by the help of which, as I perceive, he has escaped the snares of death. Prov. 14:27. Then they all wept again, and cried out, Oh, woe worth the day! The next night Christiana had a dream; and, behold, she saw as if a broad parchment was opened before her, in which were recorded the sum of her ways; and the crimes, as she thought looked very black upon her. Then she cried out aloud in her sleep, "Lord, have mercy upon me a sinner!" Luke 18:13; and the little children heard her. After this she thought she saw two very ill-favored ones standing by her bedside, and saying, What shall we do with this woman? for she cries out for mercy, waking and sleeping: if she be suffered to go on as she begins, we shall lose her as we have lost her husband. Wherefore we must, by one way or other, seek to take her off from the thoughts of what shall be hereafter, else all the world cannot help but she will become a pilgrim. Now she awoke in a great sweat, also a trembling was upon her: but after a while she fell to sleeping again. And then she thought she saw Christian, her husband, in a place of bliss among many immortals, with a harp in his hand, standing and playing upon it before One that sat on a throne with a rainbow about his head. She saw also, as if he bowed his head with his face to the paved work that was under his Prince's feet, saying, "I heartily thank my Lord and King for bringing me into this place." Then shouted a company of them that stood round about, and harped with their harps; but no man living could tell what they said but Christian and his companions. Next morning, when she was up, had prayed to God, and talked with her children a while, one knocked hard at the door; to whom she spake out, saying, "If thou comest in God's name, come in." So he said, "Amen;" and opened the door, and saluted her with, "Peace be to this house." The which when he had done, he said, "Christiana, knowest thou wherefore I am come?" Then she blushed and trembled; also her heart began to wax warm with desires to know from whence he came, and what was his errand to her. So he said unto her, "My name is Secret; I dwell with those that are on high. It is talked of where I dwell as if thou hadst a desire to go thither: also there is a report that thou art aware of the evil thou hast formerly done to thy husband, in hardening of thy heart against his way, and in keeping of these babes in their ignorance. Christiana, the Merciful One has sent me to tell thee, that he is a God ready to forgive, and that he taketh delight to multiply the pardon of offences. He also would have thee to know, that he inviteth thee to come into his presence, to his table, and that he will feed thee with the fat of his house, and with the heritage of Jacob thy father. "There is Christian, thy husband that was, with legions more, his companions, ever beholding that face that doth minister life to beholders; and they will all be glad when they shall hear the sound of thy feet step over thy Father's threshold." Christiana at this was greatly abashed in herself, and bowed her head to the ground. This visitor proceeded, and said, "Christiana, here is also a letter for thee, which I have brought from thy husband's King." So she took it, and opened it, but it smelt after the manner of the best perfume. Song 1:3. Also it was written in letters of gold. The contents of the letter were these, That the King would have her to do as did Christian her husband; for that was the way to come to his city, and to dwell in his presence with joy for ever. At this the good woman was quite overcome; so she cried out to her visitor, Sir, will you carry me and my children with you, that we also may go and worship the King? Then said the visitor, Christiana, the bitter is before the sweet. Thou must through troubles, as did he that went before thee, enter this Celestial City. Wherefore I advise thee to do as did Christian thy husband: go to the Wicket-gate yonder, over the plain, for that stands at the head of the way up which thou must go; and I wish thee all good speed. Also I advise that thou put this letter in thy bosom, that thou read therein to thyself and to thy children until you have got it by heart; for it is one of the songs that thou must sing while thou art in this house of thy pilgrimage, Psalm 119:54; also this thou must deliver in at the further gate. Now I saw in my dream, that this old gentleman, as he told me the story, did himself seem to be greatly affected therewith. He moreover proceeded, and said, So Christiana called her sons together, and began thus to address herself unto them: "My sons, I have, as you may perceive, been of late under much exercise in my soul about the death of your father: not for that I doubt at all of his happiness, for I am satisfied now that he is well. I have also been much affected with the thoughts of my own state and yours, which I verily believe is by nature miserable. My carriage also to your father in his distress is a great load to my conscience; for I hardened both mine own heart and yours against him, and refused to go with him on pilgrimage. The thoughts of these things would now kill me outright, but that for a dream which I had last night, and but that for the encouragement which this stranger has given me this morning. Come, my children, let us pack up, and begone to the gate that leads to the Celestial country, that we may see your father, and be with him and his companions in peace, according to the laws of that land. Then did her children burst out into tears, for joy that the heart of their mother was so inclined. So their visitor bid them farewell; and they began to prepare to set out for their journey. But while they were thus about to be gone, two of the women that were Christiana's neighbors came up to her house, and knocked at her door. To whom she said as before, If you come in God's name, come in. At this the women were stunned; for this kind of language they used not to hear, or to perceive to drop from the lips of Christiana. Yet they came in: but behold, they found the good woman preparing to be gone from her house. So they began, and said, Neighbor, pray what is your meaning by this? Christiana answered, and said to the eldest of them, whose name was Mrs. Timorous, I am preparing for a journey. This Timorous was daughter to him that met Christian upon the Hill of Difficulty, and would have had him go back for fear of the lions. TIM. For what journey, I pray you? CHR. Even to go after my good husband. And with that she fell a weeping. TIM. I hope not so, good neighbor; pray, for your poor children's sake, do not so unwomanly cast away yourself. CHR. Nay, my children shall go with me; not one of them is willing to stay behind. TIM. I wonder in my very heart what or who has brought you into this mind! CHR. O neighbor, knew you but as much as I do, I doubt not but that you would go along with me. TIM. Prithee, what new knowledge hast thou got, that so worketh off thy mind from thy friends, and that tempteth thee to go nobody knows where? CHR. Then Christiana replied, I have been sorely afflicted since my husband's departure from me; but especially since he went over the river. But that which troubleth me most is, my churlish carriage to him when he was under his distress. Besides, I am now as he was then; nothing will serve me but going on pilgrimage. I was a dreaming last night that I saw him. O that my soul was with him! He dwelleth in the presence of the King of the country; he sits and eats with him at his table; he is become a companion of immortals, and has a house now given him to dwell in, to which the best palace on earth, if compared, seems to me but a dunghill. 2 Cor. 5:1-4. The Prince of the place has also sent for me, with promise of entertainment, if I shall come to him; his messenger was here even now, and has brought me a letter, which invites me to come. And with that she plucked out her letter, and read it, and said to them, What now will you say to this? TIM. Oh, the madness that has possessed thee and thy husband, to run yourselves upon such difficulties! You have heard, I am sure what your husband did meet with, even in a manner at the first step that he took on his way, as our neighbor Obstinate can yet testify, for he went along with him; yea, and Pliable too, until they, like wise men, were afraid to go any further. We also heard, over and above, how he met with the lions, Apollyon, the Shadow of Death, and many other things. Nor is the danger that he met with at Vanity Fair to be forgotten by thee. For if he, though a man, was so hard put to it, what canst thou, being but a poor woman, do? Consider also, that these four sweet babes are thy children, thy flesh and thy bones. Wherefore, though thou shouldest be so rash as to cast away thyself, yet, for the sake of the fruit of thy body, keep thou at home. But Christiana said unto her, Tempt me not, my neighbor: I have now a price put into my hands to get gain, and I should be a fool of the greatest size if I should have no heart to strike in with the opportunity. And for that you tell me of all these troubles which I am like to meet with in the way, they are so far from being to me a discouragement, that they show I am in the right. The bitter must come before the sweet, and that also will make the sweet the sweeter. Wherefore, since you came not to my house in God's name, as I said, I pray you to be gone, and not to disquiet me further. Then Timorous reviled her, and said to her fellow, Come, neighbor Mercy, let us leave her in her own hands, since she scorns our counsel and company. But Mercy was at a stand, and could not so readily comply with her neighbor; and that for a two fold reason. 1. Her bowels yearned over Christiana. So she said within herself, if my neighbor will needs be gone, I will go a little way with her, and help her. 2. Her bowels yearned over her own soul; for what Christiana had said had taken some hold upon her mind. Wherefore she said within herself again, I will yet have more talk with this Christiana; and, if I find truth and life in what she shall say, I myself with my heart shall also go with her. Wherefore Mercy began thus to reply to her neighbor Timorous: MER. Neighbor, I did indeed come with you to see Christiana this morning; and since she is, as you see, taking of her last farewell of the country, I think to walk this sunshiny morning a little with her, to help her on her way. But she told her not of her second reason, but kept it to herself. TIM. Well, I see you have a mind to go a fooling too; but take heed in time, and be wise: while we are out of danger, we are out; but when we are in, we are in. So Mrs. Timorous returned to her house, and Christiana betook herself to her journey. But when Timorous was got home to her house she sends for some of her neighbors, to wit, Mrs. Bat's-Eyes, Mrs. Inconsiderate, Mrs. Light-Mind, and Mrs. Know-Nothing. So when they were come to her house, she falls to telling of the story of Christiana, and of her intended journey. And thus she began her tale: TIM. Neighbors, having had little to do this morning, I went to give Christiana a visit; and when I came at the door I knocked, as you know it is our custom; and she answered, If you come in God's name, come in. So in I went, thinking all was well; but, when I came in I found her preparing herself to depart the town, she, and also her children. So I asked her what was her meaning by that. And she told me, in short, that she was now of a mind to go on pilgrimage, as did her husband. She told me also of a dream that she had, and how the King of the country where her husband was, had sent an inviting letter to come thither. Then said Mrs. Know-Nothing, And what, do you think she will go? TIM. Aye, go she will, whatever comes on't; and methinks I know it by this; for that which was my great argument to persuade her to stay at home, (to wit, the troubles she was like to meet with on the way,) is one great argument with her to put her forward on her journey. For she told me in so many words, The bitter goes before the sweet; yea, and forasmuch as it doth, it makes the sweet the sweeter. MRS. BAT'S-EYES. Oh, this blind and foolish woman! said she; and will she not take warning by her husband's afflictions? For my part, I see, if he were here again, he would rest himself content in a whole skin, and never run so many hazards for nothing. Mrs. Inconsiderate also replied, saying, Away with such fantastical fools from the town: a good riddance, for my part, I say, of her; should she stay where she dwells, and retain this her mind, who could live quietly by her? for she will either be dumpish, or unneighborly, or talk of such matters as no wise body can abide. Wherefore, for my part, I shall never be sorry for her departure; let her go, and let better come in her room: it was never a good world since these whimsical fools dwelt in it. Then Mrs. Light-Mind added as followeth: Come, put this kind of talk away. I was yesterday at Madam Wanton's, where we were as merry as the maids. For who do you think should be there but I and Mrs. Love-the- Flesh, and three or four more, with Mrs. Lechery, Mrs. Filth, and some others: so there we had music and dancing, and what else was meet to fill up the pleasure. And I dare say, my lady herself is an admirable well-bred gentlewoman, and Mr. Lechery is as pretty a fellow. THE FIRST STAGE. By this time Christiana was got on her way, and Mercy went along with her: so as they went, her children being there also, Christiana began to discourse. And, Mercy, said Christiana, I take this as an unexpected favor, that thou shouldest set forth out of doors with me to accompany me a little in the way. MER. Then said young Mercy, (for she was but young,) If I thought it would be to purpose to go with you, I would never go near the town any more. CHR. Well, Mercy, said Christiana, cast in thy lot with me: I well know what will be the end of our pilgrimage: my husband is where he would not but be for all the gold in the Spanish mines. Nor shalt thou be rejected, though thou goest but upon my invitation. The King, who hath sent for me and my children, is one that delighteth in mercy. Besides, if thou wilt, I will hire thee, and thou shalt go along with me as my servant. Yet we will have all things in common betwixt thee and me: only go along with me. MER. But how shall I be ascertained that I also should be entertained? Had I this hope but from one that can tell, I would make no stick at all, but would go, being helped by Him that can help, though the way was never so tedious. CHR. Well, loving Mercy, I will tell thee what thou shalt do: go with me to the Wicket-gate, and there I will further inquire for thee; and if there thou shalt not meet with encouragement, I will be content that thou return to thy place: I will also pay thee for thy kindness which thou showest to me and my children, in the accompanying of us in the way that thou dost. MER. Then will I go thither, and will take what shall follow; and the Lord grant that my lot may there fall, even as the King of heaven shall have his heart upon me. Christiana then was glad at heart, not only that she had a companion, but also for that she had prevailed with this poor maid to fall in love with her own salvation. So they went on together, and Mercy began to weep. Then said Christiana, Wherefore weepeth my sister so? MER. Alas! said she, who can but lament, that shall but rightly consider what a state and condition my poor relations are in, that yet remain in our sinful town? And that which makes my grief the more heavy is, because they have no instructor, nor any to tell them what is to come. CHR. Pity becomes pilgrims; and thou dost weep for thy friends, as my good Christian did for me when he left me: he mourned for that I would not heed nor regard him; but his Lord and ours did gather up his tears, and put them into his bottle; and now both I and thou, and these my sweet babes, are reaping the fruit and benefit of them. I hope, Mercy, that these tears of thine will not be lost; for the truth hath said, that "they that sow in tears shall reap in joy." And "he that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with him." Psa. 126:5,6. Then said Mercy, "Let the Most Blessed be my guide, If it be his blessed will, Unto his gate, into his fold, Up to his holy hill. And let him never suffer me To swerve, or turn aside From his free-grace and holy ways, Whate'er shall me betide. And let him gather them of mine That I have left behind; Lord, make them pray they may be thine, With all their heart and mind." Now my old friend proceeded, and said, But when Christiana came to the Slough of Despond, she began to be at a stand; For, said she, this is the place in which my dear husband had like to have been smothered with mud. She perceived, also, that notwithstanding the command of the King to make this place for pilgrims good, yet it was rather worse than formerly. So I asked if that was true. Yes, said the old gentleman, too true; for many there be that pretend to be the King's laborers, and that say they are for mending the King's highways, who bring dirt and dung instead of stones, and so mar instead of mending. Here Christiana therefore, with her boys, did make a stand. But said Mercy, Come, let us venture; only let us be wary. Then they looked well to their steps, and made a shift to get staggering over. Yet Christiana had like to have been in, and that not once or twice. Now they had no sooner got over, but they thought they heard words that said unto them, "Blessed is she that believeth; for there shall be a performance of those things which were told her from the Lord." Luke 1:45. Then they went on again; and said Mercy to Christiana, had I as good ground to hope for a loving reception at the Wicket-gate as you, I think no Slough of Despond would discourage me. Well, said the other, you know your sore, and I know mine; and, good friend, we shall all have enough evil before we come to our journey's end. For can it be imagined that the people who design to attain such excellent glories as we do, and who are so envied that happiness as we are, but that we shall meet with what fears and snares, with what troubles and afflictions they can possibly assault us with that hate us? And now Mr. Sagacity left me to dream out my dream by myself. Wherefore, methought I saw Christiana, and Mercy, and the boys, go all of them up to the gate: to which, when they were come, they betook themselves to a short debate about how they must manage their calling at the gate, and what should be said unto him that did open to them: so it was concluded, since Christiana was the eldest, that she should knock for entrance, and that she should speak to him that did open, for the rest. So Christiana began to knock, and as her poor husband did, she knocked and knocked again. But instead of any that answered, they all thought they heard as if a dog came barking upon them; a dog, and a great one too; and this made the women and children afraid. Nor durst they for a while to knock any more, for fear the mastiff should fly upon them. Now, therefore, they were greatly tumbled up and down in their minds, and knew not what to do: knock they durst not, for fear of the dog; go back they durst not, for fear the keeper of that gate should espy them as they so went, and should be offended with them; at last they thought of knocking again, and knocked more vehemently than they did at first. Then said the keeper of the gate, Who is there? So the dog left off to bark, and he opened unto them. Then Christiana made low obeisance, and said, Let not our Lord be offended with his handmaidens, for that we have knocked at his princely gate. Then said the keeper, Whence come ye? And what is it that you would have? Christiana answered, We are come from whence Christian did come, and upon the same errand as he; to wit, to be, if it shall please you, graciously admitted by this gate into the way that leads unto the Celestial City. And I answer, my Lord, in the next place, that I am Christiana, once the wife of Christian, that now is gotten above. With that the keeper of the gate did marvel, saying, What, is she now become a pilgrim that but a while ago abhorred that life? Then she bowed her head, and said, Yea; and so are these my sweet babes also. Then he took her by the hand and led her in, and said also, Suffer little children to come unto me; and with that he shut up the gate. This done, he called to a trumpeter that was above, over the gate, to entertain Christiana with shouting, and the sound of trumpet for joy. So he obeyed, and sounded, and filled the air with his melodious notes. Now all this while poor Mercy did stand without, trembling and crying, for fear that she was rejected. But when Christiana had got admittance for herself and her boys, then she began to make intercession for Mercy. CHR. And she said, My Lord, I have a companion that stands yet without, that is come hither upon the same account as myself: one that is much dejected in her mind, for that she comes, as she thinks, without sending for; whereas I was sent for by my husband's King to come. Now Mercy began to be very impatient, and each minute was as long to her as an hour; wherefore she prevented Christiana from a fuller interceding for her, by knocking at the gate herself. And she knocked then so loud that she made Christiana to start. Then said the keeper of the gate, Who is there? And Christiana said, It is my friend. So he opened the gate, and looked out, but Mercy was fallen down without in a swoon, for she fainted, and was afraid that no gate should be opened to her. Then he took her by the hand, and said, Damsel, I bid thee arise. Oh, sir, said she, I am faint; there is scarce life left in me. But he answered, that one once said, "When my soul fainted within me I remembered the Lord: and my prayer came unto thee, into thy holy temple." Jonah 2:7. Fear not, but stand upon thy feet, and tell me wherefore thou art come. MER. I am come for that unto which I was never invited, as my friend Christiana was. Hers was from the King, and mine was but from her. Wherefore I fear I presume. KEEP. Did she desire thee to come with her to this place? MER. Yes; and, as my Lord sees, I am come. And if there is any grace and forgiveness of sins to spare, I beseech that thy poor handmaid may be a partaker thereof. Then he took her again by the hand, and led her gently in, and said, I pray for all them that believe on me, by what means soever they come unto me. Then said he to those that stood by, Fetch something and give it to Mercy to smell on, thereby to stay her faintings; so they fetched her a bundle of myrrh, and a while after she was revived. And now were Christiana and her boys, and Mercy, received of the Lord at the head of the way, and spoken kindly unto by him. Then said they yet further unto him, We are sorry for our sins, and beg of our Lord his pardon, and further information what we must do. I grant pardon, said he, by word and deed; by word in the promise of forgiveness, by deed in the way I obtained it. Take the first from my lips with a kiss, and the other as it shall be revealed. Song 1:2; John 20:20. Now I saw in my dream, that he spake many good words unto them, whereby they were greatly gladdened. He also had them up to the top of the gate, and showed them by what deed they were saved; and told them withal, that that sight they would have again as they went along in the way, to their comfort. So he left them awhile in a summer parlor below, where they entered into talk by themselves; and thus Christiana began. O how glad am I that we are got in hither. MER. So you well may; but I, of all, have cause to leap for joy. CHR. I thought one time, as I stood at the gate, because I had knocked and none did answer, that all our labor had been lost, especially when that ugly cur made such a heavy barking against us. MER. But my worst fear was after I saw that you was taken into his favor, and that I was left behind. Now, thought I, it is fulfilled which is written, "Two women shall be grinding at the mill; the one shall be taken, and the other left." Matt. 24:41. I had much ado to forbear crying out, Undone! And afraid I was to knock any more; but when I looked up to what was written over the gate, I took courage. I also thought that I must either knock again, or die; so I knocked, but I cannot tell how, for my spirit now struggled between life and death. CHR. Can you not tell how you knocked? I am sure your knocks were so earnest that the very sound of them made me start; I thought I never heard such knocking in all my life; I thought you would come in by a violent hand, or take the kingdom by storm. Matt. 11:12. MER. Alas! to be in my case, who that so was could but have done so? You saw that the door was shut upon me, and there was a most cruel dog thereabout. Who, I say, that was so faint-hearted as I, would not have knocked with all their might? But pray, what said my Lord to my rudeness? Was he not angry with me? CHR. When he heard your lumbering noise, he gave a wonderful innocent smile; I believe what you did pleased him well, for he showed no sign to the contrary. But I marvel in my heart why he keeps such a dog: had I known that before, I should not have had heart enough to have ventured myself in this manner. But now we are in, we are in, and I am glad with all my heart. MER. I will ask, if you please, next time he comes down, why he keeps such a filthy cur in his yard; I hope he will not take it amiss. Do so, said the children, and persuade him to hang him; for we are afraid he will bite us when we go hence. So at last he came down to them again, and Mercy fell to the ground on her face before him, and worshiped, and said, "Let my Lord accept the sacrifice of praise which I now offer unto him with the calves of my lips." So he said unto her, Peace be to thee; stand up. But she continued upon her face, and said, "Righteous art thou, O Lord, when I plead with thee; yet let me talk with thee of thy judgments." Jer. 12:1. Wherefore dost thou keep so cruel a dog in thy yard, at the sight of which such women and children as we are ready to fly from thy gate for fear? He answered and said, That dog has another owner; he also is kept close in another man's ground, only my pilgrims hear his barking; he belongs to the castle which you see there at a distance, but can come up to the walls of this place. He has frighted many an honest pilgrim from worse to better, by the great voice of his roaring. Indeed, he that owneth him doth not keep him out of any good-will to me or mine, but with intent to keep the pilgrims from coming to me, and that they may be afraid to come and knock at this gate for entrance. Sometimes also he has broken out, and has worried some that I loved; but I take all at present patiently. I also give my pilgrims timely help, so that they are not delivered to his power, to do with them what his doggish nature would prompt him to. But what my purchased one, I trow, hadst thou known never so much beforehand, thou wouldest not have been afraid of a dog. The beggars that go from door to door, will, rather than lose a supposed alms, run the hazard of the bawling, barking, and biting too of a dog; and shall a dog, a dog in another man's yard, a dog whose barking I turn to the profit of pilgrims, keep any from coming to me? I deliver them from the lions, and my darling from the power of the dog. Psa. 22:21,22. MER. Then said Mercy, I confess my ignorance; I spake what I understood not; I acknowledge that thou doest all things well. CHR. Then Christiana began to talk of their journey, and to inquire after the way. So he fed them and washed their feet, and set them in the way of his steps, according as he had dealt with her husband before. THE SECOND STAGE. So I saw in my dream, that they walked on their way, and had the weather very comfortable to them. Then Christiana began to sing, saying, Blessed be the day that I began A pilgrim for to be; And blessed also be the man That thereto moved me. 'Tis true, 't was long ere I began To seek to live for ever; But now I run fast as I can: 'Tis better late than never. Our tears to joy, our fears to faith, Are turned, as we see; Thus our beginning (as one saith) Shows what our end will be. Now there was, on the other side of the wall that fenced in the way up which Christiana and her companions were to go, a garden, and that garden belonged to him whose was that barking dog, of whom mention was made before. And some of the fruit-trees that grew in that garden shot their branches over the wall; and being mellow, they that found them did gather them up, and eat of them to their hurt. So Christiana's boys, as boys are apt to do, being pleased with the trees, and with the fruit that hung thereon, did pluck them, and began to eat. Their mother did also chide them for so doing, But still the boys went on. Well, said she, my sons, you transgress, for that fruit is none of ours; but she did not know that it belonged to the enemy: I'll warrant you, if she had she would have been ready to die for fear. But that passed, and they went on their way. Now, by that they were gone about two bow-shots from the place that led them into the way, they espied two very ill- favored ones coming down apace to meet them. With that, Christiana and Mercy her friend covered themselves with their veils, and so kept on their journey: the children also went on before; so that at last they met together. Then they that came down to meet them, came just up to the women, as if they would embrace them; but Christiana said, stand back, or go peaceably as you should. Yet these two, as men that are deaf, regarded not Christiana's words, but began to lay hands upon them: at that Christiana waxing very wroth, spurned at them with her feet. Mercy also, as well as she could, did what she could to shift them. Christiana again said to them, Stand back, and be gone, for we have no money to lose, being pilgrims, as you see, and such too as live upon the charity of our friends. ILL-FAV. Then said one of the two men, We make no assault upon you for money, but are come out to tell you, that if you will but grant one small request which we shall ask, we will make women of you for ever. CHR. Now Christiana, imagining what they should mean, made answer again, We will neither hear, nor regard, nor yield to what you shall ask. We are in haste, and cannot stay; our business is a business of life and death. So again she and her companion made a fresh essay to go past them; but they letted them in their way. ILL-FAV. And they said, We intend no hurt to your lives; it is another thing we would have. CHR. Aye, quoth Christiana, you would have us body and soul, for I know it is for that you are come; but we will die rather upon the spot, than to suffer ourselves to be brought into such snares as shall hazard our well-being hereafter. And with that they both shrieked out, and cried, Murder! murder! and so put themselves under those laws that are provided for the protection of women. Deut. 22:25-27. But the men still made their approach upon them, with design to prevail against them. They therefore cried out again. Now they being, as I said, not far from the gate in at which they came, their voice was heard from whence they were, thither: wherefore some of the house came out, and knowing that it was Christiana's tongue, they made haste to her relief. But by that they were got within sight of them, the women were in a very great scuffle; the children also stood crying by. Then did he that came in for their relief call out to the ruffians, saying, What is that thing you do? Would you make my Lord's people to transgress? He also attempted to take them, but they did make their escape over the wall into the garden of the man to whom the great dog belonged; so the dog became their protector. This Reliever then came up to the women, and asked them how they did. So they answered, We thank thy Prince, pretty well, only we have been somewhat affrighted: we thank thee also for that thou camest in to our help, otherwise we had been overcome. RELIEVER. So, after a few more words, this Reliever said as followeth: I marveled much, when you were entertained at the gate above, seeing ye knew that ye were but weak women, that you petitioned not the Lord for a conductor; then might you have avoided these troubles and dangers; for he would have granted you one. CHR. Alas! said Christiana, we were so taken with our present blessing, that dangers to come were forgotten by us. Besides, who could have thought, that so near the King's palace there could have lurked such naughty ones? Indeed, it had been well for us had we asked our Lord for one; but since our Lord knew it would be for our profit, I wonder he sent not one along with us. REL. It is not always necessary to grant things not asked for, lest by so doing they become of little esteem; but when the want of a thing is felt, it then comes under, in the eyes of him that feels it, that estimate that properly is its due, and so consequently will be thereafter used. Had my Lord granted you a conductor, you would not either so have bewailed that oversight of yours, in not asking for one, as now you have occasion to do. So all things work for good, and tend to make you more wary. CHR. Shall we go back again to my Lord, and confess our folly, and ask one? REL. Your confession of your folly I will present him with. To go back again, you need not, for in all places where you shall come, you will find no want at all; for in every one of my Lord's lodgings, which he has prepared for the reception of his pilgrims, there is sufficient to furnish them against all attempts whatsoever. But, as I said, He will be inquired of by them, to do it for them. Ezek. 36:37. And 'tis a poor thing that is not worth asking for. When he had thus said, he went back to his place, and the pilgrims went on their way. MER. Then said Mercy, What a sudden blank is here! I made account that we had been past all danger, and that we should never see sorrow more. CHR. Thy innocency, my sister, said Christiana to Mercy, may excuse thee much; but as for me, my fault is so much the greater, for that I saw this danger before I came out of the doors, and yet did not provide for it when provision might have been had. I am much to be blamed. MER. Then said Mercy, How knew you this before you came from home? Pray open to me this riddle. CHR. Why, I will tell you. Before I set foot out of doors, one night as I lay in my bed I had a dream about this; for methought I saw two men, as like these as ever any in the world could look, stand at my bed's feet, plotting how they might prevent my salvation. I will tell you their very words. They said, (it was when I was in my troubles,) What shall we do with this woman? for she cries out, waking and sleeping, for forgiveness: if she be sufferet do go on as she begins, we shall lose her as we have lost her husband. This you know might have made me take heed, and have provided when provision might have been had. MER. Well, said Mercy, as by this neglect we have an occasion ministered unto us to behold our own imperfections, so our Lord has taken occasion thereby to make manifest the riches of his grace; for he, as we see, has followed us with unasked kindness, and has delivered us from their hands that were stronger than we, of his mere good pleasure. Thus now, when they had talked away a little more time, they drew near to a house which stood in the way, which house was built for the relief of pilgrims, as you will find more fully related in the first part of these records of the Pilgrim's Progress. So they drew on towards the house, (the house of the Interpreter;) and when they came to the door, they heard a great talk in the house. Then they gave ear, and heard, as they thought, Christiana mentioned by name; for you must know that there went along, even before her, a talk of her and her children's going on pilgrimage. And this was the most pleasing to them, because they had heard that she was Christian's wife, that woman who was some time ago so unwilling to hear of going on pilgrimage. Thus, therefore, they stood still, and heard the good people within commending her who they little thought stood at the door. At last Christiana knocked, as she had done at the gate before. Now, when she had knocked, there came to the door a young damsel, and opened the door, and looked, and behold, two women were there. DAM. Then said the damsel to them, With whom would you speak in this place? CHR. Christiana answered, We understand that this is a privileged place for those that are become pilgrims, and we now at this door are such: wherefore we pray that we may be partakers of that for which we at this time are come; for the day, as thou seest, is very far spent, and we are loth to-night to go any further. DAM. Pray, what may I call your name, that I may tell it to my Lord within. CHR. My name is Christiana; I was the wife of that pilgrim that some years ago did travel this way, and these be his four children. This maiden also is my companion, and is going on pilgrimage too. INNOCENT. Then Innocent ran in, (for that was her name,) and said to those within, Can you think who is at the door? There is Christiana and her children, and her companion, all waiting for entertainment here. Then they leaped for joy, and went and told their Master. So he came to the door and looking upon her, he said, Art thou that Christiana whom Christian the good man left behind him when he betook himself to a pilgrim's life. CHR. I am that woman that was so hard-hearted as to slight my husband's troubles, and that left him to go on in his journey alone, and these are his four children; but now I also am come, for I am convinced that no way is right but this. INTER. Then is fulfilled that which is written of the man that said to his son, "Go work to-day in my vineyard; and he said to his father, I will not: but afterwards repented and went." Matt. 21:29. CHR. Then said Christiana, So be it: Amen. God made it a true saying upon me, and grant that I may be found at the last of him in peace, without spot, and blameless. INTER. But why standest thou thus at the door? Come in, thou daughter of Abraham; we were talking of thee but now, for tidings have come to us before how thou art become a pilgrim. Come, children, come in; come, maiden, come in. So he had them all into the house. So when they were within, they were bidden to sit down and rest them; the which when they had done, those that attended upon the pilgrims in the house came into the room to see them. And one smiled, and another smiled, and they all smiled for joy that Christiana was become a pilgrim: They also looked upon the boys; they stroked them over their faces with the hand, in token of their kind reception of them: they also carried it lovingly to Mercy, and bid them all welcome into their Master's house. After a while, because supper was not ready, the Interpreter took them into his Significant Rooms, and showed them what Christian, Christiana's husband, had seen some time before. Here, therefore, they saw the man in the cage, the man and his dream, the man that cut his way through his enemies, and the picture of the biggest of them all, together with the rest of those things that were then so profitable to Christian. This done, and after those things had been somewhat digested by Christiana and her company, the Interpreter takes them apart again, and has them first into a room where was a man that could look no way but downwards, with a muck-rake in his hand. There stood also one over his head with a celestial crown in his hand, and proffered him that crown for his muck-rake; but the man did neither look up nor regard, but raked to himself the straws, the small sticks, and dust of the floor. Then said Christiana, I persuade myself that I know somewhat the meaning of this; for this is a figure of a man of this world: is it not, good sir? INTER. Thou hast said right, said he; and his muck-rake doth show his carnal mind. And whereas thou seest him rather give heed to rake up straws and sticks, and the dust of the floor, than to do what He says that calls to him from above with the celestial crown in his hand; it is to show, that heaven is but as a fable to some, and that things here are counted the only things substantial. Now, whereas it was also showed thee that the man could look no way but downwards, it is to let thee know that earthly things, when they are with power upon men's minds, quite carry their hearts away from God. CHR. Then said Christiana, O deliver me from this muck-rake. Prov. 30:8. INTER. That prayer, said the Interpreter, has lain by till it is almost rusty: "Give me not riches," is scarce the prayer of one in ten thousand. Straws, and sticks, and dust, with most, are the great things now looked after. With that Christiana and Mercy wept, and said, It is, alas! too true. When the Interpreter had shown them this, he had them into the very best room in the house; a very brave room it was. So he bid them look round about, and see if they could find any thing profitable there. Then they looked round and round; for there was nothing to be seen but a very great spider on the wall, and that they overlooked. MER. Then said Mercy, Sir, I see nothing; but Christiana held her peace. INTER. But, said the Interpreter, look again. She therefore looked again, and said, Here is not any thing but an ugly spider, who hangs by her hands upon the wall. Then said he, Is there but one spider in all this spacious room? Then the water stood in Christiana's eyes, for she was a woman quick of apprehension; and she said, Yea, Lord, there are more here than one; yea, and spiders whose venom is far more destructive than that which is in her. The Interpreter then looked pleasantly on her, and said, Thou hast said the truth. This made Mercy to blush, and the boys to cover their faces; for they all began now to understand the riddle. Then said the Interpreter again, "The spider taketh hold with her hands," as you see, "and is in kings' palaces." Prov. 30:28. And wherefore is this recorded, but to show you, that, how full of the venom of sin soever you be, yet you may, by the hand of Faith, lay hold of and dwell in the best room that belongs to the King's house above? CHR. I thought, said Christiana, of something of this; but I could not imagine it at all. I thought that we were like spiders, and that we looked like ugly creatures, in what fine room soever we were: but that by this spider, that venomous and ill-favored creature, we were to learn how to act faith, that came not into my thoughts; and yet she had taken hold with her hands, and, as I see, dwelleth in the best room in the house. God has made nothing in vain. Then they seemed all to be glad; but the water stood in their eyes; yet they looked one upon another, and also bowed before the Interpreter. He had them into another room, where were a hen and chickens, and bid them observe a while. So one of the chickens went to the trough to drink, and every time she drank she lifted up her head and her eyes towards heaven. See, said he, what this little chick doth, and learn of her to acknowledge whence your mercies come, by receiving them with looking up. Yet again, said he, observe and look: so they gave heed, and perceived that the hen did walk in a fourfold method towards her chickens: 1. She had a common call, and that she hath all the day long. 2. She had a special call, and that she had but sometimes. 3. She had a brooding note. Matt. 23:37. And, 4. She had an outcry. Now, said he, compare this hen to your King and these chickens to his obedient ones; for, answerable to her, he himself hath his methods which he walketh in towards his people. By his common call, he gives nothing; by his special call, he always has something to give; he has also a brooding voice, for them that are under his wing; and he has an outcry, to give the alarm when he seeth the enemy come. I choose, my darlings, to lead you into the room where such things are, because you are women, and they are easy for you. CHR. And, sir, said Christiana, pray let us see some more. So he had them into the slaughter-house, where was a butcher killing a sheep; and behold, the sheep was quiet, and took her death patiently. Then said the Interpreter, You must learn of this sheep to suffer and to put up with wrongs without murmurings and complaints. Behold how quietly she takes her death, and, without objecting, she suffereth her skin to be pulled over her ears. Your King doth call you his sheep. After this he led them into his garden, where was great variety of flowers; and he, said, Do you see all these? So Christiana said, Yes. Then said he again, Behold, the flowers are diverse in stature, in quality, and color, and smell, and virtue; and some are better than others; also, where the gardener has set them, there they stand, and quarrel not one with another. Again, he had them into his field, which he had sown with wheat and corn: but when they beheld, the tops of all were cut off, and only the straw remained. He said again, This ground was dunged, and ploughed, and sowed, but what shall we do with the crop? Then said Christiana, Burn some, and make muck of the rest. Then said the Interpreter again, Fruit, you see, is that thing you look for; and for want of that you condemn it to the fire, and to be trodden under foot of men: beware that in this you condemn not yourselves. Then, as they were coming in from abroad, they espied a little robin with a great spider in his mouth. So the Interpreter said, Look here. So they looked, and Mercy wondered, but Christiana said, What a disparagement is it to such a pretty little bird as the . robin-red- breast; he being also a bird above many, that loveth to maintain a kind of sociableness with men! I had thought they had lived upon crumbs of bread, or upon other such harmless matter: I like him worse than I did. The Interpreter then replied, This robin is an emblem, very apt to set forth some professors by; for to sight they are, as this robin, pretty of note, color, and carriage. They seem also to have a very great love for professors that are sincere; and, above all others, to desire to associate with them, and to be in their company, as if they could live upon the good man's crumbs. They pretend also, that therefore it is that they frequent the house of the godly, and the appointments of the Lord: but when they are by themselves, as the robin, they can catch and gobble up spiders; they can change their diet, drink iniquity, and swallow down sin like water. So, when they were come again into the house, because supper as yet was not ready, Christiana again desired that the Interpreter would either show or tell some other things that are profitable. Then the Interpreter began, and said, The fatter the sow is, the more she desires the mire; the fatter the ox is, the more gamesomely he goes to the slaughter; and the more healthy the lustful man is, the more prone he is unto evil. There is a desire in women to go neat and find; and it is a comely thing to be adorned with that which in God's sight is of great price. 'T is easier watching a night or two, than to sit up a whole year together: so 't is easier for one to begin to profess well, than to hold out as he should to the end. Every shipmaster, when in a storm, will willingly cast that overboard which is of the smallest value in the vessel; but who will throw the best out first? None but he that feareth not God. One leak will sink a ship, and one sin will destroy a sinner. He that forgets his friend is ungrateful unto him; but he that forgets his Saviour is unmerciful to himself. He that lives in sin, and looks for happiness hereafter, is like him that soweth cockle, and thinks to fill his barn with wheat or barley. If a man would live well, let him fetch his last day to him, and make it always his company- keeper. Whispering, and change of thoughts, prove that sin is in the world. If the world, which God sets light by, is counted a thing of that worth with men, what is heaven, that God commendeth? If the life that is attended with so many troubles, is so loth to be let go by us, what is the life above? Every body will cry up the goodness of men; but who is there that is, as he should be, affected with the goodness of God? We seldom sit down to meat, but we eat, and leave. So there is in Jesus Christ more merit and righteousness than the whole world has need of. When the Interpreter had done, he takes them out into his garden again, and had them to a tree whose inside was all rotten and gone, and yet it grew and had leaves. Then said Mercy, What means this? This tree, said he, whose outside is fair, and whose inside is rotten, is that to which many may be compared that are in the garden of God; who with their mouths speak high in behalf of God, but indeed will do nothing for him; whose leaves are fair, but their heart good for nothing but to be tinder for the devil's tinder-box. Now supper was ready, the table spread, and all things set on the board: so they sat down, and did eat, when one had given thanks. And the Interpreter did usually entertain those that lodged with him with music at meals; so the minstrels played. There was also one that did sing, and a very fine voice he had. His song was this: "The Lord is only my support, And he that doth me feed; How can I then want any thing Whereof I stand in need?" When the song and music were ended, the Interpreter asked Christiana what it was that at first did move her thus to betake herself to a pilgrim's life. Christiana answered, First, the loss of my husband came into my mind, at which I was heartily grieved; but all that was but natural affection. Then after that came the troubles and pilgrimage of my husband into my mind, and also how like a churl I had carried it to him as to that. So guilt took hold of my mind, and would have drawn me into the pond, but that opportunely I had a dream of the well-being of my husband, and a letter sent me by the King of that country where my husband dwells, to come to him. The dream and the letter together so wrought upon my mind that they forced me to this way. INTER. But met you with no opposition before you set out of doors? CHR. Yes, a neighbor of mine, one Mrs. Timorous: she was akin to him that would have persuaded my husband to go back, for fear of the lions. She also befooled me, for, as she called it, my intended desperate adventure; she also urged what she could to dishearten me from it, the hardships and troubles that my husband met with in the way; but all this I got over pretty well. But a dream that I had of two ill-looking ones, that I thought did plot how to make me miscarry in my journey, that hath troubled me much: yea, it still runs in my mind, and makes me afraid of every one that I meet, lest they should meet me to do me a mischief, and to turn me out of my way. Yea, I may tell my Lord, though I would not have every body know of it, that between this and the gate by which we got into the way, we were both so sorely assaulted that we were made to cry out murder; and the two that made this assault upon us, were like the two that I saw in my dream. Then said the Interpreter, Thy beginning is good; thy latter end shall greatly increase. So he addressed himself to Mercy, and said unto her, And what moved thee to come hither, sweet heart? MER. Then Mercy blushed and trembled, and for a while continued silent. INTER. Then said he, Be not afraid; only believe, and speak thy mind. MER. So she began, and said, Truly, sir, my want of experience is that which makes me covet to be in silence, and that also that fills me with fears of coming short at last. I cannot tell of visions and dreams, as my friend Christiana can; nor know I what it is to mourn for my refusing the counsel of those that were good relations. INTER. What was it, then, dear heart, that hath prevailed with thee to do as thou hast done? MER. Why, when our friend here was packing up to be gone from our town, I and another went accidentally to see her. So we knocked at the door and went in. When we were within, and seeing what she was doing, we asked her what was her meaning. She said she was sent for to go to her husband; and then she up and told us how she had seen him in a dream, dwelling in a curious place, among immortals, wearing a crown, playing upon a harp, eating and drinking at his Prince's table, and singing praises to him for bringing him thither, etc. Now, methought, while she was telling these things unto us, my heart burned within me. And I said in my heart, If this be true, I will leave my father and my mother, and the land of my nativity, and will, if I may, go along with Christiana. So I asked her further of the truth of these things, and if she would let me go with her; for I saw now that there was no dwelling, but with the danger of ruin, any longer in our town. But yet I came away with a heavy heart; not for that I was unwilling to come away, but for that so many of my relations were left behind. And I am come with all the desire of my heart, and will go, if I may, with Christiana unto her husband and his King. INTER. Thy setting out is good, for thou hast given credit to the truth; thou art a Ruth, who did, for the love she bare to Naomi and to the Lord her God, leave father and mother, and the land of her nativity, to come out and go with a people she knew not heretofore. "The Lord recompense thy work, and a full reward be given thee of the Lord God of Israel, under whose wings thou art come to trust." Ruth 2:11,12. Now supper was ended, and preparation was made for bed; the women were laid singly alone, and the boys by themselves. Now when Mercy was in bed, she could not sleep for joy, for that now her doubts of missing at last were removed further from her than ever they were before. So she lay blessing and praising God, who had such favor for her. In the morning they arose with the sun, and prepared themselves for their departure; but the Interpreter would have them tarry a while; For, said he, you must orderly go from hence. Then said he to the damsel that first opened unto them, Take them and have them into the garden to the bath, and there wash them and make them clean from the soil which they had gathered by traveling. Then Innocent the damsel took them and led them into the garden, and brought them to the bath; so she told them that there they must wash and be clean, for so her Master would have the women to do that called at his house as they were going on pilgrimage. Then they went in and washed, yea, they and the boys, and all; and they came out of that bath, not only sweet and clean, but also much enlivened and strengthened in their joints. So when they came in, they looked fairer a deal than when they went out to the washing. When they were returned out of the garden from the bath, the Interpreter took them and looked upon them, and said unto them, "Fair as the moon." Then he called for the seal wherewith they used to be sealed that were washed in his bath. So the seal was brought, and he set his mark upon them, that they might be known in the places whither they were yet to go. Now the seal was the contents and sum of the passover which the children of Israel did eat, Exod. 13: 8-10, when they came out of the land of Egypt; and the mark was set between their eyes. This seal greatly added to their beauty, for it was an ornament to their faces. It also added to their gravity, and made their countenance more like those of angels. Then said the Interpreter again to the damsel that waited upon these women, Go into the vestry, and fetch out garments for these people. So she went and fetched out white raiment, and laid it down before him; so he commanded them to put it on: it was fine linen, white and clean. When the women were thus adorned, they seemed to be a terror one to the other; for that they could not see that glory each one had in herself, which they could see in each other. Now therefore they began to esteem each other better than themselves. For, You are fairer than I am, said one; and, You are more comely than I am, said another. The children also stood amazed, to see into what fashion they were brought. THE THIRD STAGE. The Interpreter then called for a man-servant of his, one Great-heart, and bid him take A sword, and helmet, and shield; and, Take these my daughters, said he, conduct them to the house called Beautiful, at which place they will rest next. So he took his weapons, and went before them; and the Interpreter said, God speed. Those also that belonged to the family, sent them away with many a good wish. So they went on their way, and sang, This place hath been our second stage: Here we have heard, and seen Those good things, that from age to age To others hid have been. The dunghill-raker, spider, hen, The chicken, too, to me Have taught a lesson: let me then Conformed to it be. The butcher, garden, and the field, The robin and his bait, Also the rotten tree, doth yield Me argument of weight, To move me for to watch and pray, To strive to be sincere; To take my cross up day by day, And serve the Lord with fear. Now I saw in my dream, that they went on, and Great-Heart before them. So they went, and came to the place where Christian's burden fell off his back and tumbled into a sepulchre. Here then they made a pause; and here also they blessed God. Now, said Christiana, it comes to my mind what was said to us at the gate, to wit, that we should have pardon by word and deed: by word, that is, by the promise; by deed, to wit, in the way it was obtained. What the promise is, of that I know something; but what is it to have pardon by deed, or in the way that it was obtained, Mr. Great-Heart, I suppose you know; wherefore, if you please, let us hear your discourse thereof. GREAT. Pardon by the deed done, is pardon obtained by some one for another that hath need thereof; not by the person pardoned, but in the way, saith another, in which I have obtained it. So then, to speak to the question more at large, the pardon that you, and Mercy, and these boys have attained, was obtained by another; to wit, by him that let you in at the gate. And he hath obtained it in this double way; he hath performed righteousness to cover you, and spilt his blood to wash you in. CHR. But if he parts with his righteousness to us, what will he have for himself? GREAT. He has more righteousness than you have need of, or than he needeth himself. CHR. Pray make that appear. GREAT. With all my heart: but first I must premise, that he of whom we are now about to speak, is one that has not his fellow: He has two natures in one person, plain to be distinguished, impossible to be divided. Unto each of these natures a righteousness belongeth, and each righteousness is essential to that nature; so that one may as easily cause that nature to be extinct, as to separate its justice or righteousness from it. Of these righteousnesses therefore, we are not made partakers, so as that they, or any of them, should be put upon us, that we might be made just, and live thereby. Besides these, there is a righteousness which this person has, as these two natures are joined in one. And this is not the righteousness of the Godhead, as distinguished from the manhood; nor the righteousness of the manhood, as distinguished from the Godhead; but a righteousness which standeth in the union of both natures, and may properly be called the righteousness that is essential to his being prepared of God to the capacity of the mediatory office, which he was to be entrusted with. If he parts with his first righteousness, he parts with his Godhead; if he parts with his second righteousness, he parts with the purity of his manhood; if he parts with his third, he parts with that perfection that capacitates him to the office of mediation. He has therefore another righteousness, which standeth in performance, or obedience to a revealed will; and that is what he puts upon sinners, and that by which their sins are covered. Wherefore he saith, "As by one man's disobedience many were made sinners, so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous." Rom. 5:19. CHR. But are the other righteousnesses of no use to us? GREAT. Yes; for though they are essential to his natures and office, and cannot be communicated unto another, yet it is by virtue of them that the righteousness that justifies is for that purpose efficacious. The righteousness of his Godhead gives virtue to his obedience; the righteousness of his manhood giveth capability to his obedience to justify; and the righteousness that standeth in the union of these two natures to his office, giveth authority to that righteousness to do the work for which it was ordained. So then here is a righteousness that Christ, as God, has no need of; for he is God without it: Here is a righteousness that Christ, as man, has no need of to make him so; for he is perfect man without it. Again, here is a righteousness that Christ, as God-man, has no need of; for he is perfectly so without it. Here then is a righteousness that Christ, as God, and as God-man, has no need of, with reference to himself, and therefore he can spare it; a justifying righteousness, that he for himself wanteth not, and therefore giveth it away: Hence it is called the gift of righteousness. This righteousness, since Christ Jesus the Lord has made himself under the law, must be given away; for the law doth not only bind him that is under it, to do justly, but to use charity. Rom. 5:17. Wherefore he must, or ought by the law, if he hath two coats, to give one to him that hath none. Now, our Lord indeed hath two coats, one for himself, and one to spare; wherefore he freely bestows one upon those that have none. And thus, Christiana and Mercy, and the rest of you that are here, doth your pardon come by deed, or by the work of another man. Your Lord Christ is he that worked, and hath given away what he wrought for, to the next poor beggar he meets. But again, in order to pardon by deed, there must something be paid to God as a price, as well as something prepared to cover us withal. Sin has delivered us up to the just curse of a righteous law: now from this curse we must be justified by way of redemption, a price being paid for the harms we have done; and this is by the blood of your Lord, who came and stood in your place and stead, and died your death for your transgressions: Thus has he ransomed you from your transgressions by blood, and covered your polluted and deformed souls with righteousness, Rom. 8:34; for the sake of which, God passeth by you and will not hurt you when he comes to judge the world. Gal. 3:13. CHR. This is brave! Now I see that there was something to be learned by our being pardoned by word and deed. Good Mercy, let us labor to keep this in mind: and, my children, do you remember it also. But, sir, was not this it that made my good Christian's burden fall from off his shoulder, and that made him give three leaps for joy? GREAT. Yes, it was the belief of this that cut those strings that could not be cut by other means; and it was to give him a proof of the virtue of this, that he was suffered to carry his burden to the cross. CHR. I thought so; for though my heart was lightsome and joyous before, yet it is ten times more lightsome and joyous now. And I am persuaded by what I have felt, though I have felt but little as yet, that if the most burdened man in the world was here, and did see and believe as I now do, it would make his heart the more merry and blithe. GREAT. There is not only comfort and the ease of a burden brought to us by the sight and consideration of these, but an endeared affection begot in us by it: for who can, if he doth but once think that pardon comes not only by promise but thus, but be affected with the way and means of his redemption, and so with the man that hath wrought it for him? CHR. True; methinks it makes my heart bleed to think that he should bleed for me. Oh, thou loving One: Oh, thou blessed One. Thou deservest to have me; thou hast bought me. Thou deservest to have me all: thou hast paid for me ten thousand times more than I am worth. No marvel that this made the tears stand in my husband's eyes, and that it made him trudge so nimbly on. I am persuaded he wished me with him: but, vile wretch that I was, I let him come all alone. Oh, Mercy, that thy father and mother were here; yea, and Mrs. Timorous also: nay, I wish now with all my heart that here was Madam Wanton too. Surely, surely, their hearts would be affected; nor could the fear of the one, nor the powerful lusts of the other, prevail with them to go home again, and to refuse to become good pilgrims. GREAT. You speak now in the warmth of your affections; will it, think you, be always thus with you? Besides, this is not communicated to every one, nor to every one that did see your Jesus bleed. There were that stood by, and that saw the blood run from the heart to the ground, and yet were so far off this, that instead of lamenting, they laughed at him, and, instead of becoming his disciples, did harden their hearts against him. So that all that you have, my daughters, you have by peculiar impression made by a divine contemplating upon what I have spoken to you. Remember, that 'twas told you, that the hen, by her common call, gives no meat to her chickens. This you have therefore by a special grace. Now I saw in my dream, that they went on until they were come to the place that Simple, and Sloth, and Presumption, lay and slept in when Christian went by on pilgrimage: and behold, they were hanged up in irons a little way off on the other side. MER. Then said Mercy to him that was their guide and conductor, what are these three men; and for what are they hanged there? GREAT. These three men were men of very bad qualities; they had no mind to be pilgrims themselves, and whomsoever they could, they hindered. They were sloth and folly themselves, and whomsoever they could persuade they made so too, and withal taught them to presume that they should do well at last. They were asleep when Christian went by; and now you go by, they are hanged. MER. But could they persuade any to be of their opinion? GREAT. Yes, they turned several out of the way. There was Slow-pace that they persuaded to do as they. They also prevailed with one Short- wind, with one No-heart, with one Linger-after-Lust, and with one Sleepy -head, and with a young woman, her name was Dull, to turn out of the way and become as they. Besides, they brought up an ill report of your Lord, persuading others that he was a hard taskmaster. They also brought up an evil report of the good Land, saying, it was not half so good as some pretended it was. They also began to vilify his servants, and to count the best of them meddlesome, troublesome busybodies. Further, they would call the bread of God husks; the comforts of his children, fancies; the travel and labor of pilgrims, things to no purpose. CHR. Nay, said Christiana, if they were such, they shall never be bewailed by me: they have but what they deserve; and I think it is well that they stand so near the highway, that others may see and take warning. But had it not been well if their crimes had been engraven in some plate of iron or brass, and left here where they did their mischiefs, for a caution to other bad men? GREAT. So it is, as you may well perceive, if you will go a little to the wall. MER. No, no; let them hang, and their names rot, and their crimes live forever against them. I think it a high favor that they were hanged before we came hither: who knows else what they might have done to such poor women as we are? Then she turned it into a song, saying, "Now then you three hang there, and be a sign To all that shall against the truth combine. And let him that comes after, fear this end, If unto pilgrims he is not a friend. And thou, my soul, of all such men beware, That unto holiness opposers are." Thus they went on till they came to the foot of the hill Difficulty, where again the good Mr. Great-Heart took an occasion to tell them what happened there when Christian himself went by. So he had them first to the spring. Lo, saith he, this is the spring that Christian drank of before he went up this hill: and then it was clear and good; but now it is dirty with the feet of some that are not desirous that pilgrims here should quench their thirst. Ezek. 34:18,19. Thereat Mercy said, And why so envious, trow? But, said their guide, it will do, if taken up and put into a vessel that is sweet and good; for then the dirt will sink to the bottom, and the water come out by itself more clear. Thus therefore Christiana and her companions were compelled to do. They took it up, and put it into an earthen pot, and so let it stand till the dirt was gone to the bottom, and then they drank thereof. Next he showed them the two by-ways that were at the foot of the hill, where Formality and Hypocrisy lost themselves. And, said he, these are dangerous paths. Two were here cast away when Christian came by; and although, as you see these ways are since stopped up with chains, posts, and a ditch, yet there are those that will choose to adventure here rather than take the pains to go up this hill. CHR. "The way of transgressors is hard." Prov. 13:15. It is a wonder that they can get into these ways without danger of breaking their necks. GREAT. They will venture: yea, if at any time any of the King's servants do happen to see them, and do call upon them, and tell them that they are in the wrong way, and do bid them beware of the danger, then they railingly return them answer, and say, "As for the word that thou hast spoken unto us in the name of the King, we will not hearken unto thee; but we will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth out of our own mouths." Jer. 44:16,17. Nay, if you look a little further, you shall see that these ways are made cautionary enough, not only by these posts, and ditch, and chain, but also by being hedged up: yet they will choose to go there. CHR. They are idle; they love not to take pains; up-hill way is unpleasant to them. So it is fulfilled unto them as it is written, "The way of the slothful man is full of thorns." Prov. 15:19. Yea, they will rather choose to walk upon a snare than to go up this hill, and the rest of this way to the city. Then they set forward, and began to go up the hill, and up the hill they went. But before they got to the top, Christiana began to pant, and said, I dare say this is a breathing hill; no marvel if they that love their ease more than their souls choose to themselves a smoother way. Then said Mercy, I must sit down: also the least of the children began to cry. Come, come, said Great-Heart, sit not down here; for a little above is the Prince's arbor. Then he took the little boy by the hand, and led him up thereto. When they were come to the arbor, they were very willing to sit down, for they were all in a pelting heat. Then said Mercy, "How sweet is rest to them that labor." Matt. 11:28; and how good is the Prince of pilgrims to provide such resting-places for them! Of this arbor I have heard much; but I never saw it before. But here let us beware of sleeping; for, as I have heard, it cost poor Christian dear. Then said Mr. Great-Heart to the little ones, Come, my pretty boys, how do you do? What think you now of going on pilgrimage? Sir, said the least, I was almost beat out of heart; but I thank you for lending me a hand at my need. And I remember now what my mother hath told me, namely, that the way to heaven is as a ladder, and the way to hell is as down a hill. But I had rather go up the ladder to life, than down the hill to death. Then said Mercy, But the proverb is, "To go down the hill is easy." But James said, (for that was his name,) The day is coming when, in my opinion, when going down the hill will be the hardest of all. 'Tis a good boy, said his master; thou hast given her a right answer. Then Mercy smiled, but the little boy did blush. CHR. Come, said Christiana, will you eat a bit to sweeten your mouths, while you sit here to rest your legs? for I have here a piece of pomegranate which Mr. Interpreter put into my hand just when I came out of his door; he gave me also a piece of an honeycomb, and a little bottle of spirits. I thought he gave you something, said Mercy, because he called you aside. Yes, so he did, said the other; but, said Christiana, it shall be still as I said it should, when at first we came from home; thou shalt be a sharer in all the good that I have, because thou so willingly didst become my companion. Then she gave to them, and they did eat, both Mercy and the boys. And said Christiana to Mr. Great-Heart, Sir, will you do as we? But he answered, You are going on pilgrimage, and presently I shall return; much good may what you have do you: at home I eat the same every day. THE FOURTH STAGE. Now when they had eaten and drank, and had chatted a little longer, their guide said to them, The day wears away; if you think good, let us prepare to be going. So they got up to go, and the little boys went before; But Christiana forgot to take her bottle of spirits with her, so she sent her little boy back to fetch it. Then said Mercy, I think this is a losing place: here Christian lost his roll, and here Christiana left her bottle behind her. Sir, what is the cause of this? So their guide made answer, and said, The cause is sleep, or forgetfulness: some sleep when they should keep awake, and some forget when they should remember; and this is the very cause why often, at the resting-places, some pilgrims in some things come off losers. Pilgrims should watch, and remember what they have already received, under their greatest enjoyments; but for want of doing so, oftentimes their rejoicing ends in tears, and their sunshine in a cloud: witness the story of Christian at this place. When they were come to the place where Mistrust and Timorous met Christian, to persuade him to go back for fear of the lions, they perceived as it were a stage, and before it, towards the road, a broad plate with a copy of verses written thereon, and underneath the reason of raising up that stage in that place rendered. The verses were, "Let him that sees this stage, take heed Unto his heart and tongue; Lest, if he do not, here he speed As some have long agone." The words underneath the verses were, "This stage was built to punish those upon, who, through timorousness or mistrust, shall be afraid to go further on pilgrimage. Also, on this stage both Mistrust and Timorous were burned through the tongue with a hot iron, for endeavoring to hinder Christian on his journey." Then said Mercy, This is much like to the saying of the Beloved: "What shall be given unto thee, or what shall be done unto thee, thou false tongue? Sharp arrows of the mighty, with coals of juniper. Psa. 120:3,4. So they went on till they came within sight of the lions. Now Mr. Great-Heart was a strong man, so he was not afraid of a lion: But yet when they were come up to the place where the lions were, the boys, that went before, were now glad to cringe behind, for they were afraid of the lions; so they stepped back, and went behind. At this their guide smiled, and said, How now, my boys; do you love to go before when no danger doth approach, and love to come behind so soon as the lions appear? Now, as they went on, Mr. Great-heart drew his sword, with intent to make a way for the pilgrims in spite of the lions. Then there appeared one that, it seems, had taken upon him to back the lions; and he said to the pilgrims' guide, What is the cause of your coming hither? Now the name of that man was Grim, or Bloody-man because of his slaying of pilgrims; and he was of the race of the giants. GREAT. Then said the pilgrims' guide, These women and children are going on pilgrimage, and this is the way they must go; and go it they shall, in spite of thee and the lions. GRIM. This is not their way, neither shall they go therein. I am come forth to withstand them, and to that end will back the lions. Now, to say the truth, by reason of the fierceness of the lions, and of the grim carriage of him that did back them, this way had of late lain much unoccupied, and was almost grown over with grass. CHR. Then said Christiana, Though the highways have been unoccupied heretofore, and though the travellers have been made in times past to walk through by-paths, it must not be so now I am risen, now I am risen a mother in Israel. Judges 5:6,7. GRIM. Then he swore by the lions that it should; and therefore bid them turn aside, for they should not have passage there. But Great-Heart their guide made first his approach unto Grim, and laid so heavily on him with his sword that he forced him to retreat. GRIM. Then said he that attempted to back the lions, Will you slay me upon mine own ground? GREAT. It is the King's highway that we are in, and in this way it is that thou hast placed the lions; but these women, and these children, though weak, shall hold on their way in spite of thy lions. And with that he gave him again a downright blow, and brought him upon his knees. With this blow also he broke his helmet, and with the next he cut off an arm. Then did the giant roar so hideously that his voice frightened the women, and yet they were glad to see him lie sprawling upon the ground. Now the lions were chained, and so of themselves could do nothing. Wherefore, when old Grim, that intended to back them, was dead, Mr. Great-Heart said to the pilgrims, Come now, and follow me, and no hurt shall happen to you from the lions. They therefore went on, but the women trembled as they passed by them; the boys also looked as if they would die; but they all got by without further hurt. Now, when they were within sight of the Porter's lodge, they soon came up unto it; but they made the more haste after this to go thither, because it is dangerous traveling there in the night. So when they were come to the gate, the guide knocked, and the Porter cried, Who is there? But as soon as the guide had said, It is I, he knew his voice, and came down, for the guide had oft before that come thither as a conductor of pilgrims. When he was come down, he opened the gate; and seeing the guide standing just before it, (for he saw not the women, for they were behind him,) he said unto him, How now, Mr. Great-Heart, what is your business here so late at night? I have brought, said he, some pilgrims hither, where, by my Lord's commandment, they must lodge: I had been here some time ago, had I not been opposed by the giant that did use to back the lions. But I, after a long and tedious combat with him, have cut him off, and have brought the pilgrims hither in safety. POR. Will you not go in, and stay till morning? GREAT. No, I will return to my Lord to-night. CHR. O, sir, I know not how to be willing you should leave us in our pilgrimage: you have been so faithful and loving to us, you have fought so stoutly for us, you have been so hearty in counselling of us, that I shall never forget your favor towards us. MER. Then said Mercy, O that we might have thy company to our journey's end! How can such poor women as we hold out in a way so full of troubles as this way is, without a friend and defender? JAMES. Then said James, the youngest of the boys, Pray, sir, be persuaded to go with us, and help us, because we are so weak, and the way so dangerous as it is. GREAT. I am at my Lord's commandment; if he shall allot me to be your guide quite through, I will willingly wait upon you. But here you failed at first; for when he bid me come thus far with you, then you should have begged me of him to have gone quite through with you, and he would have granted your request. However, at present I must withdraw; and so, good Christiana, Mercy, and my brave children, adieu. Then the Porter, Mr. Watchful, asked Christiana of her country, and of her kindred. And she said, I came from the city of Destruction. I am a widow woman, and my husband is dead, his name was Christian, the pilgrim. How! said the Porter, was he your husband? Yes, said she, and these are his children and this, pointing to Mercy, is one of my town's-women. Then the Porter rang his bell, as at such times he is wont, and there come to the door one of the damsels, whose name was Humble-Mind; and to her the Porter said, Go tell it within, that Christiana, the wife of Christian, and her children, are come hither on pilgrimage. She went in, therefore, and told it. But oh, what noise for gladness was there within when the damsel did but drop that out of her mouth! So they came with haste to the Porter, for Christana stood still at the door. Then some of the most grave said unto her, Come in, Christiana, come in, thou wife of that good man; come in, thou blessed woman, come in, with all that are with thee. So she went in, and they followed her that were her children and companions. Now when they were gone in, they were had into a large room, where they were bidden to sit down: so they sat down, and the chief of the house were called to see and welcome the guests. Then they came in, and understanding who they were, did salute each other with a kiss, and said, Welcome, ye vessels of the grace of God; welcome to us, your friends. Now, because it was somewhat late, and because the pilgrims were weary with their journey, and also made faint with the sight of the fight, and of the terrible lions, they desired, as soon as might be, to prepare to go to rest. Nay, said those of the family, refresh yourselves first with a morsel of meat; for they had prepared for them a lamb, with the accustomed sauce belonging thereto, Exod. 12:21; John 1:29; for the Porter had heard before of their coming, and had told it to them within. So when they had supped, and ended their prayer with a psalm, they desired they might go to rest. But let us, said Christiana, if we may be so bold as to choose, be in that chamber that was my husband's when he was here; so they had them up thither, and they all lay in a room. When they were at rest, Christiana and Mercy entered into discourse about things that were convenient. CHR. Little did I think once, when my husband went on pilgrimage, that I should ever have followed him. MER. And you as little thought of lying in his bed, and in his chamber to rest, as you do now. CHR. And much less did I ever think of seeing his face with comfort, and of worshiping the Lord the King with him; and yet now I believe I shall. MER. Hark, don't you hear a noise? CHR. Yes, it is, as I believe, a noise of music, for joy that we are here. MER. Wonderful! Music in the house, music in the heart, and music also in heaven, for joy that we are here! Thus they talked a while, and then betook themselves to sleep. So in the morning when they were awake, Christiana said to Mercy, What was the matter that you did laugh in your sleep to-night? I suppose you were in a dream. MER. So I was, and a sweet dream it was; but are you sure I laughed? CHR. Yes, you laughed heartily; but prithee, Mercy, tell me thy dream. MER. I was a dreaming that I sat all alone in a solitary place, and was bemoaning of the hardness of my heart. Now I had not sat there long but methought many were gathered about me to see me, and to hear what it was that I said. So they hearkened, and I went on bemoaning the hardness of my heart. At this, some of them laughed at me, some called me fool, and some began to thrust me about. With that, methought I looked up and saw one coming with wings towards me. So he came directly to me, and said, Mercy, what aileth thee? Now when he had heard me make my complaint, he said, Peace be to thee; he also wiped my eyes with his handkerchief, and clad me in silver and gold. Ezek. 16:8-11. He put a chain about my neck, and ear-rings in mine ears, and a beautiful crown upon my head. Then he took me by the hand, and said, Mercy, come after me. So he went up, and I followed till we came at a golden gate. Then he knocked; and when they within had opened, the man went in, and I followed him up to a throne, upon which one sat; and he said to me, Welcome, daughter. The place looked bright and twinkling, like the stars, or rather like the sun, and I thought that I saw your husband there; so I awoke from my dream. But did I laugh? CHR. Laugh! aye, and well you might to see yourself so well. For you must give me leave to tell you that it was a good dream; and that, as you have begun to find the first part true, so you shall find the second at last. "God speaks once, yea, twice, yet man perceiveth it not; in a dream, in a vision of the night, when deep sleep falleth upon men, in slumberings upon the bed." Job 33:14,15. We need not, when abed, to lie awake to talk with God; he can visit us while we sleep, and cause us then to hear his voice. Our heart oftentimes wakes when we sleep, and God can speak to that, either by words, by proverbs, by signs and similitudes, as well as if one was awake. MER. Well, I am glad of my dream; for I hope ere long to see it fulfilled, to the making me laugh again. CHR. I think it is now high time to rise, and to know what we must do. MER. Pray, if they invite us to stay a while, let us willingly accept of the proffer. I am the more willing to stay a while here, to grow better acquainted with these maids: methinks Prudence, Piety, and Charity, have very comely and sober countenances. CHR. We shall see what they will do. So when they were up and ready, they came down, and they asked one another of their rest, and if it was comfortable or not. MER. Very good, said Mercy: it was one of the best night's lodgings that ever I had in my life. Then said Prudence and Piety, If you will be persuaded to stay here a while, you shall have what the house will afford. CHAR. Aye, and that with a very good will, said Charity. So they consented, and stayed there about a month or above, and became very profitable one to another. And because Prudence would see how Christiana had brought up her children, she asked leave of her to catechise them. So she gave her free consent. Then she began with her youngest, whose name was James. PRUD. And she said, Come, James, canst thou tell me who made thee? JAMES. God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. PRUD. Good boy. And canst thou tell who saved thee? JAMES. God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. PRUD. Good boy still. But how doth God the Father save thee? JAMES. By his grace. PRUD. How doth God the Son save thee? JAMES. By his righteousness, death and blood, and life. PRUD. And how doth God the Holy Ghost save thee? JAMES. By his illumination, by his renovation, and by his preservation. Then said Prudence to Christiana, You are to be commended for thus bringing up your children. I suppose I need not ask the rest these questions, since the youngest of them can answer them so well. I will therefore now apply myself to the next youngest. PRUD. Then she said, Come, Joseph, (for his name was Joseph,) will you let me catechise you? JOSEPH. With all my heart. PRUD. What is man? JOSEPH. A reasonable creature, so made by God, as my brother said. PRUD. What is supposed by this word, saved? JOSEPH. That man, by sin, has brought himself into a state of captivity and misery. PRUD. What is supposed by his being saved by the Trinity? JOSEPH. That sin is so great and mighty a tyrant that none can pull us out of its clutches but God; and that God is so good and loving to man, as to pull him indeed out of this miserable state. PRUD. What is God's design in saving poor men? JOSEPH. The glorifying of his name, of his grace, and justice, etc., and the everlasting happiness of his creature. PRUD. Who are they that will be saved? JOSEPH. They that accept of his salvation. PRUD. Good boy, Joseph; thy mother hath taught thee well, and thou hast hearkened unto what she has said unto thee. Then said Prudence to Samuel, who was the eldest but one, PRUD. Come, Samuel, are you willing that I should catechise you? SAM. Yes, forsooth, if you please. PRUD. What is heaven? SAM. A place and state most blessed, because God dwelleth there. PRUD. What is hell? SAM. A place and state most woful, because it is the dwelling-place of sin, the devil, and death. PRUD. Why wouldst thou go to heaven? SAM. That I may see God, and serve him without weariness; that I may see Christ, and love him everlastingly; that I may have that fullness of the Holy Spirit in me which I can by no means here enjoy. PRUD. A very good boy, and one that has learned well. Then she addressed herself to the eldest, whose name was Matthew; and she said to him, Come, Matthew, shall I also catechise you? MATT. With a very good will. PRUD. I ask then, if there was ever any thing that had a being antecedent to or before God? MATT. No, for God is eternal; nor is there any thing, excepting himself, that had a being until the beginning of the first day. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is. PRUD. What do you think of the Bible? MATT. It is the holy word of God. PRUD. Is there nothing written therein but what you understand? MATT. Yes, a great deal. PRUD. What do you do when you meet with places therein that you do not understand? MATT. I think God is wiser than I. I pray also that he will please to let me know all therein that he knows will be for my good. PRUD. How believe you as touching the resurrection of the dead? MATT. I believe they shall rise the same that was buried; the same in nature, though not in corruption. And I believe this upon a double account: first, because God has promised it; secondly, because he is able to perform it. Then said Prudence to the boys, You must still hearken to your mother; for she can teach you more. You must also diligently give ear to what good talk you shall hear from others: for your sakes do they speak good things. Observe also, and that with carefulness, what the heavens and the earth do teach you; but especially be much in the meditation of that book which was the cause of your father's becoming a pilgrim. I, for my part, my children, will teach you what I can while you are here, and shall be glad if you will ask me questions that tend to godly edifying. Now by that these pilgrim's had been at this place a week, Mercy had a visitor that pretended some good-will unto her, and his name was Mr. Brisk; a man of some breeding, and that pretended to religion, but a man that stuck very close to the world. So he came once or twice, or more, to Mercy, and offered love unto her. Now Mercy was of a fair countenance, and therefore the more alluring. Her mind also was to be always busying of herself in doing; for when she had nothing to do for herself, she would be making hose and garments for others, and would bestow them upon those that had need. And Mr. Brisk not knowing where or how she disposed of what she made, seemed to be greatly taken, for that he found her never idle. I will warrant her a good housewife, quoth he to himself. Mercy then revealed the business to the maidens that were of the house, and inquired of them concerning him, for they did know him better than she. So they told her that he was a very busy young man, and one who pretended to religion, but was, as they feared, a stranger to the power of that which is good. Nay then, said Mercy, I will look no more on him; for I purpose never to have a clog to my soul. Prudence then replied, that there needed no matter of great discouragement to be given to him; her continuing so as she had begun to do for the poor, would quickly cool his courage. So the next time he comes he finds her at her old work, making things for the poor. Then said he, What, always at it? Yes, said she, either for myself or for others. And what canst thou earn a day? said he. I do these things, said she, that I may be rich in good works, laying up in store for myself a good foundation against the time to come, that I may lay hold on eternal life. 1 Tim. 6:17-19. Why, prithee, what doest thou with them? said he. Clothe the naked, said she. With that his countenance fell. So he forbore to come at her again. And when he was asked the reason why, he said, that Mercy was a pretty lass, but troubled with ill conditions. When he had left her, Prudence said, Did I not tell thee that Mr. Brisk would soon forsake thee? yea, he will rise up an ill report of thee; for, notwithstanding his pretence to religion, and his seeming love to Mercy, yet Mercy and he are of tempers so different that I believe they will never come together. MER. I might have had husbands before now, though I spoke not of it to any; but they were such as did not like my conditions, though never did any of them find fault with my person. So they and I could not agree. PRUD. Mercy in our days is but little set by any further than as to its name: the practice which is set forth by thy conditions, there are but few that can abide. MER. Well, said Mercy, if nobody will have me, I will die unmarried, or my conditions shall be to me as a husband: for I cannot change my nature; and to have one who lies cross to me in this, that I purpose never to admit of as long as I live. I had a sister named Bountiful, that was married to one of these churls, but he and she could never agree; but because my sister was resolved to do as she had begun, that is, to show kindness to the poor, therefore her husband first cried her down at the cross, and then turned her out of his doors. PRUD. And yet he was a professor, I warrant you? MER. Yes, such a one as he was, and of such as he the world is now full: but I am for none of them all. Now Matthew, the eldest son of Christiana, fell sick, and his sickness was sore upon him, for he was much pained in his bowels, so that he was with it at times pulled, as it were, both ends together. There dwelt also not far from thence one Mr. Skill, an ancient and well-approved physician. So Christiana desired it, and entered the room, and had a little observed the boy, he concluded that he was sick of the gripes. Then he said to his mother, What diet has Matthew of late fed upon? Diet! said Christiana, nothing but what is wholesome. The physician answered, This boy has been tampering with something that lies in his stomach undigested, and that will not away without means. And I tell you he must be purged, or else he will die. SAM. Then said Samuel, Mother, what was that which my brother did gather up and eat as soon as we were come from the gate that is at the head of this way? You know that there was an orchard on the left hand, on the other side of the wall, and some of the trees hung over the wall, and my brother did pluck and eat. CHR. True, my child, said Christiana, he did take thereof, and did eat: naughty boy as he was, I chid him, and yet he would eat thereof. SKILL. I knew he had eaten something that was not wholesome food; and that food, to wit, that fruit, is even the most hurtful of all. It is the fruit of Beelzebub's orchard. I do marvel that none did warn you of it; many have died thereof. CHR. Then Christiana began to cry; and she said, Oh, naughty boy! and Oh, careless mother! what shall I do for my son? SKILL. Come, do not be too much dejected; the boy may do well again, but he must purge and vomit. CHR. Pray, sir, try the utmost of your skill with him, whatever it costs. SKILL. Nay, I hope I shall be reasonable. So he made him a purge, but it was too weak; it was said it was made of the blood of a goat, the ashes of a heifer, and some of the juice of hyssop. Heb. 9:13, 19; 10: 1-4. When Mr. Skill had seen that that purge was too weak, he made one to the purpose. It was made ex carne et sanguine Christi, 7 John 6:54- 57; Heb. 9:14; (you know physicians give strange medicines to their patients:) and it was made into pills, with a promise or two, and a proportionable quantity of salt. Mark 9:49. Now, he was to take them three at a time, fasting, in half a quarter of a pint of the tears of repentance. Zech. 12:10. When this potion was prepared, and brought to the boy, he was loth to take it, though torn with the gripes as if he should be pulled in pieces. Come, come, said the physician, you must take it. It goes against my stomach, said the boy. I must have you take it, said his mother. I shall vomit it up again, said the boy. Pray, sir, said Christiana to Mr. Skill, how does it taste? It has no ill taste, said the doctor; and with that she touched one of the pills with the tip of her tongue. Oh, Matthew, said she, this potion is sweeter than honey. If thou lovest thy mother, if thou lovest thy brothers, if thou lovest Mercy, if thou lovest thy life, take it. So, with much ado, after a short prayer for the blessing of God upon it, he took it, and it wrought kindly with him. It caused him to purge; it caused him to sleep, and to rest quietly; it put him into a fine heat and breathing sweat, and did quite rid him of his gripes. So in a little time he got up, and walked about with a staff, and would go from room to room, and talk with Prudence, Piety, and Charity, of his distemper, and how he was healed. So when the boy was healed, Christiana asked Mr. Skill, saying, Sir, what will content you for your pains and care to and of my child? And he said, You must pay the master of the College of Physicians, Heb. 13:11-15, according to rules made in that case and provided. CHR. But, sir, said she, what is this pill good for else? SKILL. It is a universal pill; it is good against all the diseases that pilgrims are incident to; and when it is well prepared, it will keep good, time out of mind. CHR. Pray, sir, make me up twelve boxes of them; for if I can get these, I will never take other physic. SKILL. These pills are good to prevent diseases, as well as to cure when one is sick. Yea, I dare say it, and stand to it, that if a man will but use this physic as he should, it will make him live for ever. John 6:51. But, good Christiana, thou must give these pills no other way but as I have prescribed; for if you do, they will do no good. So he gave unto Christiana physic for herself, and her boys, and for Mercy; and bid Matthew take heed how he ate any more green plums; and kissed them, and went his way. It was told you before, that Prudence bid the boys, that if at any time they would, they should ask her some questions that might be profitable and she would say something to them. MATT. Then Matthew, who had been sick, asked her, why for the most part physic should be bitter to our palates. PRUD. To show how unwelcome the word of God and the effects thereof are to a carnal heart. MATT. Why does physic, if it does good, purge, and cause to vomit? PRUD. To show that the word, when it works effectually, cleanseth the heart and mind. For look, what the one doth to the body, the other doth to the soul. MATT. What should we learn by seeing the flame of our fire go upwards, and by seeing the beams and sweet influences of the sun strike downwards? PRUD. By the going up of the fire, we are taught to ascend to heaven by fervent and hot desires. And by the sun sending his heat, beams, and sweet influences downwards, we are taught the Saviour of the world, though high, reaches down with his grace and love to us below. MATT. Whence have the clouds their water? PRUD. Out of the sea. MATT. What may we learn from that? PRUD. That ministers should fetch their doctrine from God. MATT. Why do they empty themselves upon the earth? PRUD. To show that ministers should give out what they know of God to the world. MATT. Why is the rainbow caused by the sun? PRUD. To show that the covenant of God's grace is confirmed to us in Christ. MATT. Why do the springs come from the sea to us through the earth? PRUD. To show that the grace of God comes to us through the body of Christ. MATT. Why do some of the springs rise out of the tops of high hills? PRUD. To show that the Spirit of grace shall spring up in some that are great and mighty, as well as in many that are poor and low. MATT. Why doth the fire fasten upon the candle-wick? PRUD. To show that unless grace doth kindle upon the heart, there will be no true light of life in us. MATT. Why are the wick, and tallow and all, spent to maintain the light of the candle? PRUD. To show that body and soul, and all, should be at the service of, and spend themselves to maintain in good condition that grace of God that is in us. MATT. Why doth the pelican pierce her own breast with her bill? PRUD. To nourish her young ones with her blood, and thereby to show that Christ the blessed so loved his young, (his people,) as to save them from death by his blood. MATT. What may one learn by hearing the cock to crow? PRUD. Learn to remember Peter's sin, and Peter's repentance. The cock's crowing shows also, that day is coming on: let, then, the crowing of the cock put thee in mind of that last and terrible day of judgment. Now about this time their month was out; wherefore they signified to those of the house, that it was convenient for them to up and be going. Then said Joseph to his mother, It is proper that you forget not to send to the house of Mr. Interpreter, to pray him to grant that Mr. Great- Heart should be sent unto us, that he may be our conductor for the rest of the way. Good boy, said she, I had almost forgot. So she drew up a petition, and prayed Mr. Watchful the porter to send it by some fit man to her good friend Mr. Interpreter; who, when it was come, and he had seen the contents of the petition, said to the messenger, Go, tell them that I will send him. When the family where Christiana was, saw that they had a purpose to go forward, they called the whole house together, to give thanks to their King for sending of them such profitable guests as these. Which done, they said unto Christiana, And shall we not show thee something, as our custom is to do to pilgrims, on which thou mayest meditate when thou art upon the way? So they took Christiana, her children, and Mercy, into the closet, and showed them one of the apples that Eve ate of, and that she also did give to her husband, and that for the eating of which they were both turned out of paradise, and asked her what she thought that was. Then Christiana said, It is food or poison, I know not which. So they opened the matter to her, and she held up her hands and wondered. Gen. 3:6; Rom. 7:24. Then they had her to a place, and showed her Jacob's ladder. Gen. 28:12. Now at that time there were some angels ascending upon it. So Christiana looked and looked to see the angels go up: so did the rest of the company. Then they were going into another place, to show them something else; but James said to his mother, Pray, bid them stay here a little longer, for this is a curious sight. So they turned again, and stood feeding their eyes with this so pleasant a prospect. After this, they had them into a place where did hang up a golden anchor. So they bid Christiana take it down; for said they, You shall have it with you, for it is of absolute necessity that you should, that you may lay hold of that within the veil, Heb. 6:19, and stand stedfast in case you should meet with turbulent weather, Joel 3:16: so they were glad thereof. Then they took them, and had them to the mount upon which Abraham our father offered up Isaac his son, and showed them the altar, the wood, the fire, and the knife, for they remain to be seen to this very day. Gen. 22:9. When they had seen it, they held up their hands, and blessed themselves, and said, Oh, what a man for love to his Master, and for denial to himself, was Abraham! After they had showed them all these things, Prudence took them into a dining room, where stood a pair of excellent virginals; 8 so she played upon them, and turned what she had showed them into this excellent song, saying, "Eve's apple we have showed you; Of that be you aware: You have seen Jacob's ladder too, Upon which angels are. An anchor you received have; But let not these suffice, Until with Abra'm you have gave Your best, a sacrifice." Now, about this time, one knocked at the door; so the Porter opened, and behold, Mr. Great-Heart was there. But when he was come in, what joy was there! for it came now afresh again into their minds, how but a while ago he had slain old Grim Bloody-man the giant, and had delivered them from the lions. Then said Mr. Great-Heart to Christiana and to Mercy, My Lord has sent each of you a bottle of wine, and also some parched corn, together with a couple of pomegranates; he has also sent the boys some figs and raisins; to refresh you in your way. Then they addressed themselves to their journey, and Prudence and Piety went along with them. When they came to the gate, Christiana asked the Porter if any of late went by. He said, No; only one, some time since, who also told me, that of late there had been a great robbery committed on the King's highway as you go. But, said he, the thieves are taken, and will shortly be tried for their lives. Then Christiana and Mercy were afraid; but Matthew said, Mother, fear nothing, as long as Mr. Great-Heart is to go with us, and to be our conductor. Then said Christiana to the Porter, Sir, I am much obliged to you for all the kindnesses that you have showed to me since I came hither; and also for that you have been so loving and kind to my children. I know not how to gratify your kindness; wherefore, pray, as a token of my respect to you, accept of this small mite. So she put a gold angel 9 in his hand; and he made her a low obeisance, and said, "Let thy garments be always white; and let thy head want no ointment." Eccles. 9:8. Let Mercy live and not die, and let not her works be few. Deut. 33:6. And to the boys he said, Do you fly youthful lusts, and follow after godliness with them that are grave and wise, 2 Tim. 2:22: so shall you put gladness into your mother's heart, and obtain praise of all that are sober-minded. So they thanked the Porter, and departed. THE FIFTH STAGE. Now I saw in my dream, that they went forward until they were come to the brow of the Hill; where Piety, bethinking herself, cried out, Alas, I have forgot what I intended to bestow upon Christiana and her companions: I will go back and fetch it. So she ran and fetched it. While she was gone, Christiana thought she heard, in a grove a little way off on the right hand, a most curious melodious note, with words much like these: "Through all my life thy favor is So frankly showed to me, That in thy House for evermore My dwelling-place shall be." And listening still, she thought she heard another answer it, saying, "For why? The Lord our God is good; His mercy is forever sure; His truth at all times firmly stood, And shall from age to age endure." So Christiana asked Prudence who it was that made those curious notes. Song 2:11,12. They are, answered she, our country birds: they sing these notes but seldom, except it be at the spring, when the flowers appear, and the sun shines warm, and then you may hear them all day long. I often, said she, go out to hear them; we also oft-times keep them tame in our house. They are very fine company for us when we are melancholy: also they make the woods, and groves, and solitary places, places desirable to be in. By this time Piety was come again. So she said to Christiana, Look here, I have brought thee a scheme of all those things that thou hast seen at our house, upon which thou mayest look when thou findest thyself forgetful, and call those things again to remembrance for thy edification and comfort. Now they began to go down the hill into the Valley of Humiliation. It was a steep hill, and the way was slippery; but they were very careful; so they got down pretty well. When they were down in the valley, Piety said to Christiana, This is the place where Christian your husband met, with the foul fiend Apollyon, and where they had that dreadful fight that they had: I know you cannot but have heard thereof. But be of good courage; as long as you have here Mr. Great-Heart to be your guide and conductor, we hope you will fare the better. So when these two had committed the pilgrims unto the conduct of their guide, he went forward, and they went after. GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, We need not be so afraid of this valley, for here is nothing to hurt us, unless we procure it to ourselves. It is true, Christian did here meet with Apollyon, with whom he had also a sore combat: but that fray was the fruit of those slips that he got in his going down the hill: for they that get slips there, must look for combats here. And hence it is, that this valley has got so hard a name. For the common people, when they hear that some frightful thing has befallen such an one in such a place, are of opinion that that place is haunted with some foul fiend, or evil spirit; when, alas! it is for the fruit of their doing, that such things do befal them there. This Valley of Humiliation is of itself as fruitful a place as any the crow flies over; and I am persuaded, if we could hit upon it, we might find somewhere hereabouts something that might give us an account why Christian was so hardly beset in this place. Then said James to his mother, Lo, yonder stands a pillar, and it looks as if something was written thereon; let us go and see what it is. So they went and found there written, "Let Christian's slips, before he came hither, and the battles that he met with in this place, be a warning to those that come after." Lo, said their guide, did not I tell you that there was something hereabouts that would give intimation of the reason why Christian was so hard beset in this place? Then turning to Christiana, he said, No disparagement to Christian more than to any others whose hap and lot it was. For it is easier going up than down this hill, and that can be said but of few hills in all these parts of the world. But we will leave the good man; he is at rest: he also had a brave victory over his enemy. Let Him grant, that dwelleth above, that we fare no worse, when we come be tried, than he. But we will come again to this Valley of Humiliation. It is the best and most fruitful piece of ground in all those parts. It is fat ground, and as you see, consisteth much in meadows; and if a man was to come here in the summer-time, as we do now, if he knew not any thing before thereof, and if he also delighted himself in the sight of his eyes, he might see that which would be delightful to him. Behold how green this valley is; also how beautified with lillies. Song 2:1. I have known many laboring men that have got good estates in this Valley of Humiliation; for God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the humble. James 4:6; 1 Pet. 5:5. Indeed it is a very fruitful soil, and doth bring forth by handfuls. Some also have wished that the next way to their Father's house were here, that they might be troubled no more with either hills or mountains to go over; but the way is the way, and there is an end. Now, as they were going along, and talking, they espied a boy feeding his father's sheep. The boy was in very mean clothes, but of a very fresh and well-favored countenance; and as he sat by himself, he sung. Hark, said Mr. Great-Heart, to what the shepherd's boy saith. So they hearkened and he said, "He that is down, needs fear no fall; He that is low, no pride: He that is humble, ever shall Have God to be his guide. I am content with what I have, Little be it or much; And, Lord, contentment still I crave, Because thou savest such. Fulness to such, a burden is, That go on pilgrimage; Here little, and hereafter bliss, Is best from Age to Age." Then said the guide, Do you hear him? I will dare to say, that this boy lives a merrier life, and wears more of that herb called heart's-ease in his bosom, than he that is clad in silk and velvet. But we will proceed in our discourse. In this valley our Lord formerly had his country-house: he loved much to be here. He loved also to walk these meadows, for he found the air was pleasant. Besides, here a man shall be free from the noise, and from the hurryings of this life: all states are full of noise and confusion; only the Valley of Humiliation is that empty and solitary place. Here a man shall not be so let and hindered in his contemplation as in other places he is apt to be. This is a valley that nobody walks in but those that love a pilgrim's life. And though Christian had the hard hap to meet here with Apollyon, and to enter with him in a brisk encounter, yet I must tell you, that in former times men have met with angels here, Hos. 12:4,5, have found pearls here, Matt. 13:46, and have in this place found the words of life. Prov. 8:36. Did I say our Lord had here in former days his country-house, and that he loved here to walk? I will add-in this place, and to the people that love and trace these grounds, he has left a yearly revenue, to be faithfully paid them at certain seasons, for their maintenance by the way, and for their further encouragement to go on in their pilgrimage. SAM. Now, as they went on, Samuel said to Mr. Great-Heart, Sir, I perceive that in this valley my father and Apollyon had their battle; but whereabout was the fight? for I perceive this valley is large. GREAT. Your father had the battle with Apollyon at a place yonder before us, in a narrow passage, just beyond Forgetful Green. And indeed that place is the most dangerous place in all these parts. For if at any time pilgrims meet with any brunt, it is when they forget what favours they have received, and how unworthy they are of them. This is the place also where others have been hard put to it. But more of the place when we are come to it; for I persuade myself that to this day there remains either some sign of the battle, or some monument to testify that such a battle there was fought. MER. Then said Mercy, I think I am as well in this valley as I have been anywhere else in all our journey: the place, methinks, suits with my spirit. I love to be in such places, where there is no rattling with coaches, nor rumbling with wheels. Methinks, here one may, without much molestation, be thinking what he is, whence he came, what he has done, and to what the King has called him. Here one may think, and break at heart, and melt in one's spirit, until one's eyes become as the fish- pools in Heshbon. Song 7:4. They that go rightly through this valley of Baca, make it a well; the rain that God sends down from heaven upon them that are here, also filleth the pools. This valley is that from whence also the King will give to his their vineyards; and they that go through it shall sing, as Christian did, for all he met with Apollyon. Psa. 84:5-7; Hos. 2:15. GREAT. 'Tis true, said their guide; I have gone through this valley many a time, and never was better than when here. I have also been a conduct to several pilgrims, and they have confessed the same. "To this man will I look," saith the King, "even to him that is poor, and of a contrite spirit, and trembleth at my word." Isa. 66:2. Now they were come to the place where the aforementioned battle was fought: Then said the guide to Christiana, her children, and Mercy, This is the place; on this ground Christian stood, and up there came Apollyon against him; and look. And, look, did I not tell you? here is some of your husband's blood upon these stones to this day: Behold, also, how here and there are yet to be seen upon the place, some of the shivers of Apollyon's broken darts. See, also, how they did beat the ground with their feet as they fought, to make good their places against each other; how also with their by-blows they did split the very stones in pieces. Verily, Christian did here play the man, and showed himself as stout as Hercules could, had he been there, even he himself. When Apollyon was beat, he made his retreat to the next valley, that is called, the Valley of the Shadow of Death, unto which we shall come anon. Lo, yonder also stands a monument, on which is engraven this battle, and Christian's victory, to his fame, throughout all ages: So because it stood just on the way-side before them, they stepped to it, and read the writing, which word for word was this: "Hard by here was a battle fought, Most strange, and yet most true; Christian and Apollyon fought Each other to subdue. The man so bravely play'd the man, He made the fiend to fly; Of which a monument I stand, The same to testify." When they had passed by this place, they came upon the borders of the Shadow of Death. This Valley was longer than the other; a place also most strangely haunted with evil things, as many are able to testify: but these women and children went the better through it, because they had daylight, and because Mr. Great-Heart was their conductor. When they were entering upon this valley, they thought they heard a groaning, as of dying men; a very great groaning. They thought also that they did hear words of lamentation, spoken as of some in extreme torment. These things made the boys to quake; the women also looked pale and wan; but their guide bid them be of good comfort. So they went on a little further, and they thought that they felt the ground begin to shake under them, as if some hollow place was there: they heard also a kind of hissing, as of serpents, but nothing as yet appeared. Then said the boys, Are we not yet at the end of this doleful place? But the guide also bid them be of good courage, and look well to their feet; lest haply, said he, you be taken in some snare. Now James began to be sick; but I think the cause thereof was fear: so his mother gave him some of that glass of spirits that had been given her at the Interpreter's house, and three of the pills that Mr. Skill had prepared, and the boy began to revive. Thus they went on till they came to about the middle of the valley; and then Christiana said, Methinks I see something yonder upon the road before us, a thing of a shape such as I have not seen. Then said Joseph, Mother, what is it? An ugly thing, child; an ugly thing, said she. But, mother, what is it like? said he. 'Tis like I cannot tell what, said she; and now it is but a little way off. Then said she, It is nigh. Well, said Mr. Great-Heart, let them that are most afraid keep close to me. So the fiend came on, and the conductor met it; but when it was come to him, it vanished to all their sights. Then remembered they what had been said some time ago: "Resist the devil, and he will flee from you." James 4:7. They went therefore on, as being a little refreshed. But they had not gone far, before Mercy, looking behind her, saw, as she thought, something most like a lion, and it came at a great padding pace after: and it had a hollow voice of roaring; and at every roar it gave, it made the valley echo, and all their hearts to ache, save the heart of him that was their guide. So it came up and Mr. Great-Heart went behind, and put the pilgrims all before him. The lion also came on apace, and Mr. Great-Heart addressed himself to give him battle. 1 Pet. 5:8,9. But when he saw that it was determined that resistance should be made, he also drew back, and came no further. Then they went on again, and their conductor went before them, till they came to a place where was cast up a pit the whole breadth of the way; and before they could be prepared to go over that, a great mist and a darkness fell upon them, so that they could not see. Then said the pilgrims, Alas! what now shall we do? But their guide made answer, Fear not; stand still, and see what an end will be put to this also; so they stayed there, because their path was marred. They then also thought that they did hear more apparently the noise and rushing of the enemies; the fire also and the smoke of the pit were much easier to be discerned. Then said Christiana to Mercy, Now I see what my poor husband went through. I have heard much of this place, but I never was here before now. Poor man! he went here all alone in the night; he had night almost quite through the way: also these fiends were busy about him, as if they would have torn him in pieces. Many have spoken of it; but none can tell what the Valley of the Shadow of Death should mean until they come in themselves. The heart knoweth its own bitterness; and a stranger intermeddleth not with its joy. Prov. 14:10. To be here is a fearful thing. GREAT. This is like doing business in great waters, or like going down into the deep. This is like being in the heart of the sea, and like going down to the bottoms of the mountains. Now it seems as if the earth, with its bars, were about us for ever. But let them that walk in darkness, and have no light, trust in the name of the Lord, and stay upon their God. Isa. 50:10. For my part, as I have told you already, I have gone often through this valley, and have been much harder put to it than now I am: and yet you see I am alive. I would not boast, for that I am not mine own saviour; but I trust we shall have a good deliverance. Come, let us pray for light to Him that can lighten our darkness, and that can rebuke not only these, but all the Satans in hell. So they cried and prayed, and God sent light and deliverance, for there was now no let in their way; no, not there where but now they were stopped with a pit. Yet they were not got through the valley. So they went on still, and met with great stinks and loathsome smells, to the great annoyance of them. Then said Mercy to Christiana, It is not so pleasant being here as at the gate, or at the Interpreter's, or at the house where we lay last. O but, said one of the boys, it is not so bad to go through here, as it is to abide here, always; and for aught I know, one reason why we must go this way to the house prepared for us is, that our home might be the sweeter to us. Well said, Samuel, quoth the guide; thou hast now spoke like a man. Why, if ever I get out here again, said the boy, I think I shall prize light and good way better than I ever did in all my life. Then said the guide, We shall be out by and by. So on they went, and Joseph said, Cannot we see to the end of this valley as yet? Then said the guide, Look to your feet, for we shall presently be among the snares: so they looked to their feet, and went on; but they were troubled much with the snares. Now, when they were come among the snares, they espied a man cast into the ditch on the left hand, with his flesh all rent and torn. Then said the guide, That is one Heedless, that was going this way: he has lain there a great while. There was one Take-Heed with him when he was taken and slain, but he escaped their hands. You cannot imagine how many are killed hereabouts, and yet men are so foolishly venturous as to set out lightly on pilgrimage, and to come without a guide. Poor Christian! it was a wonder that he here escaped; but he was beloved of his God: also he had a good heart of his own, or else he could never have done it. Now they drew towards the end of this way; and just there where Christian had seen the cave when he went by, out thence came forth Maul, a giant. This Maul did use to spoil young pilgrims with sophistry; and he called Great-Heart by his name, and said unto him, How many times have you been forbidden to do these things? Then said Mr. Great-Heart, What things? What things! quoth the giant; you know what things: but I will put an end to your trade. But, pray, said Mr. Great-Heart, before we fall to it, let us understand wherefore we must fight. Now the women and children stood trembling, and knew not what to do. Quoth the giant, You rob the country, and rob it with the worst of thefts. These are but generals, said Mr. Great-Heart; come to particulars, man. Then said the giant, Thou practisest the craft of a kidnapper; thou gatherest up women and children, and carriest them into a strange country, to the weakening of my master's kingdom. But now Great-Heart replied, I am a servant of the God of heaven; my business is to persuade sinners to repentance. I am commanded to do my endeavors to turn men, women, and children, from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan unto God; and if this be indeed the ground of thy quarrel, let us fall to it as soon as thou wilt. Then the giant came up, and Mr. Great-Heart went to meet him; and as he went he drew his sword, but the giant had a club. So without more ado they fell to it, and at the first blow the giant struck Mr. Great-Heart down upon one of his knees. With that the women and children cried out. So Mr. Great-Heart recovering himself, laid about him in full lusty manner, and gave the giant a wound in his arm. Thus he fought for the space of an hour, to that height of heat that the breath came out of the giant's nostrils as the heat doth out of a boiling cauldron. Then they sat down to rest them; but Mr. Great-Heart betook himself to prayer. Also the women and children did nothing but sigh and cry all the time that the battle did last. When they had rested them, and taken breath, they both fell to it again; and Mr. Great-Heart, with a blow, fetched the giant down to the ground. Nay, hold, let me recover, quoth he: so Mr. Great-Heart fairly let him get up. So to it they went again, and the giant missed but little of all to breaking Mr. Great-Heart's scull with his club. Mr. Great-Heart seeing that, runs to him in the full heat of his spirit, and pierceth him under the fifth rib. With that the giant began to faint, and could hold up his club no longer. Then Mr. Great-Heart seconded his blow, and smit the head of the giant from his shoulders. Then the women and children rejoiced, and Mr. Great-Heart also praised God for the deliverance he had wrought. When this was done, they amongst them erected a pillar, and fastened the giant's head thereon, and wrote under in letters that passengers might read, "He that did wear this head was one That pilgrims did misuse; He stopped their way, he spared none, But did them all abuse; Until that I Great-Heart arose, The pilgrims guide to be; Until that I did him oppose That was their enemy." THE SIXTH STAGE. Now I saw that they went on to the ascent that was a little way off, cast up to be a prospect for pilgrims. That was the place from whence Christian had the first sight of Faithful his brother. Wherefore, here they sat down and rested. They also here did eat and drink, and make merry, for that they had gotten deliverance from this so dangerous an enemy. As they sat thus and did eat, Christiana asked the guide, if he had caught no hurt in the battle? Then said Mr. Great-Heart, No, save a little on my flesh; yet that also shall be so far from being to my detriment, that it is at present a proof of my love to my master and you, and shall be a means, by grace, to increase my reward at last. CHR. But were you not afraid, good sir, when you saw him come with his club? GREAT. It is my duty, said he, to mistrust my own ability, that I may have reliance on Him who is stronger than all. CHR. But what did you think when he fetched you down to the ground at the first blow? GREAT. Why, I thought, quoth he, that so my Master himself was served, and yet he it was that conquered at last. 2 Cor. 4:10,11; Rom. 8:37. MATT. When you all have thought what you please, I think God has been wonderfully good unto us, both in bringing us out of this valley, and in delivering us out of the hand of this enemy. For my part, I see no reason why we should distrust our God any more, since he has now, and in such a place as this, given us such testimony of his love. Then they got up, and went forward. Now a little before them stood an oak; and under it, when they came to it, they found an old pilgrim fast asleep. They knew that he was a pilgrim by his clothes, and his staff, and his girdle. So the guide, Mr. Great-Heart, awaked him; and the old gentleman, as he lifted up his eyes, cried out, What's the matter? Who are you; and what is your business here? GREAT. Come, man, be not so hot; here are none but friends. Yet the old man gets up, and stands upon his guard, and will know of them what they are. Then said the guide, My name is Great-Heart: I am the guide of these pilgrims that are going to the Celestial country. HON. Then said Mr. Honest, I cry you mercy: I feared that you had been of the company of those that some time ago did rob Little-Faith of his money; but, now I look better about me, I perceive you are honester people. GREAT. Why, what would or could you have done to have helped yourself, if indeed we had been of that company? HON. Done! Why, I would have fought as long as breath had been in me: and had I so done, I am sure you could never have given me the worst on't; for a Christian can never be overcome, unless he shall yield of himself. GREAT. Well said, father Honest, quoth the guide; for by this I know thou art a cock of the right kind, for thou hast said the truth. HON. And by this also I know that thou knowest what true pilgrimage is; for all others do think that we are the soonest overcome of any. GREAT. Well, now we are so happily met, pray let me crave your name, and the name of the place you came from. HON. My name I cannot tell you, but I came from the town of Stupidity: it lieth about four degrees beyond the city of Destruction. GREAT. Oh, Are you that countryman? Then I deem I have half a guess of you: your name is Old Honesty, is it not? HON. So the old gentleman blushed, and said, Not honesty in the abstract, but Honest is my name; and I wish that my nature may agree to what I am called. But, sir, said the old gentleman, how could you guess that I am such a man, since I came from such a place? GREAT. I had heard of you before, by my Master; for he knows all things that are done on the earth. But I have often wondered that any should come from your place; for your town is worse than is the city of Destruction itself. HON. Yes, we lie more off from the sun, and so are more cold and senseless. But were a man in a mountain of ice, yet if the Sun of righteousness will arise upon him, his frozen heart shall feel a thaw; and thus it has been with me. GREAT. I believe it, father Honest, I believe it; for I know the thing is true. Then the old gentleman saluted all the pilgrims with a holy kiss of charity, and asked them their names, and how they had fared since they set out on their pilgrimage. CHR. Then said Christiana, My name I suppose you have heard of; good Christian was my husband, and these four are his children. But can you think how the old gentleman was taken, when she told him who she was? He skipped, he smiled, he blessed them with a thousand good wishes, saying, HON. I have heard much of your husband, and of his travels and wars which he underwent in his days. Be it spoken to your comfort, the name of your husband rings all over these parts of the world: his faith, his courage, his enduring, and his sincerity under all, had made his name famous. Then he turned him to the boys, and asked them of their names, which they told him. Then said he unto them, Matthew, be thou like Matthew the publican, not in vice, but in virtue. Matt. 10:3. Samuel, said he, be thou like Samuel the prophet, a man of faith and prayer. Psa. 99:6. Joseph, said he, be thou like Joseph in Potiphar's house, chaste, and one that flees from temptation. Gen. 39. And James, be thou like James the just, and like James the brother of our Lord. Acts 1:13. Then they told him of Mercy, and how she had left her town and her kindred to come along with Christiana and with her sons. At that the old honest man said, Mercy is thy name: by mercy shalt thou be sustained and carried through all those difficulties that shall assault thee in thy way, till thou shalt come thither where thou shalt look the Fountain of mercy in the face with comfort. All this while the guide, Mr. Great-Heart, was very well pleased, and smiled upon his companions. Now, as they walked along together, the guide asked the old gentleman if he did not know one Mr. Fearing, that came on pilgrimage out of his parts. HON. Yes, very well, said he. He was a man that had the root of the matter in him; but he was one of the most troublesome pilgrims that ever I met with in all my days. GREAT. I perceive you knew him, for you have given a very right character of him. HON. Knew him! I was a great companion of his; I was with him most an end; when he first began to think upon what would come upon us hereafter, I was with him. GREAT. I was his guide from my Master's house to the gates of the Celestial City. HON. Then you knew him to be a troublesome one. GREAT. I did so; but I could very well bear it; for men of my calling are oftentimes intrusted with the conduct of such as he was. HON. Well then, pray let us hear a little of him, and how he managed himself under your conduct. GREAT. Why, he was always afraid that he should come short of whither he had a desire to go. Every thing frightened him that he heard any body speak of, if it had but the least appearance of opposition in it. I heard that he lay roaring at the Slough of Despond for above a month together; nor durst he, for all he saw several go over before him, venture, though they many of them offered to lend him their hands. He would not go back again, neither. The Celestial City-he said he should die if he came not to it; and yet he was dejected at every difficulty, and stumbled at every straw that any body cast in his way. Well, after he had lain at the Slough of Despond a great while, as I have told you, one sunshiny morning, I do not know how, he ventured, and so got over; but when he was over, he would scarce believe it. He had, I think, a Slough of Despond in his mind, a slough that he carried every where with him, or else he could never have been as he was. So he came up to the gate, you know what I mean, that stands at the head of this way, and there also he stood a good while before he would venture to knock. When the gate was opened, he would give back, and give place to others, and say that he was not worthy. For, all he got before some to the gate, yet many of them went in before him. There the poor man would stand shaking and shrinking; I dare say it would have pitied one's heart to have seen him. Nor would he go back again. At last he took the hammer that hanged on the gate, in his hand, and gave a small rap or two; then one opened to him, but he shrunk back as before. He that opened stepped out after him, and said, Thou trembling one, what wantest thou? With that he fell down to the ground. He that spoke to him wondered to see him so faint, so he said to him, Peace be to thee; up, for I have set open the door to thee; come in, for thou art blessed. With that he got up, and went in trembling; and when he was in, he was ashamed to show his face. Well, after he had been entertained there a while, as you know how the manner is, he was bid go on his way, and also told the way he should take. So he went on till he came out to our house; but as he behaved himself at the gate, so he did at my Master the Interpreter's door. He lay there about in the cold a good while, before he would adventure to call; yet he would not go back: and the nights were long and cold then. Nay, he had a note of necessity in his bosom to my master to receive him, and grant him the comfort of his house, and also to allow him a stout and valiant conductor, because he was himself so chicken-hearted a man; and yet for all that he was afraid to call at the door. So he lay up and down thereabouts, till, poor man, he was almost starved; yea, so great was his dejection, that though he saw several others for knocking get in, yet he was afraid to venture. At last, I think I looked out of the window, and perceiving a man to be up and down about the door, I went out to him, and asked what he was: but, poor man, the water stood in his eyes; so I perceived what he wanted. I went therefore in, and told it in the house, and we showed the thing to our Lord: so he sent me out again, to entreat him to come in; but I dare say, I had hard work to do it. At last he came in; and I will say that for my Lord, he carried it wonderful lovingly to him. There were but a few good bits at the table, but some of it was laid upon his trencher. Then he presented the note; and my Lord looked thereon, and said his desire should be granted. So when he had been there a good while, he seemed to get some heart, and to be a little more comfortable. For my Master, you must know, is one of very tender bowels, especially to them that are afraid; wherefore he carried it so towards him as might tend most to his encouragement. Well, when he had had a sight of the things of the place, and was ready to take his journey to go to the city, my Lord, as he did to Christian before, gave him a bottle of spirits, and some comfortable things to eat. Thus we set forward, and I went before him; but the man was but of few words, only he would sigh aloud. When we were come to where the three fellows were hanged, he said that he doubted that that would be his end also. Only he seemed glad when he saw the cross and the sepulchre. There I confess he desired to stay a little to look; and he seemed for a while after to be a little cheery. When he came to the Hill Difficulty, he made no stick at that, nor did he much fear the lions: for you must know, that his troubles were not about such things as these; his fear was about his acceptance at last. I got him in at the house Beautiful, I think, before he was willing. Also, when he was in, I brought him acquainted with the damsels of the place; but he was ashamed to make himself much in company. He desired much to be alone; yet he always loved good talk, and often would get behind the screen to hear it. He also loved much to see ancient things, and to be pondering them in his mind. He told me afterward, that he loved to be in those two houses from which he came last, to wit, at the gate, and that of the Interpreter, but that he durst not be so bold as to ask. When we went also from the house Beautiful, down the hill, into the Valley of Humiliation, he went down as well as ever I saw a man in my life; for he cared not how mean he was, so he might be happy at last. Yea, I think there was a kind of sympathy betwixt that Valley and him; for I never saw him better in all his pilgrimage than he was in that Valley. Here he would lie down, embrace the ground, and kiss the very flowers that grew in this valley. Lam. 3:27-29. He would now be up every morning by break of day, tracing and walking to and fro in the valley. But when he was come to the entrance of the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I thought I should have lost my man: not for that he had any inclination to go back; that he always abhorred; but he was ready to die for fear. Oh, the hobgoblins will have me! the hobgoblins will have me! cried he; and I could not beat him out of it. He made such a noise, and such an outcry here, that had they but heard him, it was enough to encourage them to come and fall upon us. But this I took very great notice of, that this valley was as quiet when we went through it, as ever I knew it before or since. I suppose those enemies here had now a special check from our Lord, and a command not to meddle until Mr. Fearing had passed over it. It would be too tedious to tell you of all; we will therefore only mention a passage or two more. When he was come to Vanity Fair, I thought he would have fought with all the men in the fair. I feared there we should have been both knocked on the head, so hot was he against their fooleries. Upon the Enchanted Ground he was very wakeful. But when he was come at the river where was no bridge, there again he was in a heavy case. Now, now, he said, he should be drowned forever, and so never see that face with comfort that he had come so many miles to behold. And here also I took notice of what was very remarkable: the water of that river was lower at this time than ever I saw it in all my life; so he went over at last, not much above wetshod. When he was going up to the gate, I began to take leave of him, and to wish him a good reception above. So he said, I shall, I shall. Then parted we asunder, and I saw him no more. HON. Then it seems he was well at last? GREAT. Yes, yes, I never had doubt about him. He was a man of a choice spirit, only he was always kept very low, and that made his life so burdensome to himself, and so troublesome to others. Psa. 88. He was, above many, tender of sin: he was so afraid of doing injuries to others, that he often would deny himself of that which was lawful, because he would not offend. Rom. 14:21; 1 Cor. 8:13. HON. But what should be the reason that such a good man should be all his days so much in the dark? GREAT. There are two sorts of reasons for it. One is, the wise God will have it so: some must pipe, and some must weep. Matt. 11:16. Now Mr. Fearing was one that played upon the bass. He and his fellows sound the sackbut, whose notes are more doleful than the notes of other music are: though indeed, some say, the bass is the ground of music. And for my part, I care not at all for that profession which begins not in heaviness of mind. The first string that the musician usually touches is the bass, when he intends to put all in tune. God also plays upon this string first, when he sets the soul in tune for himself. Only there was the imperfection of Mr. Fearing; he could play upon no other music but this till towards his latter end. [I make bold to talk thus metaphorically for the ripening of the wits of young readers, and because, in the book of Revelation, the saved are compared to a company of musicians, that play upon their trumpets and harps, and sing their songs before the throne.Rev. 5:8; 14:2,3.] HON. He was a very zealous man, as one may see by the relation you have given of him. Difficulties, lions, or Vanity Fair, he feared not at all; it was only sin, death, and hell, that were to him a terror, because he had some doubts about his interest in that celestial country. GREAT. You say right; those were the things that were his troublers; and they, as you have well observed, arose from the weakness of his mind thereabout, not from weakness of spirit as to the practical part of a pilgrim's life. I dare believe that, as the proverb is, he could have bit a firebrand, had it stood in his way; but the things with which he was oppressed, no man ever yet could shake off with ease. CHR. Then said Christiana, This relation of Mr. Fearing has done me good; I thought nobody had been like me. But I see there was some semblance betwixt this good man and me: only we differed in two things. His troubles were so great that they broke out; but mine I kept within. His also lay so hard upon him, they made him that he could not knock at the houses provided for entertainment; but my trouble was always such as made me knock the louder. MER. If I might also speak my heart, I must say that something of him has also dwelt in me. For I have ever been more afraid of the lake, and the loss of a place in paradise, than I have been of the loss other things. O, thought I, may I have the happiness to have a habitation there! 'Tis enough, though I part with all the world to win it. MATT. Then said Matthew, Fear was one thing that made me think that I was far from having that within me which accompanies salvation. But if it was so with such a good man as he, why may it not also go well with me? JAMES. No fears no grace, said James. Though there is not always grace where there is the fear of hell, yet, to be sure, there is no grace where there is no fear of God. GREAT. Well said, James; thou hast hit the mark. For the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom; and to be sure, they that want the beginning have neither middle nor end. But we will here conclude our discourse of Mr. Fearing, after we have sent after him this farewell. "Well, Master Fearing, thou didst fear Thy God, and wast afraid Of doing any thing, while here, That would have thee betrayed. And didst thou fear the lake and pit? Would others do so too! For, as for them that want thy wit, They do themselves undo." Now I saw that they still went on in their talk. For after Mr. Great- Heart had made an end with Mr. Fearing, Mr. Honest began to tell them of another, but his name was Mr. Self-will. He pretended himself to be a pilgrim, said Mr. Honest; but I persuade myself he never came in at the gate that stands at the head of the way. GREAT. Had you ever any talk with him about it? HON. Yes, more than once or twice; but he would always be like himself, self-willed. He neither cared for man, nor argument, nor yet example; what his mind prompted him to, that he would do, and nothing else could he be got to do. GREAT. Pray, what principles did he hold? for I suppose you can tell. HON. He held that a man might follow the vices as well as the virtues of pilgrims; and that if he did both, he should be certainly saved. GREAT. How? If he had said, it is possible for the best to be guilty of the vices, as well as to partake of the virtues of pilgrims, he could not much have been blamed; for indeed we are exempted from no vice absolutely, but on condition that we watch and strive. But this, I perceive, is not the thing; but if I understand you right, your meaning is, that he was of opinion that it was allowable so to be. HON. Aye, aye, so I mean, and so he believed and practised. GREAT. But what grounds had he for his so saying? HON. Why, he said he had the Scripture for his warrant. GREAT. Prithee, Mr. Honest, present us with a few particulars. HON. So I will. He said, to have to do with other men's wives had been practised by David, God's beloved; and therefore he could do it. He said, to have more women than one was a thing that Solomon practised, and therefore he could do it. He said, that Sarah and the godly midwives of Egypt lied, and so did save Rahab, and therefore he could do it. He said, that the disciples went at the bidding of their Master, and took away the owner's ass, and therefore he could do so too. He said, that Jacob got the inheritance of his father in a way of guile and dissimulation, and therefore he could do so too. GREAT. High base indeed! And are you sure he was of this opinion? HON. I heard him plead for it, bring Scripture for it, bring arguments for it, etc. GREAT. An opinion that is not fit to be with any allowance in the world! HON. You must understand me rightly: he did not say that any man might do this; but that they who had the virtues of those that did such things, might also do the same. GREAT. But what more false than such a conclusion? For this is as much as to say, that because good men heretofore have sinned of infirmity, therefore he had allowance to do it of a presumptuous mind; or that if, because a child, by the blast of the wind, or for that it stumbled at a stone, fell down and defiled itself in the mire, therefore he might wilfully lie down and wallow like a boar therein. Who could have thought that any one could so far have been blinded by the power of lust? But what is written must be true: they "stumble at the word, being disobedient; whereunto also they were appointed." 1 Peter, 2:8. His supposing that such may have the godly men's virtues, who addict themselves to their vices, is also a delusion as strong as the other. To eat up the sin of God's people, Hos. 4:8, as a dog licks up filth, is no sign that one is possessed with their virtues. Nor can I believe that one who is of this opinion, can at present have faith or love in him. But I know you have made strong objections against him; prithee what can he say for himself? HON. Why, he says, to do this by way of opinion, seems abundantly more honest than to do it, and yet hold contrary to it in opinion. GREAT. A very wicked answer. For though to let loose the bridle to lusts, while our opinions are against such things, is bad; yet, to sin, and plead a toleration so to do, is worse: the one stumbles beholders accidentally, the other leads them into the snare. HON. There are many of this man's mind, that have not this man's mouth; and that makes going on pilgrimage of so little esteem as it is. GREAT. You have said the truth, and it is to be lamented: but he that feareth the King of paradise, shall come out of them all. CHR. There are strange opinions in the world. I know one that said, it was time enough to repent when we come to die. GREAT. Such are not overwise; that man would have been loth, might he have had a week to run twenty miles in his life, to defer his journey to the last hour of that week. HON. You say right; and yet the generality of them who count themselves pilgrims, do indeed do thus. I am, as you see, an old man, and have been a traveller in this road many a day; and I have taken notice of many things. I have seen some that have set out as if they would drive all the world before them, who yet have, in a few days, died as they in the wilderness, and so never got sight of the promised land. I have seen some that have promised nothing at first setting out to be pilgrims, and who one would have thought could not have lived a day, that have yet proved very good pilgrims. I have seen some who have run hastily forward, that again have, after a little time, run just as fast back again. I have seen some who have spoken very well of a pilgrim's life at first, that after a while have spoken as much against it. I have heard some, when they first set out for paradise, say positively, there is such a place, who, when they have been almost there, have come back again, and said there is none. I have heard some vaunt what they would do in case they should be opposed, that have, even at a false alarm, fled faith, the pilgrim's way, and all. Now, as they were thus on their way, there came one running to meet them, and said, Gentlemen, and you of the weaker sort, if you love life, shift for yourselves, for the robbers are before you. GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, They be the three that set upon Little-Faith heretofore. Well, said he, we are ready for them: so they went on their way. Now they looked at every turning when they should have met with the villains; but whether they heard of Mr. Great-Heart, or whether they had some other game, they came not up to the pilgrims. Christiana then wished for an inn to refresh herself and her children, because they were weary. Then said Mr. Honest, There is one a little before us, where a very honorable disciple, one Gaius, dwells. Rom. 16:23. So they all concluded to turn in thither; and the rather, because the old gentleman gave him so good a report. When they came to the door they went in, not knocking, for folks use not to knock at the door of an inn. Then they called for the master of the house, and he came to them. So they asked if they might lie there that night. GAIUS. Yes, gentlemen, if you be true men; for my house is for none but pilgrims. Then were Christiana, Mercy, and the boys the more glad, for that the innkeeper was a lover of pilgrims. So they called for rooms, and he showed them one for Christiana and her children and Mercy, and another for Mr. Great-Heart and the old gentleman. GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, good Gaius, what hast thou for supper? for these pilgrims have come far to-day, and are weary. GAIUS. It is late, said Gaius, so we cannot conveniently go out to seek food; but such as we have you shall be welcome to, if that will content. GREAT. We will be content with what thou hast in the house; for as much as I have proved thee, thou art never destitute of that which is convenient. Then he went down and spake to the cook, whose name was, Taste-that- which-is-good, to get ready supper for so many pilgrims. This done, he comes up again, saying, Come, my good friends, you are welcome to me, and I am glad that I have a house to entertain you in; and while supper is making ready, if you please, let us entertain one another with some good discourse: so they all said, Content. GAIUS. Then said Gaius, Whose wife is this aged matron? and whose daughter is this young damsel? GREAT. This woman is the wife of one Christian, a pilgrim of former times; and these are his four children. The maid is one of her acquaintance, one that she hath persuaded to come with her on pilgrimage. The boys take all after their father, and covet to tread in his steps; yea, if they do but see any place where the old pilgrim hath lain, or any print of his foot, it ministereth joy to their hearts, and they covet to lie or tread in the same. GAIUS. Then said Gaius, Is this Christian's wife, and are these Christian's children? I knew your husband's father, yea, also his father's father. Many have been good of this stock; their ancestors dwelt first at Antioch. Acts 11:26. Christian's progenitors (I suppose you have heard your husband talk of them) were very worthy men. They have, above any that I know, showed themselves men of great virtue and courage for the Lord of the pilgrims, his ways, and them that loved him. I have heard of many of your husband's relations that have stood all trials for the sake of the truth. Stephen, that was one of the first of the family from whence your husband sprang, was knocked on the head with stones. Acts 7:59, 60. James, another of this generation, was slain with the edge of the sword. Acts 12:2. To say nothing of Paul and Peter, men anciently of the family from whence your husband came, there was Ignatius, who was cast to the lions; Romanus, whose flesh was cut by pieces from his bones; and Polycarp, that played the man in the fire. There was he that was hanged up in a basket in the sun for the wasps to eat; and he whom they put into a sack, and cast him into the sea to be drowned. It would be impossible utterly to count up all of that family who have suffered injuries and death for the love of a pilgrim's life. Nor can I but be glad to see that thy husband has left behind him four such boys as these. I hope they will bear up their father's name, and tread in their father's steps, and come to their father's end. GREAT. Indeed, sir, they are likely lads: they seem to choose heartily their father's ways. GAIUS. That is it that I said. Wherefore Christian's family is like still to spread abroad upon the face of the ground, and yet to be numerous upon the face of the earth; let Christiana look out some damsels for her sons, to whom they may be betrothed, etc., that the name of their father, and the house of his progenitors, may never be forgotten in the world. HON. 'Tis pity his family should fall and be extinct. GAIUS. Fall it cannot, but be diminished it may; but let Christiana take my advice, and that is the way to uphold it. And, Christiana, said this innkeeper, I am glad to see thee and thy friend Mercy together here, a lovely couple. And if I may advise, take Mercy into a nearer relation to thee: if she will, let her be given to Matthew thy eldest son. It is the way to preserve a posterity in the earth. So this match was concluded, and in process of time they were married: but more of that hereafter. Gaius also proceeded, and said, I will now speak on the behalf of women, to take away their reproach. For as death and the curse came into the world by a woman, Gen. 3, so also did life and health: God sent forth his Son, made of a woman. Gal. 4:4. Yea, to show how much they that came after did abhor the act of the mother, this sex in the Old Testament coveted children, if happily this or that woman might be the mother of the Saviour of the world. I will say again, that when the Saviour was come, women rejoiced in him, before either man or angel. Luke 1:42-46. I read not that ever any man did give unto Christ so much as one groat; but the women followed him, and ministered to him of their substance. Luke 8:2,3. 'Twas a woman that washed his feet with tears, Luke 7:37-50, and a woman that anointed his body at the burial. John 11:2; 12:3. They were women who wept when he was going to the cross, Luke 23:27, and women that followed him from the cross, Matt. 27:55,56; Luke 23:55, and sat over against his sepulchre when he was buried. Matt. 27:61. They were women that were first with him at his resurrection-morn, Luke 24:1, and women that brought tidings first to his disciples that he was risen from the dead. Luke 24:22,23. Women therefore are highly favored, and show by these things that they are sharers with us in the grace of life. Now the cook sent up to signify that supper was almost ready, and sent one to lay the cloth, and the trenchers, and to set the salt and bread in order. Then said Matthew, The sight of this cloth, and of this forerunner of the supper, begetteth in me a greater appetite for my food than I had before. GAIUS. So let all ministering doctrines to thee in this life beget in thee a greater desire to sit at the supper of the great King in his kingdom; for all preaching, books, and ordinances here, are but as the laying of the trenchers, and the setting of salt upon the board, when compared with the feast which our Lord will make for us when we come to his house. So supper came up. And first a heave-shoulder and a wave-breast were set on the table before them; to show that they must begin their meal with prayer and praise to God. The heave-shoulder David lifted up his heart to God with; and with the wave-breast, where his heart lay, he used to lean upon his harp when he played. Lev. 7: 32-34; 10:14,15; Psalm 25:1; Heb. 13:15. These two dishes were very fresh and good, and they all ate heartily thereof. The next they brought up was a bottle of wine, as red as blood. Deut. 32:14 ; Judges 9:13; John 15:5. So Gaius said to them, Drink freely; this is the true juice of the vine, that makes glad the heart of God and man. So they drank and were merry. The next was a dish of milk well crumbed; Gaius said, Let the boys have that, that they may grow thereby. 1 Pet. 2:1,2. Then they brought up in course a dish of butter and honey. Then said Gaius, Eat freely of this, for this is good to cheer up and strengthen your judgments and understandings. This was our Lord's dish when he was a child: "Butter and honey shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil, and choose the good." Isa. 7:15. Then they brought them up a dish of apples, and they were very good- tasted fruit. Then said Matthew, May we eat apples, since it was such by and with which the serpent beguiled our first mother? Then said Gaius, "Apples were they with which we were beguil'd, Yet sin, not apples, hath our souls defil'd: Apples forbid, if ate, corrupt the blood; To eat such, when commanded, does us good: Drink of his flagons then, thou church, his dove, And eat his apples, who art sick of love." Then said Matthew, I made the scruple, because I a while since was sick with the eating of fruit. GAIUS. Forbidden fruit will make you sick; but not what our Lord has tolerated. While they were thus talking, they were presented with another dish, and it was a dish of nuts. Song 6:11. Then said some at the table, Nuts spoil tender teeth, especially the teeth of children: which when Gaius heard, he said, "Hard texts are nuts, (I will not call them cheaters,) Whose shells do keep the kernel from the eaters: Open the shells, and you shall have the meat; They here are brought for you to crack and eat." Then were they very merry, and sat at the table a long time, talking of many things. Then said the old gentleman, My good landlord, while we are cracking your nuts, if you please, do you open this riddle: "A man there was, though some did count him mad, The more he cast away, the more he had." Then they all gave good heed, wondering what good Gaius would say; so he sat still a while, and then thus replied: "He who bestows his goods upon the poor, Shall have as much again, and ten times more." Then said Joseph, I dare say, sir, I did not think you could have found it out. Oh, said Gaius, I have been trained up in this way a great while: nothing teaches like experience. I have learned of my Lord to be kind, and have found by experience that I have gained thereby. There is that scattereth, and yet increaseth; and there is that withholdeth more than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty: There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing; there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches. Prov. 11:24; 13:7. Then Samuel whispered to Christiana, his mother, and said, Mother, this is a very good man's house: let us stay here a good while, and let my brother Matthew be married here to Mercy, before we go any further. The which Gaius the host overhearing, said, With a very good will, my child. So they stayed there more than a month, and Mercy was given to Matthew to wife. While they stayed here, Mercy, as her custom was, would be making coats and garments to give to the poor, by which she brought a very good report upon the pilgrims. But to return again to our story: After supper the lads desired a bed, for they were weary with travelling: Then Gaius called to show them their chamber; but said Mercy, I will have them to bed. So she had them to bed, and they slept well: but the rest sat up all night; for Gaius and they were such suitable company, that they could not tell how to part. After much talk of their Lord, themselves, and their journey, old Mr. Honest, he that put forth the riddle to Gaius, began to nod. Then said Great-Heart, What, sir, you begin to be drowsy; come, rub up, now here is a riddle for you. Then said Mr. Honest, Let us hear it. Then replied Mr. Great-heart, "He that would kill, must first be overcome: Who live abroad would, first must die at home." Ha, said Mr. Honest, it is a hard one; hard to expound, and harder to practise. But come, landlord, said he, I will, if you please, leave my part to you: do you expound it, and I will hear what you say. No, said Gaius, it was put to you, and it is expected you should answer it. Then said the old gentleman, "He first by grace must conquered be, That sin would mortify; Who that he lives would convince me, Unto himself must die." It is right, said Gaius; good doctrine and experience teach this. For, first, until grace displays itself, and overcomes the soul with its glory, it is altogether without heart to oppose sin. Besides, if sin is Satan's cords, by which the soul lies bound, how should it make resistance before it is loosed from that infirmity? Secondly, Nor will any one that knows either reason or grace, believe that such a man can be a living monument of grace that is a slave to his own corruptions. And now it comes into my mind, I will tell you a story worth the hearing. There were two men that went on pilgrimage; the one began when he was young, the other when he was old. The young man had strong corruptions to grapple with; the old man's were weak with the decays of nature. The young man trod his steps as even as did the old one, and was every way as light as he. Who now, or which of them, had their graces shining clearest, since both seemed to be alike? HON. The young man's, doubtless. For that which makes head against the greatest opposition, gives best demonstration that it is strongest; especially when it also holdeth pace with that which meets not with half so much, as to be sure old age does not. Besides, I have observed that old men have blessed themselves with this mistake; namely, taking the decays of nature for a gracious conquest over corruptions, and so have been apt to beguile themselves. Indeed, old men that are gracious are best able to give advice to them that are young, because they have seen most of the emptiness of things: but yet, for an old and a young man to set out both together, the young one has the advantage of the fairest discovery of a work of grace within him, though the old man's corruptions are naturally the weakest. Thus they sat talking till break of day. Now, when the family were up, Christiana bid her son James that he should read a chapter; so he read 53d of Isaiah. When he had done, Mr. Honest asked why it was said that the Saviour was to come "out of a dry ground;" and also, that "he had no form nor comeliness in him." GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, To the first I answer, because the church of the Jews, of which Christ came, had then lost almost all the sap and spirit of religion. To the second I say, the words are spoken in the person of unbelievers, who, because they want the eye that can see into our Prince's heart, therefore they judge of him by the meanness of his outside; just like those who, not knowing that precious stones are covered over with a homely crust, when they have found one, because they know not what they have found, cast it away again, as men do a common stone. Well, said Gaius, now you are here, and since, as I know, Mr. Great- Heart is good at his weapons, if you please, after we have refreshed ourselves, we will walk into the fields, to see if we can do any good. About a mile from hence there is one Slay-good, a giant, that doth much annoy the King's highway in these parts; and I know whereabout his haunt is. He is master of a number of thieves: 't would be well if we could clear these parts of him. So they consented and went: Mr. Great-Heart with his sword, helmet, and shield; and the rest with spears and staves. When they came to the place where he was, they found him with one Feeble -mind in his hand, whom his servants had brought unto him, having taken him in the way. Now the giant was rifling him, with a purpose after that to pick his bones; for he was of the nature of flesheaters. Well, so soon as he saw Mr. Great-Heart and his friends at the mouth of his cave, with their weapons, he demanded what they wanted. GREAT. We want thee; for we are come to revenge the quarrels of the many that thou hast slain of the pilgrims, when thou hast dragged them out of the King's highway: wherefore come out of thy cave. So he armed himself and came out, and to battle they went, and fought for above an hour, and then stood still to take wind. SLAY. Then said the giant, Why are you here on my ground? GREAT. To revenge the blood of pilgrims, as I told thee before. So they went to it again, and the giant made Mr. Great-Heart give back; but he came up again, and in the greatness of his mind he let fly with such stoutness at the giant's head and sides, that he made him let his weapon fall out of his hand. So he smote him, and slew him, and cut off his head, and brought it away to the inn. He also took Feeble-mind the pilgrim, and brought him with him to his lodgings. When they were come home, they showed his head to the family, and set it up, as they had done others before, for a terror to those that should attempt to do as he hereafter. Then they asked Mr. Feeble-Mind how he fell into his hands. FEEBLE. Then said the poor man, I am a sickly man, as you see: and because death did usually once a day knock at my door, I thought I should never be well at home; so I betook myself to a pilgrim's life, and have traveled hither from the town of Uncertain, where I and my father were born. I am a man of no strength at all of body, nor yet of mind, but would, if I could, though I can but crawl, spend my life in the pilgrim's way. When I came at the gate that is at the head of the way, the Lord of that place did entertain me freely; neither objected he against my weakly looks, nor against my feeble mind; but gave me such things as were necessary for my journey, and bid me hope to the end. When I came to the house of the Interpreter, I received much kindness there: and because the hill of Difficulty was judged too hard for me, I was carried up that by one of his servants. Indeed, I have found much relief from pilgrims, though none were willing to go so softly as I am forced to do: yet still as they came on, they bid me be of good cheer, and said, that it was the will of their Lord that comfort should be given to the feeble-minded, 1 Thess. 5:14; and so went on their own pace. When I was come to Assault-lane, then this giant met with me, and bid me prepare for an encounter. But, alas, feeble one that I was, I had more need of a cordial; so he came up and took me. I conceited he would not kill me. Also when he had got me into his den, since I went not with him willingly, I believed I should come out alive again; for I have heard, that not any pilgrim that is taken captive by violent hands, if he keeps heart whole towards his Master, is, by the laws of providence, to die by the hand of the enemy. Robbed I looked to be, and robbed to be sure I am; but I have, as you see, escaped with life, for the which I thank my King as the author, and you as the means. Other brunts I also look for; but this I have resolved on, to wit, to run when I can, to go when I cannot run, and to creep when I cannot go. As to the main, I thank him that loved me, I am fixed; my way is before me, my mind is beyond the river that has no bridge, though I am, as you see, but of a feeble mind. HON. Then said old Mr. Honest, Have not you, sometime ago, been acquainted with one Mr. Fearing, a pilgrim? FEEBLE. Acquainted with him! Yes, he came from the town of Stupidity, which lieth four degrees to the northward of the city of Destruction, and as many off of where I was born: yet we were well acquainted, for indeed he was my uncle, my father's brother. He and I have been much of a temper: he was a little shorter than I, but yet we were much of a complexion. HON. I perceive you knew him, and I am apt to believe also that you were related one to another; for you have his whitely look, a cast like his with your eye, and your speech is much alike. FEEBLE. Most have said so that have known us both: and, besides, what I have read in him I have for the most part found in myself. GAIUS. Come, sir, said good Gaius, be of good cheer; you are welcome to me, and to my house. What thou hast a mind to, call for freely; and what thou wouldst have my servants do for thee, they will do it with a ready mind. Then said Mr. Feeble-mind, This is an unexpected favor, and as the sun shining out of a very dark cloud. Did giant Slay-good intend me this favor when he stopped me, and resolved to let me go no further? Did he intend, that after he had rifled my pockets I should go to Gaius mine host? Yet so it is. Now, just as Mr. Feeble-mind and Gaius were thus in talk, there came one running, and called at the door, and said, that about a mile and a half off there was one Mr. Not-right, a pilgrim, struck dead upon the place where he was, with a thunderbolt. FEEBLE. Alas! said Mr. Feeble-mind, is he slain? He overtook me some days before I came so far as hither, and would be my company-keeper. He was also with me when Slay-good the giant took me, but he was nimble of his heels, and escaped; but it seems he escaped to die, and I was taken to live. "What one would think doth seek to slay outright, Ofttimes delivers from the saddest plight. That very Providence whose face is death, Doth ofttimes to the lowly life bequeath. I taken was, he did escape and flee; Hands cross'd gave death to him and life to me." Now, about this time Matthew and Mercy were married; also Gaius gave his daughter Phebe to James, Matthew's brother, to wife; after which time they yet stayed about ten days at Gaius' house, spending their time and the seasons like as pilgrims use to do. When they were to depart, Gaius made them a feast, and they did eat and drink, and were merry. Now the hour was come that they must be gone; wherefore Mr. Great-heart called for a reckoning. But Gaius told him, that at his house it was not the custom for pilgrims to pay for their entertainment. He boarded them by the year, but looked for his pay from the good Samaritan, who had promised him, at his return, whatsoever charge he was at with them, faithfully to repay him. Luke 10:34,35. Then said Mr. Great-heart to him, GREAT. Beloved, thou doest faithfully whatsoever thou doest to the brethren, and to strangers, who have borne witness of thy charity before the church, whom if thou yet bring forward on their journey, after a godly sort, thou shalt do well. 3 John 5,6. Then Gaius took his leave of them all, and his children, and particularly of Mr. Feeble-mind. He also gave him something to drink by the way. Now Mr. Feeble-mind, when they were going out of the door, made as if he intended to linger. The which, when Mr. Great-Heart espied, he said, Come, Mr. Feeble-mind, pray do you go along with us: I will be your conductor, and you shall fare as the rest. FEEBLE. Alas! I want a suitable companion. You are all lusty and strong, but I, as you see, am weak; I choose, therefore, rather to come behind, lest, by reason of my many infirmities, I should be both a burden to myself and to you. I am, as I said, a man of a weak and feeble mind, and shall be offended and made weak at that which others can bear. I shall like no laughing; I shall like no gay attire; I shall like no unprofitable questions. Nay, I am so weak a man as to be offended with that which others have a liberty to do. I do not yet know all the truth: I am a very ignorant Christian man. Sometimes, if I hear some rejoice in the Lord, it troubles me because I cannot do so too. It is with me as it is with a weak man among the strong, or as with a sick man among the healthy, or as a lamp despised; so that I know not what to do. "He that is ready to slip with his feet is as a lamp despised in the thought of him that is at ease." Job 12:5. GREAT. But, brother, said Mr. Great-Heart, I have it in commission to comfort the feeble-minded, and to support the weak. You must needs go along with us; we will wait for you; we will lend you our help; we will deny ourselves of some things, both opinionative and practical, for your sake: we will not enter into doubtful disputations before you; we will be made all things to you, rather than you shall be left behind. 1 Thess. 5:14; Rom. 14; 1 Cor. 8:9-13; 9:22. Now, all this while they were at Gaius' door; and behold, as they were thus in the heat of their discourse, Mr. Ready-to-halt came by, with his crutches in his hand, and he also was going on pilgrimage. FEEBLE. Then said Mr. Feeble-mind to him, Man, how camest thou hither? I was but now complaining that I had not a suitable companion, but thou art according to my wish. Welcome, welcome, good Mr. Ready-to-halt; I hope thou and I may be some help. READY. I shall be glad of thy company, said the other; and, good Mr. Feeble-mind, rather than we will part, since we are thus happily met, I will lend thee one of my crutches. FEEBLE. Nay, said he, though I thank thee for thy good-will, I am not inclined to halt before I am lame. Howbeit, I think when occasion is, it may help me against a dog. READY. If either myself or my crutches can do thee a pleasure, we are both at thy command, good Mr. Feeble-mind. Thus, therefore, they went on. Mr. Great-Heart and Mr. Honest went before, Christiana and her children went next, and Mr. Feeble-mind came behind, and Mr. Ready-to-halt with his crutches. Then said Mr. Honest, HON. Pray, sir, now we are upon the road, tell us some profitable things of some that have gone on pilgrimage before us. GREAT. With a good will. I suppose you have heard how Christian of old did meet with Apollyon in the Valley of Humiliation, and also what hard work he had to go through the Valley of the Shadow of Death. Also I think you cannot but have heard how Faithful was put to it by Madam Wanton, with Adam the First, with one Discontent, and Shame; four as deceitful villains as a man can meet with upon the road. HON.Yes, I have heard of all this; but indeed good Faithful was hardest put to it with Shame: he was an unwearied one. GREAT. Aye; for, as the pilgrim well said, he of all men had the wrong name. HON. But pray, sir, where was it that Christian and Faithful met Talkative? That same was also a notable one. GREAT. He was a confident fool; yet many follow his ways. HON. He had like to have beguiled Faithful. GREAT. Aye, but Christian put him into a way quickly to find him out. Thus they went on till they came to the place where Evangelist met with Christian and Faithful, and prophesied to them what should befall them at Vanity Fair. Then said their guide, Hereabouts did Christian and Faithful meet with Evangelist, who prophesied to them of what troubles they should meet with at Vanity Fair. HON. Say you so? I dare say it was a hard chapter that then he did read unto them. GREAT. It was so, but he gave them encouragement withal. But what do we talk of them? They were a couple of lion-like men; they had set their faces like a flint. Do not you remember how undaunted they were when they stood before the judge? HON. Well: Faithful bravely suffered. GREAT. So he did, and as brave things came on't; for Hopeful, and some others, as the story relates it, were converted by his death. HON. Well, but pray go on; for you are well acquainted with things. GREAT. Above all that Christian met with after he had passed through Vanity Fair, one By-ends was the arch one. HON. By-ends! what was he? GREAT. A very arch fellow, a downright hypocrite; one that would be religious, whichever way the world went; but so cunning, that he would be sure never to lose or suffer for it. He had his mode of religion for every fresh occasion, and his wife was as good at it as he. He would turn from opinion to opinion; yea, and plead for so doing, too. But, so far as I could learn, he came to an ill end with his by-ends; nor did I ever hear that any of his children were ever of any esteem with any that truly feared God. Now by this time they were come within sight of the town of Vanity, where Vanity Fair is kept. So, when they saw that they were so near the town, they consulted with one another how they should pass through the town; and some said one thing, and some another. At last Mr. Great- Heart said, I have, as you may understand, often been a conductor of pilgrims through this town. Now, I am acquainted with one Mr. Mnason, Acts 21:16, a Cyprusian by nation, an old disciple, at whose house we may lodge. If you think good, we will turn in there. Content, said old Honest; Content, said Christiana; Content, said Mr. Feeble-mind; and so they said all. Now you must think it was eventide by that they got to the outside of the town; but Mr. Great-Heart knew the way to the old man's house. So thither they came; and he called at the door, and the old man within knew his tongue as soon as ever he heard it; so he opened the door, and they all came in. Then said Mnason, their host, How far have ye come to-day? So they said, from the house of Gaius our friend. I promise you, said he, you have gone a good stitch. You may well be weary; sit down. So they sat down. GREAT. Then said their guide, Come, what cheer, good sirs? I dare say you are welcome to my friend. MNAS. I also, said Mr. Mnason, do bid you welcome; and whatever you want, do but say, and we will do what we can to get it for you. HON. Our great want, a while since, was harbor and good company, and now I hope we have both. MNAS. For harbor, you see what it is; but for good company, that will appear in the trial. GREAT. Well, said Mr. Great-Heart, will you have the pilgrims up into their lodging? MNAS. I will, said Mr. Mnason. So he had them to their respective places; and also showed them a very fair dining-room, where they might be, and sup together until the time should come to go to rest. Now, when they were seated in their places, and were a little cheery after their journey, Mr. Honest asked his landlord if there was any store of good people in the town. MNAS. We have a few: for indeed they are but a few when compared with them on the other side. HON. But how shall we do to see some of them? for the sight of good men to them that are going on pilgrimage, is like the appearing of the moon and stars to them that are sailing upon the seas. MNAS. Then Mr. Mnason stamped with his foot, and his daughter Grace came up. So he said unto her, Grace, go you, tell my friends, Mr. Contrite, Mr. Holy-man, Mr. Love-saints, Mr. Dare-not-lie, and Mr. Penitent, that I have a friend or two at my house who have a mind this evening to see them. So Grace went to call them, and they came; and after salutation made, they sat down together at the table. Then said Mr. Mnason their landlord, My neighbors, I have, as you see, a company of strangers come to my house; they are pilgrims: they come from afar, and are going to Mount Zion. But who, quoth he, do you think this is? pointing his finger to Christiana. It is Christiana, the wife of Christian, the famous pilgrim, who, with Faithful his brother, was so shamefully handled in our town. At that they stood amazed, saying, We little thought to see Christiana when Grace came to call us; wherefore this is a very comfortable surprise. They then asked her of her welfare, and if these young men were her husband's sons. And when she had told them they were, they said, The King whom you love and serve make you as your father, and bring you where he is in peace. HON. Then Mr. Honest (when they were all sat down) asked Mr. Contrite and the rest, in what posture their town was at present. CONT. You may be sure we are full of hurry in fair-time. 'T is hard keeping our hearts and spirits in good order when we are in a cumbered condition. He that lives in such a place as this is, and has to do with such as we have, has need of an item to caution him to take heed every moment of the day. HON. But how are your neighbors now for quietness? CONT. They are much more moderate now than formerly. You know how Christian and Faithful were used at our town; but of late, I say, they have been far more moderate. I think the blood of Faithful lieth as a load upon them till now; for since they burned him, they have been ashamed to burn any more. In those days we were afraid to walk the street; but now we can show our heads. Then the name of a professor was odious; now, especially in some parts of our town, (for you know our town is large,) religion is counted honorable. Then said Mr. Contrite to them, Pray how fareth it with you in your pilgrimage? how stands the country affected towards you? HON. It happens to us as it happeneth to wayfaring men: sometimes our way is clean, sometimes foul; sometimes up hill, sometimes down hill; we are seldom at a certainty. The wind is not always on our backs, nor is every one a friend that we meet with in the way. We have met with some notable rubs already, and what are yet behind we know not; but for the most part, we find it true that has been talked of old, A good man must suffer trouble. CONT. You talk of rubs; what rubs have you met withal? HON. Nay, ask Mr. Great-Heart, our guide; for he can give the best account of that. GREAT. We have been beset three or four times already. First, Christiana and her children were beset by two ruffians, who they feared would take away their lives. We were beset by Giant Bloody-man, Giant Maul, and Giant Slay-good. Indeed, we did rather beset the last than were beset by him. And thus it was: after we had been some time at the house of Gaius mine host, and of the whole church, we were minded upon a time to take our weapons with us, and go see if we could light upon any of those that are enemies to pilgrims; for we heard that there was a notable one thereabouts. Now Gaius knew his haunt better than I, because he dwelt thereabout. So we looked, and looked, till at last we discerned the mouth of his cave: then we were glad, and plucked up our spirits. So we approached up to his den; and lo, when we came there, he had dragged, by mere force, into his net, this poor man, Mr. Feeble- mind, and was about to bring him to his end. But when he saw us, supposing, as we thought, he had another prey, he left the poor man in his hole, and came out. So we fell to it full sore, and he lustily laid about him; but, in conclusion, he was brought down to the ground, and his head cut off, and set up by the way-side for a terror to such as should after practise such ungodliness. That I tell you the truth, here is the man himself to affirm it, who was as a lamb taken out of the mouth of the lion. FEEBLE. Then said Mr. Feeble-mind, I found this true, to my cost and comfort: to my cost, when he threatened to pick my bones every moment; and to my comfort, when I saw Mr. Great-Heart and his friends, with their weapons, approach so near for my deliverance. HOLY. Then said Mr. Holy-man, There are two things that they have need to possess who go on pilgrimage; courage, and an unspotted life. If they have not courage, they can never hold on their way; and if their lives be loose, they will make the very name of a pilgrim stink. LOVE. Then said Mr. Love-saints, I hope this caution is not needful among you: but truly there are many that go upon the road, who rather declare themselves strangers to pilgrimage, than strangers and pilgrims on the earth. DARE. Then said Mr. Dare-not-lie, 'Tis true. They have neither the pilgrim's weed, nor the pilgrim's courage; they go not uprightly, but all awry with their feet; one shoe goeth inward, another outward; and their hosen are out behind: here a rag, and there a rent, to the disparagement of their Lord. PEN. These things, said Mr. Penitent, they ought to be troubled for; nor are the pilgrims like to have that grace put upon them and their Pilgrim's Progress as they desire, until the way is cleared of such spots and blemishes. Thus they sat talking and spending the time until supper was set upon the table, unto which they went, and refreshed their weary bodies: so they went to rest. Now they staid in the fair a great while, at the house of Mr. Mnason, who in process of time gave his daughter Grace unto Samuel, Christian's son, to wife, and his daughter Martha to Joseph. The time, as I said, that they staid here, was long, for it was not now as in former times. Wherefore the pilgrims grew acquainted with many of the good people of the town, and did them what service they could. Mercy, as she was wont, labored much for the poor: wherefore their bellies and backs blessed her, and she was there an ornament to her profession. And, to say the truth for Grace, Phebe, and Martha, they were all of a very good nature, and did much good in their places. They were also all of them very fruitful; so that Christian's name, as was said before, was like to live in the world. While they lay here, there came a monster out of the woods, and slew many of the people of the town. It would also carry away their children, and teach them to suck its whelps. Now, no man in the town durst so much as face this monster; but all fled when they heard the noise of his coming. The monster was like unto no one beast on the earth. Its body was like a dragon, and it had seven heads and ten horns. It made great havoc of children, and yet it was governed by a woman. Rev. 17:3. This monster propounded conditions to men; and such men as loved their lives more than their souls, accepted of those conditions. So they came under. Now Mr. Great-Heart, together with those who came to visit the pilgrims at Mr. Mnason's house, entered into a covenant to go and engage this beast, if perhaps they might deliver the people of this town from the paws and mouth of this so devouring a serpent. Then did Mr. Great-Heart, Mr. Contrite, Mr. Holy-man, Mr. Dare-not- lie, and Mr. Penitent, with their weapons, go forth to meet him. Now the monster at first was very rampant, and looked upon these enemies with great disdain; but they so belabored him, being sturdy men at arms, that they made him make a retreat: so they came home to Mr. Mnason's house again. The monster, you must know, had his certain seasons to come out in, and to make his attempts upon the children of the people of the town. At these seasons did these valiant worthies watch him, and did still continually assault him; insomuch that in process of time he became not only wounded, but lame. Also he has not made that havoc of the townsmen's children as formerly he had done; and it is verily believed by some that this beast will die of his wounds. This, therefore, made Mr. Great-Heart and his fellows of great fame in this town; so that many of the people that wanted their taste of things, yet had a reverent esteem and respect for them. Upon this account, therefore, it was, that these pilgrims got not much hurt here. True, there were some of the baser sort, that could see no more than a mole, nor understand any more than a beast; these had no reverence for these men, and took no notice of their valor and adventures. THE SEVENTH STAGE. Well, the time grew on that the pilgrims must go on their way; wherefore they prepared for their journey. They sent for their friends; they conferred with them; they had some time set apart therein to commit each other to the protection of their Prince. There were again that brought them of such things as they had, that were fit for the weak and the strong, for the women and the men, and so laded them with such things as were necessary. Acts 28:10. Then they set forward on their way; and their friends accompanying them so far as was convenient, they again committed each other to the protection of their King, and parted. They therefore that were of the pilgrims' company went on, and Mr. Great-Heart went before them. Now, the women and children being weakly, they were forced to go as they could bear; by which means Mr. Ready-to- halt and Mr. Feeble-mind, had more to sympathize with their condition. When they were gone from the townsmen, and when their friends had bid them farewell, they quickly came to the place where Faithful was put to death. Therefore they made a stand, and thanked him that had enabled him to bear his cross so well; and the rather, because they now found that they had a benefit by such a manly suffering as his was. They went on therefore after this a good way further, talking of Christian and Faithful, and how Hopeful joined himself to Christian after that Faithful was dead. Now they were come up with the hill Lucre, where the silver mine was which took Demas off from his pilgrimage, and into which, as some think, By-ends fell and perished; wherefore they considered that. But when they were come to the old monument that stood over against the hill Lucre, to wit, to the pillar of salt, that stood also within view of Sodom and its stinking lake, they marvelled, as did Christian before, that men of such knowledge and ripeness of wit as they were, should be so blinded as to turn aside here. Only they considered again, that nature is not affected with the harms that others have met with, especially if that thing upon which they look has an attracting virtue upon the foolish eye. I saw now, that they went on till they came to the river that was on this side of the Delectable Mountains; to the river where the fine trees grow on both sides, and whose leaves, if taken inwardly, are good against surfeits; where the meadows are green all the year long, and where they might lie down safely. Psa. 23:2. By this river-side, in the meadows, there were cotes and folds for sheep, a house built for the nourishing and bringing up of those lambs, the babes of those women that go on pilgrimage. Also there was here one that was intrusted with them, who could have compassion; and that could gather these lambs with his arm, and carry them in his bosom, and gently lead those that were with young. Heb. 5:2; Isa. 40:11. Now, to the care of this man Christiana admonished her four daughters to commit their little ones, that by these waters they might be housed, harbored, succored, and nourished, and that none of them might be lacking in time to come. This man, if any of them go astray, or be lost, will bring them again; he will also bind up that which was broken, and will strengthen them that are sick. Jer. 23:4; Ezek. 34:11-16. Here they will never want meat, drink, and clothing; here they will be kept from thieves and robbers; for this man will die before one of those committed to his trust shall be lost. Besides, here they shall be sure to have good nurture and admonition, and shall be taught to walk in right paths, and that you know is a favor of no small account. Also here, as you see, are delicate waters, pleasant meadows, dainty flowers, variety of trees, and such as bear wholesome fruit: fruit, not like that which Matthew ate of, that fell over the wall out of Beelzebub's garden; but fruit that procureth health where there is none, and that continueth and increaseth it where it is. So they were content to commit their little ones to him; and that which was also an encouragement to them so to do, was, for that all this was to be at the charge of the King, and so was as an hospital to young children and orphans. Now they went on. And when they were come to By-path Meadow, to the stile over which Christian went with his fellow Hopeful, when they were taken by Giant Despair and put into Doubting Castle, they sat down, and consulted what was best to be done: to wit, now they were so strong, and had got such a man as Mr. Great-Heart for their conductor, whether they had not best to make an attempt upon the giant, demolish his castle, and if there were any pilgrims in it, to set them at liberty before they went any further. So one said one thing, and another said the contrary. One questioned if it was lawful to go upon unconsecrated ground; another said they might, provided their end was good; but Mr. Great-Heart said, Though that assertion offered last cannot be universally true, yet I have a commandment to resist sin, to overcome evil, to fight the good fight of faith: and I pray, with whom should I fight this good fight, if not with Giant Despair? I will therefore attempt the taking away of his life, and the demolishing of Doubting Castle. Then said he, Who will go with me? Then said old Honest, I will. And so will we too, said Christiana's four sons, Matthew, Samuel, Joseph, and James; for they were young men and strong. 1 John 2:13,14. So they left the women in the road, and with them Mr. Feeble-mind, and Mr. Ready-to-halt with his crutches, to be their guard until they came back; for in that place the Giant Despair dwelt so near, they keeping in the road, a little child might lead them. Isa. 11:6. So Mr. Great-Heart, old Honest, and the four young men, went to go up to Doubting Castle, to look for Giant Despair. When they came at the castle gate, they knocked for entrance with an unusual noise. At that the old Giant comes to the gate, and Diffidence his wife follows. Then said he, Who and what is he that is so hardy, as after this manner to molest the Giant Despair? Mr. Great-Heart replied, It is I, Great- Heart, one of the King of the Celestial country's conductors of pilgrims to their place; and I demand of thee that thou open thy gates for my entrance: prepare thyself also to fight, for I am come to take away thy head; and to demolish Doubting Castle. Now Giant Despair, because he was a giant, thought no man could overcome him: and again thought he, Since heretofore I have made a conquest of angels, shall Great-Heart make me afraid? So he harnessed himself, and went out. He had a cap of steel upon his head, a breast-plate of fire girded to him, and he came out in iron shoes, with a great club in his hand. Then these six men made up to him, and beset him behind and before: also, when Diffidence the giantess came up to help him, old Mr. Honest cut her down at one blow. Then they fought for their lives, and Giant Despair was brought down to the ground, but was very loth die. He struggled hard, and had, as they say, as many lives as a cat; but Great- Heart was his death, for he left him not till he had severed his head from his shoulders. Then they fell to demolishing Doubting Castle, and that you know might with ease be done, since Giant Despair was dead. They were seven days in destroying of that; and in it of pilgrims they found one Mr. Despondency, almost starved to death, and one Much-afraid, his daughter: these two they saved alive. But it would have made you wonder to have seen the dead bodies that lay here and there in the castle yard, and how full of dead men's bones the dungeon was. When Mr. Great-Heart and his companions had performed this exploit, they took Mr. Despondency, and his daughter Much-afraid, into their protection; for they were honest people, though they were prisoners in Doubting Castle to that tyrant Giant Despair. They, therefore, I say, took with them the head of the giant, (for his body they had buried under a heap of stones,) and down to the road and to their companions they came, and showed them what they had done. Now, when Feeble-mind and Ready-to-halt saw that it was the head of Giant Despair indeed, they were very jocund and merry. Now Christiana, if need was, could play upon the viol, and her daughter Mercy upon the lute: so, since they were so merry disposed, she played them a lesson, and Ready-to-halt would dance. So he took Despondency's daughter, Much-afraid, by the hand, and to dancing they went in the road. True, he could not dance without one crutch in his hand, but I promise you he footed it well: also the girl was to be commended, for she answered the music handsomely. As for Mr. Despondency, the music was not so much to him; he was for feeding rather than dancing, for that he was almost starved. So Christiana gave him some of her bottle of spirits for present relief, and then prepared him something to eat; and in a little time the old gentleman came to himself, and began to be finely revived. Now I saw in my dream, when all these things were finished, Mr. Great- Heart took the head of Giant Despair, and set it upon a pole by the highway-side, right over against the pillar that Christian erected for a caution to pilgrims that came after, to take heed of entering into his grounds. Then he writ under it upon a marble stone these verses following: "This is the head of him whose name only In former times did pilgrims terrify. His castle's down, and Diffidence his wife Brave Mr. Great-Heart has bereft of life. Despondency, his daughter Much-afraid, Great-Heart for them also the man has play'd. Who hereof doubts, if he'll but cast his eye Up hither, may his scruples satisfy. This head also, when doubting cripples dance, Doth show from fears they have deliverance." When these men had thus bravely showed themselves against Doubting Castle, and had slain Giant Despair, they went forward, and went on till they came to the Delectable Mountains, where Christian and Hopeful refreshed themselves with the varieties of the place. They also acquainted themselves with the shepherds there, who welcomed them, as they had done Christian before, unto the Delectable Mountains. Now the shepherds seeing so great a train follow Mr. Great-Heart, (for with him they were well acquainted,) they said unto him, Good sir, you have got a goodly company here; pray where did you find all these? Then Mr. Great-Heart replied, "First, here is Christiana and her train, Her sons, and her sons' wives, who, like the wain, Keep by the pole, and do by compass steer From sin to grace, else they had not been here. Next here's old Honest come on pilgrimage, Ready-to-halt too, who I dare engage True-hearted is, and so is Feeble-mind, Who willing was not to be left behind. Despondency, good man, is coming after, And so also is Much-afraid, his daughter. May we have entertainment here, or must We further go? Let's knew whereon to trust." Then said the shepherds, This is a comfortable company. You are welcome to us; for we have for the feeble, as well as for the strong. Our Prince has an eye to what is done to the least of these; therefore Infirmity must not be a block to our entertainment. Matt. 25:40. So they had them to the palace door, and then said unto them, Come in, Mr. Feeble-Mind; come in Mr. Ready-to-halt; Come in, Mr. Despondency, and Mrs. Much-afraid his daughter. These, Mr. Great-Heart, said the shepherds to the guide, we call in by name, for that they are most subject to draw back; but as for you, and the rest that are strong, we leave you to your wonted liberty. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, This day I see that grace doth shine in your faces, and that you are my Lord's shepherds indeed; for that you have not pushed these diseased neither with side nor shoulder, but have rather strewed their way into the palace with flowers, as you should. Ezek. 34:21. So the feeble and weak went in, and Mr. Great-Heart and the rest did follow. When they were also set down, the shepherds said to those of the weaker sort, What is it that you would have? for, said they, all things must be managed here to the supporting of the weak, as well as to the warning of the unruly. So they made them a feast of things easy of digestion, and that were pleasant to the palate and nourishing; the which when they had received, they went to their rest, each one respectively unto his proper place. When morning was come, because the mountains were high and the day clear, and because it was the custom of the shepherds to show the pilgrims before their departure some rarities, therefore, after they were ready, and had refreshed themselves, the shepherds took them out into the fields, and showed them first what they had shown to Christian before. Then they had them to some new places. The first was Mount Marvel, where they looked, and beheld a man at a distance that tumbled the hills about with words. Then they asked the shepherds what that should mean. So they told them, that that man was the son of one Mr. Great-grace, of whom you read in the first part of the records of the Pilgrim's Progress; and he is set there to teach pilgrims how to believe down, or to tumble out of their ways, what difficulties they should meet with, by faith. Mark 11:23,24. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, I know him; he is a man above many. Then they had them to another place, called Mount Innocence. And there they saw a man clothed all in white; and two men, Prejudice and Ill- will, continually casting dirt upon him. Now behold, the dirt, whatsoever they cast at him, would in a little time fall off again, and his garment would look as clear as if no dirt had been cast thereat. Then said the pilgrims, What means this? The shepherds answered, This man is named Godlyman, and this garment is to show the innocency of his life. Now, those that throw dirt at him are such as hate his well- doing; but, as you see the dirt will not stick upon his clothes, so it shall be with him that liveth innocently in the world. Whoever they be that would make such men dirty, they labor all in vain; for God, by that a little time is spent, will cause that their innocence shall break forth as the light, and their righteousness as the noonday. Then they took them, and had them to Mount Charity, where they showed them a man that had a bundle of cloth lying before him, out of which he cut coats and garments for the poor that stood about him; yet his bundle or roll of cloth was never the less. Then said they, What should this be? This is, said the shepherds, to show you, that he who has a heart to give of his labor to the poor, shall never want wherewithal. He that watereth shall be watered himself. And the cake that the widow gave to the prophet did not cause that she had the less in her barrel. They had them also to the place where they saw one Fool and one Want-wit washing an Ethiopian, with intention to make him white; but the more they washed him, the blacker he was. Then they asked the shepherds what that should mean. So they told them, saying, Thus it is with the vile person; all means used to get such a one a good name, shall in conclusion tend but to make him more abominable. Thus it was with the pharisees; and so it shall be with all hypocrites. Then said Mercy, the wife of Matthew, to Christiana her mother, Mother, I would, if it might be, see the hole in the hill, or that commonly called the By-way to hell. So her mother brake her mind to the shepherds. Then they went to the door; it was on the side of an hill; and they opened it, and bid Mercy hearken a while. So she hearkened, and heard one saying, Cursed be my father for holding of my feet back from the way of peace and life. Another said, Oh that I had been torn in pieces before I had, to save my life, lost my soul! And another said, If I were to live again, how would I deny myself, rather than to come to this place! Then there was as if the very earth groaned and quaked under the feet of this young woman for fear; so she looked white, and came trembling away, saying, Blessed be he and she that is delivered from this place! Now, when the shepherds had shown them all these things, then they had them back to the palace, and entertained them with what the house would afford. But Mercy, being a young and married woman, longed for something that she saw there, but was ashamed to ask. Her mother-in-law then asked her what she ailed, for she looked as one not well. Then said Mercy, There is a looking-glass hangs up in the dining-room, off which I cannot take my mind; if, therefore, I have it not, I think I shall miscarry. Then said her mother, I will mention thy wants to the shepherds, and they will not deny thee. But she said, I am ashamed that these men should know that I longed. Nay, my daughter, said she, it is no shame, but a virtue, to long for such a thing as that. So Mercy said, Then mother, if you please, ask the shepherds if they are willing to sell it. Now the glass was one of a thousand. It would present a man, one way, with his own features exactly; and turn it but another way, and it would show one the very face and similitude of the Prince of pilgrims himself. Yes, I have talked with them that can tell, and they have said that they have seen the very crown of thorns upon his head by looking in that glass; they have therein also seen the holes in his hands, his feet, and his side. Yea, such an excellency is there in this glass, that it will show him to one where they have a mind to see him, whether living or dead; whether in earth, or in heaven; whether in a state of humiliation, or in his exaltation; whether coming to suffer, or coming to reign. James 1:23; 1 Cor. 13:12; 2 Cor. 3:18. Christiana therefore went to the shepherds apart, (now the names of the shepherds were Knowledge, Experience, Watchful, and Sincere,) and said unto them, There is one of my daughters, a breeding woman, that I think doth long for something that she hath seen in this house; and she thinks that she shall miscarry if she should by you be denied. EXPERIENCE. Call her, call her, she shall assuredly have what we can help her to. So they called her, and said to her, Mercy, what is that thing thou wouldst have? Then she blushed, and said, The great glass that hangs up in the dining-room. So Sincere ran and fetched it, and with a joyful consent it was given her. Then she bowed her head, and gave thanks, and said, By this I know that I have obtained favor in your eyes. They also gave to the other young women such things as they desired, and to their husbands great commendations, for that they had joined with Mr. Great-Heart in the slaying of Giant Despair, and the demolishing of Doubting Castle. About Christiana's neck the shepherds put a bracelet, and so did they about the necks of her four daughters; also they put ear-rings in their ears, and jewels on their foreheads. When they were minded to go hence, they let them go in peace, but gave not to them those certain cautions which before were given to Christian and his companion. The reason was, for that these had Great-Heart to be their guide, who was one that was well acquainted with things, and so could give them their cautions more seasonably, to wit, even when the danger was nigh the approaching. What cautions Christian and his companion had received of the shepherds, they had also lost by that the time was come that they had need to put them in practice. Wherefore, here was the advantage that this company had over the other. From thence they went on singing, and they said, "Behold how fitly are the stages set For their relief that pilgrims are become, And how they us receive without one let, That make the other life our mark and home! What novelties they have to us they give, That we, though pilgrims, joyful lives may live; They do upon us, too, such things bestow, That show we pilgrims are, where'er we go." THE EIGHTH STAGE. When they were gone from the shepherds, they quickly came to the place where Christian met with one Turn-away that dwelt in the town of Apostasy. Wherefore of him Mr. Great-Heart their guide now put them in mind, saying, This is the place where Christian met with one Turn-away, who carried with him the character of his rebellion at his back. And this I have to say concerning this man; he would hearken to no counsel, but once a falling, persuasion could not stop him. When he came to the place where the cross and sepulchre were, he did meet with one that did bid him look there; but he gnashed with his teeth, and stamped, and said he was resolved to go back to his own town. Before he came to the gate, he met with Evangelist, who offered to lay hands on him, to turn him into the way again; but this Turn-away resisted him, and having done much despite unto him, he got away over the wall, and so escaped his hand. Then they went on; and just at the place where Little-Faith formerly was robbed, there stood a man with his sword drawn, and his face all over with blood. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, Who art thou? The man made answer, saying, I am one whose name is Valiant-for-truth. I am a pilgrim, and am going to the Celestial City. Now, as I was in my way, there were three men that did beset me, and propounded unto me these three things: 1. Whether I would become one of them. 2. Or go back from whence I came. 3. Or die upon the place. Prov. 1:11-14. To the first I answered, I had been a true man for a long season, and therefore it could not be expected that I should now cast in my lot with thieves. Then they demanded what I would say to the second. So I told them that the place from whence I came, had I not found incommodity there, I had not forsaken it at all; but finding it altogether unsuitable to me, and very unprofitable for me, I forsook it for this way. Then they asked me what I said to the third. And I told them my life cost far more dear than that I should lightly give it away. Besides, you have nothing to do thus to put things to my choice; wherefore at your peril be it if you meddle. Then these three, to wit, Wild-head, Inconsiderate, and Pragmatic, drew upon me, and I also drew upon them. So we fell to it, one against three, for the space of above three hours. They have left upon me, as you see, some of the marks of their valor, and have also carried away with them some of mine. They are but just now gone; I suppose they might, as the saying is, hear your horse dash, and so they betook themselves to flight. GREAT. But here was great odds, three against one . VALIANT. 'Tis true; but little and more are nothing to him that has the truth on his side: "Though an host should encamp against me," said one, Psa. 27:3, "my heart shall not fear: though war should rise against me, in this will I be confident," etc. Besides, said he, I have read in some records, that one man has fought an army: and how many did Samson slay with the jawbone of an ass! GREAT. Then said the guide, Why did you not cry out, that some might have come in for your succor? VALIANT. So I did to my King, who I knew could hear me, and afford invisible help, and that was sufficient for me. GREAT. Then said Great-Heart to Mr. Valiant-for-truth, Thou hast worthily behaved thyself; let me see thy sword. So he showed it him. When he had taken it in his hand, and looked thereon awhile, he said, Ha, it is a right Jerusalem blade. VALIANT. It is so. Let a man have one of these blades, with a hand to wield it, and skill to use it, and he may venture upon an angel with it. He need not fear its holding, if he can but tell how to lay on. Its edge will never blunt. It will cut flesh and bones, and soul, and spirit, and all. Heb. 4:12. GREAT. But you fought a great while; I wonder you was not weary. VALIANT. I fought till my sword did cleave to my hand; and then they were joined together as if a sword grew out of my arm; and when the blood ran through my fingers, then I fought with most courage. GREAT. Thou hast done well; thou hast resisted unto blood, striving against sin. Thou shalt abide by us, come in and go out with us; for we are thy companions. Then they took him and washed his wounds, and gave him of what they had, to refresh him: and so they went together. Now, as they went on, because Mr. Great-Heart was delighted in him, (for he loved one greatly that he found to be a man of his hands,) and because there were in company those that were feeble and weak, therefore he questioned with him about many things; as first, what countryman he was. VALIANT. I am of Dark-land; for there was I born, and there my father and mother are still. GREAT. Dark-land! said the guide; doth not that lie on the same coast with the City of Destruction? VALIANT. Yes, it doth. Now that which caused me to come on pilgrimage was this. We had one Mr. Tell-true come into our parts, and he told it about what Christian had done, that went from the City of Destruction; namely, how he had forsaken his wife and children, and had betaken himself to a pilgrim's life. It was also confidently reported, how he had killed a serpent that did come out to resist him in his journey; and how he got through to whither he intended. It was also told what welcome he had at all his Lord's lodgings, especially when he came to the gates of the Celestial City; for there, said the man, he was received with sound of trumpet by a company of shining ones. He told also how all the bells in the city did ring for joy at his reception, and what golden garments he was clothed with; with many other things that now I shall forbear to relate. In a word, that man so told the story of Christian and his travels that my heart fell into a burning haste to be gone after him; nor could father or mother stay me. So I got from them, and am come thus far on my way. GREAT. You came in at the gate, did you not? VALIANT. Yes, yes; for the same man also told us, that all would be nothing if we did not begin to enter this way at the gate. GREAT. Look you, said the guide to Christiana, the pilgrimage of your husband, and what he has gotten thereby, is spread abroad far and near. VALIANT. Why, is this Christian's wife? GREAT. Yes, that it is; and these also are his four sons. VALIANT. What, and going on pilgrimage too? GREAT. Yes, verily, they are following after. VALIANT. It glads me at the heart. Good man, how joyful will he be when he shall see them that would not go with him, yet to enter after him in at the gates into the Celestial City. GREAT. Without doubt it will be a comfort to him; for, next to the joy of seeing himself there, it will be a joy to meet there his wife and children. VALIANT. But now you are upon that, pray let me hear your opinion about it. Some make a question whether we shall know one another when we are there. GREAT. Do you think they shall know themselves then, or that they shall rejoice to see themselves in that bliss? And if they think they shall know and do this, why not know others, and rejoice in their welfare also? Again, since relations are our second self, though that state will be dissolved there, yet why may it not be rationally concluded that we shall be more glad to see them there than to see they are wanting? VALIANT. Well, I perceive whereabouts you are as to this. Have you any more things to ask me about my beginning to come on pilgrimage? GREAT. Yes; were your father and mother willing that you should become a pilgrim? VALIANT. O no; they used all means imaginable to persuade me to stay at home. GREAT. Why, what could they say against it? VALIANT. They said it was an idle life; and if I myself were not inclined to sloth and laziness, I would never countenance a pilgrim's condition. GREAT. And what did they say else? VALIANT. Why, they told me that it was a dangerous way; yea, the most dangerous way in the world, said they, is that which the pilgrims go. GREAT. Did they show you wherein this way is so dangerous? VALIANT. Yes; and that in many particulars. GREAT. Name some of them. VALIANT. They told me of the Slough of Despond, where Christian was well -nigh smothered. They told me, that there were archers standing ready in Beelzebub-castle to shoot them who should knock at the Wicket-gate for entrance. They told me also of the wood and dark mountains; of the hill Difficulty; of the lions; and also of the three giants, Bloody-man, Maul, and Slay-good. They said, moreover, that there was a foul fiend haunted the Valley of Humiliation; and that Christian was by him almost bereft of life. Besides, said they, you must go over the Valley of the Shadow of Death, where the hobgoblins are, where the light is darkness, where the way is full of snares, pits, traps, and gins. They told me also of Giant Despair, of Doubting Castle, and of the ruin that the pilgrims met with here. Further they said I must go over the Enchanted Ground, which was dangerous; And that after all this I should find a river, over which there was no bridge; and that that river did lie betwixt me and the Celestial country. GREAT. And was this all? VALIANT. No. They also told me that this way was full of deceivers, and of persons that lay in wait there to turn good men out of the path. GREAT. But how did they make that out? VALIANT. They told me that Mr. Wordly Wiseman did lie there in wait to deceive. They said also, that there were Formality and Hypocrisy continually on the road. They said also, that By-ends, Talkative, or Demas, would go near to gather me up; that the Flatterer would catch me in his net; or that, with green-headed Ignorance, I would presume to go on to the gate, from whence he was sent back to the hole that was in the side of the hill, and made to go the by-way to hell. GREAT. I promise you this was enough to discourage you; but did they make an end here? VALIANT. No, stay. They told me also of many that had tried that way of old, and that had gone a great way therein, to see if they could find something of the glory there that so many had so much talked of from time to time, and how they came back again, and befooled themselves for setting a foot out of doors in that path, to the satisfaction of all the country. And they named several that did so, as Obstinate and Pliable, Mistrust and Timorous, Turn-away and old Atheist, with several more; who, they said, had some of them gone far to see what they could find, but not one of them had found so much advantage by going as amounted to the weight of a feather. GREAT. Said they any thing more to discourage you? VALIANT. Yes. They told me of one Mr. Fearing, who was a pilgrim, and how he found his way so solitary that he never had a comfortable hour therein; also, that Mr. Despondency had like to have been starved therein: yea, and also (which I had almost forgot) that Christian himself, about whom there has been such a noise, after all his adventures for a celestial crown, was certainly drowned in the Black River, and never went a foot further; however it was smothered up. GREAT. And did none of these things discourage you? VALIANT. No; they seemed but as so many nothings to me. GREAT. How came that about? VALIANT. Why, I still believed what Mr. Tell-true had said; and that carried me beyond them all. GREAT. Then this was your victory, even your faith. VALIANT. It was so. I believed, and therefore came out, got into the way, fought all that set themselves against me, and, by believing, am come to this place. "Who would true valor see, Let him come hither; One here will constant be, Come wind, come weather There's no discouragement Shall make him once relent His first avow'd intent To be a pilgrim. Whoso beset him round With dismal stories, Do but themselves confound; His strength the more is. No lion can him fright, He'll with a giant fight, But he will have a right To be a pilgrim. Hobgoblin nor foul fiend Can daunt his spirit; He knows he at the end Shall life inherit. Then fancies fly away, He'll not fear what men say; He'll labor night and day To be a pilgrim. By this time they were got to the Enchanted Ground, where the air naturally tended to make one drowsy. And that place was all grown over with briars and thorns, excepting here and there, where was an enchanted arbor, upon which if a man sits, or in which if a man sleeps, it is a question, some say, whether ever he shall rise or wake again in this world. Over this forest, therefore, they went, both one and another, and Mr. Great-Heart went before, for that he was the guide; and Mr. Valiant-for-truth came behind, being rear-guard, for fear lest peradventure some fiend, or dragon, or giant, or thief, should fall upon their rear, and so do mischief. They went on here, each man with his sword drawn in his hand; for they knew it was a dangerous place. Also they cheered up one another as well as they could. Feeble-mind, Mr. Great-Heart commanded should come up after him; and Mr. Despondency was under the eye of Mr. Valiant. Now they had not gone far, but a great mist and darkness fell upon them all; so that they could scarce, for a great while, the one see the other. Wherefore they were forced, for some time, to feel one for another by words; for they walked not by sight. But any one must think, that here was but sorry going for the best of them all; but how much worse for the women and children, who both of feet and heart were but tender! Yet so it was, that through the encouraging words of him that led in the front, and of him that brought them up behind, they made a pretty good shift to wag along. The way also here was very wearisome, through dirt and slabbiness. Nor was there, on all this ground, so much as one inn or victualling-house wherein to refresh the feebler sort. Here, therefore, was grunting, and puffing, and sighing, while one tumbleth over a bush, another sticks fast in the dirt, and the children, some of them, lost their shoes in the mire; while one cries out, I am down; and another, Ho, where are you? and a third, The bushes have got such fast hold on me, I think I cannot get away from them. Then they came at an arbor, warm, and promising much refreshing to the pilgrims; for it was finely wrought above-head, beautified with greens, furnished with benches and settles. It also had in it a soft couch, whereon the weary might lean. This, you must think, all things considered, was tempting; for the pilgrims already began to be foiled with the badness of the way: but there was not one of them that made so much as a motion to stop there. Yea, for aught I could perceive, they continually gave so good heed to the advice of their guide, and he did so faithfully tell them of dangers, and of the nature of the dangers when they were at them, that usually, when they were nearest to them, they did most pluck up their spirits, and hearten one another to deny the flesh. This arbor was called The Slothful's Friend, and was made on purpose to allure, if it might be, some of the pilgrims there to take up their rest when weary. I saw them in my dream, that they went on in this their solitary ground, till they came to a place at which a man is apt to lose his way. Now, though when it was light their guide could well enough tell how to miss those ways that led wrong, yet in the dark he was put to a stand. But he had in his pocket a map of all ways leading to or from the Celestial City; wherefore he struck a light (for he never goes without his tinder- box also), and takes a view of his book or map, which bids him to be careful in that place to turn to the right hand. And had he not been careful here to look in his map, they had all, in probability, been smothered in the mud; for just a little before them, and that at the end of the cleanest way too, was a pit, none knows how deep, full of nothing but mud, there made on purpose to destroy the pilgrims in. Then thought I with myself, Who that goeth on pilgrimage but would have one of these maps about him, that he may look, when he is at a stand, which is the way he must take? Then they went on in this Enchanted Ground till they came to where there was another arbor, and it was built by the highway-side. And in that arbor there lay two men, whose names were Heedless and Too-bold. These two went thus far on pilgrimage; but here, being wearied with their journey, they sat down to rest themselves, and so fell fast asleep. When the pilgrims saw them, they stood still, and shook their heads; for they knew that the sleepers were in a pitiful case. Then they consulted what to do, whether to go on and leave them in their sleep, or to step to them and try to awake them; so they concluded to go to them and awake them, that is, if they could; but with this caution, namely, to take heed that they themselves did not sit down nor embrace the offered benefit of that arbor. So they went in, and spake to the men, and called each by his name, for the guide, it seems, did know them; but there was no voice nor answer. Then the guide did shake them, and do what he could to disturb them. Then said one of them, I will pay you when I take my money. At which the guide shook his head. I will fight so long as I can hold my sword in my hand, said the other. At that, one of the children laughed. Then said Christiana, What is the meaning of this? The guide said, They talk in their sleep. If you strike them, beat them, or whatever else you do to them, they will answer you after this fashion; or, as one of them said in old time, when the waves of the sea did beat upon him, and he slept as one upon the mast of a ship, Prov. 23:34,35, When I awake, I will seek it yet again. You know, when men talk in their sleep, they say any thing; but their words are not governed either by faith or reason. There is an incoherency in their words now, as there was before betwixt their going on pilgrimage and sitting down here. This, then, is the mischief of it: when heedless ones go on pilgrimage, 'tis twenty to one but they are served thus. For this Enchanted Ground is one of the last refuges that the enemy to pilgrims has; wherefore it is, as you see, placed almost at the end of the way, and so it standeth against us with the more advantage. For when, thinks the enemy, will these fools be so desirous to sit down as when they are weary? and when so like to be weary as when almost at their journey's end? Therefore it is, I say, that the Enchanted Ground is placed so nigh to the land Beulah, and so near the end of their race. Wherefore let pilgrims look to themselves, lest it happen to them as it has done to these that, as you see, are fallen asleep, and none can awake them. Then the pilgrims desired with trembling to go forward; only they prayed their guide to strike a light, that they might go the rest of their way by the help of the light of a lantern. So he struck a light, and they went by the help of that through the rest of this way, though the darkness was very great. 2 Pet. 1:19. But the children began to be sorely weary, and they cried out unto him that loveth pilgrims, to make their way more comfortable. So by that they had gone a little further, a wind arose that drove away the fog, so the air became more clear. Yet they were not off (by much) of the Enchanted Ground; only now they could see one another better, and the way wherein they should walk. Now when they were almost at the end of this ground, they perceived that a little before them was a solemn noise, as of one that was much concerned. So they went on and looked before them: and behold they saw, as they thought, a man upon his knees, with hands and eyes lifted up, and speaking, as they thought, earnestly to one that was above. They drew nigh, but could not tell what he said; so they went softly till he had done. When he had done, he got up, and began to run towards the Celestial City. Then Mr. Great-Heart called after him, saying, Soho, friend, let us have your company, if you go, as I suppose you do, to the Celestial City. So the man stopped, and they came up to him. But as soon as Mr. Honest saw him, he said, I know this man. Then said Mr. Valiant-for-truth, Prithee, who is it? It is one, said he, that comes from whereabout I dwelt. His name is Standfast; he is certainly a right good pilgrim. So they came up to one another; and presently Standfast said to old Honest, Ho, father Honest, are you there? Aye, said he, that I am, as sure as you are there. Right glad am I, said Mr. Standfast, that I have found you on this road. And as glad am I, said the other, that I espied you on your knees. Then Mr. Standfast blushed, and said, But why, did you see me? Yes, that I did, quoth the other, and with my heart was glad at the sight. Why, what did you think? said Standfast. Think! said old Honest; what could I think? I thought we had an honest man upon the road, and therefore should have his company by and by. If you thought not amiss, said Standfast, how happy am I! But if I be not as I should, 't is I alone must bear it. That is true, said the other; but your fear doth further confirm me that things are right betwixt the Prince of pilgrims and your soul. For he saith, "Blessed is the man that feareth always." Prov. 28:14. VALIANT. Well but, brother, I pray thee tell us what was it that was the cause of thy being upon thy knees even now: was it for that some special mercy laid obligations upon thee, or how? STAND. Why, we are, as you see, upon the Enchanted Ground; and as I was coming along, I was musing with myself of what a dangerous nature the road in this place was, and how many that had come even thus far on pilgrimage, had here been stopped and been destroyed. I thought also of the manner of the death with which this place destroyeth men. Those that die here, die of no violent distemper: the death which such die is not grievous to them. For he that goeth away in a sleep, begins that journey with desire and pleasure. Yea, such acquiesce in the will of that disease. HON. Then Mr. Honest interrupting him, said, Did you see the two men asleep in the arbor? STAND. Aye, aye, I saw Heedless and Too-bold there; and for ought I know, there they will lie till they rot. Prov. 10:7. But let me go on with my tale. As I was thus musing, as I said, there was one in very pleasant attire, but old, who presented herself to me, and offered me three things, to wit, her body, her purse, and her bed. Now the truth is, I was both weary and sleepy. I am also as poor as an owlet, and that perhaps the witch knew. Well, I repulsed her once and again, but she put by my repulses, and smiled. Then I began to be angry; but she mattered that nothing at all. Then she made offers again, and said, if I would be ruled by her, she would make me great and happy; for, said she, I am the mistress of the world, and men are made happy by me. Then I asked her name, and she told me it was Madam Bubble. This set me further from her; but she still followed me with enticements. Then I betook me, as you saw, to my knees, and with hands lifted up, and cries, I prayed to Him that had said he would help. So, just as you came up, the gentlewoman went her way. Then I continued to give thanks for this my great deliverance; for I verily believe she intended no good, but rather sought to make stop of me in my journey. HON. Without doubt her designs were bad. But stay, now you talk of her, methinks I either have seen her, or have read some story of her. STAND. Perhaps you have done both. HON. Madam Bubble! Is she not a tall, comely dame, something of a swarthy complexion? STAND. Right, you hit it: she is just such a one. HON. Doth she not speak very smoothly, and give you a smile at the end of a sentence? STAND. You fall right upon it again, for these are her very actions. HON. Doth she not wear a great purse by her side, and is not her hand often in it, fingering her money, as if that was her heart's delight. STAND. 'Tis just so; had she stood by all this while, you could not more amply have set her forth before me, nor have better described her features. HON. Then he that drew her picture was a good limner, and he that wrote of her said true. GREAT. This woman is a witch, and it is by virtue of her sorceries that this ground is enchanted. Whoever doth lay his head down in her lap, had as good lay it down on that block over which the axe doth hang; and whoever lay their eyes upon her beauty are counted the enemies of God. This is she that maintaineth in their splendor all those that are the enemies of pilgrims. James 4:4. Yea, this is she that has bought off many a man from a pilgrim's life. She is a great gossiper; she is always, both she and her daughters, at one pilgrim's heels or another, now commending, and then preferring the excellences of this life. She is a bold and impudent slut: she will talk with any man. She always laugheth poor pilgrims to scorn, but highly commends the rich. If there be one cunning to get money in a place, she will speak well of him from house to house. She loveth banqueting and feasting mainly well; she is always at one full table or another. She has given it out in some places that she is a goddess, and therefore some do worship her. She has her time, and open places of cheating; and she will say and avow it, that none can show a good comparable to hers. She promiseth to dwell with children's children, if they will but love her and make much of her. She will cast out of her purse gold like dust in some places and to some persons. She loves to be sought after, spoken well of, and to lie in the bosoms of men. She is never weary of commending her commodities, and she loves them most that think best of her. She will promise to some crowns and kingdoms, if they will but take her advice; yet many has she brought to the halter, and ten thousand times more to hell. STAND. Oh, said Standfast, what a mercy is it that I did resist her; for whither might she have drawn me! GREAT. Whither? nay, none but God knows whither. But in general, to be sure, she would have drawn thee into many foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown men in destruction and perdition. 1 Tim. 6:9. 'T was she that set Absalom against his father, and Jeroboam against his master. 'T was she that persuaded Judas to sell his Lord; and that prevailed with Demas to forsake the godly pilgrim's life. None can tell of the mischief that she doth. She makes variance betwixt rulers and subjects, betwixt parents and children, betwixt neighbor and neighbor, betwixt a man and his wife, betwixt a man and himself, betwixt the flesh and the spirit. Wherefore, good Mr. Standfast, be as your name is, and when you have done all, stand. At this discourse there was among the pilgrims a mixture of joy and trembling; but at length they broke out and sang, "What danger is the Pilgrim in! How many are his foes! How many ways there are to sin No living mortal knows. Some in the ditch are spoiled, yea, can Lie tumbling in the mire: Some, though they shun the frying-pan Do leap into the fire." After this, I beheld until they were come into the land of Beulah, where the sun shineth night and day. Here, because they were weary, they betook themselves a while to rest. And because this country was common for pilgrims, and because the orchards and vineyards that were here belonged to the King of the Celestial country, therefore they were licensed to make bold with any of his things. But a little while soon refreshed them here; for the bells did so ring, and the trumpets continually sound so melodiously, that they could not sleep, and yet they received as much refreshing as if they had slept their sleep ever so soundly. Here also all the noise of them that walked the streets was, More pilgrims are come to town! And another would answer, saying, And so many went over the water, and were let in at the golden gates to- day! They would cry again, There is now a legion of shining ones just come to town, by which we know that there are more pilgrims upon the road; for here they come to wait for them, and to comfort them after all their sorrow. Then the pilgrims got up, and walked to and fro. But how were their ears now filled with heavenly noises, and their eyes delighted with celestial visions! In this land they heard nothing, saw nothing, felt nothing, smelt nothing, tasted nothing that was offensive to their stomach or mind; only when they tasted of the water of the river over which they were to go, they thought that it tasted a little bitterish to the palate; but it proved sweeter when it was down. In this place there was a record kept of the names of them that had been pilgrims of old, and a history of all the famous acts that they had done. It was here also much discoursed, how the river to some had had its flowings, and what ebbings it has had while others have gone over. It has been in a manner dry for some, while it has overflowed its banks for others. In this place the children of the town would go into the King's gardens, and gather nosegays for the pilgrims, and bring them to them with much affection. Here also grew camphire, with spikenard and saffron, calamus and cinnamon, with all the trees of frankincense, myrrh, and aloes, with all chief spices. With these the pilgrims' chambers were perfumed while they stayed here; and with these were their bodies anointed, to prepare them to go over the river, when the time appointed was come. Now, while they lay here, and waited for the good hour, there was a noise in the town that there was a post come from the Celestial City, with matter of great importance to one Christiana, the wife of Christian the pilgrim. So inquiry was made for her, and the house was found out where she was. So the post presented her with a letter. The contents were, Hail, good woman; I bring thee tidings that the Master calleth for thee, and expecteth that thou shouldst stand in his presence in clothes of immortality within these ten days. When he had read this letter to her, he gave her therewith a sure token that he was a true messenger, and was come to bid her make haste to be gone. The token was, an arrow with a point sharpened with love, let easily into her heart, which by degrees wrought so effectually with her, that at the time appointed she must be gone. When Christiana saw that her time was come, and that she was the first of this company that was to go over, she called for Mr. Great-Heart her guide, and told him how matters were. So he told her he was heartily glad of the news, and could have been glad had the post come for him. Then she bid him that he should give advice how all things should be prepared for her journey. So he told her, saying, Thus and thus it must be, and we that survive will accompany you to the river-side. Then she called for her children, and gave them her blessing, and told them that she had read with comfort the mark that was set in their foreheads, and was glad to see them with her there, and that they had kept their garments so white. Lastly, she bequeathed to the poor that little she had, and commanded her sons and daughters to be ready against the messenger should come for them. When she had spoken these words to her guide, and to her children, she called for Mr. Valiant-for-truth, and said unto him, Sir, you have in all places showed yourself true-hearted; be faithful unto death, and my King will give you a crown of life. Rev. 2:10. I would also entreat you to have an eye to my children; and if at any time you see them faint, speak comfortably to them. For my daughters, my sons' wives, they have been faithful, and a fulfilling of the promise upon them will be their end. But she gave Mr. Standfast a ring. Then she called for old Mr. Honest, and said of him, "Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile!" John 1:47. Then said he, I wish you a fair day when you set out for Mount Sion, and shall be glad to see that you go over the river dry-shod. But she answered, Come wet, come dry, I long to be gone; for however the weather is in my journey, I shall have time enough when I come there to sit down and rest me and dry me. Then came in that good man Mr. Ready-to-halt, to see her. So she said to him, Thy travel hitherto has been with difficulty; but that will make thy rest the sweeter. Watch, and be ready; for at an hour when you think not, the messenger may come. After him came Mr. Despondency and his daughter Much-afraid, to whom she said, You ought, with thankfulness, forever to remember your deliverance from the hands of Giant Despair, and out of Doubting Castle. The effect of that mercy is, that you are brought with safety hither. Be ye watchful, and cast away fear; be sober, and hope to the end. Then she said to Mr. Feeble-mind, Thou wast delivered from the mouth of Giant Slay-good, that thou mightest live in the light of the living, and see thy King with comfort. Only I advise thee to repent of thine aptness to fear and doubt of his goodness, before he sends for thee; lest thou shouldst, when he comes, be forced to stand before him for that fault with blushing. Now the day drew on that Christiana must be gone. So the road was full of people to see her take her journey. But behold, all the banks beyond the river were full of horses and chariots, which were come down from above to accompany her to the city gate. So she came forth, and entered the river, with a beckon of farewell to those that followed her. The last words that she was heard to say were, I come, Lord, to be with thee and bless thee! So her children and friends returned to their place, for those that waited for Christiana had carried her out of their sight. So she went and called, and entered in at the gate with all the ceremonies of joy that her husband Christian had entered with before her. At her departure, the children wept. But Mr. Great-Heart and Mr. Valiant played upon the welltuned cymbal and harp for joy. So all departed to their respective places. In process of time there came a post to the town again, and his business was with Mr. Ready-to-halt. So he inquired him out, and said, I am come from Him whom thou hast loved and followed, though upon crutches; and my message is to tell thee, that he expects thee at his table to sup with him in his kingdom, the next day after Easter; wherefore prepare thyself for this journey. Then he also gave him a token that he was a true messenger, saying, "I have broken thy golden bowl, and loosed thy silver cord." Eccles. 12:6. After this, Mr. Ready-to-halt called for his fellow-pilgrims, and told them, saying, I am sent for, and God shall surely visit you also. So he desired Mr. Valiant to make his will. And because he had nothing to bequeath to them that should survive him but his crutches, and his good wishes, therefore thus he said, These crutches I bequeath to my son that shall tread in my steps, with a hundred warm wishes that he may prove better than I have been. Then he thanked Mr. Great-Heart for his conduct and kindness, and so addressed himself to his journey. When he came to the brink of the river, he said, Now I shall have no more need of these crutches, since yonder are chariots and horses for me to ride on. The last words he was heard to say were, Welcome life! So he went his way. After this, Mr. Feeble-mind had tidings brought him that the post sounded his horn at his chamber door. Then he came in, and told him, saying, I am come to tell thee that thy Master hath need of thee, and that in a very little time thou must behold his face in brightness. And take this as a token of the truth of my message: "Those that look out at the windows shall be darkened." Eccles. 12:3. Then Mr. Feeble-mind called for his friends, and told them what errand had been brought unto him, and what token he had received of the truth of the message. Then he said, since I have nothing to bequeath to any, to what purpose should I make a will? As for my feeble mind, that I will leave behind me, for that I shall have no need of it in the place whither I go, nor is it worth bestowing upon the poorest pilgrims: wherefore, when I am gone, I desire that you, Mr. Valiant, would bury it in a dunghill. This done, and the day being come on which he was to depart, he entered the river as the rest. His last words were, Hold out, faith and patience! So he went over to the other side. When days had many of them passed away, Mr. Despondency was sent for; for a post was come, and brought this message to him: Trembling man! these are to summon thee to be ready with the King by the next Lord's day, to shout for joy for thy deliverance from all thy doubtings. And, said the messenger, that my message is true, take this for a proof: so he gave him a grasshopper to be a burden unto him. Ecclesiastes 12:5. Now Mr. Despondency's daughter, whose name was Much-afraid, said, when she heard what was done, that she would go with her father. Then Mr. Despondency said to his friends, Myself and my daughter, you know what we have been, and how troublesomely we have behaved ourselves in every company. My will and my daughter's is, that our desponds and slavish fears be by no man ever received, from the day of our departure, forever; for I know that after my death they will offer themselves to others. For, to be plain with you, they are ghosts which we entertained when we first began to be pilgrims, and could never shake them off after; and they will walk about, and seek entertainment of the pilgrims: but for our sakes, shut the doors upon them. When the time was come for them to depart, they went up to the brink of the river. The last words of Mr. Despondency were, Farewell, night; welcome, day! His daughter went through the river singing, but none could understand what she said. Then it came to pass a while after, that there was a post in the town that inquired for Mr. Honest. So he came to the house where he was, and delivered to his hand these lines: Thou art commanded to be ready against this day seven-night, to present thyself before thy Lord at his Father's house. And for a token that my message is true, "All the daughters of music shall be brought low." Eccles. 12:4. Then Mr. Honest called for his friends, and said unto them, I die, but shall make no will. As for my honesty, it shall go with me; let him that comes after be told of this. When the day that he was to be gone was come, he addressed himself to go over the river. Now the river at that time over -flowed its banks in some places; but Mr. Honest, in his lifetime, had spoken to one Good-conscience to meet him there, the which he also did, and lent him his hand, and so helped him over. The last words of Mr. Honest were, Grace reigns! So he left the world. After this it was noised abroad that Mr. Valiant-for-truth was taken with a summons by the same post as the other, and had this for a token that the summons was true, "That his pitcher was broken at the fountain." Eccl. 12:6. When he understood it, he called for his friends, and told them of it. Then said he, I am going to my Father's; and though with great difficulty I have got hither, yet now I do not repent me of all the trouble I have been at to arrive where I am. My sword I give to him that shall succeed me in my pilgrimage, and my courage and skill to him that can get it. My marks and scars I carry with me, to be a witness for me that I have fought His battles who will now be my rewarder. When the day that he must go hence was come, many accompanied him to the river-side, into which as he went, he said, "Death, where is thy sting?" And as he went down deeper, he said, "Grave, where is thy victory?" 1 Cor. 15:55. So he passed over, and all the trumpets sounded for him on the other side. Then there came forth a summons for Mr. Standfast. This Mr. Standfast was he whom the rest of the pilgrims found upon his knees in the Enchanted Ground. And the post brought it him open in his hands: the contents thereof were, that he must prepare for a change of life, for his Master was not willing that he should be so far from him any longer. At this Mr. Standfast was put into a muse. Nay, said the messenger, you need not doubt of the truth of my message; for here is a token of the truth thereof, "Thy wheel is broken at the cistern." Eccles. 12:6. Then he called to him Mr. Great-Heart, who was their guide, and said unto him, Sir, although it was not my hap to be much in your good company during the days of my pilgrimage, yet, since the time I knew you, you have been profitable to me. When I came from home, I left behind me a wife and five small children; let me entreat you, at your return, (for I know that you go and return to your Master's house, in hopes that you may yet be a conductor to more of the holy pilgrims,) that you send to my family, and let them be acquainted with all that hath and shall happen unto me. Tell them moreover of my happy arrival at this place, and of the present and late blessed condition I am in. Tell them also of Christian and Christiana his wife, and how she and her children came after her husband. Tell them also of what a happy end she made, and whither she is gone. I have little or nothing to send to my family, unless it be prayers and tears for them; of which it will suffice that you acquaint them, if peradventure they may prevail. When Mr. Standfast had thus set things in order, and the time being come for him to haste him away, he also went down to the river. Now there was a great calm at that time in the river; wherefore Mr. Standfast, when he was about half-way in, stood a while, and talked with his companions that had waited upon him thither. And he said, This river has been a terror to many; yea, the thoughts of it also have often frightened me; but now methinks I stand easy; my foot is fixed upon that on which the feet of the priests that bare the ark of the covenant stood while Israel went over Jordan. Josh. 3:17. The waters indeed are to the palate bitter, and to the stomach cold; yet the thoughts of what I am going to, and of the convoy that waits for me on the other side, do lie as a glowing coal at my heart. I see myself now at the end of my journey; my toilsome days are ended. I am going to see that head which was crowned with thorns, and that face which was spit upon for me. I have formerly lived by hearsay and faith; but now I go where I shall live by sight, and shall be with him in whose company I delight myself. I have loved to hear my Lord spoken of; and wherever I have seen the print of his shoe in the earth, there I have coveted to set my foot too. His name has been to me as a civet-box; yea, sweeter than all perfumes. His voice to me has been most sweet, and his countenance I have more desired than they that have most desired the light of the sun. His words I did use to gather for my food, and for antidotes against my faintings. He hath held me, and hath kept me from mine iniquities; yea, my steps hath he strengthened in his way. Now, while he was thus in discourse, his countenance changed; his strong man bowed under him: and after he had said, Take me, for I come unto thee, he ceased to be seen of them. But glorious it was to see how the open region was filled with horses and chariots, with trumpeters and pipers, with singers and players upon stringed instruments, to welcome the pilgrims as they went up, and followed one another in at the beautiful gate of the city. As for Christiana's children, the four boys that Christiana brought, with their wives and children, I did not stay where I was till they were gone over. Also, since I came away, I heard one say that they were yet alive, and so would be for the increase of the church, in that place where they were, for a time. Should it be my lot to go that way again, I may give those that desire it an account of what I here am silent about: meantime I bid my reader FAREWELL. THE END. </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 14 2005-04-10T10:37:52Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS </strong></td><td><strong> LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS FROM THIS WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME; DELIVERED UNDER THE SIMILTUDE OF A DREAM. BY JOHN BUNYAN. CONTENTS. Author's Apology for his Book PART I. THE FIRST STAGE. - Christian's deplorable condition - Evangelist directs him - Obstinate and Pliable - Slough of Despond - Worldly Wiseman - Mount Sinai - Conversation with Evangelist THE SECOND STAGE. - The Gate - conversation with Good-Will - the Interpreter's House - Christian entertained - the sights there shown him THE THIRD STAGE. - Loses his burden at the Cross - Simple, Sloth, Presumption, Formalist, Hypocrisy - hill Difficulty - the Arbor - misses his roll - the palace Beautiful - the lions - talk with Discretion, Piety, Prudence, and Charity - wonders shown to Christian - he is armed THE FOURTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - conflict with Apollyon - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giants Pope and Pagan THE FIFTH STAGE. - Discourse with Faithful - Talkative and Faithful - Talkative's character THE SIXTH STAGE. - Evangelist overtakes Christian and Faithful - Vanity Fair - the Pilgrims brought to trial - Faithful's martyrdom THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful - By-ends and his companions - plain of Ease - Lucre-hill - Demas - the River of Life - Vain- Confidence - Giant Despair - the Pilgrims beaten - the Dungeon - the Key of Promise THE EIGHTH STAGE. - The Delectable Mountains - entertained by the Shepherds - a by-way to Hell THE NINTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful meet Ignorance - Turn-away - Little-Faith - the Flatterer - the net - chastised by a Shining One - Atheist - Enchanted Ground - Hopeful's account of his conversion - discourse of Christian and Ignorance THE TENTH STAGE. - Talk of Christian and Hopeful - Temporary - the backslider - the land of Beulah - Christian and Hopeful pass the River - welcome to the Celestial city Conclusion of Part First PART II. Author's Apology for the Second Part Pilgrimage of Christiana and her children THE FIRST STAGE. - Christiana and Mercy - Slough of Despond - knocking at the gate - the Dog - talk between the Pilgrims THE SECOND STAGE. - The Devil's garden - two ill-favored ones assault them - the Reliever - entertainment at the Interpreter's house - the Significant Rooms - Christiana and Mercy's experience THE THIRD STAGE. - Accompanied by Great-Heart - the Cross - justified by Christ - Sloth and his companions hung - the hill Difficulty - the Arbor THE FOURTH STAGE. - The Lions - Giant Grim slain by Great-Heart - the Pilgrims entertained - the children catechized by Prudence - Mr. Brisk - Matthew sick - the remedy - sights shown the Pilgrims THE FIFTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giant Maul slain THE SIXTH STAGE. - Discourse with Old Honest - character and history of Mr. Fearing - Mr. Self-will and some professors - Gaius' house - conversation - the supper - Old Honest and Great-Heart's riddles and discourse - Giant Slay-good killed - Mr. Feeble-mind's history - Mr. Ready-to-halt - Vanity Fair - Mr. Mnason's house - cheering entertainment and converse - a Monster THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Hill Lucre - River of Life - Giant Despair killed - the Delectable Mountains - entertainment by the Shepherds THE EIGHTH STAGE. - Valiant-for-Truth's-Victory - his talk with Great- Heart - the Enchanted Ground - Heedless and Too-bold - Mr. Stand-fast - Madam Bubble's temptations - the land of Beulah - Christiana summoned - her parting addresses - she passes the River - she is followed by Ready- to-halt, Feeble-mind, Despondency and his daughter, Honest, Valiant, Steadfast Author's Farewell THE AUTHOR'S APOLOGY FOR HIS BOOK. WHEN at the first I took my pen in hand Thus for to write, I did not understand That I at all should make a little book In such a mode: nay, I had undertook To make another; which, when almost done, Before I was aware I this begun. And thus it was: I, writing of the way And race of saints in this our gospel-day, Fell suddenly into an allegory About their journey, and the way to glory, In more than twenty things which I set down This done, I twenty more had in my crown, And they again began to multiply, Like sparks that from the coals of fire do fly. Nay, then, thought I, if that you breed so fast, I'll put you by yourselves, lest you at last Should prove ad infinitum, 1 and eat out The book that I already am about. Well, so I did; but yet I did not think To show to all the world my pen and ink In such a mode; I only thought to make I knew not what: nor did I undertake Thereby to please my neighbor; no, not I; I did it my own self to gratify. Neither did I but vacant seasons spend In this my scribble; nor did I intend But to divert myself, in doing this, From worser thoughts, which make me do amiss. Thus I set pen to paper with delight, And quickly had my thoughts in black and white; For having now my method by the end, Still as I pull'd, it came; and so I penned It down; until it came at last to be, For length and breadth, the bigness which you see. Well, when I had thus put mine ends together I show'd them others, that I might see whether They would condemn them, or them justify: And some said, let them live; some, let them die: Some said, John, print it; others said, Not so: Some said, It might do good; others said, No. Now was I in a strait, and did not see Which was the best thing to be done by me: At last I thought, Since ye are thus divided, I print it will; and so the case decided. For, thought I, some I see would have it done, Though others in that channel do not run: To prove, then, who advised for the best, Thus I thought fit to put it to the test. I further thought, if now I did deny Those that would have it, thus to gratify; I did not know, but hinder them I might Of that which would to them be great delight. For those which were not for its coming forth, I said to them, Offend you, I am loath; Yet since your brethren pleased with it be, Forbear to judge, till you do further see. If that thou wilt not read, let it alone; Some love the meat, some love to pick the bone. Yea, that I might them better palliate, I did too with them thus expostulate: May I not write in such a style as this? In such a method too, and yet not miss My end-thy good? Why may it not be done? Dark clouds bring waters, when the bright bring none. Yea, dark or bright, if they their silver drops Cause to descend, the earth, by yielding crops, Gives praise to both, and carpeth not at either, But treasures up the fruit they yield together; Yea, so commixes both, that in their fruit None can distinguish this from that; they suit Her well when hungry; but if she be full, She spews out both, and makes their blessing null. You see the ways the fisherman doth take To catch the fish; what engines doth he make! Behold how he engageth all his wits; Also his snares, lines, angles, hooks, and nets: Yet fish there be, that neither hook nor line, Nor snare, nor net, nor engine can make thine: They must be groped for, and be tickled too, Or they will not be catch'd, whate'er you do. How does the fowler seek to catch his game By divers means! all which one cannot name. His guns, his nets, his lime-twigs, light and bell: He creeps, he goes, he stands; yea, who can tell Of all his postures? yet there's none of these Will make him master of what fowls he please. Yea, he must pipe and whistle, to catch this; Yet if he does so, that bird he will miss. If that a pearl may in toad's head dwell, And may be found too in an oyster-shell; If things that promise nothing, do contain What better is than gold; who will disdain, That have an inkling 2 of it, there to look, That they may find it. Now my little book, (Though void of all these paintings that may make It with this or the other man to take,) Is not without those things that do excel What do in brave but empty notions dwell. "Well, yet I am not fully satisfied That this your book will stand, when soundly tried." Why, what's the matter? "It is dark." What though? "But it is feigned." What of that? I trow Some men by feigned words, as dark as mine, Make truth to spangle, and its rays to shine. "But they want solidness." Speak, man, thy mind. "They drown the weak; metaphors make us blind." Solidity, indeed, becomes the pen Of him that writeth things divine to men: But must I needs want solidness, because By metaphors I speak? Were not God's laws, His gospel laws, in olden time held forth By types, shadows, and metaphors? Yet loth Will any sober man be to find fault With them, lest he be found for to assault The highest wisdom! No, he rather stoops, And seeks to find out what, by pins and loops, By calves and sheep, by heifers, and by rams, By birds and herbs, and by the blood of lambs, God speaketh to him; and happy is he That finds the light and grace that in them be. But not too forward, therefore, to conclude That I want solidness-that I am rude; All things solid in show, not solid be; All things in parable despise not we, Lest things most hurtful lightly we receive, And things that good are, of our souls bereave. My dark and cloudy words they do but hold The truth, as cabinets inclose the gold. The prophets used much by metaphors To set forth truth: yea, who so considers Christ, his apostles too, shall plainly see, That truths to this day in such mantles be. Am I afraid to say, that holy writ, Which for its style and phrase puts down all wit, Is everywhere so full of all these things, Dark figures, allegories? Yet there springs From that same book, that lustre, and those rays Of light, that turn our darkest nights to days. Come, let my carper to his life now look, And find there darker lines than in my book He findeth any; yea, and let him know, That in his best things there are worse lines too. May we but stand before impartial men, To his poor one I durst adventure ten, That they will take my meaning in these lines Far better than his lies in silver shrines. Come, truth, although in swaddling-clothes, I find Informs the judgment, rectifies the mind; Pleases the understanding, makes the will Submit, the memory too it doth fill With what doth our imagination please; Likewise it tends our troubles to appease. Sound words, I know, Timothy is to use, And old wives' fables he is to refuse; But yet grave Paul him nowhere doth forbid The use of parables, in which lay hid That gold, those pearls, and precious stones that were Worth digging for, and that with greatest care. Let me add one word more. O man of God, Art thou offended? Dost thou wish I had Put forth my matter in another dress? Or that I had in things been more express? Three things let me propound; then I submit To those that are my betters, as is fit. 1. I find not that I am denied the use Of this my method, so I no abuse Put on the words, things, readers, or be rude In handling figure or similitude, In application; but all that I may Seek the advance of truth this or that way. Denied, did I say? Nay, I have leave, (Example too, and that from them that have God better pleased, by their words or ways, Than any man that breatheth now-a-days,) Thus to express my mind, thus to declare Things unto thee that excellentest are. 2. I find that men as high as trees will write Dialogue-wise; yet no man doth them slight For writing so. Indeed, if they abuse Truth, cursed be they, and the craft they use To that intent; but yet let truth be free To make her sallies upon thee and me, Which way it pleases God: for who knows how, Better than he that taught us first to plough, To guide our minds and pens for his designs? And he makes base things usher in divine. 3. I find that holy writ, in many places, Hath semblance with this method, where the cases Do call for one thing to set forth another: Use it I may then, and yet nothing smother Truth's golden beams: nay, by this method may Make it cast forth its rays as light as day. And now, before I do put up my pen, I'll show the profit of my book; and then Commit both thee and it unto that hand That pulls the strong down, and makes weak ones stand. This book it chalketh out before thine eyes The man that seeks the everlasting prize: It shows you whence he comes, whither he goes, What he leaves undone; also what he does: It also shows you how he runs, and runs, Till he unto the gate of glory comes. It shows, too, who set out for life amain, As if the lasting crown they would obtain; Here also you may see the reason why They lose their labor, and like fools do die. This book will make a traveler of thee, If by its counsel thou wilt ruled be; It will direct thee to the Holy Land, If thou wilt its directions understand Yea, it will make the slothful active be; The blind also delightful things to see. Art thou for something rare and profitable? Or would'st thou see a truth within a fable? Art thou forgetful? Wouldest thou remember From New-Year's day to the last of December? Then read my fancies; they will stick like burs, And may be, to the helpless, comforters. This book is writ in such a dialect As may the minds of listless men affect: It seems a novelty, and yet contains Nothing but sound and honest gospel strains. Would'st thou divert thyself from melancholy? Would'st thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly? Would'st thou read riddles, and their explanation? Or else be drowned in thy contemplation? Dost thou love picking meat? Or would'st thou see A man i' the clouds, and hear him speak to thee? Would'st thou be in a dream, and yet not sleep? Or would'st thou in a moment laugh and weep? Would'st thou lose thyself and catch no harm, And find thyself again without a charm? Would'st read thyself, and read thou know'st not what, And yet know whether thou art blest or not, By reading the same lines? O then come hither, And lay my book, thy head, and heart together. JOHN BUNYAN. </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 15 2005-04-10T10:40:10Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> [[The Pilgrim's Progress]] </strong></td><td><strong> Le Pelegrinage de Christiano </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS FROM THIS WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME; DELIVERED UNDER THE SIMILTUDE OF A DREAM. BY JOHN BUNYAN. CONTENTS. Author's Apology for his Book PART I. THE FIRST STAGE. - Christian's deplorable condition - Evangelist directs him - Obstinate and Pliable - Slough of Despond - Worldly Wiseman - Mount Sinai - Conversation with Evangelist THE SECOND STAGE. - The Gate - conversation with Good-Will - the Interpreter's House - Christian entertained - the sights there shown him THE THIRD STAGE. - Loses his burden at the Cross - Simple, Sloth, Presumption, Formalist, Hypocrisy - hill Difficulty - the Arbor - misses his roll - the palace Beautiful - the lions - talk with Discretion, Piety, Prudence, and Charity - wonders shown to Christian - he is armed THE FOURTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - conflict with Apollyon - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giants Pope and Pagan THE FIFTH STAGE. - Discourse with Faithful - Talkative and Faithful - Talkative's character THE SIXTH STAGE. - Evangelist overtakes Christian and Faithful - Vanity Fair - the Pilgrims brought to trial - Faithful's martyrdom THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful - By-ends and his companions - plain of Ease - Lucre-hill - Demas - the River of Life - Vain- Confidence - Giant Despair - the Pilgrims beaten - the Dungeon - the Key of Promise THE EIGHTH STAGE. - The Delectable Mountains - entertained by the Shepherds - a by-way to Hell THE NINTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful meet Ignorance - Turn-away - Little-Faith - the Flatterer - the net - chastised by a Shining One - Atheist - Enchanted Ground - Hopeful's account of his conversion - discourse of Christian and Ignorance THE TENTH STAGE. - Talk of Christian and Hopeful - Temporary - the backslider - the land of Beulah - Christian and Hopeful pass the River - welcome to the Celestial city Conclusion of Part First PART II. Author's Apology for the Second Part Pilgrimage of Christiana and her children THE FIRST STAGE. - Christiana and Mercy - Slough of Despond - knocking at the gate - the Dog - talk between the Pilgrims THE SECOND STAGE. - The Devil's garden - two ill-favored ones assault them - the Reliever - entertainment at the Interpreter's house - the Significant Rooms - Christiana and Mercy's experience THE THIRD STAGE. - Accompanied by Great-Heart - the Cross - justified by Christ - Sloth and his companions hung - the hill Difficulty - the Arbor THE FOURTH STAGE. - The Lions - Giant Grim slain by Great-Heart - the Pilgrims entertained - the children catechized by Prudence - Mr. Brisk - Matthew sick - the remedy - sights shown the Pilgrims THE FIFTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giant Maul slain THE SIXTH STAGE. - Discourse with Old Honest - character and history of Mr. Fearing - Mr. Self-will and some professors - Gaius' house - conversation - the supper - Old Honest and Great-Heart's riddles and discourse - Giant Slay-good killed - Mr. Feeble-mind's history - Mr. Ready-to-halt - Vanity Fair - Mr. Mnason's house - cheering entertainment and converse - a Monster THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Hill Lucre - River of Life - Giant Despair killed - the Delectable Mountains - entertainment by the Shepherds THE EIGHTH STAGE. - Valiant-for-Truth's-Victory - his talk with Great- Heart - the Enchanted Ground - Heedless and Too-bold - Mr. Stand-fast - Madam Bubble's temptations - the land of Beulah - Christiana summoned - her parting addresses - she passes the River - she is followed by Ready- to-halt, Feeble-mind, Despondency and his daughter, Honest, Valiant, Steadfast Author's Farewell THE AUTHOR'S APOLOGY FOR HIS BOOK. WHEN at the first I took my pen in hand Thus for to write, I did not understand That I at all should make a little book In such a mode: nay, I had undertook To make another; which, when almost done, Before I was aware I this begun. And thus it was: I, writing of the way And race of saints in this our gospel-day, Fell suddenly into an allegory About their journey, and the way to glory, In more than twenty things which I set down This done, I twenty more had in my crown, And they again began to multiply, Like sparks that from the coals of fire do fly. Nay, then, thought I, if that you breed so fast, I'll put you by yourselves, lest you at last Should prove ad infinitum, 1 and eat out The book that I already am about. Well, so I did; but yet I did not think To show to all the world my pen and ink In such a mode; I only thought to make I knew not what: nor did I undertake Thereby to please my neighbor; no, not I; I did it my own self to gratify. Neither did I but vacant seasons spend In this my scribble; nor did I intend But to divert myself, in doing this, From worser thoughts, which make me do amiss. Thus I set pen to paper with delight, And quickly had my thoughts in black and white; For having now my method by the end, Still as I pull'd, it came; and so I penned It down; until it came at last to be, For length and breadth, the bigness which you see. Well, when I had thus put mine ends together I show'd them others, that I might see whether They would condemn them, or them justify: And some said, let them live; some, let them die: Some said, John, print it; others said, Not so: Some said, It might do good; others said, No. Now was I in a strait, and did not see Which was the best thing to be done by me: At last I thought, Since ye are thus divided, I print it will; and so the case decided. For, thought I, some I see would have it done, Though others in that channel do not run: To prove, then, who advised for the best, Thus I thought fit to put it to the test. I further thought, if now I did deny Those that would have it, thus to gratify; I did not know, but hinder them I might Of that which would to them be great delight. For those which were not for its coming forth, I said to them, Offend you, I am loath; Yet since your brethren pleased with it be, Forbear to judge, till you do further see. If that thou wilt not read, let it alone; Some love the meat, some love to pick the bone. Yea, that I might them better palliate, I did too with them thus expostulate: May I not write in such a style as this? In such a method too, and yet not miss My end-thy good? Why may it not be done? Dark clouds bring waters, when the bright bring none. Yea, dark or bright, if they their silver drops Cause to descend, the earth, by yielding crops, Gives praise to both, and carpeth not at either, But treasures up the fruit they yield together; Yea, so commixes both, that in their fruit None can distinguish this from that; they suit Her well when hungry; but if she be full, She spews out both, and makes their blessing null. You see the ways the fisherman doth take To catch the fish; what engines doth he make! Behold how he engageth all his wits; Also his snares, lines, angles, hooks, and nets: Yet fish there be, that neither hook nor line, Nor snare, nor net, nor engine can make thine: They must be groped for, and be tickled too, Or they will not be catch'd, whate'er you do. How does the fowler seek to catch his game By divers means! all which one cannot name. His guns, his nets, his lime-twigs, light and bell: He creeps, he goes, he stands; yea, who can tell Of all his postures? yet there's none of these Will make him master of what fowls he please. Yea, he must pipe and whistle, to catch this; Yet if he does so, that bird he will miss. If that a pearl may in toad's head dwell, And may be found too in an oyster-shell; If things that promise nothing, do contain What better is than gold; who will disdain, That have an inkling 2 of it, there to look, That they may find it. Now my little book, (Though void of all these paintings that may make It with this or the other man to take,) Is not without those things that do excel What do in brave but empty notions dwell. "Well, yet I am not fully satisfied That this your book will stand, when soundly tried." Why, what's the matter? "It is dark." What though? "But it is feigned." What of that? I trow Some men by feigned words, as dark as mine, Make truth to spangle, and its rays to shine. "But they want solidness." Speak, man, thy mind. "They drown the weak; metaphors make us blind." Solidity, indeed, becomes the pen Of him that writeth things divine to men: But must I needs want solidness, because By metaphors I speak? Were not God's laws, His gospel laws, in olden time held forth By types, shadows, and metaphors? Yet loth Will any sober man be to find fault With them, lest he be found for to assault The highest wisdom! No, he rather stoops, And seeks to find out what, by pins and loops, By calves and sheep, by heifers, and by rams, By birds and herbs, and by the blood of lambs, God speaketh to him; and happy is he That finds the light and grace that in them be. But not too forward, therefore, to conclude That I want solidness-that I am rude; All things solid in show, not solid be; All things in parable despise not we, Lest things most hurtful lightly we receive, And things that good are, of our souls bereave. My dark and cloudy words they do but hold The truth, as cabinets inclose the gold. The prophets used much by metaphors To set forth truth: yea, who so considers Christ, his apostles too, shall plainly see, That truths to this day in such mantles be. Am I afraid to say, that holy writ, Which for its style and phrase puts down all wit, Is everywhere so full of all these things, Dark figures, allegories? Yet there springs From that same book, that lustre, and those rays Of light, that turn our darkest nights to days. Come, let my carper to his life now look, And find there darker lines than in my book He findeth any; yea, and let him know, That in his best things there are worse lines too. May we but stand before impartial men, To his poor one I durst adventure ten, That they will take my meaning in these lines Far better than his lies in silver shrines. Come, truth, although in swaddling-clothes, I find Informs the judgment, rectifies the mind; Pleases the understanding, makes the will Submit, the memory too it doth fill With what doth our imagination please; Likewise it tends our troubles to appease. Sound words, I know, Timothy is to use, And old wives' fables he is to refuse; But yet grave Paul him nowhere doth forbid The use of parables, in which lay hid That gold, those pearls, and precious stones that were Worth digging for, and that with greatest care. Let me add one word more. O man of God, Art thou offended? Dost thou wish I had Put forth my matter in another dress? Or that I had in things been more express? Three things let me propound; then I submit To those that are my betters, as is fit. 1. I find not that I am denied the use Of this my method, so I no abuse Put on the words, things, readers, or be rude In handling figure or similitude, In application; but all that I may Seek the advance of truth this or that way. Denied, did I say? Nay, I have leave, (Example too, and that from them that have God better pleased, by their words or ways, Than any man that breatheth now-a-days,) Thus to express my mind, thus to declare Things unto thee that excellentest are. 2. I find that men as high as trees will write Dialogue-wise; yet no man doth them slight For writing so. Indeed, if they abuse Truth, cursed be they, and the craft they use To that intent; but yet let truth be free To make her sallies upon thee and me, Which way it pleases God: for who knows how, Better than he that taught us first to plough, To guide our minds and pens for his designs? And he makes base things usher in divine. 3. I find that holy writ, in many places, Hath semblance with this method, where the cases Do call for one thing to set forth another: Use it I may then, and yet nothing smother Truth's golden beams: nay, by this method may Make it cast forth its rays as light as day. And now, before I do put up my pen, I'll show the profit of my book; and then Commit both thee and it unto that hand That pulls the strong down, and makes weak ones stand. This book it chalketh out before thine eyes The man that seeks the everlasting prize: It shows you whence he comes, whither he goes, What he leaves undone; also what he does: It also shows you how he runs, and runs, Till he unto the gate of glory comes. It shows, too, who set out for life amain, As if the lasting crown they would obtain; Here also you may see the reason why They lose their labor, and like fools do die. This book will make a traveler of thee, If by its counsel thou wilt ruled be; It will direct thee to the Holy Land, If thou wilt its directions understand Yea, it will make the slothful active be; The blind also delightful things to see. Art thou for something rare and profitable? Or would'st thou see a truth within a fable? Art thou forgetful? Wouldest thou remember From New-Year's day to the last of December? Then read my fancies; they will stick like burs, And may be, to the helpless, comforters. This book is writ in such a dialect As may the minds of listless men affect: It seems a novelty, and yet contains Nothing but sound and honest gospel strains. Would'st thou divert thyself from melancholy? Would'st thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly? Would'st thou read riddles, and their explanation? Or else be drowned in thy contemplation? Dost thou love picking meat? Or would'st thou see A man i' the clouds, and hear him speak to thee? Would'st thou be in a dream, and yet not sleep? Or would'st thou in a moment laugh and weep? Would'st thou lose thyself and catch no harm, And find thyself again without a charm? Would'st read thyself, and read thou know'st not what, And yet know whether thou art blest or not, By reading the same lines? O then come hither, And lay my book, thy head, and heart together. JOHN BUNYAN. </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 16 2005-04-10T10:44:05Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> [[The Pilgrim's Progress]] </strong></td><td><strong> Le Pelegrinage de Christiano </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </p><p></p></td><td><p> Conto allegoric de John Bunyan in le similitude de un sonio traducite in Interlingua per Paolo Castellina, pastor evangelic (1994) Introduction, vita de John Bunyan, tabula del contentos Introduction "Le pelegrinage de Christiano'' (The Pilgrim's Progress) es un libro que, in le 300 annos de su existentia, ha transversate multe de ille barrieras de racia e de cultura que solitemente servi a limitar le barrieras communicative de un obra classic. Illo mesmo penetrava in le mundo non-christian; illo ha essite lecte per culte musulmanes durante le surger del individualismo religiose del Islam e, in le mesme tempore in editiones missionari a bon mercato de indianos american e habitantes del insulas meridional de nostre globo. "Le pelegrinage de Christiano'' ha essite definite "Le plus popular obra de spiritualitate christian usque nunc scripte in anglese''. Illo es un conto allegoric que dramatisa le experientia spiritual christian evangelic per le medio de un viage o cerca. Illo es de facto un motivo typic del historia biblic (le saga de Abraham e del Exodo), insimul a su interpretationes in le Nove Testamento, de cuje ethos John Bunyan esseva permeate. Le stilo de iste obra esseva influentiate (como le autor ipse admitteva) per le legendas e sagas popular que ille habeva lecte durante su juventute, con un realismo acutemente observate si ben psychologic como substantial. Pro John Bunyan su obra allegoric fictive non esseva un fin a se ipse, ma un medio pro facer de cata lector un "viagiator'' sur le via que conduce al "Canaan celeste'' que, quanquam illo remane aperte a omne persona de fide, curre necessemente per le deserto de iste mundo, con su vicissitudes, incertitudes e complexitates moral. Paolo Castellina Le vita de John Bunyan Le documentos indica que in 1628, in le remote village anglese de Elstow, apud Bedford, nasceva 19 infantes. Uno de istos, le filio de un latonero o caldierero, esseva destinate a devenir le autor de un libro que ha ganiate un fama illimitate e que esseva traducite in multe linguas. Grande parte de iste libro habeva essite scripte in un prision! On supponeva in le 17. seculo que le position social de un persona debeva necessarimente esser illo de su parentes. Frequentemente le filios sequeva le passos de lor patre in lor profession. Non surprende, ergo, que le juvene Bunyan deveniva un caldierero un fornitor viagiante le qual reparava utensiles e instrumentos. Un filio de caldierero habeva opportunitates professional limitate. Plus tarde Bunyan notava que: "Deo se complaceva poner in lor corde (su parentes) le desiro que lor filio apprendeva sia le lectura sia le scriptura''. Iste education, ille remarcava, esseva "al nivello del altere filios de povre homines'' (illo es un education minimal). Ille addeva: "Io tosto perdeva le poco que io apprendeva''. Su 16. anno, 1644, esseva un turbulente anno de cambio. Primo, su matre moriva e, intra un mense, su soror Margareth alsi moriva; inde, un mense post le morte de su soror, su patre se maritava de novo. Post iste commotion emotive, John Bunyan assereva que ille habeva "poc concurrentes... sia in maledicer, sia in objurgar, sia in mentir, sia in blasphemar le sancte nomine de Deo''. Quando arrivava recrutatores plus tarde ille anno pro le Armea Parlamentari (o Roundheads), le juvene Bunyan esseva alacre a responder. Ille passava in ille armea le sequente tres annos durante que illo esseva implicate in le conflicto con le fortias del Rege Carolo I. Bunyan mentionava poco ille annos in le servicio militar. Le experientia, tamen, que pare haber habite un profunde impacto super ille, esseva un quasi-incontro con le morte. Un altere soldato requireva occupar le placia de Bunyan al ultime momento in un assedio. On pote imaginar quanto grande esseva le choc quando, post le battalia, ille apprendeva que su substituto habeva fatalmente essite occise. Depost su dimission del armea, le Bunyan de 19 annos retornava a su native Elstow, ubi ille se ingagiava in le vita del caldierero. Alora, post un anno o duo, ille se maritava con Mary. "Nos conveniva insimul tanto povre quanto solmente le povres pote esser'', ille affirmava, "nostre utensiles domestic se limitava a un platto e a un coclear a usar in commun''. Su vita spiritual, durante le quatro annos sequente le maritage, habeva le characteres de un sede pendular periodos de calma, accessos de depression, tentativa de reformation e un profunde sentimento de peccato e de judicamento. In reguardar retro a ille periodo turbulente, ille plus tarde videva le ration de ille experientia disordinate: "Pro iste ration io jaceva tanto longemente al Sinai a vider su foco, su nube e su obscuritate que io poterea timer le Senior tote le dies de mi vita sur le terra, e contar in re su obras meraviliose a mi infantes''. Le lumine comenciava surger pro Bunyan quando, in su viages per le proxime Bedford, ille audiva casualmente le conversation de "tres o quatro povre feminas... qui sedeva al porta, sub le radios del sol, e qui parlava del cosas de Deo''. Illas, a su tempore, introduceva Bunyan a lor pastor, John Gifford, al qual Bunyan constantemente se referera como "le sancte sr. Gifford''. Un altere instrumento pro su conversion esseva le lectura del "Commentario a Galatas'' de Martin Luther. Le lumine vermente habeva surgite, e le nove converso se alineava con le ecclesia de Bedford, cuje pastor esseva Gifford. Quanquam baptisate per immersion e convincite baptista, Bunyan resolutemente refusava esser sectari. Al termino de su vita ille gaudeva le communion de christianos qui faceva abstraction de qualcunque affiliation denominational. Circa in 1655 Bunyan se transfereva con su uxor, su filia cec, Mary, e tres altere infantes a Bedford pro esser proxime al ecclesia in le qual ille esseva un ardente membro e diacono. Iste transferimento, tamen, esseva obscurate per le morte de su sposa, Mary, le qual, infatigabilemente le habeva incoragiate e consolate durante su annos de conflicto spiritual. Nonobstante iste tragedia e pois le morte de su amate pastor e monitor, "le sancte sr. Gifford'' (1), le caldierero deveniva un partisano inconditional del ecclesia de Bedford e un fortia trahente in le ecclesias del region. Ben que ille non esseva un predicator ordinate, on le habeva demandate in 1655 parlar a congregationes in le area. Al grande surprisa de totes, includite Bunyan ipse, le caldierero se revelava un predicator potente. Tosto turbas de gente se congregava quando on annunciava le venita de Bunyan a predicar. Su proprie investigationes in le Scripturas e annos de lucta interior le habeva rendite un compatiente e potente guida pro alteres. Con un dependentia infantil de Deo, ille predicava, secundo su proprie parolas "lo que io vivemente sentiva''. Un cambio politic, tamen, debeva interrumper su vita. Quando Cromwell moriva in 1658, Carolo 2e esseva portate retro in Anglaterra. Con le retorno del governamento royal in 1660, le libertate religiose del non-anglicanos esseva fortemente restricte. Bunyan, con altere predicatores qui habeva gaudite del libertate religiose, habeva devenite virtualmente predicatores "subterranee'' le quales teneva incontros in casas, stabulos e locos insulate al aere libere. In novembre de 1660, Bunyan se preparava predicar in uno de iste congregationes in un ferma. Alcun su amicos apprendeva que un mandato pro su arresto habeva essite promulgate e le exhortava a non predicar. "Pro isto ni io me agitara, ni io dimittera le reunion'', ille declarava, "Veni, sia tranquille! Vamos non esser intimidate. Nostre causa es bon'' (4), ille continuava, "nos non debe haber vergonia; predicar le Parola de Deo es un obra tanto bon que nos essera remunerate pro isto, mesmo si nos debera suffrer''. Le predicator esseva arrestate. Quando ille refusava de cessar omne activitate de predication si ille haberea essite liberate, ille esseva imprisionate. "Io conservava mi pace e, sia benedicte le Senior, io vadeva in prision con le conforto de Deo in mi povre anima'', ille commentava. Justo ante su imprisionamento ille se habeva maritate le secunde vice. Le nomine de su nove sposa esseva Elizabeth, le qual debeva esser su loyal partenaria durante ille annos de imprisionamento, como alsi matre de su infantes. Ante ille stava 12 annos de imprisionamento, separation de su amates e un freno a su ministerio public. Ille repulsava omne offerta de liberation sub le condition de cessation del predication. "Si hodie io esseva foras del prision, io predicarea le Evangelio deman, con le adjuta de Deo'', ille diceva al judice. Con se in prision ille portava su Biblia e un copia de "Le Libro del Martyres de Foxe''. Pro ille le Scripturas in prision deveniva vivente. "Io nunquam como nunc in tote mi vita habeva un tal introspection in le Parola de Deo'', ille assereva, "passages del Scriptura in le quales io non videva alco usque nunc, ora in iste placia brilla super me. Mesmo Jesus Christo nunc es pro me plus real e apparente que unquam antea. Hic io sin dubita le videva e sentiva''. In prision ille deveniva virtualmente le cappellano de altere predicatores e companiones christian le quales alsi habeva essite incarcerate. Ibi ille mesmo produceva dentella, le qual ille vendeva pro provider nutrimento pro su familia. Alcun del sermones que ille predicava in prision probabilemente deveniva le base pro libros que esseva publicate durante iste tempore. Le plus cognite de iste libros esseva: "Gratia que abunda pro le chef del peccatores''. In ille 12 annos, de 1660 a su liberation in 1672, ille scribeva cinque libros e multe tractatos controversial e doctrinal, le quales le rendeva famose inter christianos anglese. Bunyan esseva liberate durante un relaxamento del oppression religiose in 1672. Plure menses ante su disincarceration, le ecclesia de Bedford le appellava a devenir su pastor. Integre turbas se congregava pro audir le ex-prisionero le qual esseva considerate como "Episcopo Bunyan'' in le tote region. Multe ecclesias, mesmo in London, requireva ardorosemente le caldierero-predicator. Le climate politic e religiose de Anglaterra cambiava tamen rapidemente ancora in 1675. Bunyan esseva de novo imprisionate per sex menses, e il esseva durante iste imprisionamento que ille scribeva "Le Pelegrinage de Christiano''. Le expression de apertura de iste classico religiose revela su placia de origine: "Durante que io ambulava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava [le prision de Bedford]. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio''. Le libro, que describe vividemente le viage de pelegrino ab le Citate de Destruction al Citate del Celo, ha essite acclamate como un potente, introspective reporto de conviction de peccato, conversion, lucta spiritual, proba, crescentia e retorno al casa del Celo. Alcun christianos de su tempore habeva consiliate a Bunyan non publicar le libro, proque illo es un allegoria e non directe theologia! Multitudines desde tunc, tamen, ha essite grate que Bunyan habeva ignorate iste criticos. Quando Bunyan esseva disincarcerate de su secunde imprisionamento, ille retornava a su congregation e placia de commando. In 1678 ille completava e publicava "Le Pelegrinage de Christiano''. Le libro esseva instantaneemente un best-seller. In le prime anno esseva publicate tres editiones. Desde tunc illo ha essite republicate in decenas de linguas e illo ha grandemente influite sur multitudines. Le ultime 10 annos del vita de Bunyan, a sequer le publication de su opera prime, ille passava in incessante labor pro Christo. Bunyan esseva estimate como un potente predicator, e turbas conveniva a audir le. Un vice le rege Carolo 2e demandava al erudito John Owen como poteva ille vader audir un simplice caldierero-predicator. Owen, le qual habeva essite vice-cancellero del universitate de Oxford promptemente respondeva que ille haberea de bon voluntate excambiate su sapientia con le poter de ille caldierero de tanger le cordes human. In ille annos plus que 30 libros flueva de su penna. Includite in illo esseva etiam le secunde parte del "Pelegrinage de Christiano'', le qual describe le fugita del sposa de Christiano, i.e. Christina, e de lor infantes del Destruction. "Le Guerra Sancte'', publicate in 1682, esseva alsi un allegoria, un description potente del vita christian contate in terminos militar. In le estate de 1688 Bunyan esseva invitate a predicar in London. Ante quitar Bedford, tamen, ille esseva avicinate per un juvene homine, le qual habeva essite repudiate per su patre. Ille habeva exhortate le predicator de intervenir in su favor con su patre. In profitar del occasion, Bunyan ha exportate le Evangelio a iste juvene homine e ergo ille le accompaniava al domo de su patre ubi le patre se reconciliava con su filio. Alora, in un forte tempesta, Bunyan se preparava a attinger London pro su appunctamento. Iste exposition e effortio le debilitava. Quanquam ille predicava durante le servicio divin, ille obviemente esseva malade. Multe dies sequeva in le quales ille luctava contra pneumonia, e durante ille dies ille experiva pro se mesme le retorno a casa que ille habeva descripte pro Christiano e su companion, Sperantiose: "Alora veniva pro incontrar les plure Trompetteros del Rege, con vestes blanc, le quales, con sonos forte e melodiose, faceva echoar mesmo le celo con lor sonos. Iste trompetteros salutava Christiano e su companion con dece milles Benvenitas ab le mundo, e isto illes faceva con critos e con le sono del trompas''. NOTAS (1) De "The Life of John Bunyan'', paperback edition, 1977, Baker Book House, Gran Rapids, Michigan. (2) De "Encyclopedia Britannica'', Vol. 4, 1966, Chicago, Illinois. (3) De "John Bunyan: His Life, Time and Work'', by John Brown, The Hulbert Publishig Company, London, England, 1928. (4) De "John Bunyan'', by Gwylim O.Griffith, Doubleday Company, New York, 1928. (5) De "They Found the Secret'', by W. Raymond Edman, 1960, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. (6) Cf. "John Bunyan'' by Gwylim O. Griffith, Doubleday Company Inc., New York, 1928. (7) De "The Pilgrim's Progress From This World to That Which is to Come'', by John Bunyan, The Banner of Truth Thrust, Edimbourgh, Scotland, and Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Tabula del contento 1. Conviction de peccato 2. Christiano e Evangelista 3. Obstinato e Plicabile 4. Le Palude del Discoragiamento 5. Adjuta 6. Sr. Sapientia mundan 7. Christiano e le deception del Alte Colle 8. Le Porta Stricte 9. Bon Voluntate 10. Le casa del Interprete 11. Le Cruce que salva 12. Tres homines dormiente 13. Formalista e Hypocrisia 14. Le tres stratas 15. Un agradabile refugio 16. Diffidentia e Timorose 17. Le Casa Belle 18. Le Conversation con le tres juvene feminas 19. Le Cena in le Casa Belle 20. Le documentos del Casa Belle 21. Multe altere meravilias a vider 22. Christiano se prepara a partir 23. Christiano affronta Apollyon 24. Le Vallea del Umbra del Morte 25. Fidel 26. Incontro con Loquace 27. Nove incontro con Evangelista e su premonition 28. Le Feria del Vanitate 29. Le processo contra Fidel 30. Sperante 31. Incontro con Interessose 32. Discurso in re un religion commode 33. Le colle del lucro 34. Un estranie monumento 35. Le agradabile riviera 36. Le periculose via plus confortabile 37. Le castello del dubita 38. Le Montes Delectabile 39. Le Montania del Error 40. Le Monte Prudentia 41. Un porta del inferno 42. Le telescopio 43. Ignorantia 44. Aversion, le apostata 45. Parvefide 46. Le adulator 47. Atheista 48. Le terreno incantate 49. Nove incontro con Ignorantia 50. Discurso super le timor de Deo 51. Temporario 52. Le pais de Beulah 53. Le Fluvio del Morte 54. Le ultime viage 55. Le ingresso in le Celo </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 1999 2005-04-10T10:54:35Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> [[The Pilgrim's Progress]] </strong></td><td><strong> Le Pelegrinage de Christiano </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </p><p></p></td><td><p> Conto allegoric de John Bunyan in le similitude de un sonio traducite in Interlingua per Paolo Castellina, pastor evangelic (1994) Introduction, vita de John Bunyan, tabula del contentos Introduction "Le pelegrinage de Christiano" (The Pilgrim's Progress) es un libro que, in le 300 annos de su existentia, ha transversate multe de ille barrieras de racia e de cultura que solitemente servi a limitar le barrieras communicative de un obra classic. Illo mesmo penetrava in le mundo non-christian; illo ha essite lecte per culte musulmanes durante le surger del individualismo religiose del Islam e, in le mesme tempore in editiones missionari a bon mercato de indianos american e habitantes del insulas meridional de nostre globo. "Le pelegrinage de Christiano" ha essite definite "Le plus popular obra de spiritualitate christian usque nunc scripte in anglese". Illo es un conto allegoric que dramatisa le experientia spiritual christian evangelic per le medio de un viage o cerca. Illo es de facto un motivo typic del historia biblic (le saga de Abraham e del Exodo), insimul a su interpretationes in le Nove Testamento, de cuje ethos John Bunyan esseva permeate. Le stilo de iste obra esseva influentiate (como le autor ipse admitteva) per le legendas e sagas popular que ille habeva lecte durante su juventute, con un realismo acutemente observate si ben psychologic como substantial. Pro John Bunyan su obra allegoric fictive non esseva un fin a se ipse, ma un medio pro facer de cata lector un "viagiator" sur le via que conduce al "Canaan celeste" que, quanquam illo remane aperte a omne persona de fide, curre necessemente per le deserto de iste mundo, con su vicissitudes, incertitudes e complexitates moral. Paolo Castellina Le vita de John Bunyan Le documentos indica que in 1628, in le remote village anglese de Elstow, apud Bedford, nasceva 19 infantes. Uno de istos, le filio de un latonero o caldierero, esseva destinate a devenir le autor de un libro que ha ganiate un fama illimitate e que esseva traducite in multe linguas. Grande parte de iste libro habeva essite scripte in un prision! On supponeva in le 17. seculo que le position social de un persona debeva necessarimente esser illo de su parentes. Frequentemente le filios sequeva le passos de lor patre in lor profession. Non surprende, ergo, que le juvene Bunyan deveniva un caldierero un fornitor viagiante le qual reparava utensiles e instrumentos. Un filio de caldierero habeva opportunitates professional limitate. Plus tarde Bunyan notava que: "Deo se complaceva poner in lor corde (su parentes) le desiro que lor filio apprendeva sia le lectura sia le scriptura''. Iste education, ille remarcava, esseva "al nivello del altere filios de povre homines" (illo es un education minimal). Ille addeva: "Io tosto perdeva le poco que io apprendeva". Su 16. anno, 1644, esseva un turbulente anno de cambio. Primo, su matre moriva e, intra un mense, su soror Margareth alsi moriva; inde, un mense post le morte de su soror, su patre se maritava de novo. Post iste commotion emotive, John Bunyan assereva que ille habeva "poc concurrentes... sia in maledicer, sia in objurgar, sia in mentir, sia in blasphemar le sancte nomine de Deo". Quando arrivava recrutatores plus tarde ille anno pro le Armea Parlamentari (o Roundheads), le juvene Bunyan esseva alacre a responder. Ille passava in ille armea le sequente tres annos durante que illo esseva implicate in le conflicto con le fortias del Rege Carolo I. Bunyan mentionava poco ille annos in le servicio militar. Le experientia, tamen, que pare haber habite un profunde impacto super ille, esseva un quasi-incontro con le morte. Un altere soldato requireva occupar le placia de Bunyan al ultime momento in un assedio. On pote imaginar quanto grande esseva le choc quando, post le battalia, ille apprendeva que su substituto habeva fatalmente essite occise. Depost su dimission del armea, le Bunyan de 19 annos retornava a su native Elstow, ubi ille se ingagiava in le vita del caldierero. Alora, post un anno o duo, ille se maritava con Mary. "Nos conveniva insimul tanto povre quanto solmente le povres pote esser", ille affirmava, "nostre utensiles domestic se limitava a un platto e a un coclear a usar in commun". Su vita spiritual, durante le quatro annos sequente le maritage, habeva le characteres de un sede pendular periodos de calma, accessos de depression, tentativa de reformation e un profunde sentimento de peccato e de judicamento. In reguardar retro a ille periodo turbulente, ille plus tarde videva le ration de ille experientia disordinate: "Pro iste ration io jaceva tanto longemente al Sinai a vider su foco, su nube e su obscuritate que io poterea timer le Senior tote le dies de mi vita sur le terra, e contar in re su obras meraviliose a mi infantes''. Le lumine comenciava surger pro Bunyan quando, in su viages per le proxime Bedford, ille audiva casualmente le conversation de "tres o quatro povre feminas... qui sedeva al porta, sub le radios del sol, e qui parlava del cosas de Deo". Illas, a su tempore, introduceva Bunyan a lor pastor, John Gifford, al qual Bunyan constantemente se referera como "le sancte sr. Gifford". Un altere instrumento pro su conversion esseva le lectura del "Commentario a Galatas" de Martin Luther. Le lumine vermente habeva surgite, e le nove converso se alineava con le ecclesia de Bedford, cuje pastor esseva Gifford. Quanquam baptisate per immersion e convincite baptista, Bunyan resolutemente refusava esser sectari. Al termino de su vita ille gaudeva le communion de christianos qui faceva abstraction de qualcunque affiliation denominational. Circa in 1655 Bunyan se transfereva con su uxor, su filia cec, Mary, e tres altere infantes a Bedford pro esser proxime al ecclesia in le qual ille esseva un ardente membro e diacono. Iste transferimento, tamen, esseva obscurate per le morte de su sposa, Mary, le qual, infatigabilemente le habeva incoragiate e consolate durante su annos de conflicto spiritual. Nonobstante iste tragedia e pois le morte de su amate pastor e monitor, "le sancte sr. Gifford" (1), le caldierero deveniva un partisano inconditional del ecclesia de Bedford e un fortia trahente in le ecclesias del region. Ben que ille non esseva un predicator ordinate, on le habeva demandate in 1655 parlar a congregationes in le area. Al grande surprisa de totes, includite Bunyan ipse, le caldierero se revelava un predicator potente. Tosto turbas de gente se congregava quando on annunciava le venita de Bunyan a predicar. Su proprie investigationes in le Scripturas e annos de lucta interior le habeva rendite un compatiente e potente guida pro alteres. Con un dependentia infantil de Deo, ille predicava, secundo su proprie parolas "lo que io vivemente sentiva". Un cambio politic, tamen, debeva interrumper su vita. Quando Cromwell moriva in 1658, Carolo 2e esseva portate retro in Anglaterra. Con le retorno del governamento royal in 1660, le libertate religiose del non-anglicanos esseva fortemente restricte. Bunyan, con altere predicatores qui habeva gaudite del libertate religiose, habeva devenite virtualmente predicatores "subterranee" le quales teneva incontros in casas, stabulos e locos insulate al aere libere. In novembre de 1660, Bunyan se preparava predicar in uno de iste congregationes in un ferma. Alcun su amicos apprendeva que un mandato pro su arresto habeva essite promulgate e le exhortava a non predicar. "Pro isto ni io me agitara, ni io dimittera le reunion", ille declarava, "Veni, sia tranquille! Vamos non esser intimidate. Nostre causa es bon" (4), ille continuava, "nos non debe haber vergonia; predicar le Parola de Deo es un obra tanto bon que nos essera remunerate pro isto, mesmo si nos debera suffrer". Le predicator esseva arrestate. Quando ille refusava de cessar omne activitate de predication si ille haberea essite liberate, ille esseva imprisionate. "Io conservava mi pace e, sia benedicte le Senior, io vadeva in prision con le conforto de Deo in mi povre anima", ille commentava. Justo ante su imprisionamento ille se habeva maritate le secunde vice. Le nomine de su nove sposa esseva Elizabeth, le qual debeva esser su loyal partenaria durante ille annos de imprisionamento, como alsi matre de su infantes. Ante ille stava 12 annos de imprisionamento, separation de su amates e un freno a su ministerio public. Ille repulsava omne offerta de liberation sub le condition de cessation del predication. "Si hodie io esseva foras del prision, io predicarea le Evangelio deman, con le adjuta de Deo", ille diceva al judice. Con se in prision ille portava su Biblia e un copia de "Le Libro del Martyres de Foxe". Pro ille le Scripturas in prision deveniva vivente. "Io nunquam como nunc in tote mi vita habeva un tal introspection in le Parola de Deo", ille assereva, "passages del Scriptura in le quales io non videva alco usque nunc, ora in iste placia brilla super me. Mesmo Jesus Christo nunc es pro me plus real e apparente que unquam antea. Hic io sin dubita le videva e sentiva". In prision ille deveniva virtualmente le cappellano de altere predicatores e companiones christian le quales alsi habeva essite incarcerate. Ibi ille mesmo produceva dentella, le qual ille vendeva pro provider nutrimento pro su familia. Alcun del sermones que ille predicava in prision probabilemente deveniva le base pro libros que esseva publicate durante iste tempore. Le plus cognite de iste libros esseva: "Gratia que abunda pro le chef del peccatores". In ille 12 annos, de 1660 a su liberation in 1672, ille scribeva cinque libros e multe tractatos controversial e doctrinal, le quales le rendeva famose inter christianos anglese. Bunyan esseva liberate durante un relaxamento del oppression religiose in 1672. Plure menses ante su disincarceration, le ecclesia de Bedford le appellava a devenir su pastor. Integre turbas se congregava pro audir le ex-prisionero le qual esseva considerate como "Episcopo Bunyan" in le tote region. Multe ecclesias, mesmo in London, requireva ardorosemente le caldierero-predicator. Le climate politic e religiose de Anglaterra cambiava tamen rapidemente ancora in 1675. Bunyan esseva de novo imprisionate per sex menses, e il esseva durante iste imprisionamento que ille scribeva "Le Pelegrinage de Christiano". Le expression de apertura de iste classico religiose revela su placia de origine: "Durante que io ambulava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava [le prision de Bedford]. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio". Le libro, que describe vividemente le viage de pelegrino ab le Citate de Destruction al Citate del Celo, ha essite acclamate como un potente, introspective reporto de conviction de peccato, conversion, lucta spiritual, proba, crescentia e retorno al casa del Celo. Alcun christianos de su tempore habeva consiliate a Bunyan non publicar le libro, proque illo es un allegoria e non directe theologia! Multitudines desde tunc, tamen, ha essite grate que Bunyan habeva ignorate iste criticos. Quando Bunyan esseva disincarcerate de su secunde imprisionamento, ille retornava a su congregation e placia de commando. In 1678 ille completava e publicava "Le Pelegrinage de Christiano". Le libro esseva instantaneemente un best-seller. In le prime anno esseva publicate tres editiones. Desde tunc illo ha essite republicate in decenas de linguas e illo ha grandemente influite sur multitudines. Le ultime 10 annos del vita de Bunyan, a sequer le publication de su opera prime, ille passava in incessante labor pro Christo. Bunyan esseva estimate como un potente predicator, e turbas conveniva a audir le. Un vice le rege Carolo 2e demandava al erudito John Owen como poteva ille vader audir un simplice caldierero-predicator. Owen, le qual habeva essite vice-cancellero del universitate de Oxford promptemente respondeva que ille haberea de bon voluntate excambiate su sapientia con le poter de ille caldierero de tanger le cordes human. In ille annos plus que 30 libros flueva de su penna. Includite in illo esseva etiam le secunde parte del "Pelegrinage de Christiano", le qual describe le fugita del sposa de Christiano, i.e. Christina, e de lor infantes del Destruction. "Le Guerra Sancte", publicate in 1682, esseva alsi un allegoria, un description potente del vita christian contate in terminos militar. In le estate de 1688 Bunyan esseva invitate a predicar in London. Ante quitar Bedford, tamen, ille esseva avicinate per un juvene homine, le qual habeva essite repudiate per su patre. Ille habeva exhortate le predicator de intervenir in su favor con su patre. In profitar del occasion, Bunyan ha exportate le Evangelio a iste juvene homine e ergo ille le accompaniava al domo de su patre ubi le patre se reconciliava con su filio. Alora, in un forte tempesta, Bunyan se preparava a attinger London pro su appunctamento. Iste exposition e effortio le debilitava. Quanquam ille predicava durante le servicio divin, ille obviemente esseva malade. Multe dies sequeva in le quales ille luctava contra pneumonia, e durante ille dies ille experiva pro se mesme le retorno a casa que ille habeva descripte pro Christiano e su companion, Sperantiose: "Alora veniva pro incontrar les plure Trompetteros del Rege, con vestes blanc, le quales, con sonos forte e melodiose, faceva echoar mesmo le celo con lor sonos. Iste trompetteros salutava Christiano e su companion con dece milles Benvenitas ab le mundo, e isto illes faceva con critos e con le sono del trompas". NOTAS (1) De "The Life of John Bunyan", paperback edition, 1977, Baker Book House, Gran Rapids, Michigan. (2) De "Encyclopedia Britannica", Vol. 4, 1966, Chicago, Illinois. (3) De "John Bunyan: His Life, Time and Work", by John Brown, The Hulbert Publishig Company, London, England, 1928. (4) De "John Bunyan", by Gwylim O.Griffith, Doubleday Company, New York, 1928. (5) De "They Found the Secret", by W. Raymond Edman, 1960, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. (6) Cf. "John Bunyan" by Gwylim O. Griffith, Doubleday Company Inc., New York, 1928. (7) De "The Pilgrim's Progress From This World to That Which is to Come", by John Bunyan, The Banner of Truth Thrust, Edimbourgh, Scotland, and Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Tabula del contento 1. [[Conviction de peccato]] 2. [[Christiano e Evangelista]] 3. [[Obstinato e Plicabile]] 4. [[Le Palude del Discoragiamento]] 5. [[Adjuta]] 6. [[Sr. [[Sapientia mundan]] 7. [[Christiano e le deception del Alte Colle]] 8. [[Le Porta Stricte]] 9. [[Bon Voluntate]] 10. [[Le casa del Interprete]] 11. [[Le Cruce que salva]] 12. [[Tres homines dormiente]] 13. [[Formalista e Hypocrisia]] 14. [[Le tres stratas]] 15. [[Un agradabile refugio]] 16. [[Diffidentia e Timorose]] 17. [[Le Casa Belle]] 18. [[Le Conversation con le tres juvene feminas]] 19. [[Le Cena in le Casa Belle]] 20. [[Le documentos del Casa Belle]] 21. [[Multe altere meravilias a vider]] 22. [[Christiano se prepara a partir]] 23. [[Christiano affronta Apollyon]] 24. [[Le Vallea del Umbra del Morte]] 25. [[Fidel]] 26. [[Incontro con Loquace]] 27. [[Nove incontro con Evangelista e su premonition]] 28. [[Le Feria del Vanitate]] 29. [[Le processo contra Fidel]] 30. [[Sperante]] 31. [[Incontro con Interessose]] 32. [[Discurso in re un religion commode]] 33. [[Le colle del lucro]] 34. [[Un estranie monumento]] 35. [[Le agradabile riviera]] 36. [[Le periculose via plus confortabile]] 37. [[Le castello del dubita]] 38. [[Le Montes Delectabile]] 39. [[Le Montania del Error]] 40. [[Le Monte Prudentia]] 41. [[Un porta del inferno]] 42. [[Le telescopio]] 43. [[Ignorantia]] 44. [[Aversion, le apostata]] 45. [[Parvefide]] 46. [[Le adulator]] 47. [[Atheista]] 48. [[Le terreno incantate]] 49. [[Nove incontro con Ignorantia]] 50. [[Discurso super le timor de Deo]] 51. [[Temporario]] 52. [[Le pais de Beulah]] 53. [[Le Fluvio del Morte]] 54. [[Le ultime viage]] 55. [[Le ingresso in le Celo]] </p><p></p></td></tr>]] </table>]] 923 10 2005-04-07T16:57:50Z Josu Lavin 2 ===RIKKI-TIKKI-TAVI=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> ENGLISH TEXT </p><p></p></td><td><p> Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (Ex “Le Libros del Jungla” per Rudyard Kipling – traducite per Paul LeCorde) Al cavo ubi ille entrava Oculo Rubie a Pelle Rugose vocava. Audi lo que parve Oculo Rubie dice: "Nag, veni e dansa con le morte!" Capite a capite e oculo a oculo, (Tene le mesura, Nag.) Isto se finira con le morte de uno; (A tu placer, Nag.) Torno pro torno e torto pro torto– (Curre e cela te, Nag.) Ha! Le Morte incappuciate non ha colpava! (Fato te attende, Nag!) Isto es le historia del grande guerra que Rikki-tikki-tavi luctava solo, per le cameras de banio del grande bungalow in canton Segauli. Darzi, le orthotomo, le adjutava, e Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, qui nunquam entra le centro del pavimento, ma sempre repe per le muro, le dava consilio, ma Rikki-tikki se mesme faceva le ver lucta. Ille esseva un mangusta, un poco como un parve catto in su pelle e su cauda, ma bastante como un mustela in su capite e su comportamento. Su oculos e le fin de su naso impatiente esseva rosate. Ille poteva grattar se ubicunque ille voleva con qualcunque pede, anterior o posterior, que ille seligeva usar. Ille poteva facer que su cauda sembleva un brossa pro bottilias, e su crito de guerra quando ille curreva per le herbas longe esseva: "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" Un die, un diluvio alte de estate le lavava ex le coniliera ubi ille habitava con su patre e matre, e le portava, colpante le pedes e critante, per un fossato al bordo del cammino. Ille trovava un pecietta de herbas flottante la, e se adhereva a illo usque ille perdeva su sensos. Quando ille se resuscitava, ille cubava in le calor del sol in le medio de un semita per un jardin, multissimo disordinate, e un pueretto diceva, "Ecce un mangusta morte. Vamos ha le funerales." "No," diceva su matre, "vamos portar le al casa e essugar le. Forsan ille non es vermente morte." Illes le prendeva in le casa, e un grande homine le prendeva inter le digito e pollice e diceva que ille non esseva morte ma quasi suffocate. Dunque illes le inveloppava con watta , e le calefaceva supra un parve foco, e ille aperiva su oculos e sternutava. "Ora," diceva le grande homine (ille esseva un Anglese qui habeva movite se al bungalow recentemente, "non terrer le, e nos va vider lo que ille facera." Es le cosa le plus difficile del mundo terrer un mangusta, proque le curiositate le consume de naso a cauda. Le motto de tote le familia mangusta es "Currer e discoperir," e Rikki-tikki esseva un ver mangusta. Ille examinava le watta, decideva que illo non esseva bon pro mangiar, curreva circa le superficie del tabula, se sedeva e poneva in ordine le pelle, se grattava, e saltava super le humero del pueretto. "Non ha timor, Teddy," diceva su patre. "Illo es su maniera de amicar se." "AY! Ille me titilla le mento," diceva Teddy. Rikki-tikki reguardava inter le collo del pueretto e le camisa de ille, aspirava a su aure, e descendeva al pavimento, ubi ille se sedeva fricante le naso. "Bon gratias," diceva le matre de Teddy, "e illo es un creatura salvage! Io suppone que ille es tanto mansuete proque nos ha essite benevole a ille." "Tote mangustas es similar," diceva su sposo. "Si Teddy non le prende per le cauda, o essaya poner le in un cavia, ille currera in e ex le casa tote le die. Vamos dar le alique pro mangiar." Illes le dava un pecietta de carne crude. Illo placeva Rikki-tikki multissimo, e quando ille lo ha finite ille vadeva in le veranda e se sedeva in le lumine de sol e brossava su pelle pro sicar le radices. Pois ille se sentiva melior. "Il ha plus cosas pro discoperir in iste casa," ille diceva a se mesme, "que tote mi familia pote discoperir in tote lor vitas. Io certemente remanera e discoperira." Ille passava tote ille die explorante le casa. Ille quasi se neca in le alveos, poneva su naso in le tinta in le scriptorio, e lo ardeva al puncto del cigarro del grande homine, proque ille montava le gremio del grande homine pro reguardar le processo de scriber. A crepusculo ille curreva in le camera de Teddy pro reguardar le processo de accender le lampas de kerosen, e quando Teddy vadeva a lecto anque Rikki-tikki montava le lecto. Ma ille esseva un companion inquiete, proque ille debeva levar se e attender a tote ruito durante tote le nocte, e discoperir lo que faceva le ruito. Le matre e patre de Teddy entrava, ante de addormir se, pro reguardar lor puero, e Rikki-tikki esseva vigile super le cossino de capite. "Illo non me place," diceva le matre de Teddy. "Ille poterea morder le infante." "Ille non facera illo," diceva le patre. "Teddy es plus secur con ille bestietta que si ille haberea un can de Saint-Hubert pro vigilar super ille. Si un serpente entrarea le camera actualmente–" Ma le matre de Teddy non pensarea de un cosa tanto mal. In le matino, de bon hora, Rikki-tikki veniva a jentaculo in le veranda viagiante super le humero de Teddy, e illes le dava un banana e un poco de ovo bullite. Ille se sedeva in cata de lor gremios un post le altere, proque tote mangusta ben educate sempre spera esser un mangusta domestic un die e ha cameras in le qual ille pote currer; e le matre de Rikki-tikki (illa habitava in le casa del general a Segauli) habeva dicite attentivemente a Rikki lo que ille debe facer si unquam ille incontrarea homines blanc. Pois Rikki-tikki vadeva al jardin pro vider lo que esseva la. Illo esseva un grande jardin, con solmente un medio cultivate e con arbustos, tanto grande como casas de estate, de rosas a Marshal Niel, tilias e orangieros, gruppos de bambus, e boscage de herbas alte. Rikki-tikki leccave le labios. "Isto es un terreno de chassa splendide," ille diceva, e al pensata de illo su cauda deveniva como un brossa pro bottilias, e ille curreva per le jardin, aspirante ci e la usque ille audiva voces triste in un spino. Esseva Darzi, le orthotomo, e su sposa. Illes ha facite un belle nido per traher insimul duo grande folios e suer lor bordos con fibras, e habeva plenate le interior con coton e lanugine. Le nido oscillava, durante que illes se sedeva super le bordo e plorava. "Que es le problema?" demandava Rikki-tikki. "Nos es miserabilissime," diceva Darzi. "Un de nostre babies cadeva del nido heri e Nag le mangiava." "Hmm!" diceva Rikki-tikki, "illo es tristissime–ma io es un estraniero ci. Qui es Nag?" Darzi e su sposa solmente quattava tremulante in le nido sin responder, proque ex le herbas dense al basso del arbusto veniva un sibilo basse –un sono horribile que causava Rikki-tikki saltar vermente duo pedes. Pois uncia per uncia ex le herbas se leva le capite e cappucio displicate de Nag, le grande cobra nigre, e ille habeva cinque pedes de longor de lingua a cauda. Quando ille habeva levate un tertia de se mesme completemente del terra, ille restava balanciante justo como un tuffo de dentes de leon se balancia in le vento, e ille reguardava Rikki-tikki con le oculos mal serpentin que nunquam cambia lor expression, sin reguardo a lo que le serpente pense. "Qui es Nag?" diceva ille. "Io es Nag. Le grande Deo Brahm poneva su marca super toto de nostre gente, quando le prime cobra displicava su cappucio pro umbrar Brahm del sol durante que ille dormiva. Reguarda, e ha timor!" Ille displicava su cappucio mesmo plus, e Rikki-tikki videva le marca de oculares super le posterior del cappucio que sembla exactemente le parte ocular de un serratura a croc e oculo. Ille habeva timor pro le minuta, ma es impossibile pro un mangusta remaner territe pro un quantitate de tempore, e ben que Rikki-tikki nunquam habeva incontrate un cobra vive antea, su matre le ha date cobras morte pro mangiar, e ille sapeva que tote le affaires de vita de un mangusta adulte deberea esser luctar e mangiar serpentes. Anque Nag sapeva illo e, al basso de su corde frigide, ille habeva timor. "Ben," diceva Rikki-tikki, e su cauda comencia inflar se de novo, "marcas o nulle marcas, pensa tu que es correcte mangiar avettos ex un nido?" Nag pensava a se mesme, e reguardava le movimente parvissime in le hebras detra Rikki-tikki. Ille sapeva que mangustas in le jardin significarea morte pro ille es su familia eventualmente, ma ille voleva causar que Rikki-tikki reduce su guarda. Dunque ille abassava su capite un poco, e lo poneva super un latere. "Vamos parlar," ille diceva. "Tu mangia ovos. Proque deberea io non mangia aves?" "Detra te! Reguarda detra te!" cantava Darzi. Rikki-tikki esseva troppo intelligente a perder tempore in reguardar fixemente. Ille saltava in le aere tanto alte como ille poteva, e justo sub ille passava sibilante le capite de Nagaina, le sposa impie de Nag. Illa ha repite detra ille durante que ille parlava, pro finir le. Ille audiva su sibilo feroce durante le culpo mancava. Ille atterrava quasi trans le dorso de illa, e si ille habeva essite un mangusta vetule ille haberea sapite que alora esseva le tempore a rumper le dorso de illa con un morsura; ma ille habeva timor del colpo de retorno flagellante terribile del cobra. Ille mordeva, vermente, ma non mordeva bastante longemente, e ille saltava del cauda battiente, lassante Nagaina lacerate e irate. "Impie, impie Darzi!" diceva Nag, flagellante tanto alte como ille poteva attinger verso le nido in le spino. Ma Darzi lo ha construite ex le extension de serpentes, e illo oscillava. Rikki-tikki sentiva que su oculos deveniva rubie e calide (quando le oculos de un mangusta deveniva rubie, ille es irate), e ille se sedeva super su cauda e gambas posterior como un parve kanguru, e reguardava circa se mesme, e garrulava con rabia. Ma Nag e Nagaina habeva disparite a in le herbas. Quando un serpente manca su colpo, illo nunquam dice alique o da un indication de lo que illo intende de facer proximo. Rikki-tikki non desirava a sequer los, pro que ille non se sentiva secur que ille poteva arrangiar duo serpentes a un vice. Dunque ille trottava per semita de gravellas presso del casa, e se sedeva pro pensar. Illo esseva un cosa seriose pro ille. Si on ha legite le libros vetule de historia natural, on trova que illos dice que quando le mangusta lucta le serpente e per fortuna recipe un morsura, ille currera e mangiara alicun herbas le qual le sana. Illo non es ver. Le victoria es mermente un question de rapiditate de oculo e rapiditate de pede – colpo del serpente contra le salto del mangusta – e como nulle oculo pote sequer le motion del capite de un serpente quando illo colpa, isto face que le cosas es multo plus meraviliose que ulle herbas magic. Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille esseva un mangusta juvene, e illo le faceva mesmo plus felice a pensar que ille habeva capace de escappar un colpo del posterior. Illo le dava le confidentia in se mesme, e quando Teddy veniva currente per le semita, Rikki-tikki esseva preste de reciper caressas. Ma al mesme tempore que Teddy se inclinava, alique serpeva un poco in le sablo, e un voce miniscule diceva: "Presta attention. Io es Morte!" Illo esseva Karait, le serpentetta de color de sablo qui cuba per selection in le terra sablose; e su morsura es tanto periculose como illo del cobra. Ma ille es tanto parve que necuno pensa de ille, e dunque ille face mesme plus damno a gente. Le oculos de Rikki-tikki deveniva rubie de novo, e ille dansava a Karait con le oscillation peculiar que ille habeva heritate de su familia. Illo pare multo comic, ma illo es un passo balanciate tanto perfectemente que on pote partir illo a qualcunque angula que se place, e in arrangiar le serpentes isto es un avantage. Si solmente Rikki-tikki habeva sapite, ille faceva un cosa multo plus periculose que luctar Nag, proque Karait es tanto parve, e pote virar tanto rapidemente, que si Rikki non le mordeva presso del posterior del capite, ille reciperea le colpo de retorno in su oculo o su labio. Ma Rikki non lo sapeva. Su oculos esseva completemente rubie, e ille oscillava, cercante un bon loco pro tener. Karait colpava. Rikki saltava lateralmente e tentava currer verso ille, ma le impie parve capite del color de sablo flagellava intra un fraction de su humero, e ille debeva saltar supra le corpore, e le capite sequeva su calces proximemente. Teddy vocava al casa: "O, reguarda ci! Nostre mangusta occide un serpente." E Rikki-tikki audiva un crito del matre de Teddy. Su patre curreva del casa con un baston, ma al tempore que ille arrivava, Karait habeva colpate troppo longe un vice, e Rikki-tikki habeva saltate super le dorso del serpente, lassate cader su capite inter su antegambas, mordite tanto alte al dorso como ille pote caper, e rolate foras. Ille morsura paralysava Karait, e Rikki-tikki sta preste de mangiar le comenciante al cauda, secundo le costume de su familia a cena, quando ille se memorava que un repasto complete face que un mangusta deveni lente, e si ille desirava a haber preste toto de su fortia e rapiditate, ille debe remaner malgre. Ille partiva pro un banio de sablo sub le arbustos a oleo de ricino, durante que le patre de Teddy batteva le ja morte Karait. "Que es le uso de illo?" pensava Rikki-tikki. "Io finiva tote illo;" e pois le matre de Teddy le prendeva ex le sablo e le imbraciava, critante que ille ha salvate Teddy de morte, e le patre de Teddy diceva que ille esseva un providentia, e Teddy spectava con grande oculos espaventate. Tote le commotion, le qual, naturalmente, ille non comprendeva, amusava Rikki-tikki bastante ben. Serea equalmente bon a Rikki-Tikki si le matre de Teddy habeva caressate Teddy pro jocar in le sablo. Rikki se amusava completemente. Ille nocte al cena, vadente inter le vitros a vino super le tabula, ille haberea potite stipar se e tres vices de novo con cosas deliciose. Ma ille se memorava Nag e Nagaina, e ben que il esseva multo placente reciper colpos legier e caressas del matre de Teddy, e seder se super le humero de Teddy, su oculos deveniva rubie de vice a vice, e ille vaderea e comenciarea su longe crito de guerra de "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" Teddy le portava al lecto, e insisteva que Rikki-tikki dormi sub su mento. Rikki-tikki esseva troppo ben educate pro morder o rader, ma quando Teddy addormiva ille partiva pro su promenada nocturne circa le casa, e in le obscuritate ille incontrava Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, repente per le muro. Chuchundra es un bestietta desolate. Ille geme e pipa durante le tote nocte, essayante trovar le coragia de currer al centro del camera ma ille nunquam lo trova. "Non occide me," diceva Chuchundra, quasi plorante. "Rikki-tikki, non occide me!" "Pensa tu que un assassino de serpentes occide rattos muscate?" diceva Rikki-tikki disdignosemente. "Serpentes occide illes que occide serpentes," diceva Chuchundra, plus tristemente que unquam. "E como pote io esser certe que Nag non va confunder me pro te un nocte obscur?" "Il non ha le periculo minime," diceva Rikki-tikki. "Ma Nag es in le jardin, e io sape que tu non va la." "Mi cosino Chua, le ratto, me diceva–" diceva Chuchundra, e pois ille cessava. "Ille diceva te que?" "Tchh! Nag es ubique, Rikki-tikki. Tu habeva debite parlar a Chua in le jardin." "Io non parlava a ille – dunque tu debe dicer me. Rapidemente, Chuchundra, o io te mordera!" Chuchundra se sedeva e plorava usque le lacrimas rolava de su mustachios. "Io es un homine multo paupere," ille singultava. "Io nunquam habeva bastante spirito pro currer al centro del camera. Tchh! Io non debe dice te alique. Pote tu non audir, Rikki-tikki?" Rikki-tikki auscultava. Le casa esseva tanto silentiose como silentio se mesme, ma ille pensava que ille poteva audir le grattamento le plus debile in le mundo–un sono tanto debile como illo de un vespa iente a pede super un fenestra– le grattamento sic del squamas de un serpente super briccas. "Illo es Nag o Nagaina," ille diceva a se mesme, "e ille repe a in le camera de banio. Tu ha ration, Chuchundra; io habeva debite parlar a Chua." Ille sortiva furtivemente al camera de banio de Teddy, ma il habeva nil la, e pois al camera de banio del matre de Teddy. Al basso del muro de gypso lisie il habeva un bricca tirate pro crear un esclusa pro le aqua de banio, e durante que Rikki-tikki vadeva secretemente per le bordo de bricca ubi le banio se situa, ille audiva Nag e Nagaina susurrante le un al altere al exterior in le lumine del luna. "Quando le casa es disoccupate," diceva Nagaina a su sposo, "ille debera partir, e pois le jardin sera le nostre de novo. Entra quietemente, e memora te que le grande homine qui occideva Karait es le prime que nos mordera. Pois exi e dice me, e nos chassara Rikki-tikki insimul." "Ma es tu secur que nos ganiara alique de occider le gente?" diceva Nag. "Toto. Quando il habeva nulle gente in le bungalow, habera nos un mangusta in le jardin? Si longe que le bungalow es disoccupate, nos es rege e regina del jardin; e memora te que quando nostre ovos in le parterre de melones cova (e forsan sera deman), nostre infante necessitara spatio e silentio." "Io non habeva pensate de illo," diceva Nag. "Io vadera, ma il ha nulle besonio que nos chassarea for Rikki-tikki postea. Io occidera le grande homine e su sposa, e le puero si io pote, e sortira quietemente. Pois le bungalow sera disoccupate, e Rikki-tikki partira." Tote le corpore de Rikki-tikki vibrava con le rabie e odio a audir illo, e pois le capite de Nag veniva per le esclusa, e su frigide corpore de cinque pedes de longor lo sequeva. Tanto irate como ille esseva, Rikki-tikki habeva multo timor quando ille videva le grandor del cobra grande. Nag se inrolava, levava su capite, e reguardava le interior del camera de banio in le obscuritate, e Rikki poteva vider su oculos reluce. "Ora, si io le occide ci, Nagaina sapera; e si io le lucta in le pavimento libere, le avantage es le sue. Que debe io facer?” diceva Rikki-tikki-tavi. Nag oscillava ci e la, e pois Rikki-tikki le audiva bibente ex le jarra a aqua le plus grande le qual on usava pro plenar le banio. "Illo es bon," diceva le serpente. "Ora, quando ille occideva Karait, le grande homine habeva un baston. Forsan ille ancora habera ille baston, ma quando ille entra le banio pro baniar se in le matino ille non habera un baston. Io attendera ci usque ille veni. Nagaina – audi me tu? – Io attendera ci in le frescor usque le alba." Il habeva nulle responsa del exterior, dunque Rikki-tikki sapeva Nagaina habeva partite. Nag se serpentava, spira post spira, circa le protuberantia al basso del jarro a aqua, e Rikki-tikki restava tanto immobile como morte. Post un hora ille comenciava mover, musculo post musculo, verso le jarro. Nag dormiva, e Rikki-tikki reguardava su dorso grande, demandante a se mesme qual loco providerea le prisa le melior. "Si io non rumpe su dorso al prime salto," diceva Rikki, "ille ancora potera luctar. E si ille lucta – O Rikki!" Ille reguardava le spissor del collo sub le cappucio , ma illo esseva troppo pro ille; e morder presso del cauda solmente causa Nag a esser furiose. "Il debe esser le capite"' ille diceva al fin; "le capite supra le cappucio. E, quando io es la, io non debe disingagiar.” Pois ille saltava. Le capite cubava un poco distante del jarro a aqua, sub le curva de illo; e, quando su dentes se reuniva, Rikki reinfortiava su dorso contra le protuberantia del jarro de ceramo rubie pro retener le capite. Isto le dava solmente un seconda additional, e ille prendeva le avantage de illo. Pois le serpente le jectava ci e la como un can succuterea un ratto – ci e la super le pavimento, in alto e in basso, e in grande circulos, ma su oculos esseva rubie e ille teneva firmemente durante que le corpore flagellava super le pavimento, invertante le coclear grande e le platto a sapon e le brossa de banio, e percuteva le lateral de stanno del banio. Durante que ille teneva, ille claudeva su mandibulas plus e plus fortemente, pro que ille voleva assecurar que si ille mori del colpos, e, pro le honor de su familia, ille preferreva que on le trova con su dentes serrate. Ille esseva vertiginose, con dolor, e se sentiva succutite a pecias quando alique explodeva como tunitro juste detra ille. Un vento calide le rendeva insensibile e foco rubie adureva su pelle. Le ruito ha eveliate le grande homine, e ille habeva discargate ambe calces de un fusil de chassa in Nag solmente un poco post le cappucio. Rikki-tikki teneva firmemente con le oculos claudite, proque actualmente ille esseva certe que ille esseva morte. Mal capite non moveva, e le grande homine le prendeva e diceva, "Es le mangusta de novo, Alice. Ora, le parve typo ha salvate nostre vitas." Pois le matre de Teddy entrava con un facie multo blanc, e videva lo que remane de Nag, e Rikki-tikki se traheva al camera de Teddy e passava un medietate del resto del nocte teneremente tremente pro discoperir si ille vermente esseva rumpite in quaranta pecias, como ille credeva. Quando le alba veniva ille esseva multo rigide, ma ben contente con su gestas. "Proximo, io debera arrangiar le cosas con Nagaina, e illa sera pejor que cinque Nages, e il ha nulle via a saper quando le ovos del qual illa parlava covara. Bonitate! Io debe vader e visitar Darzi," ille diceva. Sin attender le jentaculo, Rikki-tikki curreva al spino ubi Darzi cantava un canto de triumpho in su voce le plus alte. Le novas del morte de Nag ha diffundite se per tote le jardin, proque le scopator habeva jectate le corpore super le cumulo de immunditias. "O, tu tuffo de plumas stupide!" diceva Rikki-tikki iratemente. "Es isto le tempore pro cantar?" "Nag es morte–es morte–es morte!" cantava Darzi. "Rikki-tikki le valente le prendeva per le capite e teneva firmement. Le grande homine apportava le baston explosive, e Nag cadeva in duo pecias! Ille nunquam mangiara mi babies de novo." "Toto de illo es bastante ver. Ma ubi es Nagaina?" diceva Rikki-tikki, reguardante attentivemente circa se mesme. "Nagaina veniva al camera de banio e vocava Nag," Darzi continuava, "e Nag veniva de illo super le fin de un baston – le scopator le prendeva per le fin de un baston e le jectava super le cumulo de immunditias. Vamos cantar de Rikki-Tikki, le Magne con rubie oculos!" E Darzi plenava su gorga e cantava. "Si io poterea ascender a tu nido, io rolarea tu babies ex illo!" diceva Rikki-tikki. "Tu non sape quando facer le cosa correcte al tempore correcte. Tu es bastante secur la in tu nido, ma ci pro me es le guerra. Cessa le cantar pro un minuta, Darzi." "Pro le gratias de Rikki-Tikki le Magne e Belle io cessara," diceva Darzi. "Que es illo, O assassino de Nag le terribile?" "Ubi es Nagaina, pro le tertie vice?" "Super le cumulo de immunditias presso del stabulos, affligente se pro Nag. Magne es Rikki-tikki con le dentes blanc." "Oblida mi dentes blanc! Ha tu unquam audite ubi ille cela su ovos?" "In le parterre de melones, in le parte le plus proxime al muro, ubi le lumine del sol lo illumina quasi tote le die. Illa los celava la ante multo septimanas." "E tu nunquam pensava que serea utile dicer me? Le parte le plus proxime al muro, tu diceva?" "Rikki-tikki, tu non va mangiar su ovos?" "No; non exactemente mangiar. Darzi, si tu ha un grano de senso tu volara al stabulos e fingera que tu ala es rupte, e lassa que Nagaina te chassa a iste arbusto. Io debe vader al parterre de melones, e si io vadeva la ora illa me viderea.” Darzi esseva un typo con le cerebro de plumas qui nunquam poteva tener plus que un idea a vice in su capite. E solmente proque ille sapeva que le infantes de Nagaina nasceva in ovos tal como su proprie, ille non pensava primo que esseva juste occider los. Ma su sposa esseva un ave practic, e illa sapeva que le ovos de cobra significava juvene cobras plus tarde. Assi illa volava del nido, e lassava Darzi vigilante le babies, e continuante su canto del morte de Nag. Darzi esseva bastante similar a un homine in alicun vias. Illa papilionava avante Nagaina presso del cumulo de immunditias e critava, "O, mi ala es rupte! Le puero in le casa jectava un petra a me e lo rupmeva." Pois illa papilionava plus desperatemente que antea. Nagaina levava su capite e sibilava, "Tu preveniva Rikki-tikki quando io poteva occider le. Vermente, tu ha selegite un mal loco in le qual esser claude." E illa movava verso le sposa de Darzi, glissante per le sablo. "Le puero lo rumpeva con un petra!" critava le sposa de Darzi. "Ben! Forsan illo sera un poco de consolation a te que post que tu es morte io va saldar contos con le puero. Mi sposo cuba super le cumulo de immunditias iste matino, ma ante le nocte le puero in le casa va cubar multissime immobile. Que es le uso de currer foras? Certemente io va attrappar te. Parve imbecille, reguarda me!" Le sposa de Darzi sapeva melio que facer illo, pro un ave qui reguarda le oculos de un serpente deveni tanto territe que illo non pote mover. Le sposa de Darzi continuava papilionar, pipar tristemente, e nunquam sortir le terra, e Nagaina reavivava su velocitate. Rikki-tikki audiva que illas vadeva per le semita del stabulos, e ille hastava pro le parte del parterre de melones le plus proxime al muro. La, in le calide ventrata super le melones, celate multo astutemente, ille trova vinti-cinque ovos, circa le grandor del ovos de un bantam, ma con pelle blanc in loco de scalias. "Io esseva non un die troppo tosto," ille diceva, proque ille poteva vider le cobrettas buclate al interior del pelle del ovo, e ille sapeva que le minuta que illes se covava illes poterea occider un homine o un mangusta. Ille mordeva le culmines del ovos tanto rapidemente como ille poteva, prestante attention a applattar le cobrettas, e invertente le portata de vice in vice pro vider si ille habeva omittite alicunos. Al fin il habeva solmente tres ovos remanente, e Rikki-tikki comenciava rider dulcemente a se mesme, quando ille audiva le critos del sposa de Darzi: "Rikki-tikki, io duceva Nagaina verso le casa, e illa ha vadite in le veranda, e – o, veni rapidemente – illa intende occider!" Rikki-tikki fraccassava duo ovos, e se rolava per le parterre de melones con le tertie ovo in su bucca, e curreva al veranda tanto rapidemente como ille pote poner le pede al terra. Teddy e su matre e patre esseva la a un jentaculo de bon hora, ma Rikki-tikki videva que illes non mangiava alique. Illes se sedeva immobilissime, e lor facies esseva blanc. Nagaina esseva inrolate super le mattas presso del sede de Teddy, intra un distantia de colpar facile del gamba nude de Teddy, e illa oscillava, cantante un canto de triumpho. "Filio del grande homine que occideva Nag," illa sibilava, "resta immobile. Io non jam es preste. Attende un poco. Tene te immobilissime, tote tres de vos! Si vos io colpara, e si vos non move io colpara. O, gente imprudente, qui occideva mi Nag!" Le oculos de Teddy esseva fixate super su patre, e tote lo que su patre poteva facer esseva susurrar, "Sede te immobile, Teddy. Tu non debe mover te. Teddy, sia immobile." Pois Rikki-tikki veniva e critava, "Torna te, Nagaina. Torna te e lucta!" "Toto in su tempore," illa diceva, sin mover su oculos. "Io va saldar contos con te tosto. Reguarda tu amicos, Rikki-tikki. Illes es immobile e blanc. Ille ha timor. Illes non osa mover se, e si tu veni un passo plus proxime io va colpar." "Reguarda tu ovos," diceva Rikki-tikki, "in le parterre de melones presso del muro. Va e reguarda, Nagaina!" Le grande serpente se tornava mediemente, e videva le ovo super le veranda. "Ah-h! Da lo a me," illa diceva. Rikki-tikki poneva su patas un a cata latere del ovo, e su oculos esseva tanto rubie como sanguine. "Que precio pro un ovo serpentin? Pro un juvene cobra? Pro un juvene rege de cobras? Pro le ultime – le ultissime del covata? Le formicas mangia tote la alteres presso del parterre de melones." Nagaina girava completemente, oblidante toto pro le gratia de un ovo. Rikki-tikki videva le grande mano del patre de Teddy se lancea e prende Teddy per le humero, e trahe le trans le parve tabula con le cuppas de the, secur e ex le prisa Nagaina. "Dupate! Dupate! Dupate! Rikk-tck-tck!" rideva Rikki-tikki dulcemente. "Le puero es secur, e esseva io - io – io que prendeva Nag per le cappucio heri nocte in le camera de banio." Pois ille comenciava saltar, tote de su longor al mesme tempore, su capite presso del pavimento. "Ille me jectava ci e la, ma ille non poteva liberar se. Ille esseva morte ante que le grande homine le colpava in duo pecias con le arma de foco. Io lo faceva! Rikki-tikki-tck-tck! Dunque veni, Nagaina. Veni e lucta con me. Tu non sera un vidua longemente." Nagaina videva que illa ha perdite su opportunitate de occider Teddy, e le ovo cubava inter le patas de Rikki-tikki. "Da me le ovo, Rikki-tikki. Da me le ultime de mi ovos, e io vadera foras e nunquam retornara," illa diceva, abassante su cappucio. "Si, tu vadera foras, e tu nunquam retornara. Proque tu va vader al cumulo de immunditias con Nag. Lucta, vidua! Le grande homine ha vadite pro prender su arma de foco! Lucta!" Rikki-tikki saltava ci e la circa Nagaina, remanente solmente extra su colpo, su parve oculos como brasa ardente. Nagaina inrolava se mesme e se lanceava a ille. Rikki-tikki saltava. De novo e de novo e de novo illa saltava, e tote vice su capite colpava le mattas del veranda e illa inrolava como le resorto de un horologio. Pois Rikki-tikki dansava in un circulo pro poner se detra illa, e Nagaina se girava completemente pro mantener su capite avante le capite de Rikki-Tikki, assi que le susurro de su cauda super le mattas sonava como folios sic pulsate per le vento. Ille habeva oblidate le ovo. Illo resta ancora in le veranda, e Nagaina approchava plus e plus proxime a illo, usque finalmente, durante que Rikki-tikki inspirava, illa lo prendeva con su bucca, girava al scalones del veranda, e curreva rapidemente per le semita, con Rikki-tikki detra illa. Quando le cobra curre pro su vita, illa va como un flagello colpante le collo de un cavallo. Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille debe attrappar la, o tote le enoio comenciarea de novo. Illa se dirigeva pro le herbas longe presso del spino, e durante que ille curreva Rikki-tikki audiva Darzi ancora cantante su cantetto fatue de triumpho. Ma le sposa de Darzi esseva plus sage. Illa flugava ex le nido quando Nagaina passava, e batteva su alas circa le capite de Nagaina. Si Darzi habeva adjutate forsan illes habeva potite causar que illa gira, ma Nagaina simplemente abassava su cappucio e continuava. Ma, le retardo de un instante lassava que Rikki-tikki la prende, e quando Nagaina se immergeva in le foramine de rattos ubi illa e Nag habitava, le parve dentes blanc de Rikki-Tikki esseva serrate a su cauda, e ille la sequeva – e multo poco de mangustas, sin reguardo de lor etate of intelligentia, vole sequer un cobra a in su cavo. Esseva obscur in le foramine; e Rikki-tikki nunquam sapeva quando illo se expanderea e darea a Nagaina le spatio pro girar e colpar a ille. Ille teneva al cauda ferocemente, e mitteva su pedes al terra calide e humide pro functionar como frenos. Pois le agitation del herbas presso del apertura del foramine cessava, e Darzi diceva, "Illo es toto finite con Rikki-tikki! Nos debe cantar su canto de morte. Valente Rikki-tikki es morte! Proque, Nagaina certemente le occidera sub le terra." Dunque ille cantava un canto multo triste que ille improvisava al minuta, e justo quando ille arrivava al parte le plus emotionante, le herbas fremeva de novo, e Rikki-tikki, coperite con solo, se traheva ex le foramine gamba post gamba, leccante su mustachios. Darzi cessava con un parve crito. Rikki-tikki succuteva alicun del sablo de su pelle e sternutava. "Es finite," ille diceva. "Le vidua nunquam exira de novo." E le formicas rubie que habita inter le herbas le audiva, e comenciava marchar in le foramine un post le altere pro vider si ille habeva parlate le veritate. Rikki-tikki se inrolava in le herbas e dormiva ubi ille esseva – dormiva e dormiva usque tarde in le postmeridie, proque ille habeva facite un die de travalio multo dur. "Ora," ille diceva, quando ille se eveliava, "Io va retornar al casa. Dice le barbate caldieron (megalaima haemacephala), Darzi, e ille dicera le jardin que Nagaina es morte." Le barbate caldieron es un ave que face un sono exactemente como le battar de un martelletto super un olla de cupro; e le ration que sempre face le sono es proque ille es le critator public de cata jardin indian, e annuncia tote le novas a tote le mundo qui vole auscultar. Durante que Rikki-tikki ascendeva le semita, ille audiva su notas de "attention" como le parve gong de cena, e pois le constante "Din-don-tok! Nag es morte–don! Nagaina es morte! Din-don-tok!" Illo causava que tote le aves in le jardin comenciava cantar, e que le ranas comenciava coaxar, proque Nag e Nagaina mangiava avettas e ranettas tamben. Quando Rikki arrivava al casa, Teddy e su matre (illa ancora pareva multo blanc, proque illa ha suffrite syncope) e su patre veniva e quasi plorava supra ille; e ille nocte ille mangiava tote lo que on le dava usque ille non pote mangiar plus, e vadeva al lecto super le humero de Teddy, ubi le matre de Teddy le videva quando ille veniva pro un reguardo in le nocte tardive. "Ille salvava nostre vitas e le vita de Teddy," illa diceva a su sposo. "Solmente pensa, ille salvava toto de nostre vitas." Rikki-tikki se eveliava con un suprasalto, proque le mangustas ha somno legier. "O, Es vos," diceva ille. "Proque vos incommoda vos? Tote le cobras es morte. E si illes non esseva morte, io es ci." Rikki-tikki habeva un ration pro esser fer de se mesme. Ma ille non deveniva troppo fer, e ille manteneva ille jardin como un mangusta deberea mantener lo, con dente e salto e morsura, usque nunquam un cobra osava monstrar su capite al interior del muros. Le Canto de Darzi (Cantava in honor de Rikki-tikki-tavi) Cantator e sartor es io– Duplate le joios que io sape– Fer de mi rhythmo in le celo, Fer del casa que io sue– Super e sub, assi io texe mi musica–assi io texe le casa que io sue. Canta a tu avettos de novo, Matre, leva tu capite! Le Mal que nos plagava es occidite, Le Morte in le jardin resta morte. Le Terror que se celava in le rosas es impotente – jectate super le cumulo de immunditias e morte! Qui nos ha liberate, qui? Dice me su nido e su nomine. Rikki, le valente, le ver, Tikki, con oculos de flammas, Rikk-tikki-tikki, ille del dentes eboree, le caciator con oculos de flammas! Da le le Gratias del Aves, Inclinante con le plumas caudal extendite! Lauda le con le parolas del rossiniolo – No, io va laudar le. Audi! Io te cantara le laudo del Rikki con le cauda a brossa, con oculos rubie! (Ci Rikki-tikki interrumpeva, e nos perdeva le resto </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 28 2005-04-07T17:00:55Z Josu Lavin 2 ===RIKKI-TIKKI-TAVI=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" At the hole where he went in Red-Eye called to Wrinkle-Skin. Hear what little Red-Eye saith: "Nag, come up and dance with death!" Eye to eye and head to head, (Keep the measure, Nag.) This shall end when one is dead; (At thy pleasure, Nag.) Turn for turn and twist for twist– (Run and hide thee, Nag.) Hah! The hooded Death has missed! (Woe betide thee, Nag!) This is the story of the great war that Rikki-tikki-tavi fought single-handed, through the bath-rooms of the big bungalow in Segowlee cantonment. Darzee, the Tailorbird, helped him, and Chuchundra, the musk-rat, who never comes out into the middle of the floor, but always creeps round by the wall, gave him advice, but Rikki-tikki did the real fighting. He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of his restless nose were pink. He could scratch himself anywhere he pleased with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use. He could fluff up his tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled through the long grass was: "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" One day, a high summer flood washed him out of the burrow where he lived with his father and mother, and carried him, kicking and clucking, down a roadside ditch. He found a little wisp of grass floating there, and clung to it till he lost his senses. When he revived, he was lying in the hot sun on the middle of a garden path, very draggled indeed, and a small boy was saying, "Here's a dead mongoose. Let's have a funeral." "No," said his mother, "let's take him in and dry him. Perhaps he isn't really dead." They took him into the house, and a big man picked him up between his finger and thumb and said he was not dead but half choked. So they wrapped him in cotton wool, and warmed him over a little fire, and he opened his eyes and sneezed. "Now," said the big man (he was an Englishman who had just moved into the bungalow), "don't frighten him, and we'll see what he'll do." It is the hardest thing in the world to frighten a mongoose, because he is eaten up from nose to tail with curiosity. The motto of all the mongoose family is "Run and find out," and Rikki-tikki was a true mongoose. He looked at the cotton wool, decided that it was not good to eat, ran all round the table, sat up and put his fur in order, scratched himself, and jumped on the small boy's shoulder. "Don't be frightened, Teddy," said his father. "That's his way of making friends." "Ouch! He's tickling under my chin," said Teddy. Rikki-tikki looked down between the boy's collar and neck, snuffed at his ear, and climbed down to the floor, where he sat rubbing his nose. "Good gracious," said Teddy's mother, "and that's a wild creature! I suppose he's so tame because we've been kind to him." "All mongooses are like that," said her husband. "If Teddy doesn't pick him up by the tail, or try to put him in a cage, he'll run in and out of the house all day long. Let's give him something to eat." They gave him a little piece of raw meat. Rikki-tikki liked it immensely, and when it was finished he went out into the veranda and sat in the sunshine and fluffed up his fur to make it dry to the roots. Then he felt better. "There are more things to find out about in this house," he said to himself, "than all my family could find out in all their lives. I shall certainly stay and find out." He spent all that day roaming over the house. He nearly drowned himself in the bath-tubs, put his nose into the ink on a writing table, and burned it on the end of the big man's cigar, for he climbed up in the big man's lap to see how writing was done. At nightfall he ran into Teddy's nursery to watch how kerosene lamps were lighted, and when Teddy went to bed Rikki-tikki climbed up too. But he was a restless companion, because he had to get up and attend to every noise all through the night, and find out what made it. Teddy's mother and father came in, the last thing, to look at their boy, and Rikki-tikki was awake on the pillow. "I don't like that," said Teddy's mother. "He may bite the child." "He'll do no such thing," said the father. "Teddy's safer with that little beast than if he had a bloodhound to watch him. If a snake came into the nursery now–" But Teddy's mother wouldn't think of anything so awful. Early in the morning Rikki-tikki came to early breakfast in the veranda riding on Teddy's shoulder, and they gave him banana and some boiled egg. He sat on all their laps one after the other, because every well-brought-up mongoose always hopes to be a house mongoose some day and have rooms to run about in; and Rikki-tikki's mother (she used to live in the general's house at Segowlee) had carefully told Rikki what to do if ever he came across white men. Then Rikki-tikki went out into the garden to see what was to be seen. It was a large garden, only half cultivated, with bushes, as big as summer-houses, of Marshal Niel roses, lime and orange trees, clumps of bamboos, and thickets of high grass. Rikki-tikki licked his lips. "This is a splendid hunting-ground," he said, and his tail grew bottle-brushy at the thought of it, and he scuttled up and down the garden, snuffing here and there till he heard very sorrowful voices in a thorn-bush. It was Darzee, the Tailorbird, and his wife. They had made a beautiful nest by pulling two big leaves together and stitching them up the edges with fibers, and had filled the hollow with cotton and downy fluff. The nest swayed to and fro, as they sat on the rim and cried. "What is the matter?" asked Rikki-tikki. "We are very miserable," said Darzee. "One of our babies fell out of the nest yesterday and Nag ate him." "H'm!" said Rikki-tikki, "that is very sad–but I am a stranger here. Who is Nag?" Darzee and his wife only cowered down in the nest without answering, for from the thick grass at the foot of the bush there came a low hiss–a horrid cold sound that made Rikki-tikki jump back two clear feet. Then inch by inch out of the grass rose up the head and spread hood of Nag, the big black cobra, and he was five feet long from tongue to tail. When he had lifted one-third of himself clear of the ground, he stayed balancing to and fro exactly as a dandelion tuft balances in the wind, and he looked at Rikki-tikki with the wicked snake's eyes that never change their expression, whatever the snake may be thinking of. "Who is Nag?" said he. "I am Nag. The great God Brahm put his mark upon all our people, when the first cobra spread his hood to keep the sun off Brahm as he slept. Look, and be afraid!" He spread out his hood more than ever, and Rikki-tikki saw the spectacle-mark on the back of it that looks exactly like the eye part of a hook-and-eye fastening. He was afraid for the minute, but it is impossible for a mongoose to stay frightened for any length of time, and though Rikki-tikki had never met a live cobra before, his mother had fed him on dead ones, and he knew that all a grown mongoose's business in life was to fight and eat snakes. Nag knew that too and, at the bottom of his cold heart, he was afraid. "Well," said Rikki-tikki, and his tail began to fluff up again, "marks or no marks, do you think it is right for you to eat fledglings out of a nest?" Nag was thinking to himself, and watching the least little movement in the grass behind Rikki-tikki. He knew that mongooses in the garden meant death sooner or later for him and his family, but he wanted to get Rikki-tikki off his guard. So he dropped his head a little, and put it on one side. "Let us talk," he said. "You eat eggs. Why should not I eat birds?" "Behind you! Look behind you!" sang Darzee. Rikki-tikki knew better than to waste time in staring. He jumped up in the air as high as he could go, and just under him whizzed by the head of Nagaina, Nag's wicked wife. She had crept up behind him as he was talking, to make an end of him. He heard her savage hiss as the stroke missed. He came down almost across her back, and if he had been an old mongoose he would have known that then was the time to break her back with one bite; but he was afraid of the terrible lashing return stroke of the cobra. He bit, indeed, but did not bite long enough, and he jumped clear of the whisking tail, leaving Nagaina torn and angry. "Wicked, wicked Darzee!" said Nag, lashing up as high as he could reach toward the nest in the thorn-bush. But Darzee had built it out of reach of snakes, and it only swayed to and fro. Rikki-tikki felt his eyes growing red and hot (when a mongoose's eyes grow red, he is angry), and he sat back on his tail and hind legs like a little kangaroo, and looked all round him, and chattered with rage. But Nag and Nagaina had disappeared into the grass. When a snake misses its stroke, it never says anything or gives any sign of what it means to do next. Rikki-tikki did not care to follow them, for he did not feel sure that he could manage two snakes at once. So he trotted off to the gravel path near the house, and sat down to think. It was a serious matter for him. If you read the old books of natural history, you will find they say that when the mongoose fights the snake and happens to get bitten, he runs off and eats some herb that cures him. That is not true. The victory is only a matter of quickness of eye and quickness of foot–snake's blow against mongoose's jump–and as no eye can follow the motion of a snake's head when it strikes, this makes things much more wonderful than any magic herb. Rikki-tikki knew he was a young mongoose, and it made him all the more pleased to think that he had managed to escape a blow from behind. It gave him confidence in himself, and when Teddy came running down the path, Rikki-tikki was ready to be petted. But just as Teddy was stooping, something wriggled a little in the dust, and a tiny voice said: "Be careful. I am Death!" It was Karait, the dusty brown snakeling that lies for choice on the dusty earth; and his bite is as dangerous as the cobra's. But he is so small that nobody thinks of him, and so he does the more harm to people. Rikki-tikki's eyes grew red again, and he danced up to Karait with the peculiar rocking, swaying motion that he had inherited from his family. It looks very funny, but it is so perfectly balanced a gait that you can fly off from it at any angle you please, and in dealing with snakes this is an advantage. If Rikki-tikki had only known, he was doing a much more dangerous thing than fighting Nag, for Karait is so small, and can turn so quickly, that unless Rikki bit him close to the back of the head, he would get the return stroke in his eye or his lip. But Rikki did not know. His eyes were all red, and he rocked back and forth, looking for a good place to hold. Karait struck out. Rikki jumped sideways and tried to run in, but the wicked little dusty gray head lashed within a fraction of his shoulder, and he had to jump over the body, and the head followed his heels close. Teddy shouted to the house: "Oh, look here! Our mongoose is killing a snake." And Rikki-tikki heard a scream from Teddy's mother. His father ran out with a stick, but by the time he came up, Karait had lunged out once too far, and Rikki-tikki had sprung, jumped on the snake's back, dropped his head far between his forelegs, bitten as high up the back as he could get hold, and rolled away. That bite paralyzed Karait, and Rikki-tikki was just going to eat him up from the tail, after the custom of his family at dinner, when he remembered that a full meal makes a slow mongoose, and if he wanted all his strength and quickness ready, he must keep himself thin. He went away for a dust bath under the castor-oil bushes, while Teddy's father beat the dead Karait. "What is the use of that?" thought Rikki-tikki. "I have settled it all;" and then Teddy's mother picked him up from the dust and hugged him, crying that he had saved Teddy from death, and Teddy's father said that he was a providence, and Teddy looked on with big scared eyes. Rikki-tikki was rather amused at all the fuss, which, of course, he did not understand. Teddy's mother might just as well have petted Teddy for playing in the dust. Rikki was thoroughly enjoying himself. That night at dinner, walking to and fro among the wine-glasses on the table, he might have stuffed himself three times over with nice things. But he remembered Nag and Nagaina, and though it was very pleasant to be patted and petted by Teddy's mother, and to sit on Teddy's shoulder, his eyes would get red from time to time, and he would go off into his long war cry of "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" Teddy carried him off to bed, and insisted on Rikki-tikki sleeping under his chin. Rikki-tikki was too well bred to bite or scratch, but as soon as Teddy was asleep he went off for his nightly walk round the house, and in the dark he ran up against Chuchundra, the musk-rat, creeping around by the wall. Chuchundra is a broken-hearted little beast. He whimpers and cheeps all the night, trying to make up his mind to run into the middle of the room. But he never gets there. "Don't kill me," said Chuchundra, almost weeping. "Rikki-tikki, don't kill me!" "Do you think a snake-killer kills muskrats?" said Rikki-tikki scornfully. "Those who kill snakes get killed by snakes," said Chuchundra, more sorrowfully than ever. "And how am I to be sure that Nag won't mistake me for you some dark night?" "There's not the least danger," said Rikki-tikki. "But Nag is in the garden, and I know you don't go there." "My cousin Chua, the rat, told me–" said Chuchundra, and then he stopped. "Told you what?" "H'sh! Nag is everywhere, Rikki-tikki. You should have talked to Chua in the garden." "I didn't–so you must tell me. Quick, Chuchundra, or I'll bite you!" Chuchundra sat down and cried till the tears rolled off his whiskers. "I am a very poor man," he sobbed. "I never had spirit enough to run out into the middle of the room. H'sh! I mustn't tell you anything. Can't you hear, Rikki-tikki?" Rikki-tikki listened. The house was as still as still, but he thought he could just catch the faintest scratch-scratch in the world–a noise as faint as that of a wasp walking on a window-pane–the dry scratch of a snake's scales on brick-work. "That's Nag or Nagaina," he said to himself, "and he is crawling into the bath-room sluice. You're right, Chuchundra; I should have talked to Chua." He stole off to Teddy's bath-room, but there was nothing there, and then to Teddy's mother's bathroom. At the bottom of the smooth plaster wall there was a brick pulled out to make a sluice for the bath water, and as Rikki-tikki stole in by the masonry curb where the bath is put, he heard Nag and Nagaina whispering together outside in the moonlight. "When the house is emptied of people," said Nagaina to her husband, "he will have to go away, and then the garden will be our own again. Go in quietly, and remember that the big man who killed Karait is the first one to bite. Then come out and tell me, and we will hunt for Rikki-tikki together." "But are you sure that there is anything to be gained by killing the people?" said Nag. "Everything. When there were no people in the bungalow, did we have any mongoose in the garden? So long as the bungalow is empty, we are king and queen of the garden; and remember that as soon as our eggs in the melon bed hatch (as they may tomorrow), our children will need room and quiet." "I had not thought of that," said Nag. "I will go, but there is no need that we should hunt for Rikki-tikki afterward. I will kill the big man and his wife, and the child if I can, and come away quietly. Then the bungalow will be empty, and Rikki-tikki will go." Rikki-tikki tingled all over with rage and hatred at this, and then Nag's head came through the sluice, and his five feet of cold body followed it. Angry as he was, Rikki-tikki was very frightened as he saw the size of the big cobra. Nag coiled himself up, raised his head, and looked into the bathroom in the dark, and Rikki could see his eyes glitter. "Now, if I kill him here, Nagaina will know; and if I fight him on the open floor, the odds are in his favor. What am I to do?" said Rikki-tikki-tavi. Nag waved to and fro, and then Rikki-tikki heard him drinking from the biggest water-jar that was used to fill the bath. "That is good," said the snake. "Now, when Karait was killed, the big man had a stick. He may have that stick still, but when he comes in to bathe in the morning he will not have a stick. I shall wait here till he comes. Nagaina–do you hear me?–I shall wait here in the cool till daytime." There was no answer from outside, so Rikki-tikki knew Nagaina had gone away. Nag coiled himself down, coil by coil, round the bulge at the bottom of the water jar, and Rikki-tikki stayed still as death. After an hour he began to move, muscle by muscle, toward the jar. Nag was asleep, and Rikki-tikki looked at his big back, wondering which would be the best place for a good hold. "If I don't break his back at the first jump," said Rikki, "he can still fight. And if he fights–O Rikki!" He looked at the thickness of the neck below the hood, but that was too much for him; and a bite near the tail would only make Nag savage. "It must be the head"' he said at last; "the head above the hood. And, when I am once there, I must not let go." Then he jumped. The head was lying a little clear of the water jar, under the curve of it; and, as his teeth met, Rikki braced his back against the bulge of the red earthenware to hold down the head. This gave him just one second's purchase, and he made the most of it. Then he was battered to and fro as a rat is shaken by a dog–to and fro on the floor, up and down, and around in great circles, but his eyes were red and he held on as the body cart-whipped over the floor, upsetting the tin dipper and the soap dish and the flesh brush, and banged against the tin side of the bath. As he held he closed his jaws tighter and tighter, for he made sure he would be banged to death, and, for the honor of his family, he preferred to be found with his teeth locked. He was dizzy, aching, and felt shaken to pieces when something went off like a thunderclap just behind him. A hot wind knocked him senseless and red fire singed his fur. The big man had been wakened by the noise, and had fired both barrels of a shotgun into Nag just behind the hood. Rikki-tikki held on with his eyes shut, for now he was quite sure he was dead. But the head did not move, and the big man picked him up and said, "It's the mongoose again, Alice. The little chap has saved our lives now." Then Teddy's mother came in with a very white face, and saw what was left of Nag, and Rikki-tikki dragged himself to Teddy's bedroom and spent half the rest of the night shaking himself tenderly to find out whether he really was broken into forty pieces, as he fancied. When morning came he was very stiff, but well pleased with his doings. "Now I have Nagaina to settle with, and she will be worse than five Nags, and there's no knowing when the eggs she spoke of will hatch. Goodness! I must go and see Darzee," he said. Without waiting for breakfast, Rikki-tikki ran to the thornbush where Darzee was singing a song of triumph at the top of his voice. The news of Nag's death was all over the garden, for the sweeper had thrown the body on the rubbish-heap. "Oh, you stupid tuft of feathers!" said Rikki-tikki angrily. "Is this the time to sing?" "Nag is dead–is dead–is dead!" sang Darzee. "The valiant Rikki-tikki caught him by the head and held fast. The big man brought the bang-stick, and Nag fell in two pieces! He will never eat my babies again." "All that's true enough. But where's Nagaina?" said Rikki-tikki, looking carefully round him. "Nagaina came to the bathroom sluice and called for Nag," Darzee went on, "and Nag came out on the end of a stick–the sweeper picked him up on the end of a stick and threw him upon the rubbish heap. Let us sing about the great, the red-eyed Rikki-tikki!" And Darzee filled his throat and sang. "If I could get up to your nest, I'd roll your babies out!" said Rikki-tikki. "You don't know when to do the right thing at the right time. You're safe enough in your nest there, but it's war for me down here. Stop singing a minute, Darzee." "For the great, the beautiful Rikki-tikki's sake I will stop," said Darzee. "What is it, O Killer of the terrible Nag?" "Where is Nagaina, for the third time?" "On the rubbish heap by the stables, mourning for Nag. Great is Rikki-tikki with the white teeth." "Bother my white teeth! Have you ever heard where she keeps her eggs?" "In the melon bed, on the end nearest the wall, where the sun strikes nearly all day. She hid them there weeks ago." "And you never thought it worth while to tell me? The end nearest the wall, you said?" "Rikki-tikki, you are not going to eat her eggs?" "Not eat exactly; no. Darzee, if you have a grain of sense you will fly off to the stables and pretend that your wing is broken, and let Nagaina chase you away to this bush. I must get to the melon-bed, and if I went there now she'd see me." Darzee was a feather-brained little fellow who could never hold more than one idea at a time in his head. And just because he knew that Nagaina's children were born in eggs like his own, he didn't think at first that it was fair to kill them. But his wife was a sensible bird, and she knew that cobra's eggs meant young cobras later on. So she flew off from the nest, and left Darzee to keep the babies warm, and continue his song about the death of Nag. Darzee was very like a man in some ways. She fluttered in front of Nagaina by the rubbish heap and cried out, "Oh, my wing is broken! The boy in the house threw a stone at me and broke it." Then she fluttered more desperately than ever. Nagaina lifted up her head and hissed, "You warned Rikki-tikki when I would have killed him. Indeed and truly, you've chosen a bad place to be lame in." And she moved toward Darzee's wife, slipping along over the dust. "The boy broke it with a stone!" shrieked Darzee's wife. "Well! It may be some consolation to you when you're dead to know that I shall settle accounts with the boy. My husband lies on the rubbish heap this morning, but before night the boy in the house will lie very still. What is the use of running away? I am sure to catch you. Little fool, look at me!" Darzee's wife knew better than to do that, for a bird who looks at a snake's eyes gets so frightened that she cannot move. Darzee's wife fluttered on, piping sorrowfully, and never leaving the ground, and Nagaina quickened her pace. Rikki-tikki heard them going up the path from the stables, and he raced for the end of the melon patch near the wall. There, in the warm litter above the melons, very cunningly hidden, he found twenty-five eggs, about the size of a bantam's eggs, but with whitish skin instead of shell. "I was not a day too soon," he said, for he could see the baby cobras curled up inside the skin, and he knew that the minute they were hatched they could each kill a man or a mongoose. He bit off the tops of the eggs as fast as he could, taking care to crush the young cobras, and turned over the litter from time to time to see whether he had missed any. At last there were only three eggs left, and Rikki-tikki began to chuckle to himself, when he heard Darzee's wife screaming: "Rikki-tikki, I led Nagaina toward the house, and she has gone into the veranda, and–oh, come quickly–she means killing!" Rikki-tikki smashed two eggs, and tumbled backward down the melon-bed with the third egg in his mouth, and scuttled to the veranda as hard as he could put foot to the ground. Teddy and his mother and father were there at early breakfast, but Rikki-tikki saw that they were not eating anything. They sat stone-still, and their faces were white. Nagaina was coiled up on the matting by Teddy's chair, within easy striking distance of Teddy's bare leg, and she was swaying to and fro, singing a song of triumph. "Son of the big man that killed Nag," she hissed, "stay still. I am not ready yet. Wait a little. Keep very still, all you three! If you move I strike, and if you do not move I strike. Oh, foolish people, who killed my Nag!" Teddy's eyes were fixed on his father, and all his father could do was to whisper, "Sit still, Teddy. You mustn't move. Teddy, keep still." Then Rikki-tikki came up and cried, "Turn round, Nagaina. Turn and fight!" "All in good time," said she, without moving her eyes. "I will settle my account with you presently. Look at your friends, Rikki-tikki. They are still and white. They are afraid. They dare not move, and if you come a step nearer I strike." "Look at your eggs," said Rikki-tikki, "in the melon bed near the wall. Go and look, Nagaina!" The big snake turned half around, and saw the egg on the veranda. "Ah-h! Give it to me," she said. Rikki-tikki put his paws one on each side of the egg, and his eyes were blood-red. "What price for a snake's egg? For a young cobra? For a young king cobra? For the last–the very last of the brood? The ants are eating all the others down by the melon bed." Nagaina spun clear round, forgetting everything for the sake of the one egg. Rikki-tikki saw Teddy's father shoot out a big hand, catch Teddy by the shoulder, and drag him across the little table with the tea-cups, safe and out of reach of Nagaina. "Tricked! Tricked! Tricked! Rikk-tck-tck!" chuckled Rikki-tikki. "The boy is safe, and it was I–I–I that caught Nag by the hood last night in the bathroom." Then he began to jump up and down, all four feet together, his head close to the floor. "He threw me to and fro, but he could not shake me off. He was dead before the big man blew him in two. I did it! Rikki-tikki-tck-tck! Come then, Nagaina. Come and fight with me. You shall not be a widow long." Nagaina saw that she had lost her chance of killing Teddy, and the egg lay between Rikki-tikki's paws. "Give me the egg, Rikki-tikki. Give me the last of my eggs, and I will go away and never come back," she said, lowering her hood. "Yes, you will go away, and you will never come back. For you will go to the rubbish heap with Nag. Fight, widow! The big man has gone for his gun! Fight!" Rikki-tikki was bounding all round Nagaina, keeping just out of reach of her stroke, his little eyes like hot coals. Nagaina gathered herself together and flung out at him. Rikki-tikki jumped up and backward. Again and again and again she struck, and each time her head came with a whack on the matting of the veranda and she gathered herself together like a watch spring. Then Rikki-tikki danced in a circle to get behind her, and Nagaina spun round to keep her head to his head, so that the rustle of her tail on the matting sounded like dry leaves blown along by the wind. He had forgotten the egg. It still lay on the veranda, and Nagaina came nearer and nearer to it, till at last, while Rikki-tikki was drawing breath, she caught it in her mouth, turned to the veranda steps, and flew like an arrow down the path, with Rikki-tikki behind her. When the cobra runs for her life, she goes like a whip-lash flicked across a horse's neck. Rikki-tikki knew that he must catch her, or all the trouble would begin again. She headed straight for the long grass by the thorn-bush, and as he was running Rikki-tikki heard Darzee still singing his foolish little song of triumph. But Darzee's wife was wiser. She flew off her nest as Nagaina came along, and flapped her wings about Nagaina's head. If Darzee had helped they might have turned her, but Nagaina only lowered her hood and went on. Still, the instant's delay brought Rikki-tikki up to her, and as she plunged into the rat-hole where she and Nag used to live, his little white teeth were clenched on her tail, and he went down with her–and very few mongooses, however wise and old they may be, care to follow a cobra into its hole. It was dark in the hole; and Rikki-tikki never knew when it might open out and give Nagaina room to turn and strike at him. He held on savagely, and stuck out his feet to act as brakes on the dark slope of the hot, moist earth. Then the grass by the mouth of the hole stopped waving, and Darzee said, "It is all over with Rikki-tikki! We must sing his death song. Valiant Rikki-tikki is dead! For Nagaina will surely kill him underground." So he sang a very mournful song that he made up on the spur of the minute, and just as he got to the most touching part, the grass quivered again, and Rikki-tikki, covered with dirt, dragged himself out of the hole leg by leg, licking his whiskers. Darzee stopped with a little shout. Rikki-tikki shook some of the dust out of his fur and sneezed. "It is all over," he said. "The widow will never come out again." And the red ants that live between the grass stems heard him, and began to troop down one after another to see if he had spoken the truth. Rikki-tikki curled himself up in the grass and slept where he was–slept and slept till it was late in the afternoon, for he had done a hard day's work. "Now," he said, when he awoke, "I will go back to the house. Tell the Coppersmith, Darzee, and he will tell the garden that Nagaina is dead." The Coppersmith is a bird who makes a noise exactly like the beating of a little hammer on a copper pot; and the reason he is always making it is because he is the town crier to every Indian garden, and tells all the news to everybody who cares to listen. As Rikki-tikki went up the path, he heard his "attention" notes like a tiny dinner gong, and then the steady "Ding-dong-tock! Nag is dead–dong! Nagaina is dead! Ding-dong-tock!" That set all the birds in the garden singing, and the frogs croaking, for Nag and Nagaina used to eat frogs as well as little birds. When Rikki got to the house, Teddy and Teddy's mother (she looked very white still, for she had been fainting) and Teddy's father came out and almost cried over him; and that night he ate all that was given him till he could eat no more, and went to bed on Teddy's shoulder, where Teddy's mother saw him when she came to look late at night. "He saved our lives and Teddy's life," she said to her husband. "Just think, he saved all our lives." Rikki-tikki woke up with a jump, for the mongooses are light sleepers. "Oh, it's you," said he. "What are you bothering for? All the cobras are dead. And if they weren't, I'm here." Rikki-tikki had a right to be proud of himself. But he did not grow too proud, and he kept that garden as a mongoose should keep it, with tooth and jump and spring and bite, till never a cobra dared show its head inside the walls. Darzee's Chant (Sung in honor of Rikki-tikki-tavi) Singer and tailor am I– Doubled the joys that I know– Proud of my lilt to the sky, Proud of the house that I sew– Over and under, so weave I my music–so weave I the house that I sew. Sing to your fledglings again, Mother, oh lift up your head! Evil that plagued us is slain, Death in the garden lies dead. Terror that hid in the roses is impotent–flung on the dung-hill and dead! Who has delivered us, who? Tell me his nest and his name. Rikki, the valiant, the true, Tikki, with eyeballs of flame, Rikk-tikki-tikki, the ivory-fanged, the hunter with eyeballs of flame! Give him the Thanks of the Birds, Bowing with tail feathers spread! Praise him with nightingale words– Nay, I will praise him instead. Hear! I will sing you the praise of the bottle-tailed Rikki, with eyeballs of red! (Here Rikki-tikki interrupted, and the rest of the song is lost.) </p><p></p></td><td><p> Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (Ex “Le Libros del Jungla” per Rudyard Kipling – traducite per Paul LeCorde) Al cavo ubi ille entrava Oculo Rubie a Pelle Rugose vocava. Audi lo que parve Oculo Rubie dice: "Nag, veni e dansa con le morte!" Capite a capite e oculo a oculo, (Tene le mesura, Nag.) Isto se finira con le morte de uno; (A tu placer, Nag.) Torno pro torno e torto pro torto– (Curre e cela te, Nag.) Ha! Le Morte incappuciate non ha colpava! (Fato te attende, Nag!) Isto es le historia del grande guerra que Rikki-tikki-tavi luctava solo, per le cameras de banio del grande bungalow in canton Segauli. Darzi, le orthotomo, le adjutava, e Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, qui nunquam entra le centro del pavimento, ma sempre repe per le muro, le dava consilio, ma Rikki-tikki se mesme faceva le ver lucta. Ille esseva un mangusta, un poco como un parve catto in su pelle e su cauda, ma bastante como un mustela in su capite e su comportamento. Su oculos e le fin de su naso impatiente esseva rosate. Ille poteva grattar se ubicunque ille voleva con qualcunque pede, anterior o posterior, que ille seligeva usar. Ille poteva facer que su cauda sembleva un brossa pro bottilias, e su crito de guerra quando ille curreva per le herbas longe esseva: "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" Un die, un diluvio alte de estate le lavava ex le coniliera ubi ille habitava con su patre e matre, e le portava, colpante le pedes e critante, per un fossato al bordo del cammino. Ille trovava un pecietta de herbas flottante la, e se adhereva a illo usque ille perdeva su sensos. Quando ille se resuscitava, ille cubava in le calor del sol in le medio de un semita per un jardin, multissimo disordinate, e un pueretto diceva, "Ecce un mangusta morte. Vamos ha le funerales." "No," diceva su matre, "vamos portar le al casa e essugar le. Forsan ille non es vermente morte." Illes le prendeva in le casa, e un grande homine le prendeva inter le digito e pollice e diceva que ille non esseva morte ma quasi suffocate. Dunque illes le inveloppava con watta , e le calefaceva supra un parve foco, e ille aperiva su oculos e sternutava. "Ora," diceva le grande homine (ille esseva un Anglese qui habeva movite se al bungalow recentemente, "non terrer le, e nos va vider lo que ille facera." Es le cosa le plus difficile del mundo terrer un mangusta, proque le curiositate le consume de naso a cauda. Le motto de tote le familia mangusta es "Currer e discoperir," e Rikki-tikki esseva un ver mangusta. Ille examinava le watta, decideva que illo non esseva bon pro mangiar, curreva circa le superficie del tabula, se sedeva e poneva in ordine le pelle, se grattava, e saltava super le humero del pueretto. "Non ha timor, Teddy," diceva su patre. "Illo es su maniera de amicar se." "AY! Ille me titilla le mento," diceva Teddy. Rikki-tikki reguardava inter le collo del pueretto e le camisa de ille, aspirava a su aure, e descendeva al pavimento, ubi ille se sedeva fricante le naso. "Bon gratias," diceva le matre de Teddy, "e illo es un creatura salvage! Io suppone que ille es tanto mansuete proque nos ha essite benevole a ille." "Tote mangustas es similar," diceva su sposo. "Si Teddy non le prende per le cauda, o essaya poner le in un cavia, ille currera in e ex le casa tote le die. Vamos dar le alique pro mangiar." Illes le dava un pecietta de carne crude. Illo placeva Rikki-tikki multissimo, e quando ille lo ha finite ille vadeva in le veranda e se sedeva in le lumine de sol e brossava su pelle pro sicar le radices. Pois ille se sentiva melior. "Il ha plus cosas pro discoperir in iste casa," ille diceva a se mesme, "que tote mi familia pote discoperir in tote lor vitas. Io certemente remanera e discoperira." Ille passava tote ille die explorante le casa. Ille quasi se neca in le alveos, poneva su naso in le tinta in le scriptorio, e lo ardeva al puncto del cigarro del grande homine, proque ille montava le gremio del grande homine pro reguardar le processo de scriber. A crepusculo ille curreva in le camera de Teddy pro reguardar le processo de accender le lampas de kerosen, e quando Teddy vadeva a lecto anque Rikki-tikki montava le lecto. Ma ille esseva un companion inquiete, proque ille debeva levar se e attender a tote ruito durante tote le nocte, e discoperir lo que faceva le ruito. Le matre e patre de Teddy entrava, ante de addormir se, pro reguardar lor puero, e Rikki-tikki esseva vigile super le cossino de capite. "Illo non me place," diceva le matre de Teddy. "Ille poterea morder le infante." "Ille non facera illo," diceva le patre. "Teddy es plus secur con ille bestietta que si ille haberea un can de Saint-Hubert pro vigilar super ille. Si un serpente entrarea le camera actualmente–" Ma le matre de Teddy non pensarea de un cosa tanto mal. In le matino, de bon hora, Rikki-tikki veniva a jentaculo in le veranda viagiante super le humero de Teddy, e illes le dava un banana e un poco de ovo bullite. Ille se sedeva in cata de lor gremios un post le altere, proque tote mangusta ben educate sempre spera esser un mangusta domestic un die e ha cameras in le qual ille pote currer; e le matre de Rikki-tikki (illa habitava in le casa del general a Segauli) habeva dicite attentivemente a Rikki lo que ille debe facer si unquam ille incontrarea homines blanc. Pois Rikki-tikki vadeva al jardin pro vider lo que esseva la. Illo esseva un grande jardin, con solmente un medio cultivate e con arbustos, tanto grande como casas de estate, de rosas a Marshal Niel, tilias e orangieros, gruppos de bambus, e boscage de herbas alte. Rikki-tikki leccave le labios. "Isto es un terreno de chassa splendide," ille diceva, e al pensata de illo su cauda deveniva como un brossa pro bottilias, e ille curreva per le jardin, aspirante ci e la usque ille audiva voces triste in un spino. Esseva Darzi, le orthotomo, e su sposa. Illes ha facite un belle nido per traher insimul duo grande folios e suer lor bordos con fibras, e habeva plenate le interior con coton e lanugine. Le nido oscillava, durante que illes se sedeva super le bordo e plorava. "Que es le problema?" demandava Rikki-tikki. "Nos es miserabilissime," diceva Darzi. "Un de nostre babies cadeva del nido heri e Nag le mangiava." "Hmm!" diceva Rikki-tikki, "illo es tristissime–ma io es un estraniero ci. Qui es Nag?" Darzi e su sposa solmente quattava tremulante in le nido sin responder, proque ex le herbas dense al basso del arbusto veniva un sibilo basse –un sono horribile que causava Rikki-tikki saltar vermente duo pedes. Pois uncia per uncia ex le herbas se leva le capite e cappucio displicate de Nag, le grande cobra nigre, e ille habeva cinque pedes de longor de lingua a cauda. Quando ille habeva levate un tertia de se mesme completemente del terra, ille restava balanciante justo como un tuffo de dentes de leon se balancia in le vento, e ille reguardava Rikki-tikki con le oculos mal serpentin que nunquam cambia lor expression, sin reguardo a lo que le serpente pense. "Qui es Nag?" diceva ille. "Io es Nag. Le grande Deo Brahm poneva su marca super toto de nostre gente, quando le prime cobra displicava su cappucio pro umbrar Brahm del sol durante que ille dormiva. Reguarda, e ha timor!" Ille displicava su cappucio mesmo plus, e Rikki-tikki videva le marca de oculares super le posterior del cappucio que sembla exactemente le parte ocular de un serratura a croc e oculo. Ille habeva timor pro le minuta, ma es impossibile pro un mangusta remaner territe pro un quantitate de tempore, e ben que Rikki-tikki nunquam habeva incontrate un cobra vive antea, su matre le ha date cobras morte pro mangiar, e ille sapeva que tote le affaires de vita de un mangusta adulte deberea esser luctar e mangiar serpentes. Anque Nag sapeva illo e, al basso de su corde frigide, ille habeva timor. "Ben," diceva Rikki-tikki, e su cauda comencia inflar se de novo, "marcas o nulle marcas, pensa tu que es correcte mangiar avettos ex un nido?" Nag pensava a se mesme, e reguardava le movimente parvissime in le hebras detra Rikki-tikki. Ille sapeva que mangustas in le jardin significarea morte pro ille es su familia eventualmente, ma ille voleva causar que Rikki-tikki reduce su guarda. Dunque ille abassava su capite un poco, e lo poneva super un latere. "Vamos parlar," ille diceva. "Tu mangia ovos. Proque deberea io non mangia aves?" "Detra te! Reguarda detra te!" cantava Darzi. Rikki-tikki esseva troppo intelligente a perder tempore in reguardar fixemente. Ille saltava in le aere tanto alte como ille poteva, e justo sub ille passava sibilante le capite de Nagaina, le sposa impie de Nag. Illa ha repite detra ille durante que ille parlava, pro finir le. Ille audiva su sibilo feroce durante le culpo mancava. Ille atterrava quasi trans le dorso de illa, e si ille habeva essite un mangusta vetule ille haberea sapite que alora esseva le tempore a rumper le dorso de illa con un morsura; ma ille habeva timor del colpo de retorno flagellante terribile del cobra. Ille mordeva, vermente, ma non mordeva bastante longemente, e ille saltava del cauda battiente, lassante Nagaina lacerate e irate. "Impie, impie Darzi!" diceva Nag, flagellante tanto alte como ille poteva attinger verso le nido in le spino. Ma Darzi lo ha construite ex le extension de serpentes, e illo oscillava. Rikki-tikki sentiva que su oculos deveniva rubie e calide (quando le oculos de un mangusta deveniva rubie, ille es irate), e ille se sedeva super su cauda e gambas posterior como un parve kanguru, e reguardava circa se mesme, e garrulava con rabia. Ma Nag e Nagaina habeva disparite a in le herbas. Quando un serpente manca su colpo, illo nunquam dice alique o da un indication de lo que illo intende de facer proximo. Rikki-tikki non desirava a sequer los, pro que ille non se sentiva secur que ille poteva arrangiar duo serpentes a un vice. Dunque ille trottava per semita de gravellas presso del casa, e se sedeva pro pensar. Illo esseva un cosa seriose pro ille. Si on ha legite le libros vetule de historia natural, on trova que illos dice que quando le mangusta lucta le serpente e per fortuna recipe un morsura, ille currera e mangiara alicun herbas le qual le sana. Illo non es ver. Le victoria es mermente un question de rapiditate de oculo e rapiditate de pede – colpo del serpente contra le salto del mangusta – e como nulle oculo pote sequer le motion del capite de un serpente quando illo colpa, isto face que le cosas es multo plus meraviliose que ulle herbas magic. Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille esseva un mangusta juvene, e illo le faceva mesmo plus felice a pensar que ille habeva capace de escappar un colpo del posterior. Illo le dava le confidentia in se mesme, e quando Teddy veniva currente per le semita, Rikki-tikki esseva preste de reciper caressas. Ma al mesme tempore que Teddy se inclinava, alique serpeva un poco in le sablo, e un voce miniscule diceva: "Presta attention. Io es Morte!" Illo esseva Karait, le serpentetta de color de sablo qui cuba per selection in le terra sablose; e su morsura es tanto periculose como illo del cobra. Ma ille es tanto parve que necuno pensa de ille, e dunque ille face mesme plus damno a gente. Le oculos de Rikki-tikki deveniva rubie de novo, e ille dansava a Karait con le oscillation peculiar que ille habeva heritate de su familia. Illo pare multo comic, ma illo es un passo balanciate tanto perfectemente que on pote partir illo a qualcunque angula que se place, e in arrangiar le serpentes isto es un avantage. Si solmente Rikki-tikki habeva sapite, ille faceva un cosa multo plus periculose que luctar Nag, proque Karait es tanto parve, e pote virar tanto rapidemente, que si Rikki non le mordeva presso del posterior del capite, ille reciperea le colpo de retorno in su oculo o su labio. Ma Rikki non lo sapeva. Su oculos esseva completemente rubie, e ille oscillava, cercante un bon loco pro tener. Karait colpava. Rikki saltava lateralmente e tentava currer verso ille, ma le impie parve capite del color de sablo flagellava intra un fraction de su humero, e ille debeva saltar supra le corpore, e le capite sequeva su calces proximemente. Teddy vocava al casa: "O, reguarda ci! Nostre mangusta occide un serpente." E Rikki-tikki audiva un crito del matre de Teddy. Su patre curreva del casa con un baston, ma al tempore que ille arrivava, Karait habeva colpate troppo longe un vice, e Rikki-tikki habeva saltate super le dorso del serpente, lassate cader su capite inter su antegambas, mordite tanto alte al dorso como ille pote caper, e rolate foras. Ille morsura paralysava Karait, e Rikki-tikki sta preste de mangiar le comenciante al cauda, secundo le costume de su familia a cena, quando ille se memorava que un repasto complete face que un mangusta deveni lente, e si ille desirava a haber preste toto de su fortia e rapiditate, ille debe remaner malgre. Ille partiva pro un banio de sablo sub le arbustos a oleo de ricino, durante que le patre de Teddy batteva le ja morte Karait. "Que es le uso de illo?" pensava Rikki-tikki. "Io finiva tote illo;" e pois le matre de Teddy le prendeva ex le sablo e le imbraciava, critante que ille ha salvate Teddy de morte, e le patre de Teddy diceva que ille esseva un providentia, e Teddy spectava con grande oculos espaventate. Tote le commotion, le qual, naturalmente, ille non comprendeva, amusava Rikki-tikki bastante ben. Serea equalmente bon a Rikki-Tikki si le matre de Teddy habeva caressate Teddy pro jocar in le sablo. Rikki se amusava completemente. Ille nocte al cena, vadente inter le vitros a vino super le tabula, ille haberea potite stipar se e tres vices de novo con cosas deliciose. Ma ille se memorava Nag e Nagaina, e ben que il esseva multo placente reciper colpos legier e caressas del matre de Teddy, e seder se super le humero de Teddy, su oculos deveniva rubie de vice a vice, e ille vaderea e comenciarea su longe crito de guerra de "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" Teddy le portava al lecto, e insisteva que Rikki-tikki dormi sub su mento. Rikki-tikki esseva troppo ben educate pro morder o rader, ma quando Teddy addormiva ille partiva pro su promenada nocturne circa le casa, e in le obscuritate ille incontrava Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, repente per le muro. Chuchundra es un bestietta desolate. Ille geme e pipa durante le tote nocte, essayante trovar le coragia de currer al centro del camera ma ille nunquam lo trova. "Non occide me," diceva Chuchundra, quasi plorante. "Rikki-tikki, non occide me!" "Pensa tu que un assassino de serpentes occide rattos muscate?" diceva Rikki-tikki disdignosemente. "Serpentes occide illes que occide serpentes," diceva Chuchundra, plus tristemente que unquam. "E como pote io esser certe que Nag non va confunder me pro te un nocte obscur?" "Il non ha le periculo minime," diceva Rikki-tikki. "Ma Nag es in le jardin, e io sape que tu non va la." "Mi cosino Chua, le ratto, me diceva–" diceva Chuchundra, e pois ille cessava. "Ille diceva te que?" "Tchh! Nag es ubique, Rikki-tikki. Tu habeva debite parlar a Chua in le jardin." "Io non parlava a ille – dunque tu debe dicer me. Rapidemente, Chuchundra, o io te mordera!" Chuchundra se sedeva e plorava usque le lacrimas rolava de su mustachios. "Io es un homine multo paupere," ille singultava. "Io nunquam habeva bastante spirito pro currer al centro del camera. Tchh! Io non debe dice te alique. Pote tu non audir, Rikki-tikki?" Rikki-tikki auscultava. Le casa esseva tanto silentiose como silentio se mesme, ma ille pensava que ille poteva audir le grattamento le plus debile in le mundo–un sono tanto debile como illo de un vespa iente a pede super un fenestra– le grattamento sic del squamas de un serpente super briccas. "Illo es Nag o Nagaina," ille diceva a se mesme, "e ille repe a in le camera de banio. Tu ha ration, Chuchundra; io habeva debite parlar a Chua." Ille sortiva furtivemente al camera de banio de Teddy, ma il habeva nil la, e pois al camera de banio del matre de Teddy. Al basso del muro de gypso lisie il habeva un bricca tirate pro crear un esclusa pro le aqua de banio, e durante que Rikki-tikki vadeva secretemente per le bordo de bricca ubi le banio se situa, ille audiva Nag e Nagaina susurrante le un al altere al exterior in le lumine del luna. "Quando le casa es disoccupate," diceva Nagaina a su sposo, "ille debera partir, e pois le jardin sera le nostre de novo. Entra quietemente, e memora te que le grande homine qui occideva Karait es le prime que nos mordera. Pois exi e dice me, e nos chassara Rikki-tikki insimul." "Ma es tu secur que nos ganiara alique de occider le gente?" diceva Nag. "Toto. Quando il habeva nulle gente in le bungalow, habera nos un mangusta in le jardin? Si longe que le bungalow es disoccupate, nos es rege e regina del jardin; e memora te que quando nostre ovos in le parterre de melones cova (e forsan sera deman), nostre infante necessitara spatio e silentio." "Io non habeva pensate de illo," diceva Nag. "Io vadera, ma il ha nulle besonio que nos chassarea for Rikki-tikki postea. Io occidera le grande homine e su sposa, e le puero si io pote, e sortira quietemente. Pois le bungalow sera disoccupate, e Rikki-tikki partira." Tote le corpore de Rikki-tikki vibrava con le rabie e odio a audir illo, e pois le capite de Nag veniva per le esclusa, e su frigide corpore de cinque pedes de longor lo sequeva. Tanto irate como ille esseva, Rikki-tikki habeva multo timor quando ille videva le grandor del cobra grande. Nag se inrolava, levava su capite, e reguardava le interior del camera de banio in le obscuritate, e Rikki poteva vider su oculos reluce. "Ora, si io le occide ci, Nagaina sapera; e si io le lucta in le pavimento libere, le avantage es le sue. Que debe io facer?” diceva Rikki-tikki-tavi. Nag oscillava ci e la, e pois Rikki-tikki le audiva bibente ex le jarra a aqua le plus grande le qual on usava pro plenar le banio. "Illo es bon," diceva le serpente. "Ora, quando ille occideva Karait, le grande homine habeva un baston. Forsan ille ancora habera ille baston, ma quando ille entra le banio pro baniar se in le matino ille non habera un baston. Io attendera ci usque ille veni. Nagaina – audi me tu? – Io attendera ci in le frescor usque le alba." Il habeva nulle responsa del exterior, dunque Rikki-tikki sapeva Nagaina habeva partite. Nag se serpentava, spira post spira, circa le protuberantia al basso del jarro a aqua, e Rikki-tikki restava tanto immobile como morte. Post un hora ille comenciava mover, musculo post musculo, verso le jarro. Nag dormiva, e Rikki-tikki reguardava su dorso grande, demandante a se mesme qual loco providerea le prisa le melior. "Si io non rumpe su dorso al prime salto," diceva Rikki, "ille ancora potera luctar. E si ille lucta – O Rikki!" Ille reguardava le spissor del collo sub le cappucio , ma illo esseva troppo pro ille; e morder presso del cauda solmente causa Nag a esser furiose. "Il debe esser le capite"' ille diceva al fin; "le capite supra le cappucio. E, quando io es la, io non debe disingagiar.” Pois ille saltava. Le capite cubava un poco distante del jarro a aqua, sub le curva de illo; e, quando su dentes se reuniva, Rikki reinfortiava su dorso contra le protuberantia del jarro de ceramo rubie pro retener le capite. Isto le dava solmente un seconda additional, e ille prendeva le avantage de illo. Pois le serpente le jectava ci e la como un can succuterea un ratto – ci e la super le pavimento, in alto e in basso, e in grande circulos, ma su oculos esseva rubie e ille teneva firmemente durante que le corpore flagellava super le pavimento, invertante le coclear grande e le platto a sapon e le brossa de banio, e percuteva le lateral de stanno del banio. Durante que ille teneva, ille claudeva su mandibulas plus e plus fortemente, pro que ille voleva assecurar que si ille mori del colpos, e, pro le honor de su familia, ille preferreva que on le trova con su dentes serrate. Ille esseva vertiginose, con dolor, e se sentiva succutite a pecias quando alique explodeva como tunitro juste detra ille. Un vento calide le rendeva insensibile e foco rubie adureva su pelle. Le ruito ha eveliate le grande homine, e ille habeva discargate ambe calces de un fusil de chassa in Nag solmente un poco post le cappucio. Rikki-tikki teneva firmemente con le oculos claudite, proque actualmente ille esseva certe que ille esseva morte. Mal capite non moveva, e le grande homine le prendeva e diceva, "Es le mangusta de novo, Alice. Ora, le parve typo ha salvate nostre vitas." Pois le matre de Teddy entrava con un facie multo blanc, e videva lo que remane de Nag, e Rikki-tikki se traheva al camera de Teddy e passava un medietate del resto del nocte teneremente tremente pro discoperir si ille vermente esseva rumpite in quaranta pecias, como ille credeva. Quando le alba veniva ille esseva multo rigide, ma ben contente con su gestas. "Proximo, io debera arrangiar le cosas con Nagaina, e illa sera pejor que cinque Nages, e il ha nulle via a saper quando le ovos del qual illa parlava covara. Bonitate! Io debe vader e visitar Darzi," ille diceva. Sin attender le jentaculo, Rikki-tikki curreva al spino ubi Darzi cantava un canto de triumpho in su voce le plus alte. Le novas del morte de Nag ha diffundite se per tote le jardin, proque le scopator habeva jectate le corpore super le cumulo de immunditias. "O, tu tuffo de plumas stupide!" diceva Rikki-tikki iratemente. "Es isto le tempore pro cantar?" "Nag es morte–es morte–es morte!" cantava Darzi. "Rikki-tikki le valente le prendeva per le capite e teneva firmement. Le grande homine apportava le baston explosive, e Nag cadeva in duo pecias! Ille nunquam mangiara mi babies de novo." "Toto de illo es bastante ver. Ma ubi es Nagaina?" diceva Rikki-tikki, reguardante attentivemente circa se mesme. "Nagaina veniva al camera de banio e vocava Nag," Darzi continuava, "e Nag veniva de illo super le fin de un baston – le scopator le prendeva per le fin de un baston e le jectava super le cumulo de immunditias. Vamos cantar de Rikki-Tikki, le Magne con rubie oculos!" E Darzi plenava su gorga e cantava. "Si io poterea ascender a tu nido, io rolarea tu babies ex illo!" diceva Rikki-tikki. "Tu non sape quando facer le cosa correcte al tempore correcte. Tu es bastante secur la in tu nido, ma ci pro me es le guerra. Cessa le cantar pro un minuta, Darzi." "Pro le gratias de Rikki-Tikki le Magne e Belle io cessara," diceva Darzi. "Que es illo, O assassino de Nag le terribile?" "Ubi es Nagaina, pro le tertie vice?" "Super le cumulo de immunditias presso del stabulos, affligente se pro Nag. Magne es Rikki-tikki con le dentes blanc." "Oblida mi dentes blanc! Ha tu unquam audite ubi ille cela su ovos?" "In le parterre de melones, in le parte le plus proxime al muro, ubi le lumine del sol lo illumina quasi tote le die. Illa los celava la ante multo septimanas." "E tu nunquam pensava que serea utile dicer me? Le parte le plus proxime al muro, tu diceva?" "Rikki-tikki, tu non va mangiar su ovos?" "No; non exactemente mangiar. Darzi, si tu ha un grano de senso tu volara al stabulos e fingera que tu ala es rupte, e lassa que Nagaina te chassa a iste arbusto. Io debe vader al parterre de melones, e si io vadeva la ora illa me viderea.” Darzi esseva un typo con le cerebro de plumas qui nunquam poteva tener plus que un idea a vice in su capite. E solmente proque ille sapeva que le infantes de Nagaina nasceva in ovos tal como su proprie, ille non pensava primo que esseva juste occider los. Ma su sposa esseva un ave practic, e illa sapeva que le ovos de cobra significava juvene cobras plus tarde. Assi illa volava del nido, e lassava Darzi vigilante le babies, e continuante su canto del morte de Nag. Darzi esseva bastante similar a un homine in alicun vias. Illa papilionava avante Nagaina presso del cumulo de immunditias e critava, "O, mi ala es rupte! Le puero in le casa jectava un petra a me e lo rupmeva." Pois illa papilionava plus desperatemente que antea. Nagaina levava su capite e sibilava, "Tu preveniva Rikki-tikki quando io poteva occider le. Vermente, tu ha selegite un mal loco in le qual esser claude." E illa movava verso le sposa de Darzi, glissante per le sablo. "Le puero lo rumpeva con un petra!" critava le sposa de Darzi. "Ben! Forsan illo sera un poco de consolation a te que post que tu es morte io va saldar contos con le puero. Mi sposo cuba super le cumulo de immunditias iste matino, ma ante le nocte le puero in le casa va cubar multissime immobile. Que es le uso de currer foras? Certemente io va attrappar te. Parve imbecille, reguarda me!" Le sposa de Darzi sapeva melio que facer illo, pro un ave qui reguarda le oculos de un serpente deveni tanto territe que illo non pote mover. Le sposa de Darzi continuava papilionar, pipar tristemente, e nunquam sortir le terra, e Nagaina reavivava su velocitate. Rikki-tikki audiva que illas vadeva per le semita del stabulos, e ille hastava pro le parte del parterre de melones le plus proxime al muro. La, in le calide ventrata super le melones, celate multo astutemente, ille trova vinti-cinque ovos, circa le grandor del ovos de un bantam, ma con pelle blanc in loco de scalias. "Io esseva non un die troppo tosto," ille diceva, proque ille poteva vider le cobrettas buclate al interior del pelle del ovo, e ille sapeva que le minuta que illes se covava illes poterea occider un homine o un mangusta. Ille mordeva le culmines del ovos tanto rapidemente como ille poteva, prestante attention a applattar le cobrettas, e invertente le portata de vice in vice pro vider si ille habeva omittite alicunos. Al fin il habeva solmente tres ovos remanente, e Rikki-tikki comenciava rider dulcemente a se mesme, quando ille audiva le critos del sposa de Darzi: "Rikki-tikki, io duceva Nagaina verso le casa, e illa ha vadite in le veranda, e – o, veni rapidemente – illa intende occider!" Rikki-tikki fraccassava duo ovos, e se rolava per le parterre de melones con le tertie ovo in su bucca, e curreva al veranda tanto rapidemente como ille pote poner le pede al terra. Teddy e su matre e patre esseva la a un jentaculo de bon hora, ma Rikki-tikki videva que illes non mangiava alique. Illes se sedeva immobilissime, e lor facies esseva blanc. Nagaina esseva inrolate super le mattas presso del sede de Teddy, intra un distantia de colpar facile del gamba nude de Teddy, e illa oscillava, cantante un canto de triumpho. "Filio del grande homine que occideva Nag," illa sibilava, "resta immobile. Io non jam es preste. Attende un poco. Tene te immobilissime, tote tres de vos! Si vos io colpara, e si vos non move io colpara. O, gente imprudente, qui occideva mi Nag!" Le oculos de Teddy esseva fixate super su patre, e tote lo que su patre poteva facer esseva susurrar, "Sede te immobile, Teddy. Tu non debe mover te. Teddy, sia immobile." Pois Rikki-tikki veniva e critava, "Torna te, Nagaina. Torna te e lucta!" "Toto in su tempore," illa diceva, sin mover su oculos. "Io va saldar contos con te tosto. Reguarda tu amicos, Rikki-tikki. Illes es immobile e blanc. Ille ha timor. Illes non osa mover se, e si tu veni un passo plus proxime io va colpar." "Reguarda tu ovos," diceva Rikki-tikki, "in le parterre de melones presso del muro. Va e reguarda, Nagaina!" Le grande serpente se tornava mediemente, e videva le ovo super le veranda. "Ah-h! Da lo a me," illa diceva. Rikki-tikki poneva su patas un a cata latere del ovo, e su oculos esseva tanto rubie como sanguine. "Que precio pro un ovo serpentin? Pro un juvene cobra? Pro un juvene rege de cobras? Pro le ultime – le ultissime del covata? Le formicas mangia tote la alteres presso del parterre de melones." Nagaina girava completemente, oblidante toto pro le gratia de un ovo. Rikki-tikki videva le grande mano del patre de Teddy se lancea e prende Teddy per le humero, e trahe le trans le parve tabula con le cuppas de the, secur e ex le prisa Nagaina. "Dupate! Dupate! Dupate! Rikk-tck-tck!" rideva Rikki-tikki dulcemente. "Le puero es secur, e esseva io - io – io que prendeva Nag per le cappucio heri nocte in le camera de banio." Pois ille comenciava saltar, tote de su longor al mesme tempore, su capite presso del pavimento. "Ille me jectava ci e la, ma ille non poteva liberar se. Ille esseva morte ante que le grande homine le colpava in duo pecias con le arma de foco. Io lo faceva! Rikki-tikki-tck-tck! Dunque veni, Nagaina. Veni e lucta con me. Tu non sera un vidua longemente." Nagaina videva que illa ha perdite su opportunitate de occider Teddy, e le ovo cubava inter le patas de Rikki-tikki. "Da me le ovo, Rikki-tikki. Da me le ultime de mi ovos, e io vadera foras e nunquam retornara," illa diceva, abassante su cappucio. "Si, tu vadera foras, e tu nunquam retornara. Proque tu va vader al cumulo de immunditias con Nag. Lucta, vidua! Le grande homine ha vadite pro prender su arma de foco! Lucta!" Rikki-tikki saltava ci e la circa Nagaina, remanente solmente extra su colpo, su parve oculos como brasa ardente. Nagaina inrolava se mesme e se lanceava a ille. Rikki-tikki saltava. De novo e de novo e de novo illa saltava, e tote vice su capite colpava le mattas del veranda e illa inrolava como le resorto de un horologio. Pois Rikki-tikki dansava in un circulo pro poner se detra illa, e Nagaina se girava completemente pro mantener su capite avante le capite de Rikki-Tikki, assi que le susurro de su cauda super le mattas sonava como folios sic pulsate per le vento. Ille habeva oblidate le ovo. Illo resta ancora in le veranda, e Nagaina approchava plus e plus proxime a illo, usque finalmente, durante que Rikki-tikki inspirava, illa lo prendeva con su bucca, girava al scalones del veranda, e curreva rapidemente per le semita, con Rikki-tikki detra illa. Quando le cobra curre pro su vita, illa va como un flagello colpante le collo de un cavallo. Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille debe attrappar la, o tote le enoio comenciarea de novo. Illa se dirigeva pro le herbas longe presso del spino, e durante que ille curreva Rikki-tikki audiva Darzi ancora cantante su cantetto fatue de triumpho. Ma le sposa de Darzi esseva plus sage. Illa flugava ex le nido quando Nagaina passava, e batteva su alas circa le capite de Nagaina. Si Darzi habeva adjutate forsan illes habeva potite causar que illa gira, ma Nagaina simplemente abassava su cappucio e continuava. Ma, le retardo de un instante lassava que Rikki-tikki la prende, e quando Nagaina se immergeva in le foramine de rattos ubi illa e Nag habitava, le parve dentes blanc de Rikki-Tikki esseva serrate a su cauda, e ille la sequeva – e multo poco de mangustas, sin reguardo de lor etate of intelligentia, vole sequer un cobra a in su cavo. Esseva obscur in le foramine; e Rikki-tikki nunquam sapeva quando illo se expanderea e darea a Nagaina le spatio pro girar e colpar a ille. Ille teneva al cauda ferocemente, e mitteva su pedes al terra calide e humide pro functionar como frenos. Pois le agitation del herbas presso del apertura del foramine cessava, e Darzi diceva, "Illo es toto finite con Rikki-tikki! Nos debe cantar su canto de morte. Valente Rikki-tikki es morte! Proque, Nagaina certemente le occidera sub le terra." Dunque ille cantava un canto multo triste que ille improvisava al minuta, e justo quando ille arrivava al parte le plus emotionante, le herbas fremeva de novo, e Rikki-tikki, coperite con solo, se traheva ex le foramine gamba post gamba, leccante su mustachios. Darzi cessava con un parve crito. Rikki-tikki succuteva alicun del sablo de su pelle e sternutava. "Es finite," ille diceva. "Le vidua nunquam exira de novo." E le formicas rubie que habita inter le herbas le audiva, e comenciava marchar in le foramine un post le altere pro vider si ille habeva parlate le veritate. Rikki-tikki se inrolava in le herbas e dormiva ubi ille esseva – dormiva e dormiva usque tarde in le postmeridie, proque ille habeva facite un die de travalio multo dur. "Ora," ille diceva, quando ille se eveliava, "Io va retornar al casa. Dice le barbate caldieron (megalaima haemacephala), Darzi, e ille dicera le jardin que Nagaina es morte." Le barbate caldieron es un ave que face un sono exactemente como le battar de un martelletto super un olla de cupro; e le ration que sempre face le sono es proque ille es le critator public de cata jardin indian, e annuncia tote le novas a tote le mundo qui vole auscultar. Durante que Rikki-tikki ascendeva le semita, ille audiva su notas de "attention" como le parve gong de cena, e pois le constante "Din-don-tok! Nag es morte–don! Nagaina es morte! Din-don-tok!" Illo causava que tote le aves in le jardin comenciava cantar, e que le ranas comenciava coaxar, proque Nag e Nagaina mangiava avettas e ranettas tamben. Quando Rikki arrivava al casa, Teddy e su matre (illa ancora pareva multo blanc, proque illa ha suffrite syncope) e su patre veniva e quasi plorava supra ille; e ille nocte ille mangiava tote lo que on le dava usque ille non pote mangiar plus, e vadeva al lecto super le humero de Teddy, ubi le matre de Teddy le videva quando ille veniva pro un reguardo in le nocte tardive. "Ille salvava nostre vitas e le vita de Teddy," illa diceva a su sposo. "Solmente pensa, ille salvava toto de nostre vitas." Rikki-tikki se eveliava con un suprasalto, proque le mangustas ha somno legier. "O, Es vos," diceva ille. "Proque vos incommoda vos? Tote le cobras es morte. E si illes non esseva morte, io es ci." Rikki-tikki habeva un ration pro esser fer de se mesme. Ma ille non deveniva troppo fer, e ille manteneva ille jardin como un mangusta deberea mantener lo, con dente e salto e morsura, usque nunquam un cobra osava monstrar su capite al interior del muros. Le Canto de Darzi (Cantava in honor de Rikki-tikki-tavi) Cantator e sartor es io– Duplate le joios que io sape– Fer de mi rhythmo in le celo, Fer del casa que io sue– Super e sub, assi io texe mi musica–assi io texe le casa que io sue. Canta a tu avettos de novo, Matre, leva tu capite! Le Mal que nos plagava es occidite, Le Morte in le jardin resta morte. Le Terror que se celava in le rosas es impotente – jectate super le cumulo de immunditias e morte! Qui nos ha liberate, qui? Dice me su nido e su nomine. Rikki, le valente, le ver, Tikki, con oculos de flammas, Rikk-tikki-tikki, ille del dentes eboree, le caciator con oculos de flammas! Da le le Gratias del Aves, Inclinante con le plumas caudal extendite! Lauda le con le parolas del rossiniolo – No, io va laudar le. Audi! Io te cantara le laudo del Rikki con le cauda a brossa, con oculos rubie! (Ci Rikki-tikki interrumpeva, e nos perdeva le resto </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 29 2005-04-11T12:44:38Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Rikki-Tikki-Tavi</b> <b>Rikki-Tikki-Tavi</b> <b>Al cavo ubi ille entrava</b> <b>At the hole where he went in</b> <b>Oculo Rubie a Pelle Rugose vocava. </b> <b>Red-Eye called to Wrinkle-Skin.</b> <b>Audi lo que parve Oculo Rubie dice: </b> <b>Hear what little Red-Eye saith:</b> <b>"Nag, veni e dansa con le morte!" </b> <b>"Nag, come up and dance with death!"</b> <b>Capite a capite e oculo a oculo, </b> <b>Eye to eye and head to head,</b> <b>(Tene le mesura, Nag.) </b> <b> (Keep the measure, Nag.)</b> <b>Isto se finira con le morte de uno; </b> <b>This shall end when one is dead;</b> <b>(A tu placer, Nag.) </b> <b> (At thy pleasure, Nag.)</b> <b>Torno pro torno e torto pro torto–</b> <b>Turn for turn and twist for twist–</b> <b> (Curre e cela te, Nag.) </b> <b> (Run and hide thee, Nag.)</b> <b>Ha! Le Morte incappuciate non ha colpava! </b> <b>Hah! The hooded Death has missed!</b> <b>(Fato te attende, Nag!) </b> <b> (Woe betide thee, Nag!)</b> <b>Isto es le historia del grande guerra que Rikki-tikki-tavi luctava solo, per le cameras de banio del grande bungalow in canton Segauli. Darzi, le orthotomo, le adjutava, e Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, qui nunquam entra le centro del pavimento, ma sempre repe per le muro, le dava consilio, ma Rikki-tikki se mesme faceva le ver lucta. </b> <b>This is the story of the great war that Rikki-tikki-tavi fought single-handed, through the bath-rooms of the big bungalow in Segowlee cantonment. Darzee, the Tailorbird, helped him, and Chuchundra, the musk-rat, who never comes out into the middle of the floor, but always creeps round by the wall, gave him advice, but Rikki-tikki did the real fighting.</b> <b>Ille esseva un mangusta, un poco como un parve catto in su pelle e su cauda, ma bastante como un mustela in su capite e su comportamento. Su oculos e le fin de su naso impatiente esseva rosate. Ille poteva grattar se ubicunque ille voleva con qualcunque pede, anterior o posterior, que ille seligeva usar. Ille poteva facer que su cauda sembleva un brossa pro bottilias, e su crito de guerra quando ille curreva per le herbas longe esseva: "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" </b> <b>He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of his restless nose were pink. He could scratch himself anywhere he pleased with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use. He could fluff up his tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled through the long grass was: "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!"</b> <b>Un die, un diluvio alte de estate le lavava ex le coniliera ubi ille habitava con su patre e matre, e le portava, colpante le pedes e critante, per un fossato al bordo del cammino. Ille trovava un pecietta de herbas flottante la, e se adhereva a illo usque ille perdeva su sensos. Quando ille se resuscitava, ille cubava in le calor del sol in le medio de un semita per un jardin, multissimo disordinate, e un pueretto diceva, "Ecce un mangusta morte. Vamos ha le funerales." </b> <b>One day, a high summer flood washed him out of the burrow where he lived with his father and mother, and carried him, kicking and clucking, down a roadside ditch. He found a little wisp of grass floating there, and clung to it till he lost his senses. When he revived, he was lying in the hot sun on the middle of a garden path, very draggled indeed, and a small boy was saying, "Here's a dead mongoose. Let's have a funeral."</b> <b>"No," diceva su matre, "vamos portar le al casa e essugar le. Forsan ille non es vermente morte." </b> <b>"No," said his mother, "let's take him in and dry him. Perhaps he isn't really dead."</b> <b>Illes le prendeva in le casa, e un grande homine le prendeva inter le digito e pollice e diceva que ille non esseva morte ma quasi suffocate. Dunque illes le inveloppava con watta , e le calefaceva supra un parve foco, e ille aperiva su oculos e sternutava. </b> <b>They took him into the house, and a big man picked him up between his finger and thumb and said he was not dead but half choked. So they wrapped him in cotton wool, and warmed him over a little fire, and he opened his eyes and sneezed.</b> <b>"Ora," diceva le grande homine (ille esseva un Anglese qui habeva movite se al bungalow recentemente, "non terrer le, e nos va vider lo que ille facera." </b> <b>"Now," said the big man (he was an Englishman who had just moved into the bungalow), "don't frighten him, and we'll see what he'll do."</b> <b>Es le cosa le plus difficile del mundo terrer un mangusta, proque le curiositate le consume de naso a cauda. Le motto de tote le familia mangusta es "Currer e discoperir," e Rikki-tikki esseva un ver mangusta. Ille examinava le watta, decideva que illo non esseva bon pro mangiar, curreva circa le superficie del tabula, se sedeva e poneva in ordine le pelle, se grattava, e saltava super le humero del pueretto. </b> <b>It is the hardest thing in the world to frighten a mongoose, because he is eaten up from nose to tail with curiosity. The motto of all the mongoose family is "Run and find out," and Rikki-tikki was a true mongoose. He looked at the cotton wool, decided that it was not good to eat, ran all round the table, sat up and put his fur in order, scratched himself, and jumped on the small boy's shoulder.</b> <b>"Non ha timor, Teddy," diceva su patre. "Illo es su maniera de amicar se." </b> <b>"Don't be frightened, Teddy," said his father. "That's his way of making friends."</b> <b>"AY! Ille me titilla le mento," diceva Teddy. </b> <b>"Ouch! He's tickling under my chin," said Teddy.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki reguardava inter le collo del pueretto e le camisa de ille, aspirava a su aure, e descendeva al pavimento, ubi ille se sedeva fricante le naso. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki looked down between the boy's collar and neck, snuffed at his ear, and climbed down to the floor, where he sat rubbing his nose.</b> <b>"Bon gratias," diceva le matre de Teddy, "e illo es un creatura salvage! Io suppone que ille es tanto mansuete proque nos ha essite benevole a ille." </b> <b>"Good gracious," said Teddy's mother, "and that's a wild creature! I suppose he's so tame because we've been kind to him."</b> <b>"Tote mangustas es similar," diceva su sposo. "Si Teddy non le prende per le cauda, o essaya poner le in un cavia, ille currera in e ex le casa tote le die. Vamos dar le alique pro mangiar." </b> <b>"All mongooses are like that," said her husband. "If Teddy doesn't pick him up by the tail, or try to put him in a cage, he'll run in and out of the house all day long. Let's give him something to eat."</b> <b>Illes le dava un pecietta de carne crude. Illo placeva Rikki-tikki multissimo, e quando ille lo ha finite ille vadeva in le veranda e se sedeva in le lumine de sol e brossava su pelle pro sicar le radices. Pois ille se sentiva melior. </b> <b>They gave him a little piece of raw meat. Rikki-tikki liked it immensely, and when it was finished he went out into the veranda and sat in the sunshine and fluffed up his fur to make it dry to the roots. Then he felt better.</b> <b>"Il ha plus cosas pro discoperir in iste casa," ille diceva a se mesme, "que tote mi familia pote discoperir in tote lor vitas. Io certemente remanera e discoperira." </b> <b>"There are more things to find out about in this house," he said to himself, "than all my family could find out in all their lives. I shall certainly stay and find out."</b> <b>Ille passava tote ille die explorante le casa. Ille quasi se neca in le alveos, poneva su naso in le tinta in le scriptorio, e lo ardeva al puncto del cigarro del grande homine, proque ille montava le gremio del grande homine pro reguardar le processo de scriber. A crepusculo ille curreva in le camera de Teddy pro reguardar le processo de accender le lampas de kerosen, e quando Teddy vadeva a lecto anque Rikki-tikki montava le lecto. Ma ille esseva un companion inquiete, proque ille debeva levar se e attender a tote ruito durante tote le nocte, e discoperir lo que faceva le ruito. Le matre e patre de Teddy entrava, ante de addormir se, pro reguardar lor puero, e Rikki-tikki esseva vigile super le cossino de capite. "Illo non me place," diceva le matre de Teddy. "Ille poterea morder le infante." "Ille non facera illo," diceva le patre. "Teddy es plus secur con ille bestietta que si ille haberea un can de Saint-Hubert pro vigilar super ille. Si un serpente entrarea le camera actualmente–" </b> <b>He spent all that day roaming over the house. He nearly drowned himself in the bath-tubs, put his nose into the ink on a writing table, and burned it on the end of the big man's cigar, for he climbed up in the big man's lap to see how writing was done. At nightfall he ran into Teddy's nursery to watch how kerosene lamps were lighted, and when Teddy went to bed Rikki-tikki climbed up too. But he was a restless companion, because he had to get up and attend to every noise all through the night, and find out what made it. Teddy's mother and father came in, the last thing, to look at their boy, and Rikki-tikki was awake on the pillow. "I don't like that," said Teddy's mother. "He may bite the child." "He'll do no such thing," said the father. "Teddy's safer with that little beast than if he had a bloodhound to watch him. If a snake came into the nursery now–"</b> <b>Ma le matre de Teddy non pensarea de un cosa tanto mal. </b> <b>But Teddy's mother wouldn't think of anything so awful.</b> <b>In le matino, de bon hora, Rikki-tikki veniva a jentaculo in le veranda viagiante super le humero de Teddy, e illes le dava un banana e un poco de ovo bullite. Ille se sedeva in cata de lor gremios un post le altere, proque tote mangusta ben educate sempre spera esser un mangusta domestic un die e ha cameras in le qual ille pote currer; e le matre de Rikki-tikki (illa habitava in le casa del general a Segauli) habeva dicite attentivemente a Rikki lo que ille debe facer si unquam ille incontrarea homines blanc. </b> <b>Early in the morning Rikki-tikki came to early breakfast in the veranda riding on Teddy's shoulder, and they gave him banana and some boiled egg. He sat on all their laps one after the other, because every well-brought-up mongoose always hopes to be a house mongoose some day and have rooms to run about in; and Rikki-tikki's mother (she used to live in the general's house at Segowlee) had carefully told Rikki what to do if ever he came across white men.</b> <b>Pois Rikki-tikki vadeva al jardin pro vider lo que esseva la. Illo esseva un grande jardin, con solmente un medio cultivate e con arbustos, tanto grande como casas de estate, de rosas a Marshal Niel, tilias e orangieros, gruppos de bambus, e boscage de herbas alte. Rikki-tikki leccave le labios. "Isto es un terreno de chassa splendide," ille diceva, e al pensata de illo su cauda deveniva como un brossa pro bottilias, e ille curreva per le jardin, aspirante ci e la usque ille audiva voces triste in un spino. </b> <b>Then Rikki-tikki went out into the garden to see what was to be seen. It was a large garden, only half cultivated, with bushes, as big as summer-houses, of Marshal Niel roses, lime and orange trees, clumps of bamboos, and thickets of high grass. Rikki-tikki licked his lips. "This is a splendid hunting-ground," he said, and his tail grew bottle-brushy at the thought of it, and he scuttled up and down the garden, snuffing here and there till he heard very sorrowful voices in a thorn-bush.</b> <b>Esseva Darzi, le orthotomo, e su sposa. Illes ha facite un belle nido per traher insimul duo grande folios e suer lor bordos con fibras, e habeva plenate le interior con coton e lanugine. Le nido oscillava, durante que illes se sedeva super le bordo e plorava. </b> <b>It was Darzee, the Tailorbird, and his wife. They had made a beautiful nest by pulling two big leaves together and stitching them up the edges with fibers, and had filled the hollow with cotton and downy fluff. The nest swayed to and fro, as they sat on the rim and cried.</b> <b>"Que es le problema?" demandava Rikki-tikki. </b> <b>"What is the matter?" asked Rikki-tikki.</b> <b>"Nos es miserabilissime," diceva Darzi. "Un de nostre babies cadeva del nido heri e Nag le mangiava." </b> <b>"We are very miserable," said Darzee. "One of our babies fell out of the nest yesterday and Nag ate him."</b> <b>"Hmm!" diceva Rikki-tikki, "illo es tristissime–ma io es un estraniero ci. Qui es Nag?" </b> <b>"H'm!" said Rikki-tikki, "that is very sad–but I am a stranger here. Who is Nag?"</b> <b>Darzi e su sposa solmente quattava tremulante in le nido sin responder, proque ex le herbas dense al basso del arbusto veniva un sibilo basse –un sono horribile que causava Rikki-tikki saltar vermente duo pedes. </b> <b>Darzee and his wife only cowered down in the nest without answering, for from the thick grass at the foot of the bush there came a low hiss–a horrid cold sound that made Rikki-tikki jump back two clear feet. </b> <b>Pois uncia per uncia ex le herbas se leva le capite e cappucio displicate de Nag, le grande cobra nigre, e ille habeva cinque pedes de longor de lingua a cauda. Quando ille habeva levate un tertia de se mesme completemente del terra, ille restava balanciante justo como un tuffo de dentes de leon se balancia in le vento, e ille reguardava Rikki-tikki con le oculos mal serpentin que nunquam cambia lor expression, sin reguardo a lo que le serpente pense. </b> <b>Then inch by inch out of the grass rose up the head and spread hood of Nag, the big black cobra, and he was five feet long from tongue to tail. When he had lifted one-third of himself clear of the ground, he stayed balancing to and fro exactly as a dandelion tuft balances in the wind, and he looked at Rikki-tikki with the wicked snake's eyes that never change their expression, whatever the snake may be thinking of.</b> <b>"Qui es Nag?" diceva ille. "Io es Nag. Le grande Deo Brahm poneva su marca super toto de nostre gente, quando le prime cobra displicava su cappucio pro umbrar Brahm del sol durante que ille dormiva. Reguarda, e ha timor!" </b> <b>"Who is Nag?" said he. "I am Nag. The great God Brahm put his mark upon all our people, when the first cobra spread his hood to keep the sun off Brahm as he slept. Look, and be afraid!"</b> <b>Ille displicava su cappucio mesmo plus, e Rikki-tikki videva le marca de oculares super le posterior del cappucio que sembla exactemente le parte ocular de un serratura a croc e oculo. Ille habeva timor pro le minuta, ma es impossibile pro un mangusta remaner territe pro un quantitate de tempore, e ben que Rikki-tikki nunquam habeva incontrate un cobra vive antea, su matre le ha date cobras morte pro mangiar, e ille sapeva que tote le affaires de vita de un mangusta adulte deberea esser luctar e mangiar serpentes. Anque Nag sapeva illo e, al basso de su corde frigide, ille habeva timor. </b> <b>He spread out his hood more than ever, and Rikki-tikki saw the spectacle-mark on the back of it that looks exactly like the eye part of a hook-and-eye fastening. He was afraid for the minute, but it is impossible for a mongoose to stay frightened for any length of time, and though Rikki-tikki had never met a live cobra before, his mother had fed him on dead ones, and he knew that all a grown mongoose's business in life was to fight and eat snakes. Nag knew that too and, at the bottom of his cold heart, he was afraid.</b> <b>"Ben," diceva Rikki-tikki, e su cauda comencia inflar se de novo, "marcas o nulle marcas, pensa tu que es correcte mangiar avettos ex un nido?" </b> <b>"Well," said Rikki-tikki, and his tail began to fluff up again, "marks or no marks, do you think it is right for you to eat fledglings out of a nest?"</b> <b>Nag pensava a se mesme, e reguardava le movimente parvissime in le hebras detra Rikki-tikki. Ille sapeva que mangustas in le jardin significarea morte pro ille es su familia eventualmente, ma ille voleva causar que Rikki-tikki reduce su guarda. Dunque ille abassava su capite un poco, e lo poneva super un latere. </b> <b>Nag was thinking to himself, and watching the least little movement in the grass behind Rikki-tikki. He knew that mongooses in the garden meant death sooner or later for him and his family, but he wanted to get Rikki-tikki off his guard. So he dropped his head a little, and put it on one side.</b> <b>"Vamos parlar," ille diceva. "Tu mangia ovos. Proque deberea io non mangia aves?" </b> <b>"Let us talk," he said. "You eat eggs. Why should not I eat birds?"</b> <b>"Detra te! Reguarda detra te!" cantava Darzi. </b> <b>"Behind you! Look behind you!" sang Darzee.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki esseva troppo intelligente a perder tempore in reguardar fixemente. Ille saltava in le aere tanto alte como ille poteva, e justo sub ille passava sibilante le capite de Nagaina, le sposa impie de Nag. Illa ha repite detra ille durante que ille parlava, pro finir le. Ille audiva su sibilo feroce durante le culpo mancava. Ille atterrava quasi trans le dorso de illa, e si ille habeva essite un mangusta vetule ille haberea sapite que alora esseva le tempore a rumper le dorso de illa con un morsura; ma ille habeva timor del colpo de retorno flagellante terribile del cobra. Ille mordeva, vermente, ma non mordeva bastante longemente, e ille saltava del cauda battiente, lassante Nagaina lacerate e irate. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki knew better than to waste time in staring. He jumped up in the air as high as he could go, and just under him whizzed by the head of Nagaina, Nag's wicked wife. She had crept up behind him as he was talking, to make an end of him. He heard her savage hiss as the stroke missed. He came down almost across her back, and if he had been an old mongoose he would have known that then was the time to break her back with one bite; but he was afraid of the terrible lashing return stroke of the cobra. He bit, indeed, but did not bite long enough, and he jumped clear of the whisking tail, leaving Nagaina torn and angry.</b> <b>"Impie, impie Darzi!" diceva Nag, flagellante tanto alte como ille poteva attinger verso le nido in le spino. Ma Darzi lo ha construite ex le extension de serpentes, e illo oscillava. </b> <b>"Wicked, wicked Darzee!" said Nag, lashing up as high as he could reach toward the nest in the thorn-bush. But Darzee had built it out of reach of snakes, and it only swayed to and fro.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki sentiva que su oculos deveniva rubie e calide (quando le oculos de un mangusta deveniva rubie, ille es irate), e ille se sedeva super su cauda e gambas posterior como un parve kanguru, e reguardava circa se mesme, e garrulava con rabia. Ma Nag e Nagaina habeva disparite a in le herbas. Quando un serpente manca su colpo, illo nunquam dice alique o da un indication de lo que illo intende de facer proximo. Rikki-tikki non desirava a sequer los, pro que ille non se sentiva secur que ille poteva arrangiar duo serpentes a un vice. Dunque ille trottava per semita de gravellas presso del casa, e se sedeva pro pensar. Illo esseva un cosa seriose pro ille. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki felt his eyes growing red and hot (when a mongoose's eyes grow red, he is angry), and he sat back on his tail and hind legs like a little kangaroo, and looked all round him, and chattered with rage. But Nag and Nagaina had disappeared into the grass. When a snake misses its stroke, it never says anything or gives any sign of what it means to do next. Rikki-tikki did not care to follow them, for he did not feel sure that he could manage two snakes at once. So he trotted off to the gravel path near the house, and sat down to think. It was a serious matter for him.</b> <b>Si on ha legite le libros vetule de historia natural, on trova que illos dice que quando le mangusta lucta le serpente e per fortuna recipe un morsura, ille currera e mangiara alicun herbas le qual le sana. Illo non es ver. Le victoria es mermente un question de rapiditate de oculo e rapiditate de pede – colpo del serpente contra le salto del mangusta – e como nulle oculo pote sequer le motion del capite de un serpente quando illo colpa, isto face que le cosas es multo plus meraviliose que ulle herbas magic. Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille esseva un mangusta juvene, e illo le faceva mesmo plus felice a pensar que ille habeva capace de escappar un colpo del posterior. Illo le dava le confidentia in se mesme, e quando Teddy veniva currente per le semita, Rikki-tikki esseva preste de reciper caressas. </b> <b>If you read the old books of natural history, you will find they say that when the mongoose fights the snake and happens to get bitten, he runs off and eats some herb that cures him. That is not true. The victory is only a matter of quickness of eye and quickness of foot–snake's blow against mongoose's jump–and as no eye can follow the motion of a snake's head when it strikes, this makes things much more wonderful than any magic herb. Rikki-tikki knew he was a young mongoose, and it made him all the more pleased to think that he had managed to escape a blow from behind. It gave him confidence in himself, and when Teddy came running down the path, Rikki-tikki was ready to be petted.</b> <b>Ma al mesme tempore que Teddy se inclinava, alique serpeva un poco in le sablo, e un voce miniscule diceva: "Presta attention. Io es Morte!" Illo esseva Karait, le serpentetta de color de sablo qui cuba per selection in le terra sablose; e su morsura es tanto periculose como illo del cobra. Ma ille es tanto parve que necuno pensa de ille, e dunque ille face mesme plus damno a gente. </b> <b>But just as Teddy was stooping, something wriggled a little in the dust, and a tiny voice said: "Be careful. I am Death!" It was Karait, the dusty brown snakeling that lies for choice on the dusty earth; and his bite is as dangerous as the cobra's. But he is so small that nobody thinks of him, and so he does the more harm to people.</b> <b>Le oculos de Rikki-tikki deveniva rubie de novo, e ille dansava a Karait con le oscillation peculiar que ille habeva heritate de su familia. Illo pare multo comic, ma illo es un passo balanciate tanto perfectemente que on pote partir illo a qualcunque angula que se place, e in arrangiar le serpentes isto es un avantage. Si solmente Rikki-tikki habeva sapite, ille faceva un cosa multo plus periculose que luctar Nag, proque Karait es tanto parve, e pote virar tanto rapidemente, que si Rikki non le mordeva presso del posterior del capite, ille reciperea le colpo de retorno in su oculo o su labio. Ma Rikki non lo sapeva. Su oculos esseva completemente rubie, e ille oscillava, cercante un bon loco pro tener. Karait colpava. Rikki saltava lateralmente e tentava currer verso ille, ma le impie parve capite del color de sablo flagellava intra un fraction de su humero, e ille debeva saltar supra le corpore, e le capite sequeva su calces proximemente.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki's eyes grew red again, and he danced up to Karait with the peculiar rocking, swaying motion that he had inherited from his family. It looks very funny, but it is so perfectly balanced a gait that you can fly off from it at any angle you please, and in dealing with snakes this is an advantage. If Rikki-tikki had only known, he was doing a much more dangerous thing than fighting Nag, for Karait is so small, and can turn so quickly, that unless Rikki bit him close to the back of the head, he would get the return stroke in his eye or his lip. But Rikki did not know. His eyes were all red, and he rocked back and forth, looking for a good place to hold. Karait struck out. Rikki jumped sideways and tried to run in, but the wicked little dusty gray head lashed within a fraction of his shoulder, and he had to jump over the body, and the head followed his heels close.</b> <b>Teddy vocava al casa: "O, reguarda ci! Nostre mangusta occide un serpente." E Rikki-tikki audiva un crito del matre de Teddy. Su patre curreva del casa con un baston, ma al tempore que ille arrivava, Karait habeva colpate troppo longe un vice, e Rikki-tikki habeva saltate super le dorso del serpente, lassate cader su capite inter su antegambas, mordite tanto alte al dorso como ille pote caper, e rolate foras. Ille morsura paralysava Karait, e Rikki-tikki sta preste de mangiar le comenciante al cauda, secundo le costume de su familia a cena, quando ille se memorava que un repasto complete face que un mangusta deveni lente, e si ille desirava a haber preste toto de su fortia e rapiditate, ille debe remaner malgre. </b> <b>Teddy shouted to the house: "Oh, look here! Our mongoose is killing a snake." And Rikki-tikki heard a scream from Teddy's mother. His father ran out with a stick, but by the time he came up, Karait had lunged out once too far, and Rikki-tikki had sprung, jumped on the snake's back, dropped his head far between his forelegs, bitten as high up the back as he could get hold, and rolled away. That bite paralyzed Karait, and Rikki-tikki was just going to eat him up from the tail, after the custom of his family at dinner, when he remembered that a full meal makes a slow mongoose, and if he wanted all his strength and quickness ready, he must keep himself thin.</b> <b>Ille partiva pro un banio de sablo sub le arbustos a oleo de ricino, durante que le patre de Teddy batteva le ja morte Karait. "Que es le uso de illo?" pensava Rikki-tikki. "Io finiva tote illo;" e pois le matre de Teddy le prendeva ex le sablo e le imbraciava, critante que ille ha salvate Teddy de morte, e le patre de Teddy diceva que ille esseva un providentia, e Teddy spectava con grande oculos espaventate. Tote le commotion, le qual, naturalmente, ille non comprendeva, amusava Rikki-tikki bastante ben. Serea equalmente bon a Rikki-Tikki si le matre de Teddy habeva caressate Teddy pro jocar in le sablo. Rikki se amusava completemente. </b> <b>He went away for a dust bath under the castor-oil bushes, while Teddy's father beat the dead Karait. "What is the use of that?" thought Rikki-tikki. "I have settled it all;" and then Teddy's mother picked him up from the dust and hugged him, crying that he had saved Teddy from death, and Teddy's father said that he was a providence, and Teddy looked on with big scared eyes. Rikki-tikki was rather amused at all the fuss, which, of course, he did not understand. Teddy's mother might just as well have petted Teddy for playing in the dust. Rikki was thoroughly enjoying himself.</b> <b>Ille nocte al cena, vadente inter le vitros a vino super le tabula, ille haberea potite stipar se e tres vices de novo con cosas deliciose. Ma ille se memorava Nag e Nagaina, e ben que il esseva multo placente reciper colpos legier e caressas del matre de Teddy, e seder se super le humero de Teddy, su oculos deveniva rubie de vice a vice, e ille vaderea e comenciarea su longe crito de guerra de "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" </b> <b>That night at dinner, walking to and fro among the wine-glasses on the table, he might have stuffed himself three times over with nice things. But he remembered Nag and Nagaina, and though it was very pleasant to be patted and petted by Teddy's mother, and to sit on Teddy's shoulder, his eyes would get red from time to time, and he would go off into his long war cry of "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!"</b> <b>Teddy le portava al lecto, e insisteva que Rikki-tikki dormi sub su mento. Rikki-tikki esseva troppo ben educate pro morder o rader, ma quando Teddy addormiva ille partiva pro su promenada nocturne circa le casa, e in le obscuritate ille incontrava Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, repente per le muro. Chuchundra es un bestietta desolate. Ille geme e pipa durante le tote nocte, essayante trovar le coragia de currer al centro del camera ma ille nunquam lo trova. </b> <b>Teddy carried him off to bed, and insisted on Rikki-tikki sleeping under his chin. Rikki-tikki was too well bred to bite or scratch, but as soon as Teddy was asleep he went off for his nightly walk round the house, and in the dark he ran up against Chuchundra, the musk-rat, creeping around by the wall. Chuchundra is a broken-hearted little beast. He whimpers and cheeps all the night, trying to make up his mind to run into the middle of the room. But he never gets there.</b> <b>"Non occide me," diceva Chuchundra, quasi plorante. "Rikki-tikki, non occide me!" </b> <b>"Don't kill me," said Chuchundra, almost weeping. "Rikki-tikki, don't kill me!"</b> <b>"Pensa tu que un assassino de serpentes occide rattos muscate?" diceva Rikki-tikki disdignosemente. </b> <b>"Do you think a snake-killer kills muskrats?" said Rikki-tikki scornfully.</b> <b>"Serpentes occide illes que occide serpentes," diceva Chuchundra, plus tristemente que unquam. "E como pote io esser certe que Nag non va confunder me pro te un nocte obscur?" </b> <b>"Those who kill snakes get killed by snakes," said Chuchundra, more sorrowfully than ever. "And how am I to be sure that Nag won't mistake me for you some dark night?"</b> <b>"Il non ha le periculo minime," diceva Rikki-tikki. "Ma Nag es in le jardin, e io sape que tu non va la." </b> <b>"There's not the least danger," said Rikki-tikki. "But Nag is in the garden, and I know you don't go there."</b> <b>"Mi cosino Chua, le ratto, me diceva–" diceva Chuchundra, e pois ille cessava. </b> <b>"My cousin Chua, the rat, told me–" said Chuchundra, and then he stopped.</b> <b>"Ille diceva te que?" </b> <b>"Told you what?"</b> <b>"Tchh! Nag es ubique, Rikki-tikki. Tu habeva debite parlar a Chua in le jardin." </b> <b>"H'sh! Nag is everywhere, Rikki-tikki. You should have talked to Chua in the garden."</b> <b>"Io non parlava a ille – dunque tu debe dicer me. Rapidemente, Chuchundra, o io te mordera!" </b> <b>"I didn't–so you must tell me. Quick, Chuchundra, or I'll bite you!"</b> <b>Chuchundra se sedeva e plorava usque le lacrimas rolava de su mustachios. "Io es un homine multo paupere," ille singultava. "Io nunquam habeva bastante spirito pro currer al centro del camera. Tchh! Io non debe dice te alique. Pote tu non audir, Rikki-tikki?" </b> <b>Chuchundra sat down and cried till the tears rolled off his whiskers. "I am a very poor man," he sobbed. "I never had spirit enough to run out into the middle of the room. H'sh! I mustn't tell you anything. Can't you hear, Rikki-tikki?"</b> <b>Rikki-tikki auscultava. Le casa esseva tanto silentiose como silentio se mesme, ma ille pensava que ille poteva audir le grattamento le plus debile in le mundo–un sono tanto debile como illo de un vespa iente a pede super un fenestra– le grattamento sic del squamas de un serpente super briccas. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki listened. The house was as still as still, but he thought he could just catch the faintest scratch-scratch in the world–a noise as faint as that of a wasp walking on a window-pane–the dry scratch of a snake's scales on brick-work.</b> <b>"Illo es Nag o Nagaina," ille diceva a se mesme, "e ille repe a in le camera de banio. Tu ha ration, Chuchundra; io habeva debite parlar a Chua." </b> <b>"That's Nag or Nagaina," he said to himself, "and he is crawling into the bath-room sluice. You're right, Chuchundra; I should have talked to Chua."</b> <b>Ille sortiva furtivemente al camera de banio de Teddy, ma il habeva nil la, e pois al camera de banio del matre de Teddy. Al basso del muro de gypso lisie il habeva un bricca tirate pro crear un esclusa pro le aqua de banio, e durante que Rikki-tikki vadeva secretemente per le bordo de bricca ubi le banio se situa, ille audiva Nag e Nagaina susurrante le un al altere al exterior in le lumine del luna. </b> <b>He stole off to Teddy's bath-room, but there was nothing there, and then to Teddy's mother's bathroom. At the bottom of the smooth plaster wall there was a brick pulled out to make a sluice for the bath water, and as Rikki-tikki stole in by the masonry curb where the bath is put, he heard Nag and Nagaina whispering together outside in the moonlight.</b> <b>"Quando le casa es disoccupate," diceva Nagaina a su sposo, "ille debera partir, e pois le jardin sera le nostre de novo. Entra quietemente, e memora te que le grande homine qui occideva Karait es le prime que nos mordera. Pois exi e dice me, e nos chassara Rikki-tikki insimul." </b> <b>"When the house is emptied of people," said Nagaina to her husband, "he will have to go away, and then the garden will be our own again. Go in quietly, and remember that the big man who killed Karait is the first one to bite. Then come out and tell me, and we will hunt for Rikki-tikki together."</b> <b>"Ma es tu secur que nos ganiara alique de occider le gente?" diceva Nag. </b> <b>"But are you sure that there is anything to be gained by killing the people?" said Nag.</b> <b>"Toto. Quando il habeva nulle gente in le bungalow, habera nos un mangusta in le jardin? Si longe que le bungalow es disoccupate, nos es rege e regina del jardin; e memora te que quando nostre ovos in le parterre de melones cova (e forsan sera deman), nostre infante necessitara spatio e silentio." </b> <b>"Everything. When there were no people in the bungalow, did we have any mongoose in the garden? So long as the bungalow is empty, we are king and queen of the garden; and remember that as soon as our eggs in the melon bed hatch (as they may tomorrow), our children will need room and quiet."</b> <b>"Io non habeva pensate de illo," diceva Nag. "Io vadera, ma il ha nulle besonio que nos chassarea for Rikki-tikki postea. Io occidera le grande homine e su sposa, e le puero si io pote, e sortira quietemente. Pois le bungalow sera disoccupate, e Rikki-tikki partira." </b> <b>"I had not thought of that," said Nag. "I will go, but there is no need that we should hunt for Rikki-tikki afterward. I will kill the big man and his wife, and the child if I can, and come away quietly. Then the bungalow will be empty, and Rikki-tikki will go."</b> <b>Tote le corpore de Rikki-tikki vibrava con le rabie e odio a audir illo, e pois le capite de Nag veniva per le esclusa, e su frigide corpore de cinque pedes de longor lo sequeva. Tanto irate como ille esseva, Rikki-tikki habeva multo timor quando ille videva le grandor del cobra grande. Nag se inrolava, levava su capite, e reguardava le interior del camera de banio in le obscuritate, e Rikki poteva vider su oculos reluce. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki tingled all over with rage and hatred at this, and then Nag's head came through the sluice, and his five feet of cold body followed it. Angry as he was, Rikki-tikki was very frightened as he saw the size of the big cobra. Nag coiled himself up, raised his head, and looked into the bathroom in the dark, and Rikki could see his eyes glitter.</b> <b>"Ora, si io le occide ci, Nagaina sapera; e si io le lucta in le pavimento libere, le avantage es le sue. Que debe io facer?” diceva Rikki-tikki-tavi. </b> <b>"Now, if I kill him here, Nagaina will know; and if I fight him on the open floor, the odds are in his favor. What am I to do?" said Rikki-tikki-tavi.</b> <b>Nag oscillava ci e la, e pois Rikki-tikki le audiva bibente ex le jarra a aqua le plus grande le qual on usava pro plenar le banio. "Illo es bon," diceva le serpente. "Ora, quando ille occideva Karait, le grande homine habeva un baston. Forsan ille ancora habera ille baston, ma quando ille entra le banio pro baniar se in le matino ille non habera un baston. Io attendera ci usque ille veni. Nagaina – audi me tu? – Io attendera ci in le frescor usque le alba." </b> <b>Nag waved to and fro, and then Rikki-tikki heard him drinking from the biggest water-jar that was used to fill the bath. "That is good," said the snake. "Now, when Karait was killed, the big man had a stick. He may have that stick still, but when he comes in to bathe in the morning he will not have a stick. I shall wait here till he comes. Nagaina–do you hear me?–I shall wait here in the cool till daytime."</b> <b>Il habeva nulle responsa del exterior, dunque Rikki-tikki sapeva Nagaina habeva partite. Nag se serpentava, spira post spira, circa le protuberantia al basso del jarro a aqua, e Rikki-tikki restava tanto immobile como morte. Post un hora ille comenciava mover, musculo post musculo, verso le jarro. Nag dormiva, e Rikki-tikki reguardava su dorso grande, demandante a se mesme qual loco providerea le prisa le melior. "Si io non rumpe su dorso al prime salto," diceva Rikki, "ille ancora potera luctar. E si ille lucta – O Rikki!" Ille reguardava le spissor del collo sub le cappucio , ma illo esseva troppo pro ille; e morder presso del cauda solmente causa Nag a esser furiose. </b> <b>There was no answer from outside, so Rikki-tikki knew Nagaina had gone away. Nag coiled himself down, coil by coil, round the bulge at the bottom of the water jar, and Rikki-tikki stayed still as death. After an hour he began to move, muscle by muscle, toward the jar. Nag was asleep, and Rikki-tikki looked at his big back, wondering which would be the best place for a good hold. "If I don't break his back at the first jump," said Rikki, "he can still fight. And if he fights–O Rikki!" He looked at the thickness of the neck below the hood, but that was too much for him; and a bite near the tail would only make Nag savage.</b> <b>"Il debe esser le capite"' ille diceva al fin; "le capite supra le cappucio. E, quando io es la, io non debe disingagiar.” </b> <b>"It must be the head"' he said at last; "the head above the hood. And, when I am once there, I must not let go."</b> <b>Pois ille saltava. Le capite cubava un poco distante del jarro a aqua, sub le curva de illo; e, quando su dentes se reuniva, Rikki reinfortiava su dorso contra le protuberantia del jarro de ceramo rubie pro retener le capite. Isto le dava solmente un seconda additional, e ille prendeva le avantage de illo. Pois le serpente le jectava ci e la como un can succuterea un ratto – ci e la super le pavimento, in alto e in basso, e in grande circulos, ma su oculos esseva rubie e ille teneva firmemente durante que le corpore flagellava super le pavimento, invertante le coclear grande e le platto a sapon e le brossa de banio, e percuteva le lateral de stanno del banio. Durante que ille teneva, ille claudeva su mandibulas plus e plus fortemente, pro que ille voleva assecurar que si ille mori del colpos, e, pro le honor de su familia, ille preferreva que on le trova con su dentes serrate. Ille esseva vertiginose, con dolor, e se sentiva succutite a pecias quando alique explodeva como tunitro juste detra ille. Un vento calide le rendeva insensibile e foco rubie adureva su pelle. Le ruito ha eveliate le grande homine, e ille habeva discargate ambe calces de un fusil de chassa in Nag solmente un poco post le cappucio. </b> <b>Then he jumped. The head was lying a little clear of the water jar, under the curve of it; and, as his teeth met, Rikki braced his back against the bulge of the red earthenware to hold down the head. This gave him just one second's purchase, and he made the most of it. Then he was battered to and fro as a rat is shaken by a dog–to and fro on the floor, up and down, and around in great circles, but his eyes were red and he held on as the body cart-whipped over the floor, upsetting the tin dipper and the soap dish and the flesh brush, and banged against the tin side of the bath. As he held he closed his jaws tighter and tighter, for he made sure he would be banged to death, and, for the honor of his family, he preferred to be found with his teeth locked. He was dizzy, aching, and felt shaken to pieces when something went off like a thunderclap just behind him. A hot wind knocked him senseless and red fire singed his fur. The big man had been wakened by the noise, and had fired both barrels of a shotgun into Nag just behind the hood.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki teneva firmemente con le oculos claudite, proque actualmente ille esseva certe que ille esseva morte. Mal capite non moveva, e le grande homine le prendeva e diceva, "Es le mangusta de novo, Alice. Ora, le parve typo ha salvate nostre vitas." </b> <b>Rikki-tikki held on with his eyes shut, for now he was quite sure he was dead. But the head did not move, and the big man picked him up and said, "It's the mongoose again, Alice. The little chap has saved our lives now."</b> <b>Pois le matre de Teddy entrava con un facie multo blanc, e videva lo que remane de Nag, e Rikki-tikki se traheva al camera de Teddy e passava un medietate del resto del nocte teneremente tremente pro discoperir si ille vermente esseva rumpite in quaranta pecias, como ille credeva. </b> <b>Then Teddy's mother came in with a very white face, and saw what was left of Nag, and Rikki-tikki dragged himself to Teddy's bedroom and spent half the rest of the night shaking himself tenderly to find out whether he really was broken into forty pieces, as he fancied.</b> <b>Quando le alba veniva ille esseva multo rigide, ma ben contente con su gestas. "Proximo, io debera arrangiar le cosas con Nagaina, e illa sera pejor que cinque Nages, e il ha nulle via a saper quando le ovos del qual illa parlava covara. Bonitate! Io debe vader e visitar Darzi," ille diceva. </b> <b>When morning came he was very stiff, but well pleased with his doings. "Now I have Nagaina to settle with, and she will be worse than five Nags, and there's no knowing when the eggs she spoke of will hatch. Goodness! I must go and see Darzee," he said.</b> <b>Sin attender le jentaculo, Rikki-tikki curreva al spino ubi Darzi cantava un canto de triumpho in su voce le plus alte. Le novas del morte de Nag ha diffundite se per tote le jardin, proque le scopator habeva jectate le corpore super le cumulo de immunditias. </b> <b>Without waiting for breakfast, Rikki-tikki ran to the thornbush where Darzee was singing a song of triumph at the top of his voice. The news of Nag's death was all over the garden, for the sweeper had thrown the body on the rubbish-heap.</b> <b>"O, tu tuffo de plumas stupide!" diceva Rikki-tikki iratemente. "Es isto le tempore pro cantar?" </b> <b>"Oh, you stupid tuft of feathers!" said Rikki-tikki angrily. "Is this the time to sing?"</b> <b>"Nag es morte–es morte–es morte!" cantava Darzi. "Rikki-tikki le valente le prendeva per le capite e teneva firmement. Le grande homine apportava le baston explosive, e Nag cadeva in duo pecias! Ille nunquam mangiara mi babies de novo." </b> <b>"Nag is dead–is dead–is dead!" sang Darzee. "The valiant Rikki-tikki caught him by the head and held fast. The big man brought the bang-stick, and Nag fell in two pieces! He will never eat my babies again."</b> <b>"Toto de illo es bastante ver. Ma ubi es Nagaina?" diceva Rikki-tikki, reguardante attentivemente circa se mesme. </b> <b>"All that's true enough. But where's Nagaina?" said Rikki-tikki, looking carefully round him.</b> <b>"Nagaina veniva al camera de banio e vocava Nag," Darzi continuava, "e Nag veniva de illo super le fin de un baston – le scopator le prendeva per le fin de un baston e le jectava super le cumulo de immunditias. Vamos cantar de Rikki-Tikki, le Magne con rubie oculos!" E Darzi plenava su gorga e cantava. </b> <b>"Nagaina came to the bathroom sluice and called for Nag," Darzee went on, "and Nag came out on the end of a stick–the sweeper picked him up on the end of a stick and threw him upon the rubbish heap. Let us sing about the great, the red-eyed Rikki-tikki!" And Darzee filled his throat and sang.</b> <b>"Si io poterea ascender a tu nido, io rolarea tu babies ex illo!" diceva Rikki-tikki. "Tu non sape quando facer le cosa correcte al tempore correcte. Tu es bastante secur la in tu nido, ma ci pro me es le guerra. Cessa le cantar pro un minuta, Darzi." </b> <b>"If I could get up to your nest, I'd roll your babies out!" said Rikki-tikki. "You don't know when to do the right thing at the right time. You're safe enough in your nest there, but it's war for me down here. Stop singing a minute, Darzee."</b> <b>"Pro le gratias de Rikki-Tikki le Magne e Belle io cessara," diceva Darzi. "Que es illo, O assassino de Nag le terribile?" </b> <b>"For the great, the beautiful Rikki-tikki's sake I will stop," said Darzee. "What is it, O Killer of the terrible Nag?"</b> <b>"Ubi es Nagaina, pro le tertie vice?" </b> <b>"Where is Nagaina, for the third time?"</b> <b>"Super le cumulo de immunditias presso del stabulos, affligente se pro Nag. Magne es Rikki-tikki con le dentes blanc." </b> <b>"On the rubbish heap by the stables, mourning for Nag. Great is Rikki-tikki with the white teeth."</b> <b>"Oblida mi dentes blanc! Ha tu unquam audite ubi ille cela su ovos?" </b> <b>"Bother my white teeth! Have you ever heard where she keeps her eggs?"</b> <b>"In le parterre de melones, in le parte le plus proxime al muro, ubi le lumine del sol lo illumina quasi tote le die. Illa los celava la ante multo septimanas." </b> <b>"In the melon bed, on the end nearest the wall, where the sun strikes nearly all day. She hid them there weeks ago."</b> <b>"E tu nunquam pensava que serea utile dicer me? Le parte le plus proxime al muro, tu diceva?" </b> <b>"And you never thought it worth while to tell me? The end nearest the wall, you said?"</b> <b>"Rikki-tikki, tu non va mangiar su ovos?" </b> <b>"Rikki-tikki, you are not going to eat her eggs?"</b> <b>"No; non exactemente mangiar. Darzi, si tu ha un grano de senso tu volara al stabulos e fingera que tu ala es rupte, e lassa que Nagaina te chassa a iste arbusto. Io debe vader al parterre de melones, e si io vadeva la ora illa me viderea.” </b> <b>"Not eat exactly; no. Darzee, if you have a grain of sense you will fly off to the stables and pretend that your wing is broken, and let Nagaina chase you away to this bush. I must get to the melon-bed, and if I went there now she'd see me."</b> <b>Darzi esseva un typo con le cerebro de plumas qui nunquam poteva tener plus que un idea a vice in su capite. E solmente proque ille sapeva que le infantes de Nagaina nasceva in ovos tal como su proprie, ille non pensava primo que esseva juste occider los. Ma su sposa esseva un ave practic, e illa sapeva que le ovos de cobra significava juvene cobras plus tarde. Assi illa volava del nido, e lassava Darzi vigilante le babies, e continuante su canto del morte de Nag. Darzi esseva bastante similar a un homine in alicun vias. </b> <b>Darzee was a feather-brained little fellow who could never hold more than one idea at a time in his head. And just because he knew that Nagaina's children were born in eggs like his own, he didn't think at first that it was fair to kill them. But his wife was a sensible bird, and she knew that cobra's eggs meant young cobras later on. So she flew off from the nest, and left Darzee to keep the babies warm, and continue his song about the death of Nag. Darzee was very like a man in some ways.</b> <b>Illa papilionava avante Nagaina presso del cumulo de immunditias e critava, "O, mi ala es rupte! Le puero in le casa jectava un petra a me e lo rupmeva." Pois illa papilionava plus desperatemente que antea.</b> <b>She fluttered in front of Nagaina by the rubbish heap and cried out, "Oh, my wing is broken! The boy in the house threw a stone at me and broke it." Then she fluttered more desperately than ever.</b> <b>Nagaina levava su capite e sibilava, "Tu preveniva Rikki-tikki quando io poteva occider le. Vermente, tu ha selegite un mal loco in le qual esser claude." E illa movava verso le sposa de Darzi, glissante per le sablo. </b> <b>Nagaina lifted up her head and hissed, "You warned Rikki-tikki when I would have killed him. Indeed and truly, you've chosen a bad place to be lame in." And she moved toward Darzee's wife, slipping along over the dust.</b> <b>"Le puero lo rumpeva con un petra!" critava le sposa de Darzi. </b> <b>"The boy broke it with a stone!" shrieked Darzee's wife.</b> <b>"Ben! Forsan illo sera un poco de consolation a te que post que tu es morte io va saldar contos con le puero. Mi sposo cuba super le cumulo de immunditias iste matino, ma ante le nocte le puero in le casa va cubar multissime immobile. Que es le uso de currer foras? Certemente io va attrappar te. Parve imbecille, reguarda me!" </b> <b>"Well! It may be some consolation to you when you're dead to know that I shall settle accounts with the boy. My husband lies on the rubbish heap this morning, but before night the boy in the house will lie very still. What is the use of running away? I am sure to catch you. Little fool, look at me!"</b> <b>Le sposa de Darzi sapeva melio que facer illo, pro un ave qui reguarda le oculos de un serpente deveni tanto territe que illo non pote mover. Le sposa de Darzi continuava papilionar, pipar tristemente, e nunquam sortir le terra, e Nagaina reavivava su velocitate. </b> <b>Darzee's wife knew better than to do that, for a bird who looks at a snake's eyes gets so frightened that she cannot move. Darzee's wife fluttered on, piping sorrowfully, and never leaving the ground, and Nagaina quickened her pace.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki audiva que illas vadeva per le semita del stabulos, e ille hastava pro le parte del parterre de melones le plus proxime al muro. La, in le calide ventrata super le melones, celate multo astutemente, ille trova vinti-cinque ovos, circa le grandor del ovos de un bantam, ma con pelle blanc in loco de scalias. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki heard them going up the path from the stables, and he raced for the end of the melon patch near the wall. There, in the warm litter above the melons, very cunningly hidden, he found twenty-five eggs, about the size of a bantam's eggs, but with whitish skin instead of shell.</b> <b>"Io esseva non un die troppo tosto," ille diceva, proque ille poteva vider le cobrettas buclate al interior del pelle del ovo, e ille sapeva que le minuta que illes se covava illes poterea occider un homine o un mangusta. Ille mordeva le culmines del ovos tanto rapidemente como ille poteva, prestante attention a applattar le cobrettas, e invertente le portata de vice in vice pro vider si ille habeva omittite alicunos. Al fin il habeva solmente tres ovos remanente, e Rikki-tikki comenciava rider dulcemente a se mesme, quando ille audiva le critos del sposa de Darzi: </b> <b>"I was not a day too soon," he said, for he could see the baby cobras curled up inside the skin, and he knew that the minute they were hatched they could each kill a man or a mongoose. He bit off the tops of the eggs as fast as he could, taking care to crush the young cobras, and turned over the litter from time to time to see whether he had missed any. At last there were only three eggs left, and Rikki-tikki began to chuckle to himself, when he heard Darzee's wife screaming:</b> <b>"Rikki-tikki, io duceva Nagaina verso le casa, e illa ha vadite in le veranda, e – o, veni rapidemente – illa intende occider!" </b> <b>"Rikki-tikki, I led Nagaina toward the house, and she has gone into the veranda, and–oh, come quickly–she means killing!"</b> <b>Rikki-tikki fraccassava duo ovos, e se rolava per le parterre de melones con le tertie ovo in su bucca, e curreva al veranda tanto rapidemente como ille pote poner le pede al terra. Teddy e su matre e patre esseva la a un jentaculo de bon hora, ma Rikki-tikki videva que illes non mangiava alique. Illes se sedeva immobilissime, e lor facies esseva blanc. Nagaina esseva inrolate super le mattas presso del sede de Teddy, intra un distantia de colpar facile del gamba nude de Teddy, e illa oscillava, cantante un canto de triumpho. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki smashed two eggs, and tumbled backward down the melon-bed with the third egg in his mouth, and scuttled to the veranda as hard as he could put foot to the ground. Teddy and his mother and father were there at early breakfast, but Rikki-tikki saw that they were not eating anything. They sat stone-still, and their faces were white. Nagaina was coiled up on the matting by Teddy's chair, within easy striking distance of Teddy's bare leg, and she was swaying to and fro, singing a song of triumph.</b> <b>"Filio del grande homine que occideva Nag," illa sibilava, "resta immobile. Io non jam es preste. Attende un poco. Tene te immobilissime, tote tres de vos! Si vos io colpara, e si vos non move io colpara. O, gente imprudente, qui occideva mi Nag!" </b> <b>"Son of the big man that killed Nag," she hissed, "stay still. I am not ready yet. Wait a little. Keep very still, all you three! If you move I strike, and if you do not move I strike. Oh, foolish people, who killed my Nag!"</b> <b>Le oculos de Teddy esseva fixate super su patre, e tote lo que su patre poteva facer esseva susurrar, "Sede te immobile, Teddy. Tu non debe mover te. Teddy, sia immobile." </b> <b>Teddy's eyes were fixed on his father, and all his father could do was to whisper, "Sit still, Teddy. You mustn't move. Teddy, keep still."</b> <b>Pois Rikki-tikki veniva e critava, "Torna te, Nagaina. Torna te e lucta!" </b> <b>Then Rikki-tikki came up and cried, "Turn round, Nagaina. Turn and fight!"</b> <b>"Toto in su tempore," illa diceva, sin mover su oculos. "Io va saldar contos con te tosto. Reguarda tu amicos, Rikki-tikki. Illes es immobile e blanc. Ille ha timor. Illes non osa mover se, e si tu veni un passo plus proxime io va colpar." </b> <b>"All in good time," said she, without moving her eyes. "I will settle my account with you presently. Look at your friends, Rikki-tikki. They are still and white. They are afraid. They dare not move, and if you come a step nearer I strike."</b> <b>"Reguarda tu ovos," diceva Rikki-tikki, "in le parterre de melones presso del muro. Va e reguarda, Nagaina!" </b> <b>"Look at your eggs," said Rikki-tikki, "in the melon bed near the wall. Go and look, Nagaina!"</b> <b>Le grande serpente se tornava mediemente, e videva le ovo super le veranda. "Ah-h! Da lo a me," illa diceva. </b> <b>The big snake turned half around, and saw the egg on the veranda. "Ah-h! Give it to me," she said.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki poneva su patas un a cata latere del ovo, e su oculos esseva tanto rubie como sanguine. "Que precio pro un ovo serpentin? Pro un juvene cobra? Pro un juvene rege de cobras? Pro le ultime – le ultissime del covata? Le formicas mangia tote la alteres presso del parterre de melones." </b> <b>Rikki-tikki put his paws one on each side of the egg, and his eyes were blood-red. "What price for a snake's egg? For a young cobra? For a young king cobra? For the last–the very last of the brood? The ants are eating all the others down by the melon bed."</b> <b>Nagaina girava completemente, oblidante toto pro le gratia de un ovo. Rikki-tikki videva le grande mano del patre de Teddy se lancea e prende Teddy per le humero, e trahe le trans le parve tabula con le cuppas de the, secur e ex le prisa Nagaina. </b> <b>Nagaina spun clear round, forgetting everything for the sake of the one egg. Rikki-tikki saw Teddy's father shoot out a big hand, catch Teddy by the shoulder, and drag him across the little table with the tea-cups, safe and out of reach of Nagaina.</b> <b>"Dupate! Dupate! Dupate! Rikk-tck-tck!" rideva Rikki-tikki dulcemente. "Le puero es secur, e esseva io - io – io que prendeva Nag per le cappucio heri nocte in le camera de banio." Pois ille comenciava saltar, tote de su longor al mesme tempore, su capite presso del pavimento. "Ille me jectava ci e la, ma ille non poteva liberar se. Ille esseva morte ante que le grande homine le colpava in duo pecias con le arma de foco. Io lo faceva! Rikki-tikki-tck-tck! Dunque veni, Nagaina. Veni e lucta con me. Tu non sera un vidua longemente." </b> <b>"Tricked! Tricked! Tricked! Rikk-tck-tck!" chuckled Rikki-tikki. "The boy is safe, and it was I–I–I that caught Nag by the hood last night in the bathroom." Then he began to jump up and down, all four feet together, his head close to the floor. "He threw me to and fro, but he could not shake me off. He was dead before the big man blew him in two. I did it! Rikki-tikki-tck-tck! Come then, Nagaina. Come and fight with me. You shall not be a widow long."</b> <b>Nagaina videva que illa ha perdite su opportunitate de occider Teddy, e le ovo cubava inter le patas de Rikki-tikki. "Da me le ovo, Rikki-tikki. Da me le ultime de mi ovos, e io vadera foras e nunquam retornara," illa diceva, abassante su cappucio. </b> <b>Nagaina saw that she had lost her chance of killing Teddy, and the egg lay between Rikki-tikki's paws. "Give me the egg, Rikki-tikki. Give me the last of my eggs, and I will go away and never come back," she said, lowering her hood.</b> <b>"Si, tu vadera foras, e tu nunquam retornara. Proque tu va vader al cumulo de immunditias con Nag. Lucta, vidua! Le grande homine ha vadite pro prender su arma de foco! Lucta!" </b> <b>"Yes, you will go away, and you will never come back. For you will go to the rubbish heap with Nag. Fight, widow! The big man has gone for his gun! Fight!"</b> <b>Rikki-tikki saltava ci e la circa Nagaina, remanente solmente extra su colpo, su parve oculos como brasa ardente. Nagaina inrolava se mesme e se lanceava a ille. Rikki-tikki saltava. De novo e de novo e de novo illa saltava, e tote vice su capite colpava le mattas del veranda e illa inrolava como le resorto de un horologio. Pois Rikki-tikki dansava in un circulo pro poner se detra illa, e Nagaina se girava completemente pro mantener su capite avante le capite de Rikki-Tikki, assi que le susurro de su cauda super le mattas sonava como folios sic pulsate per le vento. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki was bounding all round Nagaina, keeping just out of reach of her stroke, his little eyes like hot coals. Nagaina gathered herself together and flung out at him. Rikki-tikki jumped up and backward. Again and again and again she struck, and each time her head came with a whack on the matting of the veranda and she gathered herself together like a watch spring. Then Rikki-tikki danced in a circle to get behind her, and Nagaina spun round to keep her head to his head, so that the rustle of her tail on the matting sounded like dry leaves blown along by the wind.</b> <b>Ille habeva oblidate le ovo. Illo resta ancora in le veranda, e Nagaina approchava plus e plus proxime a illo, usque finalmente, durante que Rikki-tikki inspirava, illa lo prendeva con su bucca, girava al scalones del veranda, e curreva rapidemente per le semita, con Rikki-tikki detra illa. Quando le cobra curre pro su vita, illa va como un flagello colpante le collo de un cavallo. </b> <b>He had forgotten the egg. It still lay on the veranda, and Nagaina came nearer and nearer to it, till at last, while Rikki-tikki was drawing breath, she caught it in her mouth, turned to the veranda steps, and flew like an arrow down the path, with Rikki-tikki behind her. When the cobra runs for her life, she goes like a whip-lash flicked across a horse's neck.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille debe attrappar la, o tote le enoio comenciarea de novo. Illa se dirigeva pro le herbas longe presso del spino, e durante que ille curreva Rikki-tikki audiva Darzi ancora cantante su cantetto fatue de triumpho. Ma le sposa de Darzi esseva plus sage. Illa flugava ex le nido quando Nagaina passava, e batteva su alas circa le capite de Nagaina. Si Darzi habeva adjutate forsan illes habeva potite causar que illa gira, ma Nagaina simplemente abassava su cappucio e continuava. Ma, le retardo de un instante lassava que Rikki-tikki la prende, e quando Nagaina se immergeva in le foramine de rattos ubi illa e Nag habitava, le parve dentes blanc de Rikki-Tikki esseva serrate a su cauda, e ille la sequeva – e multo poco de mangustas, sin reguardo de lor etate of intelligentia, vole sequer un cobra a in su cavo. Esseva obscur in le foramine; e Rikki-tikki nunquam sapeva quando illo se expanderea e darea a Nagaina le spatio pro girar e colpar a ille. Ille teneva al cauda ferocemente, e mitteva su pedes al terra calide e humide pro functionar como frenos. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki knew that he must catch her, or all the trouble would begin again. She headed straight for the long grass by the thorn-bush, and as he was running Rikki-tikki heard Darzee still singing his foolish little song of triumph. But Darzee's wife was wiser. She flew off her nest as Nagaina came along, and flapped her wings about Nagaina's head. If Darzee had helped they might have turned her, but Nagaina only lowered her hood and went on. Still, the instant's delay brought Rikki-tikki up to her, and as she plunged into the rat-hole where she and Nag used to live, his little white teeth were clenched on her tail, and he went down with her–and very few mongooses, however wise and old they may be, care to follow a cobra into its hole. It was dark in the hole; and Rikki-tikki never knew when it might open out and give Nagaina room to turn and strike at him. He held on savagely, and stuck out his feet to act as brakes on the dark slope of the hot, moist earth.</b> <b>Pois le agitation del herbas presso del apertura del foramine cessava, e Darzi diceva, "Illo es toto finite con Rikki-tikki! Nos debe cantar su canto de morte. Valente Rikki-tikki es morte! Proque, Nagaina certemente le occidera sub le terra." </b> <b>Then the grass by the mouth of the hole stopped waving, and Darzee said, "It is all over with Rikki-tikki! We must sing his death song. Valiant Rikki-tikki is dead! For Nagaina will surely kill him underground."</b> <b>Dunque ille cantava un canto multo triste que ille improvisava al minuta, e justo quando ille arrivava al parte le plus emotionante, le herbas fremeva de novo, e Rikki-tikki, coperite con solo, se traheva ex le foramine gamba post gamba, leccante su mustachios. Darzi cessava con un parve crito. Rikki-tikki succuteva alicun del sablo de su pelle e sternutava. "Es finite," ille diceva. "Le vidua nunquam exira de novo." E le formicas rubie que habita inter le herbas le audiva, e comenciava marchar in le foramine un post le altere pro vider si ille habeva parlate le veritate.</b> <b>So he sang a very mournful song that he made up on the spur of the minute, and just as he got to the most touching part, the grass quivered again, and Rikki-tikki, covered with dirt, dragged himself out of the hole leg by leg, licking his whiskers. Darzee stopped with a little shout. Rikki-tikki shook some of the dust out of his fur and sneezed. "It is all over," he said. "The widow will never come out again." And the red ants that live between the grass stems heard him, and began to troop down one after another to see if he had spoken the truth.</b> <b>Rikki-tikki se inrolava in le herbas e dormiva ubi ille esseva – dormiva e dormiva usque tarde in le postmeridie, proque ille habeva facite un die de travalio multo dur. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki curled himself up in the grass and slept where he was–slept and slept till it was late in the afternoon, for he had done a hard day's work.</b> <b>"Ora," ille diceva, quando ille se eveliava, "Io va retornar al casa. Dice le barbate caldieron (megalaima haemacephala), Darzi, e ille dicera le jardin que Nagaina es morte." </b> <b>"Now," he said, when he awoke, "I will go back to the house. Tell the Coppersmith, Darzee, and he will tell the garden that Nagaina is dead."</b> <b>Le barbate caldieron es un ave que face un sono exactemente como le battar de un martelletto super un olla de cupro; e le ration que sempre face le sono es proque ille es le critator public de cata jardin indian, e annuncia tote le novas a tote le mundo qui vole auscultar. Durante que Rikki-tikki ascendeva le semita, ille audiva su notas de "attention" como le parve gong de cena, e pois le constante "Din-don-tok! Nag es morte–don! Nagaina es morte! Din-don-tok!" Illo causava que tote le aves in le jardin comenciava cantar, e que le ranas comenciava coaxar, proque Nag e Nagaina mangiava avettas e ranettas tamben. </b> <b>The Coppersmith is a bird who makes a noise exactly like the beating of a little hammer on a copper pot; and the reason he is always making it is because he is the town crier to every Indian garden, and tells all the news to everybody who cares to listen. As Rikki-tikki went up the path, he heard his "attention" notes like a tiny dinner gong, and then the steady "Ding-dong-tock! Nag is dead–dong! Nagaina is dead! Ding-dong-tock!" That set all the birds in the garden singing, and the frogs croaking, for Nag and Nagaina used to eat frogs as well as little birds.</b> <b>Quando Rikki arrivava al casa, Teddy e su matre (illa ancora pareva multo blanc, proque illa ha suffrite syncope) e su patre veniva e quasi plorava supra ille; e ille nocte ille mangiava tote lo que on le dava usque ille non pote mangiar plus, e vadeva al lecto super le humero de Teddy, ubi le matre de Teddy le videva quando ille veniva pro un reguardo in le nocte tardive. </b> <b>When Rikki got to the house, Teddy and Teddy's mother (she looked very white still, for she had been fainting) and Teddy's father came out and almost cried over him; and that night he ate all that was given him till he could eat no more, and went to bed on Teddy's shoulder, where Teddy's mother saw him when she came to look late at night.</b> <b>"Ille salvava nostre vitas e le vita de Teddy," illa diceva a su sposo. "Solmente pensa, ille salvava toto de nostre vitas." </b> <b>"He saved our lives and Teddy's life," she said to her husband. "Just think, he saved all our lives."</b> <b>Rikki-tikki se eveliava con un suprasalto, proque le mangustas ha somno legier. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki woke up with a jump, for the mongooses are light sleepers.</b> <b>"O, Es vos," diceva ille. "Proque vos incommoda vos? Tote le cobras es morte. E si illes non esseva morte, io es ci." </b> <b>"Oh, it's you," said he. "What are you bothering for? All the cobras are dead. And if they weren't, I'm here."</b> <b>Rikki-tikki habeva un ration pro esser fer de se mesme. Ma ille non deveniva troppo fer, e ille manteneva ille jardin como un mangusta deberea mantener lo, con dente e salto e morsura, usque nunquam un cobra osava monstrar su capite al interior del muros. </b> <b>Rikki-tikki had a right to be proud of himself. But he did not grow too proud, and he kept that garden as a mongoose should keep it, with tooth and jump and spring and bite, till never a cobra dared show its head inside the walls.</b> <b>Le Canto de Darzi </b> <b>Darzee's Chant</b> <b>(Cantava in honor de Rikki-tikki-tavi)</b> <b>(Sung in honor of Rikki-tikki-tavi)</b> <b>Cantator e sartor es io–</b> <b>Singer and tailor am I–</b> <b>Duplate le joios que io sape–</b> <b>Doubled the joys that I know–</b> <b>Fer de mi rhythmo in le celo, </b> <b>Proud of my lilt to the sky,</b> <b>Fer del casa que io sue–</b> <b>Proud of the house that I sew–</b> <b>Super e sub, assi io texe mi musica–assi io texe le casa que io sue. </b> <b>Over and under, so weave I my music–so weave I the house that I</b> <b>sew.</b> <b>Canta a tu avettos de novo, </b> <b>Sing to your fledglings again,</b> <b>Matre, leva tu capite! </b> <b>Mother, oh lift up your head!</b> <b>Le Mal que nos plagava es occidite, </b> <b>Evil that plagued us is slain,</b> <b>Le Morte in le jardin resta morte. </b> <b>Death in the garden lies dead.</b> <b>Le Terror que se celava in le rosas es impotente – jectate super le cumulo de immunditias e morte! </b> <b>Terror that hid in the roses is impotent–flung on the dung-hill and dead!</b> <b>Qui nos ha liberate, qui? </b> <b>Who has delivered us, who?</b> <b>Dice me su nido e su nomine. </b> <b>Tell me his nest and his name.</b> <b>Rikki, le valente, le ver, </b> <b>Rikki, the valiant, the true,</b> <b>Tikki, con oculos de flammas, </b> <b>Tikki, with eyeballs of flame,</b> <b>Rikk-tikki-tikki, ille del dentes eboree, le caciator con oculos de flammas! </b> <b>Rikk-tikki-tikki, the ivory-fanged, the hunter with eyeballs of flame!</b> <b>Da le le Gratias del Aves, </b> <b>Give him the Thanks of the Birds,</b> <b>Inclinante con le plumas caudal extendite! </b> <b>Bowing with tail feathers spread!</b> <b>Lauda le con le parolas del rossiniolo –</b> <b>Praise him with nightingale words–</b> <b>No, io va laudar le. </b> <b>Nay, I will praise him instead.</b> <b>Audi! Io te cantara le laudo del Rikki con le cauda a brossa, con oculos rubie! </b> <b>Hear! I will sing you the praise of the bottle-tailed Rikki, with eyeballs of red!</b> <b>(Ci Rikki-tikki interrumpeva, e nos perdeva le resto </b> <b> (Here Rikki-tikki interrupted, and the rest of the song is lost.)</b> 2000 2005-04-11T13:28:13Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Rikki-Tikki-Tavi</b> Rikki-Tikki-Tavi <b>Al cavo ubi ille entrava</b> At the hole where he went in <b>Oculo Rubie a Pelle Rugose vocava. </b> Red-Eye called to Wrinkle-Skin. <b>Audi lo que parve Oculo Rubie dice: </b> Hear what little Red-Eye saith: <b>"Nag, veni e dansa con le morte!" </b> "Nag, come up and dance with death!" <b>Capite a capite e oculo a oculo, </b> Eye to eye and head to head, <b>(Tene le mesura, Nag.) </b> (Keep the measure, Nag.) <b>Isto se finira con le morte de uno; </b> This shall end when one is dead; <b>(A tu placer, Nag.) </b> (At thy pleasure, Nag.) <b>Torno pro torno e torto pro torto–</b> Turn for turn and twist for twist– <b> (Curre e cela te, Nag.) </b> (Run and hide thee, Nag.) <b>Ha! Le Morte incappuciate non ha colpava! </b> Hah! The hooded Death has missed! <b>(Fato te attende, Nag!) </b> (Woe betide thee, Nag!) <b>Isto es le historia del grande guerra que Rikki-tikki-tavi luctava solo, per le cameras de banio del grande bungalow in canton Segauli. Darzi, le orthotomo, le adjutava, e Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, qui nunquam entra le centro del pavimento, ma sempre repe per le muro, le dava consilio, ma Rikki-tikki se mesme faceva le ver lucta. </b> This is the story of the great war that Rikki-tikki-tavi fought single-handed, through the bath-rooms of the big bungalow in Segowlee cantonment. Darzee, the Tailorbird, helped him, and Chuchundra, the musk-rat, who never comes out into the middle of the floor, but always creeps round by the wall, gave him advice, but Rikki-tikki did the real fighting. <b>Ille esseva un mangusta, un poco como un parve catto in su pelle e su cauda, ma bastante como un mustela in su capite e su comportamento. Su oculos e le fin de su naso impatiente esseva rosate. Ille poteva grattar se ubicunque ille voleva con qualcunque pede, anterior o posterior, que ille seligeva usar. Ille poteva facer que su cauda sembleva un brossa pro bottilias, e su crito de guerra quando ille curreva per le herbas longe esseva: "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" </b> He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of his restless nose were pink. He could scratch himself anywhere he pleased with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use. He could fluff up his tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled through the long grass was: "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" <b>Un die, un diluvio alte de estate le lavava ex le coniliera ubi ille habitava con su patre e matre, e le portava, colpante le pedes e critante, per un fossato al bordo del cammino. Ille trovava un pecietta de herbas flottante la, e se adhereva a illo usque ille perdeva su sensos. Quando ille se resuscitava, ille cubava in le calor del sol in le medio de un semita per un jardin, multissimo disordinate, e un pueretto diceva, "Ecce un mangusta morte. Vamos ha le funerales." </b> One day, a high summer flood washed him out of the burrow where he lived with his father and mother, and carried him, kicking and clucking, down a roadside ditch. He found a little wisp of grass floating there, and clung to it till he lost his senses. When he revived, he was lying in the hot sun on the middle of a garden path, very draggled indeed, and a small boy was saying, "Here's a dead mongoose. Let's have a funeral." <b>"No," diceva su matre, "vamos portar le al casa e essugar le. Forsan ille non es vermente morte." </b> "No," said his mother, "let's take him in and dry him. Perhaps he isn't really dead." <b>Illes le prendeva in le casa, e un grande homine le prendeva inter le digito e pollice e diceva que ille non esseva morte ma quasi suffocate. Dunque illes le inveloppava con watta , e le calefaceva supra un parve foco, e ille aperiva su oculos e sternutava. </b> They took him into the house, and a big man picked him up between his finger and thumb and said he was not dead but half choked. So they wrapped him in cotton wool, and warmed him over a little fire, and he opened his eyes and sneezed. <b>"Ora," diceva le grande homine (ille esseva un Anglese qui habeva movite se al bungalow recentemente, "non terrer le, e nos va vider lo que ille facera." </b> "Now," said the big man (he was an Englishman who had just moved into the bungalow), "don't frighten him, and we'll see what he'll do." <b>Es le cosa le plus difficile del mundo terrer un mangusta, proque le curiositate le consume de naso a cauda. Le motto de tote le familia mangusta es "Currer e discoperir," e Rikki-tikki esseva un ver mangusta. Ille examinava le watta, decideva que illo non esseva bon pro mangiar, curreva circa le superficie del tabula, se sedeva e poneva in ordine le pelle, se grattava, e saltava super le humero del pueretto. </b> It is the hardest thing in the world to frighten a mongoose, because he is eaten up from nose to tail with curiosity. The motto of all the mongoose family is "Run and find out," and Rikki-tikki was a true mongoose. He looked at the cotton wool, decided that it was not good to eat, ran all round the table, sat up and put his fur in order, scratched himself, and jumped on the small boy's shoulder. <b>"Non ha timor, Teddy," diceva su patre. "Illo es su maniera de amicar se." </b> "Don't be frightened, Teddy," said his father. "That's his way of making friends." <b>"AY! Ille me titilla le mento," diceva Teddy. </b> "Ouch! He's tickling under my chin," said Teddy. <b>Rikki-tikki reguardava inter le collo del pueretto e le camisa de ille, aspirava a su aure, e descendeva al pavimento, ubi ille se sedeva fricante le naso. </b> Rikki-tikki looked down between the boy's collar and neck, snuffed at his ear, and climbed down to the floor, where he sat rubbing his nose. <b>"Bon gratias," diceva le matre de Teddy, "e illo es un creatura salvage! Io suppone que ille es tanto mansuete proque nos ha essite benevole a ille." </b> "Good gracious," said Teddy's mother, "and that's a wild creature! I suppose he's so tame because we've been kind to him." <b>"Tote mangustas es similar," diceva su sposo. "Si Teddy non le prende per le cauda, o essaya poner le in un cavia, ille currera in e ex le casa tote le die. Vamos dar le alique pro mangiar." </b> "All mongooses are like that," said her husband. "If Teddy doesn't pick him up by the tail, or try to put him in a cage, he'll run in and out of the house all day long. Let's give him something to eat." <b>Illes le dava un pecietta de carne crude. Illo placeva Rikki-tikki multissimo, e quando ille lo ha finite ille vadeva in le veranda e se sedeva in le lumine de sol e brossava su pelle pro sicar le radices. Pois ille se sentiva melior. </b> They gave him a little piece of raw meat. Rikki-tikki liked it immensely, and when it was finished he went out into the veranda and sat in the sunshine and fluffed up his fur to make it dry to the roots. Then he felt better. <b>"Il ha plus cosas pro discoperir in iste casa," ille diceva a se mesme, "que tote mi familia pote discoperir in tote lor vitas. Io certemente remanera e discoperira." </b> "There are more things to find out about in this house," he said to himself, "than all my family could find out in all their lives. I shall certainly stay and find out." <b>Ille passava tote ille die explorante le casa. Ille quasi se neca in le alveos, poneva su naso in le tinta in le scriptorio, e lo ardeva al puncto del cigarro del grande homine, proque ille montava le gremio del grande homine pro reguardar le processo de scriber. A crepusculo ille curreva in le camera de Teddy pro reguardar le processo de accender le lampas de kerosen, e quando Teddy vadeva a lecto anque Rikki-tikki montava le lecto. Ma ille esseva un companion inquiete, proque ille debeva levar se e attender a tote ruito durante tote le nocte, e discoperir lo que faceva le ruito. Le matre e patre de Teddy entrava, ante de addormir se, pro reguardar lor puero, e Rikki-tikki esseva vigile super le cossino de capite. "Illo non me place," diceva le matre de Teddy. "Ille poterea morder le infante." "Ille non facera illo," diceva le patre. "Teddy es plus secur con ille bestietta que si ille haberea un can de Saint-Hubert pro vigilar super ille. Si un serpente entrarea le camera actualmente–" </b> He spent all that day roaming over the house. He nearly drowned himself in the bath-tubs, put his nose into the ink on a writing table, and burned it on the end of the big man's cigar, for he climbed up in the big man's lap to see how writing was done. At nightfall he ran into Teddy's nursery to watch how kerosene lamps were lighted, and when Teddy went to bed Rikki-tikki climbed up too. But he was a restless companion, because he had to get up and attend to every noise all through the night, and find out what made it. Teddy's mother and father came in, the last thing, to look at their boy, and Rikki-tikki was awake on the pillow. "I don't like that," said Teddy's mother. "He may bite the child." "He'll do no such thing," said the father. "Teddy's safer with that little beast than if he had a bloodhound to watch him. If a snake came into the nursery now–" <b>Ma le matre de Teddy non pensarea de un cosa tanto mal. </b> But Teddy's mother wouldn't think of anything so awful. <b>In le matino, de bon hora, Rikki-tikki veniva a jentaculo in le veranda viagiante super le humero de Teddy, e illes le dava un banana e un poco de ovo bullite. Ille se sedeva in cata de lor gremios un post le altere, proque tote mangusta ben educate sempre spera esser un mangusta domestic un die e ha cameras in le qual ille pote currer; e le matre de Rikki-tikki (illa habitava in le casa del general a Segauli) habeva dicite attentivemente a Rikki lo que ille debe facer si unquam ille incontrarea homines blanc. </b> Early in the morning Rikki-tikki came to early breakfast in the veranda riding on Teddy's shoulder, and they gave him banana and some boiled egg. He sat on all their laps one after the other, because every well-brought-up mongoose always hopes to be a house mongoose some day and have rooms to run about in; and Rikki-tikki's mother (she used to live in the general's house at Segowlee) had carefully told Rikki what to do if ever he came across white men. <b>Pois Rikki-tikki vadeva al jardin pro vider lo que esseva la. Illo esseva un grande jardin, con solmente un medio cultivate e con arbustos, tanto grande como casas de estate, de rosas a Marshal Niel, tilias e orangieros, gruppos de bambus, e boscage de herbas alte. Rikki-tikki leccave le labios. "Isto es un terreno de chassa splendide," ille diceva, e al pensata de illo su cauda deveniva como un brossa pro bottilias, e ille curreva per le jardin, aspirante ci e la usque ille audiva voces triste in un spino. </b> Then Rikki-tikki went out into the garden to see what was to be seen. It was a large garden, only half cultivated, with bushes, as big as summer-houses, of Marshal Niel roses, lime and orange trees, clumps of bamboos, and thickets of high grass. Rikki-tikki licked his lips. "This is a splendid hunting-ground," he said, and his tail grew bottle-brushy at the thought of it, and he scuttled up and down the garden, snuffing here and there till he heard very sorrowful voices in a thorn-bush. <b>Esseva Darzi, le orthotomo, e su sposa. Illes ha facite un belle nido per traher insimul duo grande folios e suer lor bordos con fibras, e habeva plenate le interior con coton e lanugine. Le nido oscillava, durante que illes se sedeva super le bordo e plorava. </b> It was Darzee, the Tailorbird, and his wife. They had made a beautiful nest by pulling two big leaves together and stitching them up the edges with fibers, and had filled the hollow with cotton and downy fluff. The nest swayed to and fro, as they sat on the rim and cried. <b>"Que es le problema?" demandava Rikki-tikki. </b> "What is the matter?" asked Rikki-tikki. <b>"Nos es miserabilissime," diceva Darzi. "Un de nostre babies cadeva del nido heri e Nag le mangiava." </b> "We are very miserable," said Darzee. "One of our babies fell out of the nest yesterday and Nag ate him." <b>"Hmm!" diceva Rikki-tikki, "illo es tristissime–ma io es un estraniero ci. Qui es Nag?" </b> "H'm!" said Rikki-tikki, "that is very sad–but I am a stranger here. Who is Nag?" <b>Darzi e su sposa solmente quattava tremulante in le nido sin responder, proque ex le herbas dense al basso del arbusto veniva un sibilo basse –un sono horribile que causava Rikki-tikki saltar vermente duo pedes. </b> Darzee and his wife only cowered down in the nest without answering, for from the thick grass at the foot of the bush there came a low hiss–a horrid cold sound that made Rikki-tikki jump back two clear feet. <b>Pois uncia per uncia ex le herbas se leva le capite e cappucio displicate de Nag, le grande cobra nigre, e ille habeva cinque pedes de longor de lingua a cauda. Quando ille habeva levate un tertia de se mesme completemente del terra, ille restava balanciante justo como un tuffo de dentes de leon se balancia in le vento, e ille reguardava Rikki-tikki con le oculos mal serpentin que nunquam cambia lor expression, sin reguardo a lo que le serpente pense. </b> Then inch by inch out of the grass rose up the head and spread hood of Nag, the big black cobra, and he was five feet long from tongue to tail. When he had lifted one-third of himself clear of the ground, he stayed balancing to and fro exactly as a dandelion tuft balances in the wind, and he looked at Rikki-tikki with the wicked snake's eyes that never change their expression, whatever the snake may be thinking of. <b>"Qui es Nag?" diceva ille. "Io es Nag. Le grande Deo Brahm poneva su marca super toto de nostre gente, quando le prime cobra displicava su cappucio pro umbrar Brahm del sol durante que ille dormiva. Reguarda, e ha timor!" </b> "Who is Nag?" said he. "I am Nag. The great God Brahm put his mark upon all our people, when the first cobra spread his hood to keep the sun off Brahm as he slept. Look, and be afraid!" <b>Ille displicava su cappucio mesmo plus, e Rikki-tikki videva le marca de oculares super le posterior del cappucio que sembla exactemente le parte ocular de un serratura a croc e oculo. Ille habeva timor pro le minuta, ma es impossibile pro un mangusta remaner territe pro un quantitate de tempore, e ben que Rikki-tikki nunquam habeva incontrate un cobra vive antea, su matre le ha date cobras morte pro mangiar, e ille sapeva que tote le affaires de vita de un mangusta adulte deberea esser luctar e mangiar serpentes. Anque Nag sapeva illo e, al basso de su corde frigide, ille habeva timor. </b> He spread out his hood more than ever, and Rikki-tikki saw the spectacle-mark on the back of it that looks exactly like the eye part of a hook-and-eye fastening. He was afraid for the minute, but it is impossible for a mongoose to stay frightened for any length of time, and though Rikki-tikki had never met a live cobra before, his mother had fed him on dead ones, and he knew that all a grown mongoose's business in life was to fight and eat snakes. Nag knew that too and, at the bottom of his cold heart, he was afraid. <b>"Ben," diceva Rikki-tikki, e su cauda comencia inflar se de novo, "marcas o nulle marcas, pensa tu que es correcte mangiar avettos ex un nido?" </b> "Well," said Rikki-tikki, and his tail began to fluff up again, "marks or no marks, do you think it is right for you to eat fledglings out of a nest?" <b>Nag pensava a se mesme, e reguardava le movimente parvissime in le hebras detra Rikki-tikki. Ille sapeva que mangustas in le jardin significarea morte pro ille es su familia eventualmente, ma ille voleva causar que Rikki-tikki reduce su guarda. Dunque ille abassava su capite un poco, e lo poneva super un latere. </b> Nag was thinking to himself, and watching the least little movement in the grass behind Rikki-tikki. He knew that mongooses in the garden meant death sooner or later for him and his family, but he wanted to get Rikki-tikki off his guard. So he dropped his head a little, and put it on one side. <b>"Vamos parlar," ille diceva. "Tu mangia ovos. Proque deberea io non mangia aves?" </b> "Let us talk," he said. "You eat eggs. Why should not I eat birds?" <b>"Detra te! Reguarda detra te!" cantava Darzi. </b> "Behind you! Look behind you!" sang Darzee. <b>Rikki-tikki esseva troppo intelligente a perder tempore in reguardar fixemente. Ille saltava in le aere tanto alte como ille poteva, e justo sub ille passava sibilante le capite de Nagaina, le sposa impie de Nag. Illa ha repite detra ille durante que ille parlava, pro finir le. Ille audiva su sibilo feroce durante le culpo mancava. Ille atterrava quasi trans le dorso de illa, e si ille habeva essite un mangusta vetule ille haberea sapite que alora esseva le tempore a rumper le dorso de illa con un morsura; ma ille habeva timor del colpo de retorno flagellante terribile del cobra. Ille mordeva, vermente, ma non mordeva bastante longemente, e ille saltava del cauda battiente, lassante Nagaina lacerate e irate. </b> Rikki-tikki knew better than to waste time in staring. He jumped up in the air as high as he could go, and just under him whizzed by the head of Nagaina, Nag's wicked wife. She had crept up behind him as he was talking, to make an end of him. He heard her savage hiss as the stroke missed. He came down almost across her back, and if he had been an old mongoose he would have known that then was the time to break her back with one bite; but he was afraid of the terrible lashing return stroke of the cobra. He bit, indeed, but did not bite long enough, and he jumped clear of the whisking tail, leaving Nagaina torn and angry. <b>"Impie, impie Darzi!" diceva Nag, flagellante tanto alte como ille poteva attinger verso le nido in le spino. Ma Darzi lo ha construite ex le extension de serpentes, e illo oscillava. </b> "Wicked, wicked Darzee!" said Nag, lashing up as high as he could reach toward the nest in the thorn-bush. But Darzee had built it out of reach of snakes, and it only swayed to and fro. <b>Rikki-tikki sentiva que su oculos deveniva rubie e calide (quando le oculos de un mangusta deveniva rubie, ille es irate), e ille se sedeva super su cauda e gambas posterior como un parve kanguru, e reguardava circa se mesme, e garrulava con rabia. Ma Nag e Nagaina habeva disparite a in le herbas. Quando un serpente manca su colpo, illo nunquam dice alique o da un indication de lo que illo intende de facer proximo. Rikki-tikki non desirava a sequer los, pro que ille non se sentiva secur que ille poteva arrangiar duo serpentes a un vice. Dunque ille trottava per semita de gravellas presso del casa, e se sedeva pro pensar. Illo esseva un cosa seriose pro ille. </b> Rikki-tikki felt his eyes growing red and hot (when a mongoose's eyes grow red, he is angry), and he sat back on his tail and hind legs like a little kangaroo, and looked all round him, and chattered with rage. But Nag and Nagaina had disappeared into the grass. When a snake misses its stroke, it never says anything or gives any sign of what it means to do next. Rikki-tikki did not care to follow them, for he did not feel sure that he could manage two snakes at once. So he trotted off to the gravel path near the house, and sat down to think. It was a serious matter for him. <b>Si on ha legite le libros vetule de historia natural, on trova que illos dice que quando le mangusta lucta le serpente e per fortuna recipe un morsura, ille currera e mangiara alicun herbas le qual le sana. Illo non es ver. Le victoria es mermente un question de rapiditate de oculo e rapiditate de pede – colpo del serpente contra le salto del mangusta – e como nulle oculo pote sequer le motion del capite de un serpente quando illo colpa, isto face que le cosas es multo plus meraviliose que ulle herbas magic. Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille esseva un mangusta juvene, e illo le faceva mesmo plus felice a pensar que ille habeva capace de escappar un colpo del posterior. Illo le dava le confidentia in se mesme, e quando Teddy veniva currente per le semita, Rikki-tikki esseva preste de reciper caressas. </b> If you read the old books of natural history, you will find they say that when the mongoose fights the snake and happens to get bitten, he runs off and eats some herb that cures him. That is not true. The victory is only a matter of quickness of eye and quickness of foot–snake's blow against mongoose's jump–and as no eye can follow the motion of a snake's head when it strikes, this makes things much more wonderful than any magic herb. Rikki-tikki knew he was a young mongoose, and it made him all the more pleased to think that he had managed to escape a blow from behind. It gave him confidence in himself, and when Teddy came running down the path, Rikki-tikki was ready to be petted. <b>Ma al mesme tempore que Teddy se inclinava, alique serpeva un poco in le sablo, e un voce miniscule diceva: "Presta attention. Io es Morte!" Illo esseva Karait, le serpentetta de color de sablo qui cuba per selection in le terra sablose; e su morsura es tanto periculose como illo del cobra. Ma ille es tanto parve que necuno pensa de ille, e dunque ille face mesme plus damno a gente. </b> But just as Teddy was stooping, something wriggled a little in the dust, and a tiny voice said: "Be careful. I am Death!" It was Karait, the dusty brown snakeling that lies for choice on the dusty earth; and his bite is as dangerous as the cobra's. But he is so small that nobody thinks of him, and so he does the more harm to people. <b>Le oculos de Rikki-tikki deveniva rubie de novo, e ille dansava a Karait con le oscillation peculiar que ille habeva heritate de su familia. Illo pare multo comic, ma illo es un passo balanciate tanto perfectemente que on pote partir illo a qualcunque angula que se place, e in arrangiar le serpentes isto es un avantage. Si solmente Rikki-tikki habeva sapite, ille faceva un cosa multo plus periculose que luctar Nag, proque Karait es tanto parve, e pote virar tanto rapidemente, que si Rikki non le mordeva presso del posterior del capite, ille reciperea le colpo de retorno in su oculo o su labio. Ma Rikki non lo sapeva. Su oculos esseva completemente rubie, e ille oscillava, cercante un bon loco pro tener. Karait colpava. Rikki saltava lateralmente e tentava currer verso ille, ma le impie parve capite del color de sablo flagellava intra un fraction de su humero, e ille debeva saltar supra le corpore, e le capite sequeva su calces proximemente.</b> Rikki-tikki's eyes grew red again, and he danced up to Karait with the peculiar rocking, swaying motion that he had inherited from his family. It looks very funny, but it is so perfectly balanced a gait that you can fly off from it at any angle you please, and in dealing with snakes this is an advantage. If Rikki-tikki had only known, he was doing a much more dangerous thing than fighting Nag, for Karait is so small, and can turn so quickly, that unless Rikki bit him close to the back of the head, he would get the return stroke in his eye or his lip. But Rikki did not know. His eyes were all red, and he rocked back and forth, looking for a good place to hold. Karait struck out. Rikki jumped sideways and tried to run in, but the wicked little dusty gray head lashed within a fraction of his shoulder, and he had to jump over the body, and the head followed his heels close. <b>Teddy vocava al casa: "O, reguarda ci! Nostre mangusta occide un serpente." E Rikki-tikki audiva un crito del matre de Teddy. Su patre curreva del casa con un baston, ma al tempore que ille arrivava, Karait habeva colpate troppo longe un vice, e Rikki-tikki habeva saltate super le dorso del serpente, lassate cader su capite inter su antegambas, mordite tanto alte al dorso como ille pote caper, e rolate foras. Ille morsura paralysava Karait, e Rikki-tikki sta preste de mangiar le comenciante al cauda, secundo le costume de su familia a cena, quando ille se memorava que un repasto complete face que un mangusta deveni lente, e si ille desirava a haber preste toto de su fortia e rapiditate, ille debe remaner malgre. </b> Teddy shouted to the house: "Oh, look here! Our mongoose is killing a snake." And Rikki-tikki heard a scream from Teddy's mother. His father ran out with a stick, but by the time he came up, Karait had lunged out once too far, and Rikki-tikki had sprung, jumped on the snake's back, dropped his head far between his forelegs, bitten as high up the back as he could get hold, and rolled away. That bite paralyzed Karait, and Rikki-tikki was just going to eat him up from the tail, after the custom of his family at dinner, when he remembered that a full meal makes a slow mongoose, and if he wanted all his strength and quickness ready, he must keep himself thin. <b>Ille partiva pro un banio de sablo sub le arbustos a oleo de ricino, durante que le patre de Teddy batteva le ja morte Karait. "Que es le uso de illo?" pensava Rikki-tikki. "Io finiva tote illo;" e pois le matre de Teddy le prendeva ex le sablo e le imbraciava, critante que ille ha salvate Teddy de morte, e le patre de Teddy diceva que ille esseva un providentia, e Teddy spectava con grande oculos espaventate. Tote le commotion, le qual, naturalmente, ille non comprendeva, amusava Rikki-tikki bastante ben. Serea equalmente bon a Rikki-Tikki si le matre de Teddy habeva caressate Teddy pro jocar in le sablo. Rikki se amusava completemente. </b> He went away for a dust bath under the castor-oil bushes, while Teddy's father beat the dead Karait. "What is the use of that?" thought Rikki-tikki. "I have settled it all;" and then Teddy's mother picked him up from the dust and hugged him, crying that he had saved Teddy from death, and Teddy's father said that he was a providence, and Teddy looked on with big scared eyes. Rikki-tikki was rather amused at all the fuss, which, of course, he did not understand. Teddy's mother might just as well have petted Teddy for playing in the dust. Rikki was thoroughly enjoying himself. <b>Ille nocte al cena, vadente inter le vitros a vino super le tabula, ille haberea potite stipar se e tres vices de novo con cosas deliciose. Ma ille se memorava Nag e Nagaina, e ben que il esseva multo placente reciper colpos legier e caressas del matre de Teddy, e seder se super le humero de Teddy, su oculos deveniva rubie de vice a vice, e ille vaderea e comenciarea su longe crito de guerra de "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" </b> That night at dinner, walking to and fro among the wine-glasses on the table, he might have stuffed himself three times over with nice things. But he remembered Nag and Nagaina, and though it was very pleasant to be patted and petted by Teddy's mother, and to sit on Teddy's shoulder, his eyes would get red from time to time, and he would go off into his long war cry of "Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!" <b>Teddy le portava al lecto, e insisteva que Rikki-tikki dormi sub su mento. Rikki-tikki esseva troppo ben educate pro morder o rader, ma quando Teddy addormiva ille partiva pro su promenada nocturne circa le casa, e in le obscuritate ille incontrava Chuchundra, le ratto muscate, repente per le muro. Chuchundra es un bestietta desolate. Ille geme e pipa durante le tote nocte, essayante trovar le coragia de currer al centro del camera ma ille nunquam lo trova. </b> Teddy carried him off to bed, and insisted on Rikki-tikki sleeping under his chin. Rikki-tikki was too well bred to bite or scratch, but as soon as Teddy was asleep he went off for his nightly walk round the house, and in the dark he ran up against Chuchundra, the musk-rat, creeping around by the wall. Chuchundra is a broken-hearted little beast. He whimpers and cheeps all the night, trying to make up his mind to run into the middle of the room. But he never gets there. <b>"Non occide me," diceva Chuchundra, quasi plorante. "Rikki-tikki, non occide me!" </b> "Don't kill me," said Chuchundra, almost weeping. "Rikki-tikki, don't kill me!" <b>"Pensa tu que un assassino de serpentes occide rattos muscate?" diceva Rikki-tikki disdignosemente. </b> "Do you think a snake-killer kills muskrats?" said Rikki-tikki scornfully. <b>"Serpentes occide illes que occide serpentes," diceva Chuchundra, plus tristemente que unquam. "E como pote io esser certe que Nag non va confunder me pro te un nocte obscur?" </b> "Those who kill snakes get killed by snakes," said Chuchundra, more sorrowfully than ever. "And how am I to be sure that Nag won't mistake me for you some dark night?" <b>"Il non ha le periculo minime," diceva Rikki-tikki. "Ma Nag es in le jardin, e io sape que tu non va la." </b> "There's not the least danger," said Rikki-tikki. "But Nag is in the garden, and I know you don't go there." <b>"Mi cosino Chua, le ratto, me diceva–" diceva Chuchundra, e pois ille cessava. </b> "My cousin Chua, the rat, told me–" said Chuchundra, and then he stopped. <b>"Ille diceva te que?" </b> "Told you what?" <b>"Tchh! Nag es ubique, Rikki-tikki. Tu habeva debite parlar a Chua in le jardin." </b> "H'sh! Nag is everywhere, Rikki-tikki. You should have talked to Chua in the garden." <b>"Io non parlava a ille – dunque tu debe dicer me. Rapidemente, Chuchundra, o io te mordera!" </b> "I didn't–so you must tell me. Quick, Chuchundra, or I'll bite you!" <b>Chuchundra se sedeva e plorava usque le lacrimas rolava de su mustachios. "Io es un homine multo paupere," ille singultava. "Io nunquam habeva bastante spirito pro currer al centro del camera. Tchh! Io non debe dice te alique. Pote tu non audir, Rikki-tikki?" </b> Chuchundra sat down and cried till the tears rolled off his whiskers. "I am a very poor man," he sobbed. "I never had spirit enough to run out into the middle of the room. H'sh! I mustn't tell you anything. Can't you hear, Rikki-tikki?" <b>Rikki-tikki auscultava. Le casa esseva tanto silentiose como silentio se mesme, ma ille pensava que ille poteva audir le grattamento le plus debile in le mundo–un sono tanto debile como illo de un vespa iente a pede super un fenestra– le grattamento sic del squamas de un serpente super briccas. </b> Rikki-tikki listened. The house was as still as still, but he thought he could just catch the faintest scratch-scratch in the world–a noise as faint as that of a wasp walking on a window-pane–the dry scratch of a snake's scales on brick-work. <b>"Illo es Nag o Nagaina," ille diceva a se mesme, "e ille repe a in le camera de banio. Tu ha ration, Chuchundra; io habeva debite parlar a Chua." </b> "That's Nag or Nagaina," he said to himself, "and he is crawling into the bath-room sluice. You're right, Chuchundra; I should have talked to Chua." <b>Ille sortiva furtivemente al camera de banio de Teddy, ma il habeva nil la, e pois al camera de banio del matre de Teddy. Al basso del muro de gypso lisie il habeva un bricca tirate pro crear un esclusa pro le aqua de banio, e durante que Rikki-tikki vadeva secretemente per le bordo de bricca ubi le banio se situa, ille audiva Nag e Nagaina susurrante le un al altere al exterior in le lumine del luna. </b> He stole off to Teddy's bath-room, but there was nothing there, and then to Teddy's mother's bathroom. At the bottom of the smooth plaster wall there was a brick pulled out to make a sluice for the bath water, and as Rikki-tikki stole in by the masonry curb where the bath is put, he heard Nag and Nagaina whispering together outside in the moonlight. <b>"Quando le casa es disoccupate," diceva Nagaina a su sposo, "ille debera partir, e pois le jardin sera le nostre de novo. Entra quietemente, e memora te que le grande homine qui occideva Karait es le prime que nos mordera. Pois exi e dice me, e nos chassara Rikki-tikki insimul." </b> "When the house is emptied of people," said Nagaina to her husband, "he will have to go away, and then the garden will be our own again. Go in quietly, and remember that the big man who killed Karait is the first one to bite. Then come out and tell me, and we will hunt for Rikki-tikki together." <b>"Ma es tu secur que nos ganiara alique de occider le gente?" diceva Nag. </b> "But are you sure that there is anything to be gained by killing the people?" said Nag. <b>"Toto. Quando il habeva nulle gente in le bungalow, habera nos un mangusta in le jardin? Si longe que le bungalow es disoccupate, nos es rege e regina del jardin; e memora te que quando nostre ovos in le parterre de melones cova (e forsan sera deman), nostre infante necessitara spatio e silentio." </b> "Everything. When there were no people in the bungalow, did we have any mongoose in the garden? So long as the bungalow is empty, we are king and queen of the garden; and remember that as soon as our eggs in the melon bed hatch (as they may tomorrow), our children will need room and quiet." <b>"Io non habeva pensate de illo," diceva Nag. "Io vadera, ma il ha nulle besonio que nos chassarea for Rikki-tikki postea. Io occidera le grande homine e su sposa, e le puero si io pote, e sortira quietemente. Pois le bungalow sera disoccupate, e Rikki-tikki partira." </b> "I had not thought of that," said Nag. "I will go, but there is no need that we should hunt for Rikki-tikki afterward. I will kill the big man and his wife, and the child if I can, and come away quietly. Then the bungalow will be empty, and Rikki-tikki will go." <b>Tote le corpore de Rikki-tikki vibrava con le rabie e odio a audir illo, e pois le capite de Nag veniva per le esclusa, e su frigide corpore de cinque pedes de longor lo sequeva. Tanto irate como ille esseva, Rikki-tikki habeva multo timor quando ille videva le grandor del cobra grande. Nag se inrolava, levava su capite, e reguardava le interior del camera de banio in le obscuritate, e Rikki poteva vider su oculos reluce. </b> Rikki-tikki tingled all over with rage and hatred at this, and then Nag's head came through the sluice, and his five feet of cold body followed it. Angry as he was, Rikki-tikki was very frightened as he saw the size of the big cobra. Nag coiled himself up, raised his head, and looked into the bathroom in the dark, and Rikki could see his eyes glitter. <b>"Ora, si io le occide ci, Nagaina sapera; e si io le lucta in le pavimento libere, le avantage es le sue. Que debe io facer?” diceva Rikki-tikki-tavi. </b> "Now, if I kill him here, Nagaina will know; and if I fight him on the open floor, the odds are in his favor. What am I to do?" said Rikki-tikki-tavi. <b>Nag oscillava ci e la, e pois Rikki-tikki le audiva bibente ex le jarra a aqua le plus grande le qual on usava pro plenar le banio. "Illo es bon," diceva le serpente. "Ora, quando ille occideva Karait, le grande homine habeva un baston. Forsan ille ancora habera ille baston, ma quando ille entra le banio pro baniar se in le matino ille non habera un baston. Io attendera ci usque ille veni. Nagaina – audi me tu? – Io attendera ci in le frescor usque le alba." </b> Nag waved to and fro, and then Rikki-tikki heard him drinking from the biggest water-jar that was used to fill the bath. "That is good," said the snake. "Now, when Karait was killed, the big man had a stick. He may have that stick still, but when he comes in to bathe in the morning he will not have a stick. I shall wait here till he comes. Nagaina–do you hear me?–I shall wait here in the cool till daytime." <b>Il habeva nulle responsa del exterior, dunque Rikki-tikki sapeva Nagaina habeva partite. Nag se serpentava, spira post spira, circa le protuberantia al basso del jarro a aqua, e Rikki-tikki restava tanto immobile como morte. Post un hora ille comenciava mover, musculo post musculo, verso le jarro. Nag dormiva, e Rikki-tikki reguardava su dorso grande, demandante a se mesme qual loco providerea le prisa le melior. "Si io non rumpe su dorso al prime salto," diceva Rikki, "ille ancora potera luctar. E si ille lucta – O Rikki!" Ille reguardava le spissor del collo sub le cappucio , ma illo esseva troppo pro ille; e morder presso del cauda solmente causa Nag a esser furiose. </b> There was no answer from outside, so Rikki-tikki knew Nagaina had gone away. Nag coiled himself down, coil by coil, round the bulge at the bottom of the water jar, and Rikki-tikki stayed still as death. After an hour he began to move, muscle by muscle, toward the jar. Nag was asleep, and Rikki-tikki looked at his big back, wondering which would be the best place for a good hold. "If I don't break his back at the first jump," said Rikki, "he can still fight. And if he fights–O Rikki!" He looked at the thickness of the neck below the hood, but that was too much for him; and a bite near the tail would only make Nag savage. <b>"Il debe esser le capite"' ille diceva al fin; "le capite supra le cappucio. E, quando io es la, io non debe disingagiar.” </b> "It must be the head"' he said at last; "the head above the hood. And, when I am once there, I must not let go." <b>Pois ille saltava. Le capite cubava un poco distante del jarro a aqua, sub le curva de illo; e, quando su dentes se reuniva, Rikki reinfortiava su dorso contra le protuberantia del jarro de ceramo rubie pro retener le capite. Isto le dava solmente un seconda additional, e ille prendeva le avantage de illo. Pois le serpente le jectava ci e la como un can succuterea un ratto – ci e la super le pavimento, in alto e in basso, e in grande circulos, ma su oculos esseva rubie e ille teneva firmemente durante que le corpore flagellava super le pavimento, invertante le coclear grande e le platto a sapon e le brossa de banio, e percuteva le lateral de stanno del banio. Durante que ille teneva, ille claudeva su mandibulas plus e plus fortemente, pro que ille voleva assecurar que si ille mori del colpos, e, pro le honor de su familia, ille preferreva que on le trova con su dentes serrate. Ille esseva vertiginose, con dolor, e se sentiva succutite a pecias quando alique explodeva como tunitro juste detra ille. Un vento calide le rendeva insensibile e foco rubie adureva su pelle. Le ruito ha eveliate le grande homine, e ille habeva discargate ambe calces de un fusil de chassa in Nag solmente un poco post le cappucio. </b> Then he jumped. The head was lying a little clear of the water jar, under the curve of it; and, as his teeth met, Rikki braced his back against the bulge of the red earthenware to hold down the head. This gave him just one second's purchase, and he made the most of it. Then he was battered to and fro as a rat is shaken by a dog–to and fro on the floor, up and down, and around in great circles, but his eyes were red and he held on as the body cart-whipped over the floor, upsetting the tin dipper and the soap dish and the flesh brush, and banged against the tin side of the bath. As he held he closed his jaws tighter and tighter, for he made sure he would be banged to death, and, for the honor of his family, he preferred to be found with his teeth locked. He was dizzy, aching, and felt shaken to pieces when something went off like a thunderclap just behind him. A hot wind knocked him senseless and red fire singed his fur. The big man had been wakened by the noise, and had fired both barrels of a shotgun into Nag just behind the hood. <b>Rikki-tikki teneva firmemente con le oculos claudite, proque actualmente ille esseva certe que ille esseva morte. Mal capite non moveva, e le grande homine le prendeva e diceva, "Es le mangusta de novo, Alice. Ora, le parve typo ha salvate nostre vitas." </b> Rikki-tikki held on with his eyes shut, for now he was quite sure he was dead. But the head did not move, and the big man picked him up and said, "It's the mongoose again, Alice. The little chap has saved our lives now." <b>Pois le matre de Teddy entrava con un facie multo blanc, e videva lo que remane de Nag, e Rikki-tikki se traheva al camera de Teddy e passava un medietate del resto del nocte teneremente tremente pro discoperir si ille vermente esseva rumpite in quaranta pecias, como ille credeva. </b> Then Teddy's mother came in with a very white face, and saw what was left of Nag, and Rikki-tikki dragged himself to Teddy's bedroom and spent half the rest of the night shaking himself tenderly to find out whether he really was broken into forty pieces, as he fancied. <b>Quando le alba veniva ille esseva multo rigide, ma ben contente con su gestas. "Proximo, io debera arrangiar le cosas con Nagaina, e illa sera pejor que cinque Nages, e il ha nulle via a saper quando le ovos del qual illa parlava covara. Bonitate! Io debe vader e visitar Darzi," ille diceva. </b> When morning came he was very stiff, but well pleased with his doings. "Now I have Nagaina to settle with, and she will be worse than five Nags, and there's no knowing when the eggs she spoke of will hatch. Goodness! I must go and see Darzee," he said. <b>Sin attender le jentaculo, Rikki-tikki curreva al spino ubi Darzi cantava un canto de triumpho in su voce le plus alte. Le novas del morte de Nag ha diffundite se per tote le jardin, proque le scopator habeva jectate le corpore super le cumulo de immunditias. </b> Without waiting for breakfast, Rikki-tikki ran to the thornbush where Darzee was singing a song of triumph at the top of his voice. The news of Nag's death was all over the garden, for the sweeper had thrown the body on the rubbish-heap. <b>"O, tu tuffo de plumas stupide!" diceva Rikki-tikki iratemente. "Es isto le tempore pro cantar?" </b> "Oh, you stupid tuft of feathers!" said Rikki-tikki angrily. "Is this the time to sing?" <b>"Nag es morte–es morte–es morte!" cantava Darzi. "Rikki-tikki le valente le prendeva per le capite e teneva firmement. Le grande homine apportava le baston explosive, e Nag cadeva in duo pecias! Ille nunquam mangiara mi babies de novo." </b> "Nag is dead–is dead–is dead!" sang Darzee. "The valiant Rikki-tikki caught him by the head and held fast. The big man brought the bang-stick, and Nag fell in two pieces! He will never eat my babies again." <b>"Toto de illo es bastante ver. Ma ubi es Nagaina?" diceva Rikki-tikki, reguardante attentivemente circa se mesme. </b> "All that's true enough. But where's Nagaina?" said Rikki-tikki, looking carefully round him. <b>"Nagaina veniva al camera de banio e vocava Nag," Darzi continuava, "e Nag veniva de illo super le fin de un baston – le scopator le prendeva per le fin de un baston e le jectava super le cumulo de immunditias. Vamos cantar de Rikki-Tikki, le Magne con rubie oculos!" E Darzi plenava su gorga e cantava. </b> "Nagaina came to the bathroom sluice and called for Nag," Darzee went on, "and Nag came out on the end of a stick–the sweeper picked him up on the end of a stick and threw him upon the rubbish heap. Let us sing about the great, the red-eyed Rikki-tikki!" And Darzee filled his throat and sang. <b>"Si io poterea ascender a tu nido, io rolarea tu babies ex illo!" diceva Rikki-tikki. "Tu non sape quando facer le cosa correcte al tempore correcte. Tu es bastante secur la in tu nido, ma ci pro me es le guerra. Cessa le cantar pro un minuta, Darzi." </b> "If I could get up to your nest, I'd roll your babies out!" said Rikki-tikki. "You don't know when to do the right thing at the right time. You're safe enough in your nest there, but it's war for me down here. Stop singing a minute, Darzee." <b>"Pro le gratias de Rikki-Tikki le Magne e Belle io cessara," diceva Darzi. "Que es illo, O assassino de Nag le terribile?" </b> "For the great, the beautiful Rikki-tikki's sake I will stop," said Darzee. "What is it, O Killer of the terrible Nag?" <b>"Ubi es Nagaina, pro le tertie vice?" </b> "Where is Nagaina, for the third time?" <b>"Super le cumulo de immunditias presso del stabulos, affligente se pro Nag. Magne es Rikki-tikki con le dentes blanc." </b> "On the rubbish heap by the stables, mourning for Nag. Great is Rikki-tikki with the white teeth." <b>"Oblida mi dentes blanc! Ha tu unquam audite ubi ille cela su ovos?" </b> "Bother my white teeth! Have you ever heard where she keeps her eggs?" <b>"In le parterre de melones, in le parte le plus proxime al muro, ubi le lumine del sol lo illumina quasi tote le die. Illa los celava la ante multo septimanas." </b> "In the melon bed, on the end nearest the wall, where the sun strikes nearly all day. She hid them there weeks ago." <b>"E tu nunquam pensava que serea utile dicer me? Le parte le plus proxime al muro, tu diceva?" </b> "And you never thought it worth while to tell me? The end nearest the wall, you said?" <b>"Rikki-tikki, tu non va mangiar su ovos?" </b> "Rikki-tikki, you are not going to eat her eggs?" <b>"No; non exactemente mangiar. Darzi, si tu ha un grano de senso tu volara al stabulos e fingera que tu ala es rupte, e lassa que Nagaina te chassa a iste arbusto. Io debe vader al parterre de melones, e si io vadeva la ora illa me viderea.” </b> "Not eat exactly; no. Darzee, if you have a grain of sense you will fly off to the stables and pretend that your wing is broken, and let Nagaina chase you away to this bush. I must get to the melon-bed, and if I went there now she'd see me." <b>Darzi esseva un typo con le cerebro de plumas qui nunquam poteva tener plus que un idea a vice in su capite. E solmente proque ille sapeva que le infantes de Nagaina nasceva in ovos tal como su proprie, ille non pensava primo que esseva juste occider los. Ma su sposa esseva un ave practic, e illa sapeva que le ovos de cobra significava juvene cobras plus tarde. Assi illa volava del nido, e lassava Darzi vigilante le babies, e continuante su canto del morte de Nag. Darzi esseva bastante similar a un homine in alicun vias. </b> Darzee was a feather-brained little fellow who could never hold more than one idea at a time in his head. And just because he knew that Nagaina's children were born in eggs like his own, he didn't think at first that it was fair to kill them. But his wife was a sensible bird, and she knew that cobra's eggs meant young cobras later on. So she flew off from the nest, and left Darzee to keep the babies warm, and continue his song about the death of Nag. Darzee was very like a man in some ways. <b>Illa papilionava avante Nagaina presso del cumulo de immunditias e critava, "O, mi ala es rupte! Le puero in le casa jectava un petra a me e lo rupmeva." Pois illa papilionava plus desperatemente que antea.</b> She fluttered in front of Nagaina by the rubbish heap and cried out, "Oh, my wing is broken! The boy in the house threw a stone at me and broke it." Then she fluttered more desperately than ever. <b>Nagaina levava su capite e sibilava, "Tu preveniva Rikki-tikki quando io poteva occider le. Vermente, tu ha selegite un mal loco in le qual esser claude." E illa movava verso le sposa de Darzi, glissante per le sablo. </b> Nagaina lifted up her head and hissed, "You warned Rikki-tikki when I would have killed him. Indeed and truly, you've chosen a bad place to be lame in." And she moved toward Darzee's wife, slipping along over the dust. <b>"Le puero lo rumpeva con un petra!" critava le sposa de Darzi. </b> "The boy broke it with a stone!" shrieked Darzee's wife. <b>"Ben! Forsan illo sera un poco de consolation a te que post que tu es morte io va saldar contos con le puero. Mi sposo cuba super le cumulo de immunditias iste matino, ma ante le nocte le puero in le casa va cubar multissime immobile. Que es le uso de currer foras? Certemente io va attrappar te. Parve imbecille, reguarda me!" </b> "Well! It may be some consolation to you when you're dead to know that I shall settle accounts with the boy. My husband lies on the rubbish heap this morning, but before night the boy in the house will lie very still. What is the use of running away? I am sure to catch you. Little fool, look at me!" <b>Le sposa de Darzi sapeva melio que facer illo, pro un ave qui reguarda le oculos de un serpente deveni tanto territe que illo non pote mover. Le sposa de Darzi continuava papilionar, pipar tristemente, e nunquam sortir le terra, e Nagaina reavivava su velocitate. </b> Darzee's wife knew better than to do that, for a bird who looks at a snake's eyes gets so frightened that she cannot move. Darzee's wife fluttered on, piping sorrowfully, and never leaving the ground, and Nagaina quickened her pace. <b>Rikki-tikki audiva que illas vadeva per le semita del stabulos, e ille hastava pro le parte del parterre de melones le plus proxime al muro. La, in le calide ventrata super le melones, celate multo astutemente, ille trova vinti-cinque ovos, circa le grandor del ovos de un bantam, ma con pelle blanc in loco de scalias. </b> Rikki-tikki heard them going up the path from the stables, and he raced for the end of the melon patch near the wall. There, in the warm litter above the melons, very cunningly hidden, he found twenty-five eggs, about the size of a bantam's eggs, but with whitish skin instead of shell. <b>"Io esseva non un die troppo tosto," ille diceva, proque ille poteva vider le cobrettas buclate al interior del pelle del ovo, e ille sapeva que le minuta que illes se covava illes poterea occider un homine o un mangusta. Ille mordeva le culmines del ovos tanto rapidemente como ille poteva, prestante attention a applattar le cobrettas, e invertente le portata de vice in vice pro vider si ille habeva omittite alicunos. Al fin il habeva solmente tres ovos remanente, e Rikki-tikki comenciava rider dulcemente a se mesme, quando ille audiva le critos del sposa de Darzi: </b> "I was not a day too soon," he said, for he could see the baby cobras curled up inside the skin, and he knew that the minute they were hatched they could each kill a man or a mongoose. He bit off the tops of the eggs as fast as he could, taking care to crush the young cobras, and turned over the litter from time to time to see whether he had missed any. At last there were only three eggs left, and Rikki-tikki began to chuckle to himself, when he heard Darzee's wife screaming: <b>"Rikki-tikki, io duceva Nagaina verso le casa, e illa ha vadite in le veranda, e – o, veni rapidemente – illa intende occider!" </b> "Rikki-tikki, I led Nagaina toward the house, and she has gone into the veranda, and–oh, come quickly–she means killing!" <b>Rikki-tikki fraccassava duo ovos, e se rolava per le parterre de melones con le tertie ovo in su bucca, e curreva al veranda tanto rapidemente como ille pote poner le pede al terra. Teddy e su matre e patre esseva la a un jentaculo de bon hora, ma Rikki-tikki videva que illes non mangiava alique. Illes se sedeva immobilissime, e lor facies esseva blanc. Nagaina esseva inrolate super le mattas presso del sede de Teddy, intra un distantia de colpar facile del gamba nude de Teddy, e illa oscillava, cantante un canto de triumpho. </b> Rikki-tikki smashed two eggs, and tumbled backward down the melon-bed with the third egg in his mouth, and scuttled to the veranda as hard as he could put foot to the ground. Teddy and his mother and father were there at early breakfast, but Rikki-tikki saw that they were not eating anything. They sat stone-still, and their faces were white. Nagaina was coiled up on the matting by Teddy's chair, within easy striking distance of Teddy's bare leg, and she was swaying to and fro, singing a song of triumph. <b>"Filio del grande homine que occideva Nag," illa sibilava, "resta immobile. Io non jam es preste. Attende un poco. Tene te immobilissime, tote tres de vos! Si vos io colpara, e si vos non move io colpara. O, gente imprudente, qui occideva mi Nag!" </b> "Son of the big man that killed Nag," she hissed, "stay still. I am not ready yet. Wait a little. Keep very still, all you three! If you move I strike, and if you do not move I strike. Oh, foolish people, who killed my Nag!" <b>Le oculos de Teddy esseva fixate super su patre, e tote lo que su patre poteva facer esseva susurrar, "Sede te immobile, Teddy. Tu non debe mover te. Teddy, sia immobile." </b> Teddy's eyes were fixed on his father, and all his father could do was to whisper, "Sit still, Teddy. You mustn't move. Teddy, keep still." <b>Pois Rikki-tikki veniva e critava, "Torna te, Nagaina. Torna te e lucta!" </b> Then Rikki-tikki came up and cried, "Turn round, Nagaina. Turn and fight!" <b>"Toto in su tempore," illa diceva, sin mover su oculos. "Io va saldar contos con te tosto. Reguarda tu amicos, Rikki-tikki. Illes es immobile e blanc. Ille ha timor. Illes non osa mover se, e si tu veni un passo plus proxime io va colpar." </b> "All in good time," said she, without moving her eyes. "I will settle my account with you presently. Look at your friends, Rikki-tikki. They are still and white. They are afraid. They dare not move, and if you come a step nearer I strike." <b>"Reguarda tu ovos," diceva Rikki-tikki, "in le parterre de melones presso del muro. Va e reguarda, Nagaina!" </b> "Look at your eggs," said Rikki-tikki, "in the melon bed near the wall. Go and look, Nagaina!" <b>Le grande serpente se tornava mediemente, e videva le ovo super le veranda. "Ah-h! Da lo a me," illa diceva. </b> The big snake turned half around, and saw the egg on the veranda. "Ah-h! Give it to me," she said. <b>Rikki-tikki poneva su patas un a cata latere del ovo, e su oculos esseva tanto rubie como sanguine. "Que precio pro un ovo serpentin? Pro un juvene cobra? Pro un juvene rege de cobras? Pro le ultime – le ultissime del covata? Le formicas mangia tote la alteres presso del parterre de melones." </b> Rikki-tikki put his paws one on each side of the egg, and his eyes were blood-red. "What price for a snake's egg? For a young cobra? For a young king cobra? For the last–the very last of the brood? The ants are eating all the others down by the melon bed." <b>Nagaina girava completemente, oblidante toto pro le gratia de un ovo. Rikki-tikki videva le grande mano del patre de Teddy se lancea e prende Teddy per le humero, e trahe le trans le parve tabula con le cuppas de the, secur e ex le prisa Nagaina. </b> Nagaina spun clear round, forgetting everything for the sake of the one egg. Rikki-tikki saw Teddy's father shoot out a big hand, catch Teddy by the shoulder, and drag him across the little table with the tea-cups, safe and out of reach of Nagaina. <b>"Dupate! Dupate! Dupate! Rikk-tck-tck!" rideva Rikki-tikki dulcemente. "Le puero es secur, e esseva io - io – io que prendeva Nag per le cappucio heri nocte in le camera de banio." Pois ille comenciava saltar, tote de su longor al mesme tempore, su capite presso del pavimento. "Ille me jectava ci e la, ma ille non poteva liberar se. Ille esseva morte ante que le grande homine le colpava in duo pecias con le arma de foco. Io lo faceva! Rikki-tikki-tck-tck! Dunque veni, Nagaina. Veni e lucta con me. Tu non sera un vidua longemente." </b> "Tricked! Tricked! Tricked! Rikk-tck-tck!" chuckled Rikki-tikki. "The boy is safe, and it was I–I–I that caught Nag by the hood last night in the bathroom." Then he began to jump up and down, all four feet together, his head close to the floor. "He threw me to and fro, but he could not shake me off. He was dead before the big man blew him in two. I did it! Rikki-tikki-tck-tck! Come then, Nagaina. Come and fight with me. You shall not be a widow long." <b>Nagaina videva que illa ha perdite su opportunitate de occider Teddy, e le ovo cubava inter le patas de Rikki-tikki. "Da me le ovo, Rikki-tikki. Da me le ultime de mi ovos, e io vadera foras e nunquam retornara," illa diceva, abassante su cappucio. </b> Nagaina saw that she had lost her chance of killing Teddy, and the egg lay between Rikki-tikki's paws. "Give me the egg, Rikki-tikki. Give me the last of my eggs, and I will go away and never come back," she said, lowering her hood. <b>"Si, tu vadera foras, e tu nunquam retornara. Proque tu va vader al cumulo de immunditias con Nag. Lucta, vidua! Le grande homine ha vadite pro prender su arma de foco! Lucta!" </b> "Yes, you will go away, and you will never come back. For you will go to the rubbish heap with Nag. Fight, widow! The big man has gone for his gun! Fight!" <b>Rikki-tikki saltava ci e la circa Nagaina, remanente solmente extra su colpo, su parve oculos como brasa ardente. Nagaina inrolava se mesme e se lanceava a ille. Rikki-tikki saltava. De novo e de novo e de novo illa saltava, e tote vice su capite colpava le mattas del veranda e illa inrolava como le resorto de un horologio. Pois Rikki-tikki dansava in un circulo pro poner se detra illa, e Nagaina se girava completemente pro mantener su capite avante le capite de Rikki-Tikki, assi que le susurro de su cauda super le mattas sonava como folios sic pulsate per le vento. </b> Rikki-tikki was bounding all round Nagaina, keeping just out of reach of her stroke, his little eyes like hot coals. Nagaina gathered herself together and flung out at him. Rikki-tikki jumped up and backward. Again and again and again she struck, and each time her head came with a whack on the matting of the veranda and she gathered herself together like a watch spring. Then Rikki-tikki danced in a circle to get behind her, and Nagaina spun round to keep her head to his head, so that the rustle of her tail on the matting sounded like dry leaves blown along by the wind. <b>Ille habeva oblidate le ovo. Illo resta ancora in le veranda, e Nagaina approchava plus e plus proxime a illo, usque finalmente, durante que Rikki-tikki inspirava, illa lo prendeva con su bucca, girava al scalones del veranda, e curreva rapidemente per le semita, con Rikki-tikki detra illa. Quando le cobra curre pro su vita, illa va como un flagello colpante le collo de un cavallo. </b> He had forgotten the egg. It still lay on the veranda, and Nagaina came nearer and nearer to it, till at last, while Rikki-tikki was drawing breath, she caught it in her mouth, turned to the veranda steps, and flew like an arrow down the path, with Rikki-tikki behind her. When the cobra runs for her life, she goes like a whip-lash flicked across a horse's neck. <b>Rikki-tikki sapeva que ille debe attrappar la, o tote le enoio comenciarea de novo. Illa se dirigeva pro le herbas longe presso del spino, e durante que ille curreva Rikki-tikki audiva Darzi ancora cantante su cantetto fatue de triumpho. Ma le sposa de Darzi esseva plus sage. Illa flugava ex le nido quando Nagaina passava, e batteva su alas circa le capite de Nagaina. Si Darzi habeva adjutate forsan illes habeva potite causar que illa gira, ma Nagaina simplemente abassava su cappucio e continuava. Ma, le retardo de un instante lassava que Rikki-tikki la prende, e quando Nagaina se immergeva in le foramine de rattos ubi illa e Nag habitava, le parve dentes blanc de Rikki-Tikki esseva serrate a su cauda, e ille la sequeva – e multo poco de mangustas, sin reguardo de lor etate of intelligentia, vole sequer un cobra a in su cavo. Esseva obscur in le foramine; e Rikki-tikki nunquam sapeva quando illo se expanderea e darea a Nagaina le spatio pro girar e colpar a ille. Ille teneva al cauda ferocemente, e mitteva su pedes al terra calide e humide pro functionar como frenos. </b> Rikki-tikki knew that he must catch her, or all the trouble would begin again. She headed straight for the long grass by the thorn-bush, and as he was running Rikki-tikki heard Darzee still singing his foolish little song of triumph. But Darzee's wife was wiser. She flew off her nest as Nagaina came along, and flapped her wings about Nagaina's head. If Darzee had helped they might have turned her, but Nagaina only lowered her hood and went on. Still, the instant's delay brought Rikki-tikki up to her, and as she plunged into the rat-hole where she and Nag used to live, his little white teeth were clenched on her tail, and he went down with her–and very few mongooses, however wise and old they may be, care to follow a cobra into its hole. It was dark in the hole; and Rikki-tikki never knew when it might open out and give Nagaina room to turn and strike at him. He held on savagely, and stuck out his feet to act as brakes on the dark slope of the hot, moist earth. <b>Pois le agitation del herbas presso del apertura del foramine cessava, e Darzi diceva, "Illo es toto finite con Rikki-tikki! Nos debe cantar su canto de morte. Valente Rikki-tikki es morte! Proque, Nagaina certemente le occidera sub le terra." </b> Then the grass by the mouth of the hole stopped waving, and Darzee said, "It is all over with Rikki-tikki! We must sing his death song. Valiant Rikki-tikki is dead! For Nagaina will surely kill him underground." <b>Dunque ille cantava un canto multo triste que ille improvisava al minuta, e justo quando ille arrivava al parte le plus emotionante, le herbas fremeva de novo, e Rikki-tikki, coperite con solo, se traheva ex le foramine gamba post gamba, leccante su mustachios. Darzi cessava con un parve crito. Rikki-tikki succuteva alicun del sablo de su pelle e sternutava. "Es finite," ille diceva. "Le vidua nunquam exira de novo." E le formicas rubie que habita inter le herbas le audiva, e comenciava marchar in le foramine un post le altere pro vider si ille habeva parlate le veritate.</b> So he sang a very mournful song that he made up on the spur of the minute, and just as he got to the most touching part, the grass quivered again, and Rikki-tikki, covered with dirt, dragged himself out of the hole leg by leg, licking his whiskers. Darzee stopped with a little shout. Rikki-tikki shook some of the dust out of his fur and sneezed. "It is all over," he said. "The widow will never come out again." And the red ants that live between the grass stems heard him, and began to troop down one after another to see if he had spoken the truth. <b>Rikki-tikki se inrolava in le herbas e dormiva ubi ille esseva – dormiva e dormiva usque tarde in le postmeridie, proque ille habeva facite un die de travalio multo dur. </b> Rikki-tikki curled himself up in the grass and slept where he was–slept and slept till it was late in the afternoon, for he had done a hard day's work. <b>"Ora," ille diceva, quando ille se eveliava, "Io va retornar al casa. Dice le barbate caldieron (megalaima haemacephala), Darzi, e ille dicera le jardin que Nagaina es morte." </b> "Now," he said, when he awoke, "I will go back to the house. Tell the Coppersmith, Darzee, and he will tell the garden that Nagaina is dead." <b>Le barbate caldieron es un ave que face un sono exactemente como le battar de un martelletto super un olla de cupro; e le ration que sempre face le sono es proque ille es le critator public de cata jardin indian, e annuncia tote le novas a tote le mundo qui vole auscultar. Durante que Rikki-tikki ascendeva le semita, ille audiva su notas de "attention" como le parve gong de cena, e pois le constante "Din-don-tok! Nag es morte–don! Nagaina es morte! Din-don-tok!" Illo causava que tote le aves in le jardin comenciava cantar, e que le ranas comenciava coaxar, proque Nag e Nagaina mangiava avettas e ranettas tamben. </b> The Coppersmith is a bird who makes a noise exactly like the beating of a little hammer on a copper pot; and the reason he is always making it is because he is the town crier to every Indian garden, and tells all the news to everybody who cares to listen. As Rikki-tikki went up the path, he heard his "attention" notes like a tiny dinner gong, and then the steady "Ding-dong-tock! Nag is dead–dong! Nagaina is dead! Ding-dong-tock!" That set all the birds in the garden singing, and the frogs croaking, for Nag and Nagaina used to eat frogs as well as little birds. <b>Quando Rikki arrivava al casa, Teddy e su matre (illa ancora pareva multo blanc, proque illa ha suffrite syncope) e su patre veniva e quasi plorava supra ille; e ille nocte ille mangiava tote lo que on le dava usque ille non pote mangiar plus, e vadeva al lecto super le humero de Teddy, ubi le matre de Teddy le videva quando ille veniva pro un reguardo in le nocte tardive. </b> When Rikki got to the house, Teddy and Teddy's mother (she looked very white still, for she had been fainting) and Teddy's father came out and almost cried over him; and that night he ate all that was given him till he could eat no more, and went to bed on Teddy's shoulder, where Teddy's mother saw him when she came to look late at night. <b>"Ille salvava nostre vitas e le vita de Teddy," illa diceva a su sposo. "Solmente pensa, ille salvava toto de nostre vitas." </b> "He saved our lives and Teddy's life," she said to her husband. "Just think, he saved all our lives." <b>Rikki-tikki se eveliava con un suprasalto, proque le mangustas ha somno legier. </b> Rikki-tikki woke up with a jump, for the mongooses are light sleepers. <b>"O, Es vos," diceva ille. "Proque vos incommoda vos? Tote le cobras es morte. E si illes non esseva morte, io es ci." </b> "Oh, it's you," said he. "What are you bothering for? All the cobras are dead. And if they weren't, I'm here." <b>Rikki-tikki habeva un ration pro esser fer de se mesme. Ma ille non deveniva troppo fer, e ille manteneva ille jardin como un mangusta deberea mantener lo, con dente e salto e morsura, usque nunquam un cobra osava monstrar su capite al interior del muros. </b> Rikki-tikki had a right to be proud of himself. But he did not grow too proud, and he kept that garden as a mongoose should keep it, with tooth and jump and spring and bite, till never a cobra dared show its head inside the walls. <b>Le Canto de Darzi </b> Darzee's Chant <b>(Cantava in honor de Rikki-tikki-tavi)</b> (Sung in honor of Rikki-tikki-tavi) <b>Cantator e sartor es io–</b> Singer and tailor am I– <b>Duplate le joios que io sape–</b> Doubled the joys that I know– <b>Fer de mi rhythmo in le celo, </b> Proud of my lilt to the sky, <b>Fer del casa que io sue–</b> Proud of the house that I sew– <b>Super e sub, assi io texe mi musica–assi io texe le casa que io sue. </b> Over and under, so weave I my music–so weave I the house that I sew. <b>Canta a tu avettos de novo, </b> Sing to your fledglings again, <b>Matre, leva tu capite! </b> Mother, oh lift up your head! <b>Le Mal que nos plagava es occidite, </b> Evil that plagued us is slain, <b>Le Morte in le jardin resta morte. </b> Death in the garden lies dead. <b>Le Terror que se celava in le rosas es impotente – jectate super le cumulo de immunditias e morte! </b> Terror that hid in the roses is impotent–flung on the dung-hill and dead! <b>Qui nos ha liberate, qui? </b> Who has delivered us, who? <b>Dice me su nido e su nomine. </b> Tell me his nest and his name. <b>Rikki, le valente, le ver, </b> Rikki, the valiant, the true, <b>Tikki, con oculos de flammas, </b> Tikki, with eyeballs of flame, <b>Rikk-tikki-tikki, ille del dentes eboree, le caciator con oculos de flammas! </b> Rikk-tikki-tikki, the ivory-fanged, the hunter with eyeballs of flame! <b>Da le le Gratias del Aves, </b> Give him the Thanks of the Birds, <b>Inclinante con le plumas caudal extendite! </b> Bowing with tail feathers spread! <b>Lauda le con le parolas del rossiniolo –</b> Praise him with nightingale words– <b>No, io va laudar le. </b> Nay, I will praise him instead. <b>Audi! Io te cantara le laudo del Rikki con le cauda a brossa, con oculos rubie! </b> Hear! I will sing you the praise of the bottle-tailed Rikki, with eyeballs of red! <b>(Ci Rikki-tikki interrumpeva, e nos perdeva le resto </b> (Here Rikki-tikki interrupted, and the rest of the song is lost.) 924 2001 2005-04-09T14:45:32Z Josu Lavin 2 ===GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA=== <b>Le participio presente es formate per adder -nte post le forma del presente. Si iste forma se termina in -i on adde -ente(trovante, vidente, audiente).</b> The present participle is formed by adding -nte after the present form. If this form ends in -i, the ending is -ente (finding, seeing, hearing). <b>Iste participios es adjectivos e pote esser usate como substantivos: (1) Duo passantes videva le fugiente captivo. (2) Vidente le casa ardente, illa inviava un alarma al pumperos. (3) Habente terminate su oration, le presidente lassava comenciar le sequente orator. (4) Passante le loco del accidente, nos videva vulneratos. (5) Su actos esseva choccante. (6) Le situation pare esser menaciante.</b> These participles are adjectives and can be used like nouns: (1) Two passers-by saw the fleeing captive. (2) Seeing the burning house, she sent an alarm to the firemen. (3) Having finished his speech, the president let the following speaker (begin)/(start out). (4) Passing the site of the accident, we saw (some) wounded (people). (5) His acts were shocking. (6) The situation appears (to be) menacing. 925 2002 2005-04-09T16:37:51Z Josu Lavin 2 Le Pelegrinage de Christiano Conto allegoric de John Bunyan in le similitude de un sonio traducite in Interlingua per Paolo Castellina, pastor evangelic (1994) Introduction, vita de John Bunyan, tabula del contentos Introduction "Le pelegrinage de Christiano'' (The Pilgrim's Progress) es un libro que, in le 300 annos de su existentia, ha transversate multe de ille barrieras de racia e de cultura que solitemente servi a limitar le barrieras communicative de un obra classic. Illo mesmo penetrava in le mundo non-christian; illo ha essite lecte per culte musulmanes durante le surger del individualismo religiose del Islam e, in le mesme tempore in editiones missionari a bon mercato de indianos american e habitantes del insulas meridional de nostre globo. "Le pelegrinage de Christiano'' ha essite definite "Le plus popular obra de spiritualitate christian usque nunc scripte in anglese''. Illo es un conto allegoric que dramatisa le experientia spiritual christian evangelic per le medio de un viage o cerca. Illo es de facto un motivo typic del historia biblic (le saga de Abraham e del Exodo), insimul a su interpretationes in le Nove Testamento, de cuje ethos John Bunyan esseva permeate. Le stilo de iste obra esseva influentiate (como le autor ipse admitteva) per le legendas e sagas popular que ille habeva lecte durante su juventute, con un realismo acutemente observate si ben psychologic como substantial. Pro John Bunyan su obra allegoric fictive non esseva un fin a se ipse, ma un medio pro facer de cata lector un "viagiator'' sur le via que conduce al "Canaan celeste'' que, quanquam illo remane aperte a omne persona de fide, curre necessemente per le deserto de iste mundo, con su vicissitudes, incertitudes e complexitates moral. Paolo Castellina Le vita de John Bunyan Le documentos indica que in 1628, in le remote village anglese de Elstow, apud Bedford, nasceva 19 infantes. Uno de istos, le filio de un latonero o caldierero, esseva destinate a devenir le autor de un libro que ha ganiate un fama illimitate e que esseva traducite in multe linguas. Grande parte de iste libro habeva essite scripte in un prision! On supponeva in le 17. seculo que le position social de un persona debeva necessarimente esser illo de su parentes. Frequentemente le filios sequeva le passos de lor patre in lor profession. Non surprende, ergo, que le juvene Bunyan deveniva un caldierero un fornitor viagiante le qual reparava utensiles e instrumentos. Un filio de caldierero habeva opportunitates professional limitate. Plus tarde Bunyan notava que: "Deo se complaceva poner in lor corde (su parentes) le desiro que lor filio apprendeva sia le lectura sia le scriptura''. Iste education, ille remarcava, esseva "al nivello del altere filios de povre homines'' (illo es un education minimal). Ille addeva: "Io tosto perdeva le poco que io apprendeva''. Su 16. anno, 1644, esseva un turbulente anno de cambio. Primo, su matre moriva e, intra un mense, su soror Margareth alsi moriva; inde, un mense post le morte de su soror, su patre se maritava de novo. Post iste commotion emotive, John Bunyan assereva que ille habeva "poc concurrentes... sia in maledicer, sia in objurgar, sia in mentir, sia in blasphemar le sancte nomine de Deo''. Quando arrivava recrutatores plus tarde ille anno pro le Armea Parlamentari (o Roundheads), le juvene Bunyan esseva alacre a responder. Ille passava in ille armea le sequente tres annos durante que illo esseva implicate in le conflicto con le fortias del Rege Carolo I. Bunyan mentionava poco ille annos in le servicio militar. Le experientia, tamen, que pare haber habite un profunde impacto super ille, esseva un quasi-incontro con le morte. Un altere soldato requireva occupar le placia de Bunyan al ultime momento in un assedio. On pote imaginar quanto grande esseva le choc quando, post le battalia, ille apprendeva que su substituto habeva fatalmente essite occise. Depost su dimission del armea, le Bunyan de 19 annos retornava a su native Elstow, ubi ille se ingagiava in le vita del caldierero. Alora, post un anno o duo, ille se maritava con Mary. "Nos conveniva insimul tanto povre quanto solmente le povres pote esser'', ille affirmava, "nostre utensiles domestic se limitava a un platto e a un coclear a usar in commun''. Su vita spiritual, durante le quatro annos sequente le maritage, habeva le characteres de un sede pendular periodos de calma, accessos de depression, tentativa de reformation e un profunde sentimento de peccato e de judicamento. In reguardar retro a ille periodo turbulente, ille plus tarde videva le ration de ille experientia disordinate: "Pro iste ration io jaceva tanto longemente al Sinai a vider su foco, su nube e su obscuritate que io poterea timer le Senior tote le dies de mi vita sur le terra, e contar in re su obras meraviliose a mi infantes''. Le lumine comenciava surger pro Bunyan quando, in su viages per le proxime Bedford, ille audiva casualmente le conversation de "tres o quatro povre feminas... qui sedeva al porta, sub le radios del sol, e qui parlava del cosas de Deo''. Illas, a su tempore, introduceva Bunyan a lor pastor, John Gifford, al qual Bunyan constantemente se referera como "le sancte sr. Gifford''. Un altere instrumento pro su conversion esseva le lectura del "Commentario a Galatas'' de Martin Luther. Le lumine vermente habeva surgite, e le nove converso se alineava con le ecclesia de Bedford, cuje pastor esseva Gifford. Quanquam baptisate per immersion e convincite baptista, Bunyan resolutemente refusava esser sectari. Al termino de su vita ille gaudeva le communion de christianos qui faceva abstraction de qualcunque affiliation denominational. Circa in 1655 Bunyan se transfereva con su uxor, su filia cec, Mary, e tres altere infantes a Bedford pro esser proxime al ecclesia in le qual ille esseva un ardente membro e diacono. Iste transferimento, tamen, esseva obscurate per le morte de su sposa, Mary, le qual, infatigabilemente le habeva incoragiate e consolate durante su annos de conflicto spiritual. Nonobstante iste tragedia e pois le morte de su amate pastor e monitor, "le sancte sr. Gifford'' (1), le caldierero deveniva un partisano inconditional del ecclesia de Bedford e un fortia trahente in le ecclesias del region. Ben que ille non esseva un predicator ordinate, on le habeva demandate in 1655 parlar a congregationes in le area. Al grande surprisa de totes, includite Bunyan ipse, le caldierero se revelava un predicator potente. Tosto turbas de gente se congregava quando on annunciava le venita de Bunyan a predicar. Su proprie investigationes in le Scripturas e annos de lucta interior le habeva rendite un compatiente e potente guida pro alteres. Con un dependentia infantil de Deo, ille predicava, secundo su proprie parolas "lo que io vivemente sentiva''. Un cambio politic, tamen, debeva interrumper su vita. Quando Cromwell moriva in 1658, Carolo 2e esseva portate retro in Anglaterra. Con le retorno del governamento royal in 1660, le libertate religiose del non-anglicanos esseva fortemente restricte. Bunyan, con altere predicatores qui habeva gaudite del libertate religiose, habeva devenite virtualmente predicatores "subterranee'' le quales teneva incontros in casas, stabulos e locos insulate al aere libere. In novembre de 1660, Bunyan se preparava predicar in uno de iste congregationes in un ferma. Alcun su amicos apprendeva que un mandato pro su arresto habeva essite promulgate e le exhortava a non predicar. "Pro isto ni io me agitara, ni io dimittera le reunion'', ille declarava, "Veni, sia tranquille! Vamos non esser intimidate. Nostre causa es bon'' (4), ille continuava, "nos non debe haber vergonia; predicar le Parola de Deo es un obra tanto bon que nos essera remunerate pro isto, mesmo si nos debera suffrer''. Le predicator esseva arrestate. Quando ille refusava de cessar omne activitate de predication si ille haberea essite liberate, ille esseva imprisionate. "Io conservava mi pace e, sia benedicte le Senior, io vadeva in prision con le conforto de Deo in mi povre anima'', ille commentava. Justo ante su imprisionamento ille se habeva maritate le secunde vice. Le nomine de su nove sposa esseva Elizabeth, le qual debeva esser su loyal partenaria durante ille annos de imprisionamento, como alsi matre de su infantes. Ante ille stava 12 annos de imprisionamento, separation de su amates e un freno a su ministerio public. Ille repulsava omne offerta de liberation sub le condition de cessation del predication. "Si hodie io esseva foras del prision, io predicarea le Evangelio deman, con le adjuta de Deo'', ille diceva al judice. Con se in prision ille portava su Biblia e un copia de "Le Libro del Martyres de Foxe''. Pro ille le Scripturas in prision deveniva vivente. "Io nunquam como nunc in tote mi vita habeva un tal introspection in le Parola de Deo'', ille assereva, "passages del Scriptura in le quales io non videva alco usque nunc, ora in iste placia brilla super me. Mesmo Jesus Christo nunc es pro me plus real e apparente que unquam antea. Hic io sin dubita le videva e sentiva''. In prision ille deveniva virtualmente le cappellano de altere predicatores e companiones christian le quales alsi habeva essite incarcerate. Ibi ille mesmo produceva dentella, le qual ille vendeva pro provider nutrimento pro su familia. Alcun del sermones que ille predicava in prision probabilemente deveniva le base pro libros que esseva publicate durante iste tempore. Le plus cognite de iste libros esseva: "Gratia que abunda pro le chef del peccatores''. In ille 12 annos, de 1660 a su liberation in 1672, ille scribeva cinque libros e multe tractatos controversial e doctrinal, le quales le rendeva famose inter christianos anglese. Bunyan esseva liberate durante un relaxamento del oppression religiose in 1672. Plure menses ante su disincarceration, le ecclesia de Bedford le appellava a devenir su pastor. Integre turbas se congregava pro audir le ex-prisionero le qual esseva considerate como "Episcopo Bunyan'' in le tote region. Multe ecclesias, mesmo in London, requireva ardorosemente le caldierero-predicator. Le climate politic e religiose de Anglaterra cambiava tamen rapidemente ancora in 1675. Bunyan esseva de novo imprisionate per sex menses, e il esseva durante iste imprisionamento que ille scribeva "Le Pelegrinage de Christiano''. Le expression de apertura de iste classico religiose revela su placia de origine: "Durante que io ambulava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava [le prision de Bedford]. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio''. Le libro, que describe vividemente le viage de pelegrino ab le Citate de Destruction al Citate del Celo, ha essite acclamate como un potente, introspective reporto de conviction de peccato, conversion, lucta spiritual, proba, crescentia e retorno al casa del Celo. Alcun christianos de su tempore habeva consiliate a Bunyan non publicar le libro, proque illo es un allegoria e non directe theologia! Multitudines desde tunc, tamen, ha essite grate que Bunyan habeva ignorate iste criticos. Quando Bunyan esseva disincarcerate de su secunde imprisionamento, ille retornava a su congregation e placia de commando. In 1678 ille completava e publicava "Le Pelegrinage de Christiano''. Le libro esseva instantaneemente un best-seller. In le prime anno esseva publicate tres editiones. Desde tunc illo ha essite republicate in decenas de linguas e illo ha grandemente influite sur multitudines. Le ultime 10 annos del vita de Bunyan, a sequer le publication de su opera prime, ille passava in incessante labor pro Christo. Bunyan esseva estimate como un potente predicator, e turbas conveniva a audir le. Un vice le rege Carolo 2e demandava al erudito John Owen como poteva ille vader audir un simplice caldierero-predicator. Owen, le qual habeva essite vice-cancellero del universitate de Oxford promptemente respondeva que ille haberea de bon voluntate excambiate su sapientia con le poter de ille caldierero de tanger le cordes human. In ille annos plus que 30 libros flueva de su penna. Includite in illo esseva etiam le secunde parte del "Pelegrinage de Christiano'', le qual describe le fugita del sposa de Christiano, i.e. Christina, e de lor infantes del Destruction. "Le Guerra Sancte'', publicate in 1682, esseva alsi un allegoria, un description potente del vita christian contate in terminos militar. In le estate de 1688 Bunyan esseva invitate a predicar in London. Ante quitar Bedford, tamen, ille esseva avicinate per un juvene homine, le qual habeva essite repudiate per su patre. Ille habeva exhortate le predicator de intervenir in su favor con su patre. In profitar del occasion, Bunyan ha exportate le Evangelio a iste juvene homine e ergo ille le accompaniava al domo de su patre ubi le patre se reconciliava con su filio. Alora, in un forte tempesta, Bunyan se preparava a attinger London pro su appunctamento. Iste exposition e effortio le debilitava. Quanquam ille predicava durante le servicio divin, ille obviemente esseva malade. Multe dies sequeva in le quales ille luctava contra pneumonia, e durante ille dies ille experiva pro se mesme le retorno a casa que ille habeva descripte pro Christiano e su companion, Sperantiose: "Alora veniva pro incontrar les plure Trompetteros del Rege, con vestes blanc, le quales, con sonos forte e melodiose, faceva echoar mesmo le celo con lor sonos. Iste trompetteros salutava Christiano e su companion con dece milles Benvenitas ab le mundo, e isto illes faceva con critos e con le sono del trompas''. NOTAS (1) De "The Life of John Bunyan'', paperback edition, 1977, Baker Book House, Gran Rapids, Michigan. (2) De "Encyclopedia Britannica'', Vol. 4, 1966, Chicago, Illinois. (3) De "John Bunyan: His Life, Time and Work'', by John Brown, The Hulbert Publishig Company, London, England, 1928. (4) De "John Bunyan'', by Gwylim O.Griffith, Doubleday Company, New York, 1928. (5) De "They Found the Secret'', by W. Raymond Edman, 1960, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan. (6) Cf. "John Bunyan'' by Gwylim O. Griffith, Doubleday Company Inc., New York, 1928. (7) De "The Pilgrim's Progress From This World to That Which is to Come'', by John Bunyan, The Banner of Truth Thrust, Edimbourgh, Scotland, and Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Tabula del contento 1. Conviction de peccato 2. Christiano e Evangelista 3. Obstinato e Plicabile 4. Le Palude del Discoragiamento 5. Adjuta 6. Sr. Sapientia mundan 7. Christiano e le deception del Alte Colle 8. Le Porta Stricte 9. Bon Voluntate 10. Le casa del Interprete 11. Le Cruce que salva 12. Tres homines dormiente 13. Formalista e Hypocrisia 14. Le tres stratas 15. Un agradabile refugio 16. Diffidentia e Timorose 17. Le Casa Belle 18. Le Conversation con le tres juvene feminas 19. Le Cena in le Casa Belle 20. Le documentos del Casa Belle 21. Multe altere meravilias a vider 22. Christiano se prepara a partir 23. Christiano affronta Apollyon 24. Le Vallea del Umbra del Morte 25. Fidel 26. Incontro con Loquace 27. Nove incontro con Evangelista e su premonition 28. Le Feria del Vanitate 29. Le processo contra Fidel 30. Sperante 31. Incontro con Interessose 32. Discurso in re un religion commode 33. Le colle del lucro 34. Un estranie monumento 35. Le agradabile riviera 36. Le periculose via plus confortabile 37. Le castello del dubita 38. Le Montes Delectabile 39. Le Montania del Error 40. Le Monte Prudentia 41. Un porta del inferno 42. Le telescopio 43. Ignorantia 44. Aversion, le apostata 45. Parvefide 46. Le adulator 47. Atheista 48. Le terreno incantate 49. Nove incontro con Ignorantia 50. Discurso super le timor de Deo 51. Temporario 52. Le pais de Beulah 53. Le Fluvio del Morte 54. Le ultime viage 55. Le ingresso in le Celo Retro al pagina principal - Prime parte 926 2003 2005-04-09T16:40:37Z Josu Lavin 2 Le Pelegrinage de Christiano 1. Conviction de peccato .1 Durante que io camminava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio. .2 Io soniava, e tosto io videva un homine, vestite de povre vestes lacerate, qui stava in un certe loco, con le facie revolvite de su proprie casa, con un libro in mano, e con un grande fardello super su dorso [Is 44:6; Lc 14:33; Ps 38:5; Hab 2:2]. .3 Io reguardava, e le videva aperir le libro e leger in illo. Durante le lectura ille comenciava lacrimar e tremular, tanto que ille non poteva plus continer se e per un voce lamentose ille critava: "Que debe io facer?'' [Act 2:37]. .4 In ille lamentabile condition ille retornava a casa e cercava celar a su sposa e a su filios su proprie suffrentia, ma ille non succedeva facer lo, proque su pena augmentava semper plus. .5 Finalmente ille se effundeva a su sposa e a su filios e diceva: "Mi car sposa, e vos, mi amatissime filios, io es triste e profundemente turbate: le fardello que io porta es tro pesante, .6 in ultra io ha essite informate que in tote certitude, nostre citate essera comburite per un foco que venira del Celo: nos omnes perira miseremente si nos non trova un via pro fugir, un via que io non mesmo cognosce''. .7 In audir iste parolas, su familia esseva multo surprendite, non proque illes habeva credite al parolas que ille diceva, ma proque illes comenciava timer que ille se affollava. Comocunque, nam le nocte se avicinava, illes le exhortava a vader a lecto, in le spero que le somno poterea calmar su cerebro. .8 Le nocte, tamen, esseva pro ille tanto travaliate quanto le jorno e, pro isto, ille lo passava in singultos e in lacrimas. Assi, quando le jorno arrivava, illes voleva informar se como ille stava nunc, ma ille respondeva: "Semper pejo, semper pejo''. .9 Ille desirava pois continuar a parlar a illes, in le spero de convincer les, ma in van, illes comenciava a indurar se; illes etiam probava a facer le revenir al ration per le manieras forte, aliquando per derision, aliquando per reproches e, altere vices, illes simplemente le ignorava: pro isto ille comenciava retirar se in su camera a precar e a compatir les, ma etiam a condoler su proprie miseria. In ultra, ille passava le tempore in camminar solitari per le campos, aliquando in leger, aliquando in precar. .10 Un vice, durante que ille camminava per le campos, io videva que, como il esseva su habitude, ille legeva ille su libro e ille me pareva particularmente inquiete e, durante su lectura, como ille jam habeva facite, ille se effundeva e diceva: "Que debe io facer pro salvar me?'' [Act 16:30,31]. 2. Christiano e Evangelista .1 Io ora percipeva que ille reguardava nunc in un direction, pois in un altere direction, como si ille haberea desirate currer, ma ille remaneva semper stante, proque ille non sapeva a ubi vader. .2 Io reguardava e videva un homine, nominate Evangelista, le qual veniva verso ille. Evangelista le demandava: "Proque tu lacrima?''. Ille respondeva: "Senior, io apprendeva ex le libro in mi mano que io es condemnate a morte, e post illo, al judicamento, e io non vole ni morir, ni esser judicate'' [Heb 9:27; Job 14:21,22; Ezek 22:14]. .3 Alora Evangelista diceva: "Proque tu non vole morir, esque le vita non es forsan plen de travalios?''. Le homine respondeva: "Proque io time que iste fardello que io porta sur mi dorso certo me facera cader ancora plus in basso que mi proprie tumba, usque al Tophet (inferno) [Is 30:33]. In ultra, senior, si io non ama ir al prision, io certo non amarea ir al judicamento, e de illo al execution. Pensar a iste cosas me face plorar''. .4 Assi Evangelista le dava un pergamena sur le qual il esseva scripte: "Fugi del castigamento divin que es preste a venir'' [Mat 3:7]. Le homine, assi, lo legeva e, in reguardar attentivemente Evangelista, diceva: "A ubi io debe fugir?''. .5 Inde Evangelista diceva, in indicar un campo multo vaste: "Esque tu pote vider ibi un lumine brillante?'' [2 Pe 1:19]. Christiano respondeva: "Io crede que si''. Alora Evangelista diceva: "Continua reguardar ille lumine, e va ibi directemente, assi tu videra le Porta. Quando tu colpara, alcuno te dicera lo que tu debe facer''. .6 Assi io videva in mi sonio que le homine comenciava currer. Ille non habeva ancora currite multo lontan de su proprie porta de casa quando su sposa e su infantes, in perciper su fuga, comenciava critar verso ille de tornar retro [Lc 14:26]. Le homine, tamen, poneva su digitos in su aures e curreva in ultra, e ille critava: "Vita, vita, vita eterne!''. Assi ille non reguardava plus a retro [Gen 19:17; 2 Cor 4:18], ma fugiva verso le medio del plana. .7 Mesmo su vicinos veniva a vider le e, durante que ille curreva, alcunes le derideva, alteres le menaciava, alteres ancora le exhortava a retornar. Inter iste ultimes il habeva duo homines qui se resolveva vader a caper le per fortia. 3. Obstinato e Plicabile .1 Le nomine del prime esseva Obstinato, e le nomine del secundo esseva Plicabile. Intertanto le homine habeva se distantiate multo, tamen illes habeva resolvite de attinger le e, in poc tempore, illes poteva haltar se. .2 Tunc le homine diceva: "Vicinos, proque vos ha venite?''. Illes diceva: "Pro persuader te a retornar con nos'', ma ille diceva: "Isto non es possibile. Vos habita in le Citate del Destruction (le mesme placia ubi io nasceva), e si vos mori ibi, tosto o tarde vos cadera sub vostre proprie tumba, in un loco plen de foco e de sulfure. Esque vos volerea venir con me?''. .3 "Que?'', diceva Obstinato, "e lassar nostre amicos e nostre confortos a retro?'', "Si,'' diceva Christiano, nam isto esseva su nomine, "proque tote illo que vos lassarea a retro, non es mesmo comparabile a un poco de lo que io cerca pervenir a gauder [2 Cor 4:18], e si vos veni con me, vos lo potera obtener alsi. Ibi il ha benes in abundantia pro totes. Veni, e proba mi parolas''. .4 Obstinato: "Qual cosas cerca tu, nam tu quitava le mundo integre pro illos?''. Christiano: "Io cerca un hereditage incorruptibile, pur, indestructibile [1 Pe 1:4-6; Heb 11:6-16]. Illo se trova intangite in le Celo. Illo essera donate, al tempore fixate, a illes qui lo habera diligentemente cercate. Isto es scribite in mi libro. Lege!''. .5 Obstinato: "Depone tu stupide libro. Vole tu venir a retro con nos, o no?''. Christiano: "No, non io, nam io ha jam ponite mi mano super le aratro'' [Lc 9:62]. .6 Obstinato: "Vamos, ergo, mi car vicino Plicabile, vamos retornar, vamos a casa sin ille; quando imbecilles como isto se pone in le capite alique, illes pensa de saper plus que septe homines rationabile!''. Plicabile: "Attende, non insulta. Si iste bon Christiano dice le veritate, si le cosas que ille cerca es melior que le nostre, io esserea inclinate a vader con Christiano''. .7 Obstinato: "Que? Ha il ancora altere folles? Ascolta me, e vamos a retro. Qui sape a ubi iste folle poterea conducer te? Sia sage, arretra te!''. Christiano: "Veni con me, mi car vicino Plicabile, le cosas del quales io te parlava existe vermente, e multe altere meravilias ancora. Si tu non me crede, lege in iste libro per te mesme. A confirmar le veritate de lo que hic es scribite, es le sanguine de su factor!'' [Heb 9:17-22]. .8 Plicabile: "Ben, vicino Obstinato, io comencia vider plus clarmente. Io intende vader insimul a iste bon homine e condivider su sorte. Ma, mi bon companion, esque tu cognosce le via que porta a iste desiderabile loco?''. Christiano: "Un homine nominate Evangelista guida me: ille me diceva de vader a ille Porta que sta ibi. Nos recipera altere instructiones quando nos pervenira ibi''. .9 Plicabile: "Vamos, ergo, vamos hastar nos!''. Assi illes se poneva in marcha. Obstinato: "E io retorna a casa, io non essera companion de tal folles!''. .10 Nunc io videva in mi sonio que quando Obstinato habeva retornate a casa, Christiano e Plicabile conversava per le plana. Assi illes parlava. Christiano: "Veni, car vicino Plicabile, como sta tu? Io es felice que tu te persuadeva a venir con me. Si solmente Obstinato ipse haberea sentite le mesmo que io sentiva del poter e del terror de lo que nunc non ancora es visibile, ille non haberea retornate assi facilemente''. .11 Plicabile: "Veni, mi car vicino Christiano, nam il ha solmente nos duo hic. Dice me de plus super lo que son iste cosas, como nos potera gauder los, e exactemente a ubi nos va''. Christiano: "Pro me, il es plus facile pensar a iste cosas plus tosto que parlar de illos. Comocunque, proque isto te es agradabile, io va leger lor description in mi libro''. .12 Plicabile: "Esque tu pensa que le parolas de tu libro es certemente ver?''. Christiano: "Si, certo, proque illos esseva facite per Ille qui non dice mendacios'' [Tito 1:2]. .13 Plicabile: "Ben dicite. Que illos es?''. Christiano: "Il ha un regno infinite pro esser habitate, e un vita eterne pro esser donate, in le quales nos pote habitar pro semper'' [Is 65:17; Joh 10:27-29]. Plicabile: "Ben dicite, e que altere?''. .14 Christiano: "Il ha coronas de gloria pro esser date a nos, e vestimentos que facera nos brillar como le sol in le firmamento del celo'' [2 Tim 4:8; Ap 22:5; Mt 13:43]. Plicabile: "Isto es excellente. E que altere?''. .15 Christiano: "Il non habera plus ni plorar, ni plus penas; proque le proprietario de iste placia essugara omne lacrimas de nostre oculos'' [Is 25:8; Ap 7:16,17]. .16 Plicabile: "E qual compania habera nos ibi?''. Christiano: "Ibi nos incontrara Seraphim, Cherubim, creaturas si luminose que quasi nos non potera reguardar los [Is 6:2; 1 Thess 4:16,17]. Tu incontrara alsi milles e dece milles de personas qui jam ha arrivate in ille loco; nulle persona, tamen, te ledera, nam totes es amabile e sancte. Totes cammina coram Deo, ben acceptate per Ille pro semper. In un parola, nos ibi videra le ancianos con lor coronas auree [Ap 4:4]; ibi nos videra le sancte virgines con lor harpas auree. Ibi nos videra le homines qui in le mundo habeva essite secate a pecias, comburite in le flammas, mangiate per bestias, submergite in le mares a causa del amor que illes habeva pro le Senior de iste loco. Totes stara ben, totes essera revestite de immortalitate como per un belle vestimento'' [Joh 12:25; 2 Cor 5:2-4]. .17 Plicabile: "Solmente in audir tote isto mi corde esseva rapite, ma esque tote isto essera a gauder liberemente? Como nos obtenera tote isto?''. Christiano: "Le Senior, Governator de iste pais, ha scribite clarmente in iste libro tote isto, e si vermente nos lo desidera, ille dara tote isto a nos, e gratuitemente'' [Is 55:1-8; Joh 6:37; Ap 21:6; 23:17]. .18 Plicabile: "Ben, mi bon companion, io es felice de audir iste cosas. Vamos, vamos hastar!''. Christiano: "Io non pote marchar tanto rapidemente quanto io volerea a causa del fardello que io porta sur le dorso''. 4. Le Palude del Discoragiamento .1 Nunc io videva in mi sonio que, justo quando illes finiva lor conversation, illes perveniva a un Palude multo fangose que esseva in le medio del plana, e illes, negligente lo, tosto cadeva intro. Le nomine del Palude esseva Discoragiamento. Illes poteva transir a fatiga solmente un poco, e illes deveniva completemente fede. Christiano, tamen, a causa del fardello que ille portava sur su dorso, comenciava submerger se in ille fango. .2 Plicabile: "Oh, vicino Christiano, ubi es tu nunc?''. Christiano: "Vermente io non lo sape!''. In experir tote isto, Plicabile comenciava a sentir se offendite e, con rabie, ille diceva a su companion: "Esque isto es le felicitate super le qual tu me parlava usque a nunc? Si nos incontra jam in le comenciamento de nostre cammino si multe difficultates, que pote nos expectar ancora ante terminar nostre viage? Si io me potera salvar de tote isto, tu potera tener tu belle pais toto pro te mesme''. .3 Dicite isto, con un desperate effortio, ille exiva del fango in ille parte del palude que esseva le plus vicin a su proprie casa, plus tosto que al Porta, e ille se distantiava. Christiano non le habera plus vidite. .4 Christiano assi remaneva sol in agitar se in le Palude del Discoragiamento. Ille cercava, tamen, de star in ille parte del Palude que esseva le plus vicin al Porta, plus tosto que a su casa. Totevia ille non succedeva exir de ille Palude, super toto a causa del fardello que ille portava sur su dorso. 5. Adjuta .1 Ma ecce que io videva in mi sonio que un homine perveniva a ille. Su nomine esseva Adjuta, e ille demandava proque Christiano esseva ibi. .2 Christiano: "Senior, un homine appellate Evangelista me diceva de pervenir a ille Porta ibi in fundo pro fugir del castigamento veniente e, durante le viage, io cadeva hic''. .3 Adjuta: "Ma proque tu non videva que il ha anque un passage plus firme?''. Christiano: "Io habeva si multe pavor que io prendeva le prime via que me pareva practicabile e io cadeva hic intro''. Adjuta: "Alora, da me tu mano!''. Assi ille le dava le mano e le traheva foras de ibi, ille le poneva sur le terra firme e ille le exhortava prosequer su cammino [Ps 40:2]. .4 A iste puncto io mesme interveniva pro demandar a Adjuta: "Senior, io vide que isto es le sol via pro ir ab le Citate del Destruction al Porta ibi. Proque, alora, iste strata non va esser resanate a fin que le viagiatores va gauder de major securitate?''. .5 Assi ille me respondeva: "Iste palude fangose non pote esser resanate: de facto isto es le loco ubi on effunde continuemente tote le immunditia que on elimina per le repententia del peccatos. Isto es proque illo es appellate Palude del Discoragiamento. .6 De facto, quando le peccator comprende esser perdite, in su animo surge si multe timores, dubitas e pensamentos discoragiante que totes insimul illes se effunde e remane hic. Ecce proque le terreno es in un assi horribile condition! .7 Le rege non amarea que iste loco remaneva assi fede e deforme [Is 35:3,4]: su servitores, sub le direction del Inspectores de Su Majestate, ha travaliate per plus de 1600 annos super iste pecia de terreno pro resanar lo. 20.000 carros plen de material ha essite jam jectate hic, al contrario, milliones de optime consilios conflueva continuemente hic de omne angulo del dominios del Rege (multes dice que istos es le melior material pro le resanamento de iste loco). .8 Le situation haberea debite certo ameliorar, ma isto es ancora le Palude del Discoragiamento e tal illo sera semper, etiam si on face tote le possibile pro cambiar lo. .9 Certo, sub le direction del Legislator on construeva bon pontes in le medio de iste Palude ma, proque in iste saison iste loco redunda de immunditia, iste pontes non es semper visibile. .10 Tamen, mesmo si illos esserea plus visibile, le homines, tanto esturdite quanto illes solitemente es, va passar vicin e cade in le fango. Le terreno, tamen, es bon quando illes perveni al Porta''. .11 Nunc io videva in mi sonio que finalmente Plicabile habeva pervenite a su proprie casa. .12 Su vicinos veniva, assi, a visitar le. Alcunes diceva que ille habeva essite sage a retornar; alteres diceva que ille habeva essite folle a vader hasardosemente con Christiano. Alteres ancora derideva su coardia, e diceva: "Certo si tu esseva preste comenciar le aventura, tu esseva pavide a renunciar a illo al prime difficultates!''. .13 Assi Plicabile cercava de celar se a su vicinos. Al fin, tamen, ille acquireva major confidentia, e le discursos del gente cambiava gradualmente e illes recomenciava assi a derider Christiano. 6. Sr. Sapientia mundan .1 Nunc Christiano camminava sol quando ille videva un homine lontan, qui transiva le campo pro incontrar le. Il occurreva assi que illes se incontrava. Le nomine de iste gentil-homine esseva Sapientia Mundan, ille habitava in le citate de Politica Carnal, un citate multo grande, in le vicinitate del placia de ubi Christiano veniva. .2 Iste homine, in incontrar Christiano, jam pareva cognoscer le, proque de quando ille decideva de abandonar le Citate de Destruction, isto habeva devenite occasion de commatrage non solmente in le citate ubi ille habitava, ma etiam in altere locos. Assi Sapientia Mundan, habente jam alcun idea circa Christiano e percipente de su travalio, de su suspiros e de su gemitos qui ille esseva, comenciava su interlocution. .3 Sapientia Mundan: "Hallo, bon companion, a ubi tu va con ille grave fardello?''. Christiano: "Si, isto es vero un grave fardello, si grave que io pensa que nulle altere povre creatura unquam habeva. Viste que tu me lo demanda, io te dice que io vade a celle Porta Stricte que sta ante me. De facto io esseva informate que ibi io forsan potera finalmente discargar me de illo''. .4 Sapientia Mundan: "Ha tu un sposa e infantes?''. Christiano: "Si, ma io es tanto opprimite per iste grave fardello que io non plus poterea gauder de illes como antea. Il es como si io non habeva les'' [1 Cor 7:29]. .5 Sapientia Mundan: "Esque tu me prestarea attention si io te dava un consilio?''. Christiano: "Si illo es bon, certemente, nam io necessita bon consilios''. Sapientia Mundan: "Io te consilia de liberar te tosto de tu fardello, nam tu nunquam potera trovar pace in tu mente si tu non lo depone, ni tu potera gauder del benedictiones que Deo te ha impartite''. Christiano: "Isto es certo lo que io desidera, ma io non es capabile de discargar me de illo, ni il ha un altere persona in nostre pais capabile a facer lo. Ergo io face iste cammino, como io te diceva, a fin que io pote liberar me de mi fardello''. .6 Sapientia Mundan: "Ma qui te diceva de ir per iste via pro discargar te?''. Christiano: "Un homine, qui me pareva esser un persona grande e honorabile. Su nomine, io rememora, es Evangelista''. .7 Sapientia Mundan: "Io le maledice pro ille stupide consilio. Il non ha in le mundo un altere via plus periculose e hasardose que ille per le qual ille te adressava, e tu lo videra si tu continua. Jam tu ha incontrate difficultates, nam io vide le fango del Palude del Discoragiamento ancora sur tu vestimentos. Isto non es que le comencio del problemas que te attende si tu va per celle direction. .8 Audi me, io es plus vetule que tu! Per le via sur le qual tu vole camminar tu incontrara certo enoios, dolores, fame, periculos, nuditate, gladios, leones, dracones, obscuritate e, in un parola, morte e, si il los ha, cosas pejor que istos. Isto es certo ver proque isto esseva confirmate per multe testes. Proque ergo deberea un homine stultemente abandonar se al consilios de un estraniero?''. .9 Christiano: "Mi car senior, le fardello que io ha sur mi dorso es ben plus terribile pro me que tote iste cosas que vos mentionava. Non importa lo que io incontrara sur mi itinere, si solmente io potera incontrar un maniera de liberar me de iste fardello''. .10 Sapientia Mundan: "Qui te cargava con iste fardello?''. Christiano: "Isto eveniva quando io legeva le libro que io porta in mano''. Sapientia Mundan: "Io lo supponeva. Isto eveniva non solmente a te, ma alsi a altere personas debile qui se occupava de cosas troppo alte pro illes. Assi illes tosto cade in le mesme follia como tu. Iste follia non solmente rende le homines inepte (como io percipe que il eveniva a te), ma illes interprende desperate aventuras pro obtener lo que illes non mesme sape''. .11 Christiano: "Io ben sape lo que io vole obtener: le liberation de mi grave fardello!''. Sapientia Mundan: "Non amarea tu facilitar le viage? Tu jam videva quante periculos illo comporta. Si tu habera patientia de audir lo que io te vole dicer, io potera adressar te a obtener lo que tu desidera sin le periculos de iste itinere ci. Si, le remedio es a disposition. Io pote in ultra adder que, in vice de celle periculos, tu habera multe securitate, amicitate e satisfaction''. Christiano: "Alora io te preca de revelar me iste secreto''. .12 Sapientia Mundan: "Ben, ibi, in celle village appellate Moralitate, habita un homine multo judiciose, un homine de grande reputation, qui ha le habilitate de adjutar homines como te. Si, a mi cognoscentia, ille ha jam facite multo de bon in casos como isto. In ultra ille pote curar illes qui esseva tanto travaliate per fardellos como le tue. Tu pote vader a visitar le, e ille prompto te adjutara. .13 Su casa es non mesmo un millia de iste placia ci, e si tu non le trova in casa, ille ha un amabile filio, Civilitate, al qual tu potera parlar tanto quanto tu lo pote facer como al vetule gentil-homine. Ibi, io diceva, tu potera discargar te de tu fardello e si tu non desidera plus tornar a tu citate originari, tu potera mesmo mandar alcuno a prender tu sposa e tu filios pro habitar in iste village. De facto ibi il ha multe casas libere pro habitar, un del quales tu pote obtener a rationabile precio de location. Ibi il ha abundantia de optime provisiones a bon mercato que rendera vostre vita felicissime. Tu vivera apud honeste vicinos qui te accreditara e te rendera honorabile''. .14 Christiano nunc esseva un poco indecise, ma al fin ille concludeva: "Si lo que iste gentil homine diceva es ver, io reputa que le decision le plus sage es sequer su consilio''. Assi ille le demandava ancora: "Senior, a ubi io debe vader pro trovar le casa de iste homine honeste?'' .15 Sapientia Mundan: "Vide tu ille alte Colle ibi?''. Christiano: "Si, multo ben''. Sapientia Mundan: "Alora tu debe vader a ille colle e le prime casa que tu incontrara es le sue''. 7. Christiano e le deception del Alte Colle .1 Assi Christiano deviava de su itinere originari e vadeva a incontrar Sr. Legalitate pro demandar le adjuta. Quando tamen ille arrivava al Colle, illo pareva si alte, e le sentiero que reptava sur illo si abrupte e scarpate que Christiano esseva per illo intimidate e ille refusava proceder in ultra. Assi Christiano remaneva stante sin saper plus que facer. Mesmo le fardello nunc le pareva multo plus pesante que antea. In ultra, del colle emanava flammas de foco que rendeva Christiano timorose de esser aduste [Ex 19:16-18; Heb 12:21]. Hic ille sudava e tremulava fortemente. Nunc ille comenciava regrettar de haber sequite le consilio de sr. Sapientia Mundan. Ma ecce ibi sr. Evangelista qui veniva pro incontrar le, e in vider le, Christiano comenciava erubescer. Assi Evangelista se avicinava semper plus e, ponente se coram Christiano, con un aspecto sever e terribile, comenciava a rationar con ille. .2 Evangelista: "Que face tu hic?''. Christiano, tamen, non sapeva que responder e remaneva sin parolas coram ille. Inde Evangelista prosequeva dicer: "Esque tu non es le homine que io trovava plorante extra le muros del Citate del Destruction?''. Christiano: "Si, car senior, io es ille''. Evangelista: "An io te adressava al direction del Porta Stricte?''. "Si, car senior'', diceva Christiano. .3 Evangelista: "Proque ergo tu es nunc hic, deviate del juste direction?''. Christiano: "Tosto quando io exiva del Palude del discoragiamento, io incontrava un gentil-homine qui me persuadeva que in le village ibi io haberea potite trovar un homine qui haberea adjuvate me a liberar me de mi fardello''. .4 Evangelista: "Qui esseva ille?''. Christiano: "Ille me pareva un gentil-homine e ille me parlava multo e, al fin, io me debeva render. Assi io veniva hic, ma quando io spectava iste Colle e quanto scarpate illo es, io tosto me haltava proque io timeva que le Colle haberea potite collaber sur me''. .5 Evangelista: "Que te diceva iste homine?''. Christiano: "Ille me demandava a ubi io vadeva, e io le diceva lo''. Evangelista: "E que diceva ille in ultra?''. Christiano: "Ille me exhortava de liberar me tosto de mi fardello, e io le respondeva que il esseva de facto le alleviation que io cercava e que io me dirigeva a ille Porta ubi io haberea trovate ulterior indicationes in re le placia del liberation. Ille tamen adjungeva que ille cognosceva un itinere melior, un itinere sin tote ille difficultates que se trova sur le via per le qual vos, senior, me adressava. Le altere itinere que io te consilia, ille diceva, te conducera al casa de un persona qui ha le capacitate de liberar te de tu fardello. Assi io credeva a su parolas e me deviava pro pervenir hic in le spero de un subite liberation. Quando, tamen, io me trovava hic e io constatava le veritate, io me haltava, pro timor, como io diceva, de periculos. Nunc, tamen, io non sape plus que facer''. .6 Evangelista: "Nunc, io te preca, halta te un poco, a fin que io te pote monstrar le parolas de Deo''. Intertanto Christiano stava ibi e tremulava. Evangelista adjungeva: "Guarda te de non refusar Ille qui parla, proque nemo pote fugir quando on refusa qui parlava super le terra, tanto plus nos non potera fugir si nos refusa Ille qui parla ex le celo'' [Heb 12:25]. In ultra ille addeva: "Le justo vivera per fide; ma si alcuno se retrahe, mi anima non habera plus alcun placer in ille'' [Heb 10:38]. .7 Inde Evangelista assi explicava iste parolas: "Tu es le homine que curre verso iste miseria, tu comenciava rejectar le consilio del Altissimo, tu comenciava retraher tu pede del via del pace, al hasardo de tu perdition ipse''. Inde Christiano cadeva a su pedes como morte, critante: "Povre me! Nunc io es perdite!''. Evangelista tamen, le prendeva per mano e diceva: "Tote le blasphemias essera pardonate al homines; non sia incredule, ma credente''. Alora Christiano se revivificava un poco, e se realtiava tremulante como antea, ante a Evangelista. .8 Inde Evangelista continuava e diceva: "Presta multe attention al cosas que io dicera. Io nunc te monstrara qui esseva ille qui te decipeva e qui esseva ille qui te adressava per iste via erronee. Le homine que tu incontrava esseva Sapientia Mundan, nomine ben appropriate pro un sapiente de iste mundo, in parte proque ille favora solmente le doctrina de iste mundo [1 Joh 4:5] (ergo ille attende solmente le ecclesia del citate de Moralitate) e in parte proque ille prefere multo plus ille doctrina, proque illo le salva del Cruce. Proque ille es pois de attitude carnal, ille cerca obviar mi messages, quanquam illos es juste. .9 Ora il ha tres cosas in le consilio de iste homine que tu debe abhorrer. a. Ille te faceva deviar. b. Ille tentava facer te odiar le Cruce. c. Ille poneva tu pedes in le sentiero que porta al administration del morte. .10 Primo, tu debe abhorrer le facto que ille te faceva deviar, insimul a tu proprie consentir a illo: de facto illo esseva un repulsion del consilio de Deo e le preferentia al consilio de un Sapientia Mundan. Le Senior dice: Effortia te a entrar per le porta stricte, le Porta al qual io te mandava, proque stricte es le porta que duce al vita, e poc es illes qui lo trova [Lc 13:24; Mt 7:13,14]. Iste homine malefic te distraheva de iste Porta Stricte e del via que a illo conduce, e quasi ille te duceva al destruction. Odia ergo iste diversion e abhorre te ipse pro haber sequite su consilio. .11 Secundo, tu debe abhorrer su travalio in representar te le Cruce como odiabile, proque tu lo debe preferer a tote le tresores de Egypto [Heb 11:25,26]. In ultra le Rege del Gloria te diceva que qui vole salvar su proprie vita lo perdera [Mc 8:38; Joh 12:25; Mt 10:39] e que `qui vole sequer le, e non odia su patre e su matre, su sposa, su infantes, su fratres e su sorores, si, e mesmo su proprie vita, non pote esser mi discipulo' [Lc 14:26]. Tu debe ergo abhorrer le doctrina de qui cerca de deviar tu attention de lo que te conduce al vita eterne. .12 Tertio, tu debe odiar le facto que ille poneva tu pedes in le sentiero que porta al administration del morte. Considera qui es tu mandante e quanto incapabile ille persona esseva a liberar te de tu fardello. Le persona al qual tu habeva essite mandate pro alleviar te e cuje nomine es Legalitate, es le filio del sclava qui es de facto in stato de sclavitude insimul a su filios, e illa es representate per iste Monte Sinai, del qual tu timeva su collapso sur tu capite. Ora, si illa insimul a su infantes es in sclavitude, como pote tu expectar de illes de esser liberate? Iste Legalitate [Gal 4:2-27] non es capabile a liberar te de tu fardello. Nemo unquam poteva per ille liberar se de su fardello, e on non lo pote expectar mesmo in le futuro, proque per le obras del lege necun vivente potera unquam esser liberate de su gravamine. Ergo Sr. Sapientia Mundan es un estraniero, Sr. Legalitate un mentitor e su filio Civilitate, nonobstante su false respectabilitate, es un hypocrita e non pote adjuvar te. Crede me, il non ha alco in tote iste ruito que tu audiva de iste stultos si non le desiro de defraudar te de tu salvation, deviante te del cammino al qual io te mandava''. .13 Post isto, Evangelista clamava forte al Celo pro obtener un confirmation de lo que ille habeva dicite e con illo parolas e foco tosto emanava del monte, al pedes del qual le povre Christiano stava, tanto que ille horripilava. Ecce le parolas que on audiva: "Tote le obras del lege es sub malediction, proque il es scripte: Sia maledicte cata uno qui non observa in toto lo que es scripte in le libro del lege'' [Gal 3:10]. .14 Nunc Christiano non cercava altero que le morte, e ille comenciava critar lamentosemente, maledicente le momento in le qual ille habeva incontrate Sapientia Mundan, e appellante se mille vices stupide pro haber prestate attention a su consilio. Ille, in ultra, habeva multe vergonia in pensar que le argumentos de ille gentil-homine, de natura si carnal, si tosto prevaleva sur ille e causava su diversion del via juste. Dicite isto, ille se appellava de novo a Evangelista e diceva: "Senior, que pensa vos? Esque il ha sperantia? Esque io pote retornar e continuar vader verso le Porta Stricte? Esque io sera abandonate pro isto, e repulsate vergoniosemente? Io multo regretta haber prestate attention al consilios de iste homine. Potera mi peccatos esser pardonate?'' .15 Evangelista: "Tu peccato es multo grande, proque per illo tu committeva duo males: tu abandonava le bon via e calcava le sentiero prohibite. Nonobstante isto le homine al Porta te recipera, proque ille ha bon voluntate pro le homines. Solmente face attention a non deviar de novo, alteremente tu perira per le via si su ira se accendera solmente un poco''. Inde Christiano se volveva pro retornar, e Evangelista, post haber le basiate le surrideva e le dava su benediction pro le viage. 8. Le Porta Stricte .1 Christiano, assi, reprendeva su cammino hastivemente. Ille non parlava plus a alcun homine durante le via e si alcuno le haberea demandate alco, ille non plus mesmo le haberea respondite. Ille procedeva como si ille velle camminar sur un terreno prohibite, e ille non se reputava ora jam secur esque ille velle ancora pervenir sur le via que antea ille habeva lassate pro sequer sr. Sapientia Mundan. Assi, post un certe tempore, Christiano arrivava al Porta. .2 Ora super le Porta esseva scripte: "Colpa, e le porta te sera aperite'' [Mt 7:8]. Ergo ille colpava, plus que un vice, dicente: "Pote io entrar? Io es indigne e rebelle, ma si Ille qui hic interiormente sta, iste porta a me aperir volera, alora su laudes io elevara usque al stellas''. 9. Bon Voluntate .1 Finalmente al Porta un persona grave perveniva. Su nomine esseva Bon Voluntate e ille demandava: "Qui sta al Porta? De ubi vos veni? Que vole vos?''. Christiano: "Io es un povre peccator aggravate. Io veni del Citate del Destruction, ma io va al Monte Sion, a fin de esser liberate del veniente ira. Nam io esseva informate que le via passa justo per iste porta, io volerea saper si vos es preste a lassar me transir''. .2 Bon Voluntate: "Io lo vole con tote mi corde'', ille diceva e, con isto, ille aperiva le Porta. .3 Assi, quando Christiano transiva, le altere le dava un pulsata. Christiano diceva: "Senior, que significa isto?''. Le altere diceva: "Un poco plus ultra iste Porta, on erigeva un forte castello, cuje capitano es Beelzebub. De ibi, sia ille sia celles qui es con ille tira flechas a celles qui passa per iste Porta, in le spero de facer les morir ante a prosequer le cammino''. "Alora'', diceva Christiano, "io jubila e tremula''. .4 Assi, quando ille habeva entrate, le homine del Porta le demandava qui le habeva adressate a vader ibi. Christiano: "Evangelista me exhortava venir hic e colpar, como io de facto faceva, e ille diceva que vos poterea dicer me que facer in ultra''. Bon Voluntate: "Un Porta aperte es ponite ante te e nemo pote clauder lo''. Christiano: "Nunc io pote comenciar recoltar le beneficios de mi hasardos''. .5 Bon Voluntate: "Ma proque tu veniva sol?''. Christiano: "Proque nemo inter mi vicinos videva le periculo que io videva''. Bon Voluntate: "Esque alcuno inter illos sapeva de tu venita?''. Christiano: "Si, mi sposa e mi filios me videva primo, e illes voleva facer me retornar. Mesmo alcunes de mi vicinos me critava de retornar, ma io poneva mi digitos in le aures, e prosequeva sur mi cammino''. .6 Bon Voluntate: "Ma nemo inter illes te sequeva pro convincer te a retornar?''. Christiano: "Si, sia Obstinato sia Plicabile, ma quando illes se convinceva de non poter facer plus nihil, Obstinato retornava invehente, ma Plicabile me accompaniava un poco''. .7 Bon Voluntate: "Proque ergo ille non veniva con te semper?''. Christiano: "Certo nos ambulava insimul un poco, ma quando nos perveniva al Palude del Discoragiamento nos tosto labeva intra e mi vicino Plicabile se discoragiava e non voleva plus aventurar se in ultra. Ergo ille, sortiente del Palude al latere le plus proxime a su casa, me lassava conquirer iste pais toto sol. Assi io continuava sur mi cammino e ille sur le sue, ille a cercar Obstinato e io a cercar le Porta''. .8 Bon Voluntate: "Guai, povre homine, esque le citate celestial es forsan de si basse reputation pro ille tanto de non valer alcun poc hasardos pro pervenir a illo?''. Christiano: "Vero io ha dicite le veritate in re Plicabile, ma si io deberea alsi dicer le veritate in re me mesme, on discoperirea que il non ha differentia inter ille e me. Il es ver que ille retornava a su proprie casa, ma anque io deviava sur le via que conduce al morte, proque io esseva persuadite per le rationamento carnal de Sapientia Mundan''. .9 Bon Voluntate: "Oh, ille adiva mesmo a te? Forsan ille consiliava a te de cercar tu reposo apud Sr. Legalitate? Illes es vero deceptores! Ma tu sequeva su consilios?''. Christiano: "Si, io voleva attinger le domo de Sr. Legalitate, ma quando io perveniva al Monte que sta apud illo, le corage me lassava, proque io timeva que ille Monte poteva collaber sur mi capite: ergo io esseva fortiate a haltar me''. .10 Bon Voluntate: "Ille Monte esseva le morte pro multes, e illo essera le morte pro multe alteres: il es bon que tu fugiva ante esser lacerate a pecias''. Christiano: "In vero io non sape lo que poterea haber evenite si solmente Evangelista non me incontrava durante que io esseva immerse in le affliction. In realitate il esseva le misericordia de Deo a incontrar me de novo, contrarimente io nunquam haberea potite venir hic. Nunc, tamen ecce io ha venite, assi como io es, in vero plus meritabile del morte apud ille Monte que star nunc hic a parlar con mi Senior. Io non comprende nunc como pote io esser nonobstante isto admittite hic''. .11 Bon Voluntate: "Nos non face objectiones a alcuno qui veni hic, non importa lo que on committe. Illes non es unquam expulse [Joh 7:37]. .12 Ergo, bon Christiano, veni un poco in mi compania, e io te inseniara in re le via que tu debera percurrer. Reguarda ante te: vide tu iste sentiero stricte? Ecce le via per le qual tu debe vader. Per illo passava le patriarchas le prophetas, Christo e le apostolos e illo es tanto recte quanto un regula poterea traciar lo. Isto es le via per le qual tu debe vader''. .13 Christiano: "Ma, esque il non ha ni curvas ni deviationes, per le quales un estraniero pote perder le juste direction?''. Bon Voluntate: "Si, il ha multe sentieros que se inserta in illo, e illos es torte e ample, ma tu debe distinguer le via bon de illo prave: solmente le via bon es recte e stricte'' [Mt 7:13,14]. .14 Inde io videva in mi sonio que Christiano le demandava si ille haberea potite adjuvar le con le fardello que ille habeva sur le dorso, proque usque tunc ille non habeva ancora potite liberar se de illo sin adjuta. Bon Voluntate alora le diceva: "In re tu fardello, sia tu contente de portar lo usque al placia del Liberation, proque solmente ibi illo cadera de tu dorso sin alcun effortio''. .15 Alora Christiano se preparava a repartir. Bon Voluntate le diceva que post un certe distantia del Porta ille haberea trovate le Domo del interprete, e cuje porta ille haberea debite colpar. Ibi ille haberea vidite cosas excellente. Assi Christiano partiva e lassava su amico durante que iste ultime le desirava bon viage. Retro al pagina principal - Prime parte - Tertie parte 927 2004 2005-04-10T10:21:38Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS </strong></td><td><strong> LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS FROM THIS WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME; DELIVERED UNDER THE SIMILTUDE OF A DREAM. BY JOHN BUNYAN. CONTENTS. Author's Apology for his Book PART I. THE FIRST STAGE. - Christian's deplorable condition - Evangelist directs him - Obstinate and Pliable - Slough of Despond - Worldly Wiseman - Mount Sinai - Conversation with Evangelist THE SECOND STAGE. - The Gate - conversation with Good-Will - the Interpreter's House - Christian entertained - the sights there shown him THE THIRD STAGE. - Loses his burden at the Cross - Simple, Sloth, Presumption, Formalist, Hypocrisy - hill Difficulty - the Arbor - misses his roll - the palace Beautiful - the lions - talk with Discretion, Piety, Prudence, and Charity - wonders shown to Christian - he is armed THE FOURTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - conflict with Apollyon - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giants Pope and Pagan THE FIFTH STAGE. - Discourse with Faithful - Talkative and Faithful - Talkative's character THE SIXTH STAGE. - Evangelist overtakes Christian and Faithful - Vanity Fair - the Pilgrims brought to trial - Faithful's martyrdom THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful - By-ends and his companions - plain of Ease - Lucre-hill - Demas - the River of Life - Vain- Confidence - Giant Despair - the Pilgrims beaten - the Dungeon - the Key of Promise THE EIGHTH STAGE. - The Delectable Mountains - entertained by the Shepherds - a by-way to Hell THE NINTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful meet Ignorance - Turn-away - Little-Faith - the Flatterer - the net - chastised by a Shining One - Atheist - Enchanted Ground - Hopeful's account of his conversion - discourse of Christian and Ignorance THE TENTH STAGE. - Talk of Christian and Hopeful - Temporary - the backslider - the land of Beulah - Christian and Hopeful pass the River - welcome to the Celestial city Conclusion of Part First PART II. Author's Apology for the Second Part Pilgrimage of Christiana and her children THE FIRST STAGE. - Christiana and Mercy - Slough of Despond - knocking at the gate - the Dog - talk between the Pilgrims THE SECOND STAGE. - The Devil's garden - two ill-favored ones assault them - the Reliever - entertainment at the Interpreter's house - the Significant Rooms - Christiana and Mercy's experience THE THIRD STAGE. - Accompanied by Great-Heart - the Cross - justified by Christ - Sloth and his companions hung - the hill Difficulty - the Arbor THE FOURTH STAGE. - The Lions - Giant Grim slain by Great-Heart - the Pilgrims entertained - the children catechized by Prudence - Mr. Brisk - Matthew sick - the remedy - sights shown the Pilgrims THE FIFTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giant Maul slain THE SIXTH STAGE. - Discourse with Old Honest - character and history of Mr. Fearing - Mr. Self-will and some professors - Gaius' house - conversation - the supper - Old Honest and Great-Heart's riddles and discourse - Giant Slay-good killed - Mr. Feeble-mind's history - Mr. Ready-to-halt - Vanity Fair - Mr. Mnason's house - cheering entertainment and converse - a Monster THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Hill Lucre - River of Life - Giant Despair killed - the Delectable Mountains - entertainment by the Shepherds THE EIGHTH STAGE. - Valiant-for-Truth's-Victory - his talk with Great- Heart - the Enchanted Ground - Heedless and Too-bold - Mr. Stand-fast - Madam Bubble's temptations - the land of Beulah - Christiana summoned - her parting addresses - she passes the River - she is followed by Ready- to-halt, Feeble-mind, Despondency and his daughter, Honest, Valiant, Steadfast Author's Farewell THE AUTHOR'S APOLOGY FOR HIS BOOK. WHEN at the first I took my pen in hand Thus for to write, I did not understand That I at all should make a little book In such a mode: nay, I had undertook To make another; which, when almost done, Before I was aware I this begun. And thus it was: I, writing of the way And race of saints in this our gospel-day, Fell suddenly into an allegory About their journey, and the way to glory, In more than twenty things which I set down This done, I twenty more had in my crown, And they again began to multiply, Like sparks that from the coals of fire do fly. Nay, then, thought I, if that you breed so fast, I'll put you by yourselves, lest you at last Should prove ad infinitum, 1 and eat out The book that I already am about. Well, so I did; but yet I did not think To show to all the world my pen and ink In such a mode; I only thought to make I knew not what: nor did I undertake Thereby to please my neighbor; no, not I; I did it my own self to gratify. Neither did I but vacant seasons spend In this my scribble; nor did I intend But to divert myself, in doing this, From worser thoughts, which make me do amiss. Thus I set pen to paper with delight, And quickly had my thoughts in black and white; For having now my method by the end, Still as I pull'd, it came; and so I penned It down; until it came at last to be, For length and breadth, the bigness which you see. Well, when I had thus put mine ends together I show'd them others, that I might see whether They would condemn them, or them justify: And some said, let them live; some, let them die: Some said, John, print it; others said, Not so: Some said, It might do good; others said, No. Now was I in a strait, and did not see Which was the best thing to be done by me: At last I thought, Since ye are thus divided, I print it will; and so the case decided. For, thought I, some I see would have it done, Though others in that channel do not run: To prove, then, who advised for the best, Thus I thought fit to put it to the test. I further thought, if now I did deny Those that would have it, thus to gratify; I did not know, but hinder them I might Of that which would to them be great delight. For those which were not for its coming forth, I said to them, Offend you, I am loath; Yet since your brethren pleased with it be, Forbear to judge, till you do further see. If that thou wilt not read, let it alone; Some love the meat, some love to pick the bone. Yea, that I might them better palliate, I did too with them thus expostulate: May I not write in such a style as this? In such a method too, and yet not miss My end-thy good? Why may it not be done? Dark clouds bring waters, when the bright bring none. Yea, dark or bright, if they their silver drops Cause to descend, the earth, by yielding crops, Gives praise to both, and carpeth not at either, But treasures up the fruit they yield together; Yea, so commixes both, that in their fruit None can distinguish this from that; they suit Her well when hungry; but if she be full, She spews out both, and makes their blessing null. You see the ways the fisherman doth take To catch the fish; what engines doth he make! Behold how he engageth all his wits; Also his snares, lines, angles, hooks, and nets: Yet fish there be, that neither hook nor line, Nor snare, nor net, nor engine can make thine: They must be groped for, and be tickled too, Or they will not be catch'd, whate'er you do. How does the fowler seek to catch his game By divers means! all which one cannot name. His guns, his nets, his lime-twigs, light and bell: He creeps, he goes, he stands; yea, who can tell Of all his postures? yet there's none of these Will make him master of what fowls he please. Yea, he must pipe and whistle, to catch this; Yet if he does so, that bird he will miss. If that a pearl may in toad's head dwell, And may be found too in an oyster-shell; If things that promise nothing, do contain What better is than gold; who will disdain, That have an inkling 2 of it, there to look, That they may find it. Now my little book, (Though void of all these paintings that may make It with this or the other man to take,) Is not without those things that do excel What do in brave but empty notions dwell. "Well, yet I am not fully satisfied That this your book will stand, when soundly tried." Why, what's the matter? "It is dark." What though? "But it is feigned." What of that? I trow Some men by feigned words, as dark as mine, Make truth to spangle, and its rays to shine. "But they want solidness." Speak, man, thy mind. "They drown the weak; metaphors make us blind." Solidity, indeed, becomes the pen Of him that writeth things divine to men: But must I needs want solidness, because By metaphors I speak? Were not God's laws, His gospel laws, in olden time held forth By types, shadows, and metaphors? Yet loth Will any sober man be to find fault With them, lest he be found for to assault The highest wisdom! No, he rather stoops, And seeks to find out what, by pins and loops, By calves and sheep, by heifers, and by rams, By birds and herbs, and by the blood of lambs, God speaketh to him; and happy is he That finds the light and grace that in them be. But not too forward, therefore, to conclude That I want solidness-that I am rude; All things solid in show, not solid be; All things in parable despise not we, Lest things most hurtful lightly we receive, And things that good are, of our souls bereave. My dark and cloudy words they do but hold The truth, as cabinets inclose the gold. The prophets used much by metaphors To set forth truth: yea, who so considers Christ, his apostles too, shall plainly see, That truths to this day in such mantles be. Am I afraid to say, that holy writ, Which for its style and phrase puts down all wit, Is everywhere so full of all these things, Dark figures, allegories? Yet there springs From that same book, that lustre, and those rays Of light, that turn our darkest nights to days. Come, let my carper to his life now look, And find there darker lines than in my book He findeth any; yea, and let him know, That in his best things there are worse lines too. May we but stand before impartial men, To his poor one I durst adventure ten, That they will take my meaning in these lines Far better than his lies in silver shrines. Come, truth, although in swaddling-clothes, I find Informs the judgment, rectifies the mind; Pleases the understanding, makes the will Submit, the memory too it doth fill With what doth our imagination please; Likewise it tends our troubles to appease. Sound words, I know, Timothy is to use, And old wives' fables he is to refuse; But yet grave Paul him nowhere doth forbid The use of parables, in which lay hid That gold, those pearls, and precious stones that were Worth digging for, and that with greatest care. Let me add one word more. O man of God, Art thou offended? Dost thou wish I had Put forth my matter in another dress? Or that I had in things been more express? Three things let me propound; then I submit To those that are my betters, as is fit. 1. I find not that I am denied the use Of this my method, so I no abuse Put on the words, things, readers, or be rude In handling figure or similitude, In application; but all that I may Seek the advance of truth this or that way. Denied, did I say? Nay, I have leave, (Example too, and that from them that have God better pleased, by their words or ways, Than any man that breatheth now-a-days,) Thus to express my mind, thus to declare Things unto thee that excellentest are. 2. I find that men as high as trees will write Dialogue-wise; yet no man doth them slight For writing so. Indeed, if they abuse Truth, cursed be they, and the craft they use To that intent; but yet let truth be free To make her sallies upon thee and me, Which way it pleases God: for who knows how, Better than he that taught us first to plough, To guide our minds and pens for his designs? And he makes base things usher in divine. 3. I find that holy writ, in many places, Hath semblance with this method, where the cases Do call for one thing to set forth another: Use it I may then, and yet nothing smother Truth's golden beams: nay, by this method may Make it cast forth its rays as light as day. And now, before I do put up my pen, I'll show the profit of my book; and then Commit both thee and it unto that hand That pulls the strong down, and makes weak ones stand. This book it chalketh out before thine eyes The man that seeks the everlasting prize: It shows you whence he comes, whither he goes, What he leaves undone; also what he does: It also shows you how he runs, and runs, Till he unto the gate of glory comes. It shows, too, who set out for life amain, As if the lasting crown they would obtain; Here also you may see the reason why They lose their labor, and like fools do die. This book will make a traveler of thee, If by its counsel thou wilt ruled be; It will direct thee to the Holy Land, If thou wilt its directions understand Yea, it will make the slothful active be; The blind also delightful things to see. Art thou for something rare and profitable? Or would'st thou see a truth within a fable? Art thou forgetful? Wouldest thou remember From New-Year's day to the last of December? Then read my fancies; they will stick like burs, And may be, to the helpless, comforters. This book is writ in such a dialect As may the minds of listless men affect: It seems a novelty, and yet contains Nothing but sound and honest gospel strains. Would'st thou divert thyself from melancholy? Would'st thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly? Would'st thou read riddles, and their explanation? Or else be drowned in thy contemplation? Dost thou love picking meat? Or would'st thou see A man i' the clouds, and hear him speak to thee? Would'st thou be in a dream, and yet not sleep? Or would'st thou in a moment laugh and weep? Would'st thou lose thyself and catch no harm, And find thyself again without a charm? Would'st read thyself, and read thou know'st not what, And yet know whether thou art blest or not, By reading the same lines? O then come hither, And lay my book, thy head, and heart together. JOHN BUNYAN. THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. THE FIRST STAGE. As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, 3 and laid me down in that place to sleep; and as I slept, I dreamed a dream. I dreamed, and behold, I saw a man clothed with rags, standing in a certain place, with his face from his own house, a book in his hand, and a great burden upon his back. Isa 64:6; Luke 14:33; Psalm 38:4. I looked and saw him open the book, and read therein; and as he read, he wept and trembled; and not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying, "What shall I do?" Acts 2:37; 16:30; Habak 1:2,3. In this plight, therefore, he went home, and restrained himself as long as he could, that his wife and children should not perceive his distress; but he could not be silent long, because that his trouble increased. Wherefore at length he brake his mind to his wife and children; and thus he began to talk to them: "O, my dear wife," said he, "and you the children of my bowels, I, your dear friend, am in myself undone by reason of a burden that lieth hard upon me; moreover, I am certainly informed that this our city will be burnt with fire from heaven; in which fearful overthrow, both myself, with thee my wife, and you my sweet babes, shall miserably come to ruin, except (the which yet I see not) some way of escape can be found whereby we may be delivered." At this his relations were sore amazed; not for that they believed that what he had said to them was true, but because they thought that some frenzy distemper had got into his head; therefore, it drawing towards night, and they hoping that sleep might settle his brains, with all haste they got him to bed. But the night was as troublesome to him as the day; wherefore, instead of sleeping, he spent it in sighs and tears. So when the morning was come, they would know how he did. He told them, "Worse and worse:" he also set to talking to them again; but they began to be hardened. They also thought to drive away his distemper by harsh and surly carriage to him; sometimes they would deride, sometimes they would chide, and sometimes they would quite neglect him. Wherefore he began to retire himself to his chamber to pray for and pity them, and also to condole his own misery; he would also walk solitarily in the fields, sometimes reading, and sometimes praying: and thus for some days he spent his time. Now I saw, upon a time, when he was walking in the fields, that he was (as he was wont) reading in his book, and greatly distressed in his mind; and as he read, he burst out, as he had done before, crying, "What shall I do to be saved?" Acts 16:30,31. I saw also that he looked this way, and that way, as if he would run; yet he stood still because (as I perceived) he could not tell which way to go. I looked then, and saw a man named Evangelist coming to him, and he asked, "Wherefore dost thou cry?" He answered, "Sir, I perceive, by the book in my hand, that I am condemned to die, and after that to come to judgment, Heb. 9:27; and I find that I am not willing to do the first, Job 10: 21,22, nor able to do the second." Ezek. 22:14. Then said Evangelist, "Why not willing to die, since this life is attended with so many evils?" The man answered, "Because, I fear that this burden that is upon my back will sink me lower than the grave, and I shall fall into Tophet. Isa. 30:33. And Sir, if I be not fit to go to prison, I am not fit to go to judgment, and from thence to execution; and the thoughts of these things make me cry." Then said Evangelist, "If this be thy condition, why standest thou still?" He answered, "Because I know not whither to go." Then he gave him a parchment roll, and there was written within, "Fly from the wrath to come." Matt. 3:7. The man therefore read it, and looking upon Evangelist very carefully, said, "Whither must I fly?" Then said Evangelist, (pointing with his finger over a very wide field,) "Do you see yonder wicket-gate?" Matt. 7:13,14. The man said, "No." Then said the other, "Do you see yonder shining light?" Psalm 119:105; 2 Pet. 1:19. He said, "I think I do." Then said Evangelist, "Keep that light in your eye, and go up directly thereto, so shalt thou see the gate; at which, when thou knockest, it shall be told thee what thou shalt do." So I saw in my dream that the man began to run. Now he had not run far from his own door when his wife and children, perceiving it, began to cry after him to return; but the man put his fingers in his ears, and ran on crying, Life! life! eternal life! Luke 14:26. So he looked not behind him, Gen. 19:17, but fled towards the middle of the plain. The neighbors also came out to see him run, Jer. 20:10; and as he ran, some mocked, others threatened, and some cried after him to return; and among those that did so, there were two that were resolved to fetch him back by force. The name of the one was Obstinate and the name of the other Pliable. Now by this time the man was got a good distance from them; but, however, they were resolved to pursue him, which they did, and in a little time they overtook him. Then said the man, "Neighbors, wherefore are you come?" They said, "To persuade you to go back with us." But he said, "That can by no means be: you dwell," said he, "in the city of Destruction, the place also where I was born: I see it to be so; and dying there, sooner or later, you will sink lower than the grave, into a place that burns with fire and brimstone: be content, good neighbors, and go along with me." OBST. What, said Obstinate, and leave our friends and our comforts behind us! CHR. Yes, said Christian, (for that was his name,) because that all which you forsake is not worthy to be compared with a little of that I am seeking to enjoy, 2 Cor. 4:18; and if you will go along with me, and hold it, you shall fare as I myself; for there, where I go, is enough and to spare. Luke 15:17. Come away, and prove my words. OBST. What are the things you seek, since you leave all the world to find them? CHR. I seek an inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away, 1 Peter 1:4; and it is laid up in heaven, and safe there, Heb. 11:16, to be bestowed, at the time appointed, on them that diligently seek it. Read it so, if you will, in my book. OBST. Tush, said Obstinate, away with your book; will you go back with us or no? CHR. No, not I, said the other, because I have laid my hand to the plough. Luke 9:62. OBST. Come then, neighbor Pliable, let us turn again, and go home without him: there is a company of these crazy-headed coxcombs, that when they take a fancy by the end, are wiser in their own eyes than seven men that can render a reason. PLI. Then said Pliable, Don't revile; if what the good Christian says is true, the things he looks after are better than ours: my heart inclines to go with my neighbor. OBST. What, more fools still! Be ruled by me, and go back; who knows whither such a brain-sick fellow will lead you? Go back, go back, and be wise. CHR. Nay, but do thou come with thy neighbor Pliable; there are such things to be had which I spoke of, and many more glories besides. If you believe not me, read here in this book, and for the truth of what is expressed therein, behold, all is confirmed by the blood of Him that made it. Heb. 9: 17-21. PLI. Well, neighbor Obstinate, said Pliable, I begin to come to a point; I intend to go along with this good man, and to cast in my lot with him: but, my good companion, do you know the way to this desired place? CHR. I am directed by a man whose name is Evangelist, to speed me to a little gate that is before us, where we shall receive instructions about the way. PLI. Come then, good neighbor, let us be going. Then they went both together. OBST. And I will go back to my place, said Obstinate: I will be no companion of such misled, fantastical fellows. Now I saw in my dream, that when Obstinate was gone back, Christian and Pliable went talking over the plain; and thus they began their discourse. CHR. Come, neighbor Pliable, how do you do? I am glad you are persuaded to go along with me. Had even Obstinate himself but felt what I have felt of the powers and terrors of what is yet unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the back. PLI. Come, neighbor Christian, since there are none but us two here, tell me now farther, what the things are, and how to be enjoyed, whither we are going. CHR. I can better conceive of them with my mind, than speak of them with my tongue: but yet, since you are desirous to know, I will read of them in my book. PLI. And do you think that the words of your book are certainly true? CHR. Yes, verily; for it was made by Him that cannot lie. Tit. 1:2. PLI. Well said; what things are they? CHR. There is an endless kingdom to be inhabited, and everlasting life to be given us, that we may inhabit that kingdom for ever. Isa. 65:17; John 10: 27-29. PLI. Well said; and what else? CHR. There are crowns of glory to be given us; and garments that will make us shine like the sun in the firmament of heaven. 2 Tim. 4:8; Rev. 22:5; Matt. 13:43. PLI. This is very pleasant; and what else? CHR. There shall be no more crying, nor sorrow; for he that is owner of the place will wipe all tears from our eyes. Isa. 25:8; Rev 7:16, 17; 21:4. PLI. And what company shall we have there? CHR. There we shall be with seraphims and cherubims, Isaiah 6:2; 1 Thess. 4:16,17; Rev. 5:11; creatures that will dazzle your eyes to look on them. There also you shall meet with thousands and ten thousands that have gone before us to that place; none of them are hurtful, but loving and holy; every one walking in the sight of God, and standing in his presence with acceptance for ever. In a word, there we shall see the elders with their golden crowns, Rev. 4:4; there we shall see the holy virgins with their golden harps, Rev. 14:1-5; there we shall see men, that by the world were cut in pieces, burnt in flames, eaten of beasts, drowned in the seas, for the love they bare to the Lord of the place, John 12:25; all well, and clothed with immortality as with a garment. 2 Cor. 5:2. PLI. The hearing of this is enough to ravish one's heart. But are these things to be enjoyed? How shall we get to be sharers thereof? CHR. The Lord, the governor of the country, hath recorded that in this book, Isaiah 55:1,2; John 6:37; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; the substance of which is, if we be truly willing to have it, he will bestow it upon us freely. PLI. Well, my good companion, glad am I to hear of these things: come on, let us mend our pace. CHR. I cannot go as fast as I would, by reason of this burden that is on my back. Now I saw in my dream, that just as they had ended this talk, they drew nigh to a very miry slough that was in the midst of the plain: and they being heedless, did both fall suddenly into the bog. The name of the slough was Despond. Here, therefore, they wallowed for a time, being grievously bedaubed with the dirt; and Christian, because of the burden that was on his back, began to sink in the mire. PLI. Then said Pliable, Ah, neighbor Christian, where are you now? CHR. Truly, said Christian, I do not know. PLI. At this Pliable began to be offended, and angrily said to his fellow, Is this the happiness you have told me all this while of? If we have such ill speed at our first setting out, what may we expect between this and our journey's end? May I get out again with my life, you shall possess the brave country alone for me. And with that he gave a desperate struggle or two, and got out of the mire on that side of the slough which was next to his own house: so away he went, and Christian saw him no more. Wherefore Christian was left to tumble in the Slough of Despond alone; but still he endeavored to struggle to that side of the slough that was farthest from his own house, and next to the wicket-gate; the which he did, but could not get out because of the burden that was upon his back: but I beheld in my dream, that a man came to him, whose name was Help, and asked him what he did there. CHR. Sir, said Christian, I was bid to go this way by a man called Evangelist, who directed me also to yonder gate, that I might escape the wrath to come. And as I was going thither, I fell in here. HELP. But why did not you look for the steps? CHR. Fear followed me so hard that I fled the next way, and fell in. HELP. Then, said he, Give me thine hand: so he gave him his hand, and he drew him out, Psalm 40:2, and he set him upon sound ground, and bid him go on his way. Then I stepped to him that plucked him out, and said, "Sir, wherefore, since over this place is the way from the city of Destruction to yonder gate, is it, that this plat is not mended, that poor travellers might go thither with more security?" And he said unto me, "This miry slough is such a place as cannot be mended: it is the descent whither the scum and filth that attends conviction for sin doth continually run, and therefore it is called the Slough of Despond; for still, as the sinner is awakened about his lost condition, there arise in his soul many fears and doubts, and discouraging apprehensions, which all of them get together, and settle in this place: and this is the reason of the badness of this ground. "It is not the pleasure of the King that this place should remain so bad. Isa. 35:3,4. His laborers also have, by the direction of his Majesty's surveyors, been for above this sixteen hundred years employed about this patch of ground, if perhaps it might have been mended: yea, and to my knowledge," said he, "there have been swallowed up at least twenty thousand cart loads, yea, millions of wholesome instructions, that have at all seasons been brought from all places of the King's dominions, (and they that can tell, say, they are the best materials to make good ground of the place,) if so be it might have been mended; but it is the Slough of Despond still, and so will be when they have done what they can. "True, there are, by the direction of the Lawgiver, certain good and substantial steps, placed even through the very midst of this slough; but at such time as this place doth much spew out its filth, as it doth against change of weather, these steps are hardly seen; or if they be, men, through the dizziness of their heads, step beside, and then they are bemired to purpose, notwithstanding the steps be there: but the ground is good when they are once got in at the gate." 1 Sam. 12:23. Now I saw in my dream, that by this time Pliable was got home to his house. So his neighbors came to visit him; and some of them called him wise man for coming back, and some called him fool for hazarding himself with Christian: others again did mock at his cowardliness, saying, "Surely, since you began to venture, I would not have been so base as to have given out for a few difficulties:" so Pliable sat sneaking among them. But at last he got more confidence, and then they all turned their tales, and began to deride poor Christian behind his back. And thus much concerning Pliable. Now as Christian was walking solitary by himself, he espied one afar off come crossing over the field to meet him; and their hap was to meet just as they were crossing the way of each other. The gentleman's name that met him was Mr. Wordly Wiseman: he dwelt in the town of Carnal Policy, a very great town, and also hard by from whence Christian came. This man then, meeting with Christian, and having some inkling 4 of him, (for Christian's setting forth from the city of Destruction was much noised abroad, not only in the town where he dwelt, but also it began to be the town-talk in some other places) - Mr. Worldly Wiseman, therefore, having some guess of him, by beholding his laborious going, by observing his sighs and groans, and the like, began thus to enter into some talk with Christian. WORLD. How now, good fellow, whither away after this burdened manner? CHR. A burdened manner indeed, as ever I think poor creature had! And whereas you ask me, Whither away? I tell you, sir, I am going to yonder wicket-gate before me; for there, as I am informed, I shall be put into a way to be rid of my heavy burden. WORLD. Hast thou a wife and children? CHR. Yes; but I am so laden with this burden, that I cannot take that pleasure in them as formerly: methinks I am as if I had none. 1 Cor. 7:29. WORLD. Wilt thou hearken to me, if I give thee counsel? CHR. If it be good, I will; for I stand in need of good counsel. WORLD. I would advise thee, then, that thou with all speed get thyself rid of thy burden; for thou wilt never be settled in thy mind till then: nor canst thou enjoy the benefits of the blessings which God hath bestowed upon thee till then. CHR. That is that which I seek for, even to be rid of this heavy burden: but get it off myself I cannot, nor is there any man in our country that can take it off my shoulders; therefore am I going this way, as I told you, that I may be rid of my burden. WORLD. Who bid thee go this way to be rid of thy burden? CHR. A man that appeared to me to be a very great and honorable person: his name, as I remember, is Evangelist. I beshrew 5 him for his counsel! there is not a more dangerous and troublesome way in the world than is that into which he hath directed thee; and that thou shalt find, if thou wilt be ruled by his counsel. Thou hast met with something, as I perceive, already; for I see the dirt of the Slough of Despond is upon thee: but that slough is the beginning of the sorrows that do attend those that go on in that way. Hear me; I am older than thou: thou art like to meet with, in the way which thou goest, wearisomeness, painfulness, hunger, perils, nakedness, sword, lions, dragons, darkness, and, in a word, death, and what not. These things are certainly true, having been confirmed by many testimonies. And should a man so carelessly cast away himself, by giving heed to a stranger? CHR. Why, sir, this burden on my back is more terrible to me than are all these things which you have mentioned: nay, methinks I care not what I meet with in the way, if so be I can also meet with deliverance from my burden. WORLD. How camest thou by thy burden at first? CHR. By reading this book in my hand. WORLD. I thought so; and it has happened unto thee as to other weak men, who, meddling with things too high for them, do suddenly fall into thy distractions; which distractions do not only unman men, as thine I perceive have done thee, but they run them upon desperate ventures, to obtain they know not what. CHR. I know what I would obtain; it is ease from my heavy burden. WORLD. But why wilt thou seek for ease this way, seeing so many dangers attend it? especially since (hadst thou but patience to hear me) I could direct thee to the obtaining of what thou desirest, without the dangers that thou in this way wilt run thyself into. Yea, and the remedy is at hand. Besides, I will add, that instead of those dangers, thou shalt meet with much safety, friendship, and content. CHR. Sir, I pray open this secret to me. WORLD. Why, in yonder village (the village is named Morality) there dwells a gentleman whose name is Legality, a very judicious man, and a man of a very good name, that has skill to help men off with such burdens as thine is from their shoulders; yea to my knowledge, he hath done a great deal of good this way; aye, and besides, he hath skill to cure those that are somewhat crazed in their wits with their burdens. To him, as I said, thou mayest go, and be helped presently. His house is not quite a mile from this place; and if he should not be at home himself, he hath a pretty young man to his son, whose name is Civility, that can do it (to speak on) as well as the old gentleman himself: there, I say, thou mayest be eased of thy burden; and if thou art not minded to go back to thy former habitation, (as indeed I would not wish thee,) thou mayest send for thy wife and children to this village, where there are houses now standing empty, one of which thou mayest have at a reasonable rate: provision is there also cheap and good; and that which will make thy life the more happy is, to be sure there thou shalt live by honest neighbors, in credit and good fashion. Now was Christian somewhat at a stand; but presently he concluded, If this be true which this gentleman hath said, my wisest course is to take his advice: and with that he thus farther spake. CHR. Sir, which is my way to this honest man's house? WORLD. Do you see yonder high hill? CHR. Yes, very well. WORLD. By that hill you must go, and the first house you come at is his. So Christian turned out of his way to go to Mr. Legality's house for help: but, behold, when he was got now hard by the hill, it seemed so high, and also that side of it that was next the way-side did hang so much over, that Christian was afraid to venture further, lest the hill should fall on his head; wherefore there he stood still, and wotted not what to do. Also his burden now seemed heavier to him than while he was in his way. There came also flashes of fire, Ex. 19:16, 18, out of the hill, that made Christian afraid that he should be burnt: here therefore he did sweat and quake for fear. Heb. 12:21. And now he began to be sorry that he had taken Mr. Worldly Wiseman's counsel; and with that he saw Evangelist coming to meet him, at the sight also of whom he began to blush for shame. So Evangelist drew nearer and nearer; and coming up to him, he looked upon him, with a severe and dreadful countenance, and thus began to reason with Christian. EVAN. What doest thou here, Christian? said he: at which words Christian knew not what to answer; wherefore at present he stood speechless before him. Then said Evangelist farther, Art not thou the man that I found crying without the walls of the city of Destruction? CHR. Yes, dear sir, I am the man. EVAN. Did not I direct thee the way to the little wicket-gate? CHR. Yes, dear sir, said Christian. EVAN. How is it then thou art so quickly turned aside? For thou art now out of the way. CHR. I met with a gentleman so soon as I had got over the Slough of Despond, who persuaded me that I might, in the village before me, find a man that could take off my burden. EVAN. What was he? CHR. He looked like a gentleman, and talked much to me, and got me at last to yield: so I came hither; but when I beheld this hill, and how it hangs over the way, I suddenly made a stand, lest it should fall on my head. EVAN. What said that gentleman to you? CHR. Why, he asked me whither I was going; and I told him. EVAN. And what said he then? CHR. He asked me if I had a family; and I told him. But, said I, I am so laden with the burden that is on my back, that I cannot take pleasure in them as formerly. EVAN. And what said he then? CHR. He bid me with speed get rid of my burden; and I told him it was ease that I sought. And, said I, I am therefore going to yonder gate, to receive farther direction how I may get to the place of deliverance. So he said that he would show me a better way, and short, not so attended with difficulties as the way, sir, that you set me in; which way, said he, will direct you to a gentleman's house that hath skill to take off these burdens: so I believed him, and turned out of that way into this, if haply I might be soon eased of my burden. But when I came to this place, and beheld things as they are, I stopped, for fear (as I said) of danger: but I now know not what to do. EVAN. Then said Evangelist, Stand still a little, that I show thee the words of God. So he stood trembling. Then said Evangelist, "See that ye refuse not Him that speaketh; for if they escaped not who refused him that spake on earth, much more shall not we escape, if we turn away from Him that speaketh from heaven." Heb. 12:25. He said, moreover, "Now the just shall live by faith; but if any man draw back, my soul shall have no pleasure in him." Heb. 10:38. He also did thus apply them: Thou art the man that art running into this misery; thou hast begun to reject the counsel of the Most High, and to draw back thy foot from the way of peace, even almost to the hazarding of thy perdition. Then Christian fell down at his feet as dead, crying, Woe is me, for I am undone! At the sight of which Evangelist caught him by the right hand, saying, "All manner of sin and blasphemies shall be forgiven unto men." Matt. 12:31. "Be not faithless, but believing." John 20:27. Then did Christian again a little revive, and stood up trembling, as at first, before Evangelist. Then Evangelist proceeded, saying, Give more earnest heed to the things that I shall tell thee of. I will now show thee who it was that deluded thee, and who it was also to whom he sent thee. The man that met thee is one Worldly Wiseman, and rightly is he so called; partly because he savoreth only the doctrine of this world, 1 John 4:5, (therefore he always goes to the town of Morality to church;) and partly because he loveth that doctrine best, for it saveth him best from the cross, Gal. 6:12: and because he is of this carnal temper, therefore he seeketh to pervert my ways, though right. Now there are three things in this man's counsel that thou must utterly abhor. 1. His turning thee out of the way. 2. His laboring to render the cross odious to thee. 3. And his setting thy feet in that way that leadeth unto the administration of death. First, Thou must abhor his turning thee out of the way; yea, and thine own consenting thereto; because this is to reject the counsel of God for the sake of the counsel of a Worldly Wiseman. The Lord says, "Strive to enter in at the straight gate," Luke 13:24, the gate to which I send thee; "for strait is the gate that leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it." Matt. 7:13,14. From this little wicket-gate, and from the way thereto, hath this wicked man turned thee, to the bringing of thee almost to destruction: hate, therefore, his turning thee out of the way, and abhor thyself for hearkening to him. Secondly, Thou must abhor his laboring to render the cross odious unto thee; for thou art to prefer it before the treasures of Egypt. Heb. 11:25,26. Besides, the King of glory hath told thee, that he that will save his life shall lose it. And he that comes after him, and hates not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be his disciple. Mark 8:38; John 12:25; Matt. 10:39; Luke 14:26. I say, therefore, for a man to labor to persuade thee that that shall be thy death, without which, the truth hath said, thou canst not have eternal life, this doctrine thou must abhor. Thirdly, Thou must hate his setting of thy feet in the way that leadeth to the ministration of death. And for this thou must consider to whom he sent thee, and also how unable that person was to deliver thee from thy burden. He to whom thou wast sent for ease, being by name Legality, is the son of the bond-woman which now is, and is in bondage with her children, Gal. 4:21-27, and is, in a mystery, this Mount Sinai, which thou hast feared will fall on thy head. Now if she with her children are in bondage, how canst thou expect by them to be made free? This Legality, therefore, is not able to set thee free from thy burden. No man was as yet ever rid of his burden by him; no, nor ever is like to be: ye cannot be justified by the works of the law; for by the deeds of the law no man living can be rid of his burden: Therefore Mr. Worldly Wiseman is an alien, and Mr. Legality is a cheat; and for his son Civility, notwithstanding his simpering looks, he is but a hypocrite, and cannot help thee. Believe me, there is nothing in all this noise that thou hast heard of these sottish men, but a design to beguile thee of thy salvation, by turning thee from the way in which I had set thee. After this, Evangelist called aloud to the heavens for confirmation of what he had said; and with that there came words and fire out of the mountain under which poor Christian stood, which made the hair of his flesh stand up. The words were pronounced: "As many as are of the works of the law, are under the curse; for it is written, Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things which are written in the book of the law to do them." Gal. 3:10. Now Christian looked for nothing but death, and began to cry out lamentably; even cursing the time in which he met with Mr. Worldly Wiseman; still calling himself a thousand fools for hearkening to his counsel. He also was greatly ashamed to think that this gentleman's arguments, flowing only from the flesh, should have the prevalency with him so far as to cause him to forsake the right way. This done, he applied himself again to Evangelist in words and sense as follows. CHR. Sir, what think you? Is there any hope? May I now go back, and go up to the wicket-gate? Shall I not be abandoned for this, and sent back from thence ashamed? I am sorry I have hearkened to this man's counsel; but may my sin be forgiven? EVAN. Then said Evangelist to him, Thy sin is very great, for by it thou hast committed two evils: thou hast forsaken the way that is good, to tread in forbidden paths. Yet will the man at the gate receive thee, for he has good-will for men; only, said he, take heed that thou turn not aside again, lest thou "perish from the way, when his wrath is kindled but a little." Psalm 2:12. THE SECOND STAGE. Then did Christian address himself to go back; and Evangelist, after he had kissed him, gave him one smile, and bid him God speed; So he went on with haste, neither spake he to any man by the way; nor if any asked him, would he vouchsafe them an answer. He went like one that was all the while treading on forbidden ground, and could by no means think himself safe, till again he was got into the way which he had left to follow Mr. Worldly Wiseman's counsel. So, in process of time, Christian got up to the gate. Now, over the gate there was written, "Knock, and it shall be opened unto you." Matt. 7:7. He knocked, therefore, more than once or twice, saying, "May I now enter here? Will he within Open to sorry me, though I have been An undeserving rebel? Then shall I Not fail to sing his lasting praise on high." At last there came a grave person to the gate, named Goodwill, who asked who was there, and whence he came, and what he would have. CHR. Here is a poor burdened sinner. I come from the city of Destruction, but am going to Mount Zion, that I may be delivered from the wrath to come; I would therefore, sir, since I am informed that by this gate is the way thither, know if you are willing to let me in. GOOD. I am willing with all my heart, said he; and with that he opened the gate. So when Christian was stepping in, the other gave him a pull. Then said Christian, What means that? The other told him, A little distance from this gate there is erected a strong castle, of which Beelzebub is the captain: from thence both he and they that are with him, shoot arrows at those that come up to this gate, if haply they may die before they can enter in. Then said Christian, I rejoice and tremble. So when he was got in, the man of the Gate asked him who directed him thither. CHR. Evangelist bid me come hither and knock, as I did: and he said, that you, sir, would tell me what I must do. GOOD. An open door is set before thee, and no man can shut it. CHR. Now I begin to reap the benefits of my hazards. GOOD. But how is it that you came alone? CHR. Because none of my neighbors saw their danger as I saw mine. GOOD. Did any of them know of your coming? CHR. Yes, my wife and children saw me at the first, and called after me to turn again: also, some of my neighbors stood crying and calling after me to return; but I put my fingers in my ears, and so came on my way. GOOD. But did none of them follow you, to persuade you to go back? CHR. Yes, both Obstinate and Pliable; but when they saw that they could not prevail, Obstinate went railing back; but Pliable came with me a little way. GOOD. But why did he not come through? CHR. We indeed came both together until we came to the Slough of Despond, into the which we also suddenly fell. And then was my neighbor Pliable discouraged, and would not venture farther. Wherefore, getting out again on the side next to his own house, he told me I should possess the brave country alone for him: so he went his way, and I came mine; he after Obstinate, and I to this gate. GOOD. Then said Goodwill, Alas, poor man; is the celestial glory of so little esteem with him, that he counteth it not worth running the hazard of a few difficulties to obtain it? CHR. Truly, said Christian, I have said the truth of Pliable; and if I should also say all the truth of myself, it will appear there is no betterment betwixt him and myself. It is true, he went back to his own house, but I also turned aside to go in the way of death, being persuaded thereto by the carnal arguments of one Mr. Worldly Wiseman. GOOD. Oh, did he light upon you? What, he would have had you have seek for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality! They are both of them a very cheat. But did you take his counsel? CHR. Yes, as far as I durst. I went to find out Mr. Legality, until I thought that the mountain that stands by his house would have fallen upon my head; wherefore there I was forced to stop. GOOD. That mountain has been the death of many, and will be the death of many more: it is well you escaped being by it dashed in pieces. CHR. Why truly I do not know what had become of me there, had not Evangelist happily met me again as I was musing in the midst of my dumps; but it was God's mercy that he came to me again, for else I had never come hither. But now I am come, such a one as I am, more fit indeed for death by that mountain, than thus to stand talking with my Lord. But O, what a favor is this to me, that yet I am admitted entrance here! GOOD. We make no objections against any, notwithstanding all that they have done before they come hither; they in no wise are cast out. John 6:37. And therefore good Christian, come a little way with me, and I will teach thee about the way thou must go. Look before thee; dost thou see this narrow way? That is the way thou must go. It was cast up by the patriarchs, prophets, Christ, and his apostles, and it is as strait as a rule can make it; this is the way thou must go. CHR. But, said Christian, are there no turnings nor windings, by which a stranger may lose his way? GOOD. Yes, there are many ways butt down upon this, and they are crooked and wide: but thus thou mayest distinguish the right from the wrong, the right only being strait and narrow. Matt. 7:14. Then I saw in my dream, that Christian asked him further, if he could not help him off with his burden that was upon his back. For as yet he had not got rid thereof; nor could he by any means get it off without help. He told him, "As to thy burden, be content to bear it until thou comest to the place of deliverance; for there it will fall from thy back of itself." Then Christian began to gird up his loins, and to address himself to his journey. So the other told him, that by that he was gone some distance from the gate, he would come to the house of the Interpreter, at whose door he should knock, and he would show him excellent things. Then Christian took his leave of his friend, and he again bid him God speed. Then he went on till he came at the house of the Interpreter, 6 where he knocked over and over. At last one came to the door, and asked who was there. CHR. Sir, here is a traveller, who was bid by an acquaintance of the good man of this house to call here for my profit; I would therefore speak with the master of the house. So he called for the master of the house, who, after a little time, came to Christian, and asked him what he would have. CHR. Sir, said Christian, I am a man that am come from the city of Destruction, and am going to the Mount Zion; and I was told by the man that stands at the gate at the head of this way, that if I called here you would show me excellent things, such as would be helpful to me on my journey. INTER. Then said Interpreter, Come in; I will show thee that which will be profitable to thee. So he commanded his man to light the candle, and bid Christian follow him; so he had him into a private room, and bid his man open a door; the which when he had done, Christian saw the picture a very grave person hang up against the wall; and this was the fashion of it: It had eyes lifted up to heaven, the best of books in his hand, the law of truth was written upon its lips, the world was behind its back; it stood as if it pleaded with men, and a crown of gold did hang over its head. CHR. Then said Christian, What means this? INTER. The man whose picture this is, is one of a thousand: he can beget children, 1 Cor. 4:15, travail in birth with children, Gal. 4:19, and nurse them himself when they are born. And whereas thou seest him with his eyes lift up to heaven, the best of books in his hand, and the law of truth writ on his lips: it is to show thee, that his work is to know, and unfold dark things to sinners; even as also thou seest him stand as if he pleaded with men. And whereas thou seest the world as cast behind him, and that a crown hangs over his head; that is to show thee, that slighting and despising the things that are present, for the love that he hath to his Master's service, he is sure in the world that comes next, to have glory for his reward. Now, said the Interpreter, I have showed thee this picture first, because the man whose picture this is, is the only man whom the Lord of the place whither thou art going hath authorized to be thy guide in all difficult places thou mayest meet with in the way: wherefore take good heed to what I have showed thee, and bear well in thy mind what thou hast seen, lest in thy journey thou meet with some that pretend to lead thee right, but their way goes down to death. Then he took him by the hand, and led him into a very large parlor that was full of dust, because never swept; the which after he had reviewed it a little while, the Interpreter called for a man to sweep. Now, when he began to sweep, the dust began so abundantly to fly about, that Christian had almost therewith been choked. Then said the Interpreter to a damsel that stood by, "Bring hither water, and sprinkle the room;" the which when she had done, it was swept and cleansed with pleasure. CHR. Then said Christian, What means this? INTER. The Interpreter answered, This parlor is the heart of a man that was never sanctified by the sweet grace of the Gospel. The dust is his original sin, and inward corruptions, that have defiled the whole man. He that began to sweep at first, is the law; but she that brought water, and did sprinkle it, is the Gospel. Now whereas thou sawest, that so soon as the first began to sweep, the dust did so fly about that the room by him could not be cleansed, but that thou wast almost choked therewith; this is to show thee, that the law, instead of cleansing the heart (by its working) from sin, doth revive, Rom. 7:9, put strength into, 1 Cor. 15:56, and increase it in the soul, Rom. 5:20, even as it doth discover and forbid it; for it doth not give power to subdue. Again, as thou sawest the damsel sprinkle the room with water, upon which it was cleansed with pleasure, this is to show thee, that when the Gospel comes in the sweet and precious influences thereof to the heart, then, I say, even as thou sawest the damsel lay the dust by sprinkling the floor with water, so is sin vanquished and subdued, and the soul made clean, through the faith of it, and consequently fit for the King of glory to inhabit. John 15:3; Eph. 5:26; Acts 15:9; Rom. 16:25,26. I saw moreover in my dream, that the Interpreter took him by the hand, and had him into a little room, where sat two little children, each one in his chair. The name of the eldest was Passion, and the name of the other Patience. Passion seemed to be much disconted, but Patience was very quiet. Then Christian asked, "What is the reason of the discontent of Passion?" The Interpreter answered, "The governor of them would have him stay for his best things till the beginning of the next year, but he will have all now; but Patience is willing to wait." Then I saw that one came to Passion, and brought him a bag of treasure, and poured it down at his feet: the which he took up, and rejoiced therein, and withal laughed Patience to scorn. But I beheld but a while, and he had lavished all away, and had nothing left him but rags. CHR. Then said Christian to the Interpreter, Expound this matter more fully to me. INTER. So he said, These two lads are figures; Passion of the men of this world, and Patience of the men of that which is to come; for, as here thou seest, passion will have all now, this year, that is to say, in this world; so are the men of this world: They must have all their good things now; they cannot stay till the next year, that is, until the next world, for their portion of good. That proverb, "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," is of more authority with them than are all the divine testimonies of the good of the world to come. But as thou sawest that he had quickly lavished all away, and had presently left him nothing but rags, so will it be with all such men at the end of this world. CHR. Then said Christian, Now I see that Patience has the best wisdom, and that upon many accounts. 1. Because he stays for the best things. 2. And also because he will have the glory of his, when the other has nothing but rags. INTER. Nay, you may add another, to wit, the glory of the next world will never wear out; but these are suddenly gone. Therefore Passion had not so much reason to laugh at Patience because he had his good things first, as Patience will have to laugh at Passion because he had his best things last; for first must give place to last, because last must have his time to come: but last gives place to nothing, for there is not another to succeed. He, therefore, that hath his portion first, must needs have a time to spend it; but he that hath his portion last, must have it lastingly: therefore it is said of Dives, "In thy lifetime thou receivedst thy good things, and likewise Lazarus evil things; but now he is comforted, and thou art tormented." Luke 16:25. CHR. Then I perceive it is not best to cover things that are now, but to wait for things to come. INTER. You say truth: for the things that are seen are temporal, but the things that are not seen are eternal. 2 Cor. 4:18. But though this be so, yet since things present and our fleshly appetite are such near neighbors one to another; and again, because things to come and carnal sense are such strangers one to another; therefore it is, that the first of these so suddenly fall into amity, and that distance is so continued between the second. Then I saw in my dream, that the Interpreter took Christian by the hand, and led him into a place where was a fire burning against a wall, and one standing by it, always casting much water upon it, to quench it; yet did the fire burn higher and hotter. Then said Christian, What means this? The Interpreter answered, This fire is the work of grace that is wrought in the heart; he that casts water upon it, to extinguish and put it out, is the devil: but in that thou seest the fire, notwithstanding, burn higher and hotter, thou shalt also see the reason of that. So he had him about to the back side of the wall, where he saw a man with a vessel of oil in his hand, of the which he did also continually cast (but secretly) into the fire. Then said Christian, What means this? The Interpreter answered, This is Christ, who continually, with the oil of his grace, maintains the work already begun in the heart; by the means of which, notwithstanding what the devil can do, the souls of his people prove gracious still. 2 Cor. 12:9. And in that thou sawest that the man stood behind the wall to maintain the fire; this is to teach thee, that it is hard for the tempted to see how this work of grace is maintained in the soul. I saw also, that the Interpreter took him again by the hand, and led him into a pleasant place, where was built a stately palace, beautiful to behold; at the sight of which Christian was greatly delighted. He saw also upon the top thereof certain persons walking, who were clothed all in gold. Then said Christian may we go in thither? Then the Interpreter took him, and led him up towards the door of the palace; and behold, at the door stood a great company of men, as desirous to go in, but durst not. There also sat a man at a little distance from the door, at a table-side, with a book and his inkhorn before him, to take the names of them that should enter therein; he saw also that in the doorway stood many men in armor to keep it, being resolved to do to the men that would enter, what hurt and mischief they could. Now was Christian somewhat in amaze. At last, when every man started back for fear of the armed men, Christian saw a man of a very stout countenance come up to the man that sat there to write, saying, "Set down my name, sir;" the which when he had done, he saw the man draw his sword, and put a helmet on his head, and rush towards the door upon the armed men, who laid upon him with deadly force; but the man, not at all discouraged, fell to cutting and hacking most fiercely. So after he had received and given many wounds to those that attempted to keep him out, Matt. 11:12; Acts 14:22; he cut his way through them all, and pressed forward into the palace; at which there was a pleasant voice heard from those that were within, even of those that walked upon the top of the palace, saying, "Come in, come in, Eternal glory thou shalt win." So he went in, and was clothed with such garments as they. Then Christian smiled, and said, I think verily I know the meaning of this. Now, said Christian, let me go hence. Nay, stay, said the Interpreter, till I have showed thee a little more, and after that thou shalt go on thy way. So he took him by the hand again, and led him into a very dark room, where there sat a man in an iron cage. Now the man, to look on, seemed very sad; he sat with his eyes looking down to the ground, his hands folded together, and he sighed as if he would break his heart. Then said Christian, What means this? At which the Interpreter bid him talk with the man. Then said Christian to the man, What art thou? The man answered, I am what I was not once. CHR. What wast thou once? MAN. The man said, I was once a fair and flourishing professor, Luke 8:13, both in mine own eyes, and also in the eyes of others: I once was, as I thought, fair for the celestial city, and had then even joy at the thoughts that I should get thither. CHR. Well, but what art thou now? MAN. I am now a man of despair, and am shut up in it, as in this iron cage. I cannot get out; Oh now I cannot! CHR. But how camest thou into this condition? MAN. I left off to watch and be sober: I laid the reins upon the neck of my lusts; I sinned against the light of the word, and the goodness of God; I have grieved the Spirit, and he is gone; I tempted the devil, and he is come to me; I have provoked God to anger, and he has left me: I have so hardened my heart, that I cannot repent. Then said Christian to the Interpreter, But is there no hope for such a man as this? Ask him, said the Interpreter. CHR. Then said Christian, Is there no hope, but you must be kept in the iron cage of despair? MAN. No, none at all. CHR. Why, the Son of the Blessed is very pitiful. MAN. I have crucified him to myself afresh, Heb. 6:6; I have despised his person, Luke 19:14; I have despised his righteousness; I have counted his blood an unholy thing; I have done despite to the spirit of grace, Heb. 10:29: therefore I have shut myself out of all the promises and there now remains to me nothing but threatenings, dreadful threatenings, faithful threatenings of certain judgment and fiery indignation, which shall devour me as an adversary. CHR. For what did you bring yourself into this condition? MAN. For the lusts, pleasures, and profits of this world; in the enjoyment of which I did then promise myself much delight: but now every one of those things also bite me, and gnaw me like a burning worm. CHR. But canst thou not now repent and turn? MAN. God hath denied me repentance. His word gives me no encouragement to believe; yea, himself hath shut me up in this iron cage: nor can all the men in the world let me out. Oh eternity! eternity! how shall I grapple with the misery that I must meet with in eternity? INTER. Then said the Interpreter to Christian, Let this man's misery be remembered by thee, and be an everlasting caution to thee. CHR. Well, said Christian, this is fearful! God help me to watch and to be sober, and to pray that I may shun the cause of this man's misery. Sir, is it not time for me to go on my way now? INTER. Tarry till I shall show thee one thing more, and then thou shalt go on thy way. So he took Christian by the hand again and led him into a chamber where there was one rising out of bed; and as he put on his raiment, he shook and trembled. Then said Christian, Why doth this man thus tremble? The Interpreter then bid him tell to Christian the reason of his so doing. So he began, and said, "This night, as I was in my sleep, I dreamed, and behold the heavens grew exceeding black; also it thundered and lightened in most fearful wise, that it put me into an agony. So I looked up in my dream, and saw the clouds rack at an unusual rate; upon which I heard a great sound of a trumpet, and saw also a man sitting upon a cloud, attended with the thousands of heaven: they were all in flaming fire; also the heavens were in a burning flame. I heard then a voice, saying, 'Arise, ye dead, and come to judgment.' And with that the rocks rent, the graves opened, and the dead that were therein came forth: some of them were exceeding glad, and looked upward; and some sought to hide themselves under the mountains. Then I saw the man that sat upon the cloud open the book, and bid the world draw near. Yet there was, by reason of a fierce flame that issued out and came from before him, a convenient distance between him and them, as between the judge and the prisoners at the bar. 1 Cor. 15; 1 Thess. 4:16; Jude 15; John 5: 28,29; 2 Thess. 1:8-10; Rev. 20:11-14; Isa. 26:21; Micah 7:16,17; Psa. 5:4; 50:1-3; Mal. 3:2,3; Dan. 7:9,10. I heard it also proclaimed to them that attended on the man that sat on the cloud, 'Gather together the tares, the chaff, and stubble, and cast them into the burning lake.' Matt. 3:12; 18:30; 24:30; Mal. 4:1. And with that the bottomless pit opened, just whereabout I stood; out of the mouth of which there came, in an abundant manner, smoke, and coals of fire, with hideous noises. It was also said to the same persons, 'Gather my wheat into the garner.' Luke 3:17. And with that I saw many catched up and carried away into the clouds, but I was left behind. 1 Thess. 4:16,17. I also sought to hide myself, but I could not, for the man that sat upon the cloud still kept his eye upon me; my sins also came into my mind, and my conscience did accuse me on every side. Rom. 2:14,15. Upon this I awakened from my sleep." CHR. But what was it that made you so afraid of this sight? MAN. Why, I thought that the day of judgment was come, and that I was not ready for it: but this frightened me most, that the angels gathered up several, and left me behind; also the pit of hell opened her mouth just where I stood. My conscience too afflicted me; and, as I thought, the Judge had always his eye upon me, showing indignation in his countenance. Then said the Interpreter to Christian, "Hast thou considered all these things?" CHR. Yes, and they put me in hope and fear. INTER. Well, keep all things so in thy mind, that they may be as a goad in thy sides, to prick thee forward in the way thou must go. Then Christian began to gird up his loins, and to address himself to his journey. Then said the Interpreter, "The Comforter be always with thee, good Christian, to guide thee in the way that leads to the city." So Christian went on his way, saying, "Here I have seen things rare and profitable, Things pleasant, dreadful, things to make me stable In what I have begun to take in hand: Then let me think on them, and understand Wherefore they showed me were, and let me be Thankful, O good Interpreter, to thee." THE THIRD STAGE. Now I saw in my dream, that the highway up which Christian was to go, was fenced on either side with a wall, and that wall was called Salvation. Isaiah 26:1. Up this way, therefore, did burdened Christian run, but not without great difficulty, because of the load on his back. He ran thus till he came at a place somewhat ascending; and upon that place stood a cross, and a little below, in the bottom, a sepulchre. So I saw in my dream, that just as Christian came up with the cross, his burden loosed from off his shoulders, and fell from off his back, and began to tumble, and so continued to do till it came to the mouth of the sepulchre, where it fell in, and I saw it no more. Then was Christian glad and lightsome, and said with a merry heart, "He hath given me rest by his sorrow, and life by his death." Then he stood still a while, to look and wonder; for it was very surprising to him that the sight of the cross should thus ease him of his burden. He looked, therefore, and looked again, even till the springs that were in his head sent the waters down his cheeks. Zech. 12:10. Now as he stood looking and weeping, behold, three Shining Ones came to him, and saluted him with, "Peace be to thee." So the first said to him, "Thy sins be forgiven thee," Mark 2:5; the second stripped him of his rags, and clothed him with change of raiment, Zech. 3:4; the third also set a mark on his forehead, Eph. 1:13, and gave him a roll with a seal upon it, which he bid him look on as he ran, and that he should give it in at the celestial gate: so they went their way. Then Christian gave three leaps for joy, and went on singing, "Thus far did I come laden with my sin, Nor could aught ease the grief that I was in, Till I came hither. What a place is this! Must here be the beginning of my bliss? Must here the burden fall from off my back? Must here the strings that bound it to me crack? Blest cross! blest sepulchre! blest rather be The Man that there was put to shame for me!" I saw then in my dream, that he went on thus, even until he came at the bottom, where he saw, a little out of the way, three men fast asleep, with fetters upon their heels. The name of the one was Simple, of another Sloth, and of the third Presumption. Christian then seeing them lie in this case, went to them, if peradventure he might awake them, and cried, you are like them that sleep on the top of a mast, Prov. 23:34, for the Dead Sea is under you, a gulf that hath no bottom: awake, therefore, and come away; be willing also, and I will help you off with your irons. He also told them, If he that goeth about like a roaring lion, 1 Pet. 5:8, comes by, you will certainly become a prey to his teeth. With that they looked upon him, and began to reply in this sort: Simple said, I see no danger; Sloth said, Yet a little more sleep; and Presumption said, Every tub must stand upon its own bottom. And so they lay down to sleep again, and Christian went on his way. Yet he was troubled to think that men in that danger should so little esteem the kindness of him that so freely offered to help them, both by awakening of them, counselling of them, and proffering to help them off with their irons. And as he was troubled thereabout, he espied two men come tumbling over the wall, on the left hand of the narrow way; and they made up apace to him. The name of the one was Formalist, and the name of the other Hypocrisy. So, as I said, they drew up unto him, who thus entered with them into discourse. CHR. Gentlemen, whence came you, and whither do you go? FORM. AND HYP. We were born in the land of Vain-glory, and are going, for praise, to Mount Zion. CHR. Why came you not in at the gate which standeth at the beginning of the way? Know ye not that it is written, that "he that cometh not in by the door, but climbeth up some other way, the same is a thief and a robber?" John 10:1. FORM. AND HYP. They said, that to go to the gate for entrance was by all their countrymen counted too far about; and that therefore their usual way was to make a short cut of it, and to climb over the wall, as they had done. CHR. But will it not be counted a trespass against the Lord of the city whither we are bound, thus to violate his revealed will? FORM. AND HYP. They told him, that as for that, he needed not to trouble his head thereabout: for what they did they had custom for, and could produce, if need were, testimony that would witness it for more than a thousand years. CHR. But, said Christian, will you stand a trial at law? FORM. AND HYP. They told him, that custom, it being of so long standing as above a thousand years, would doubtless now be admitted as a thing legal by an impartial judge: and besides, said they, if we get into the way, what matter is it which way we get in? If we are in, we are in: thou art but in the way, who, as we perceive, came in at the gate; and we also are in the way, that came tumbling over the wall: wherein now is thy condition better than ours? CHR. I walk by the rule of my Master: you walk by the rude working of your fancies. You are counted thieves already by the Lord of the way: therefore I doubt you will not be found true men at the end of the way. You come in by yourselves without his direction, and shall go out by yourselves without his mercy. To this they made him but little answer; only they bid him look to himself. Then I saw that they went on, every man in his way, without much conference one with another, save that these two men told Christian, that as to laws and ordinances, they doubted not but that they should as conscientiously do them as he. Therefore, said they, we see not wherein thou differest from us, but by the coat that is on thy back, which was, as we trow, given thee by some of thy neighbors, to hide the shame of thy nakedness. CHR. By laws and ordinances you will not be saved, since you came not in by the door. Gal. 2:16. And as for this coat that is on my back, it was given me by the Lord of the place whither I go; and that, as you say, to cover my nakedness with. And I take it as a token of kindness to me; for I had nothing but rags before. And besides, thus I comfort myself as I go. Surely, think I, when I come to the gate of the city, the Lord thereof will know me for good, since I have his coat on my back; a coat that he gave me freely in the day that he stripped me of my rags. I have, moreover, a mark in my forehead, of which perhaps you have taken no notice, which one of my Lord's most intimate associates fixed there in the day that my burden fell off my shoulders. I will tell you, moreover, that I had then given me a roll sealed, to comfort me by reading as I go on the way; I was also bid to give it in at the celestial gate, in token of my certain going in after it: all which things I doubt you want, and want them because you came not in at the gate. To these things they gave him no answer; only they looked upon each other, and laughed. Then I saw that they went all on, save that Christian kept before, who had no more talk but with himself, and that sometimes sighingly, and sometimes comfortably: also he would be often reading in the roll that one of the Shining Ones gave him, by which he was refreshed. I beheld then, that they all went on till they came to the foot of the hill Difficulty, at the bottom of which there was a spring. There were also in the same place two other ways besides that which came straight from the gate: one turned to the left hand, and the other to the right, at the bottom of the hill; but the narrow way lay right up the hill, and the name of the going up the side of the hill is called Difficulty. Christian now went to the spring, Isa. 49:10, and drank thereof to refresh himself, and then began to go up the hill, saying, "The hill, though high, I covet to ascend; The difficulty will not me offend; For I perceive the way to life lies here: Come, pluck up heart, let's neither faint nor fear. Better, though difficult, the right way to go, Than wrong, though easy, where the end is woe." The other two also came to the foot of the hill. But when they saw that the hill was steep and high, and that there were two other ways to go; and supposing also that these two ways might meet again with that up which Christian went, on the other side of the hill; therefore they were resolved to go in those ways. Now the name of one of those ways was Danger, and the name of the other Destruction. So the one took the way which is called Danger, which led him into a great wood; and the other took directly up the way to Destruction, which led him into a wide field, full of dark mountains, where he stumbled and fell, and rose no more. I looked then after Christian, to see him go up the hill, where I perceived he fell from running to going, and from going to clambering upon his hands and his knees, because of the steepness of the place. Now about the midway to the top of the hill was a pleasant Arbor, made by the Lord of the hill for the refreshment of weary travellers. Thither, therefore, Christian got, where also he sat down to rest him: then he pulled his roll out of his bosom, and read therein to his comfort; he also now began afresh to take a review of the coat or garment that was given to him as he stood by the cross. Thus pleasing himself awhile, he at last fell into a slumber, and thence into a fast sleep, which detained him in that place until it was almost night; and in his sleep his roll fell out of his hand. Now, as he was sleeping, there came one to him, and awaked him, saying, "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise." Prov. 6:6. And with that, Christian suddenly started up, and sped him on his way, and went apace till he came to the top of the hill. Now when he was got up to the top of the hill, there came two men running amain; the name of the one was Timorous, and of the other Mistrust: to whom Christian said, Sirs, what's the matter? you run the wrong way. Timorous answered, that they were going to the city of Zion, and had got up that difficult place: but, said he, the farther we go, the more danger we meet with; wherefore we turned, and are going back again. Yes, said Mistrust, for just before us lie a couple of lions in the way, whether sleeping or waking we know not; and we could not think, if we came within reach, but they would presently pull us in pieces. CHR. Then said Christian, You make me afraid; but whither shall I fly to be safe? If I go back to mine own country, that is prepared for fire and brimstone, and I shall certainly perish there; if I can get to the celestial city, I am sure to be in safety there: I must venture. To go back is nothing but death: to go forward is fear of death, and life everlasting beyond it: I will yet go forward. So Mistrust and Timorous ran down the hill, and Christian went on his way. But thinking again of what he had heard from the men, he felt in his bosom for his roll, that he might read therein and be comforted; but he felt, and found it not. Then was Christian in great distress, and knew not what to do; for he wanted that which used to relieve him, and that which should have been his pass into the celestial city. Here, therefore, he began to be much perplexed, and knew not what to do. At last he bethought himself that he had slept in the arbor that is on the side of the hill; and falling down upon his knees, he asked God forgiveness for that foolish act, and then went back to look for his roll. But all the way he went back, who can sufficiently set forth the sorrow of Christian's heart? Sometimes he sighed, sometimes he wept, and oftentimes he chid himself for being so foolish to fall asleep in that place, which was erected only for a little refreshment from his weariness. Thus, therefore, he went back, carefully looking on this side and on that, all the way as he went, if happily he might find his roll, that had been his comfort so many times in his journey. He went thus till he came again in sight of the arbor where he sat and slept; but that sight renewed his sorrow the more, by bringing again, even afresh, his evil of sleeping unto his mind. Rev. 2:4; 1 Thess. 5:6-8. Thus, therefore, he now went on, bewailing his sinful sleep, saying, O wretched man that I am, that I should sleep in the daytime! that I should sleep in the midst of difficulty! that I should so indulge the flesh as to use that rest for ease to my flesh which the Lord of the hill hath erected only for the relief of the spirits of pilgrims! How many steps have I taken in vain! Thus it happened to Israel; for their sin they were sent back again by the way of the Red Sea; and I am made to tread those steps with sorrow, which I might have trod with delight, had it not been for this sinful sleep. How far might I have been on my way by this time! I am made to tread those steps thrice over, which I needed not to have trod but once: yea, now also I am like to be benighted, for the day is almost spent. O that I had not slept! Now by this time he was come to the arbor again, where for a while he sat down and wept; but at last, (as Providence would have it,) looking sorrowfully down under the settle, there he espied his roll, the which he with trembling and haste catched up, and put it into his bosom. But who can tell how joyful this man was when he had gotten his roll again? For this roll was the assurance of his life, and acceptance at the desired haven. Therefore he laid it up in his bosom, gave thanks to God for directing his eye to the place where it lay, and with joy and tears betook himself again to his journey. But O how nimbly did he go up the rest of the hill! Yet before he got up, the sun went down upon Christian; and this made him again recall the vanity of his sleeping to his remembrance; and thus he again began to condole with himself: Oh thou sinful sleep! how for thy sake am I like to be benighted in my journey! I must walk without the sun, darkness must cover the path of my feet, and I must hear the noise of the doleful creatures, because of my sinful sleep! Now also he remembered the story that Mistrust and Timorous told him of, how they were frighted with the sight of the lions. Then said Christian to himself again, These beasts range in the night for their prey; and if they should meet with me in the dark, how should I shift them? how should I escape being by them torn in pieces? Thus he went on his way. But while he was bewailing his unhappy miscarriage, he lift up his eyes, and behold there was a very stately palace before him, the name of which was Beautiful, and it stood by the highway-side. So I saw in my dream that he made haste, and went forward, that if possible he might get lodging there. Now before he had gone far, he entered into a very narrow passage, which was about a furlong off the Porter's lodge, and looking very narrowly before him as he went, he espied two lions in the way. Now, thought he, I see the dangers that Mistrust and Timorous were driven back by. (The lions were chained, but he saw not the chains.) Then he was afraid, and thought also himself to go back after them; for he thought nothing but death was before him. But the Porter at the lodge, whose name is Watchful, perceiving that Christian made a halt, as if he would go back, cried unto him, saying, Is thy strength so small? Mark 4:40. Fear not the lions, for they are chained, and are placed there for trial of faith where it is, and for discovery of those that have none: keep in the midst of the path, and no hurt shall come unto thee. Then I saw that he went on, trembling for fear of the lions, but taking good heed to the directions of the Porter; he heard them roar, but they did him no harm. Then he clapped his hands, and went on till he came and stood before the gate where the Porter was. Then said Christian to the Porter, Sir, what house is this? and may I lodge here to-night? The Porter answered, This house was built by the Lord of the hill, and he built it for the relief and security of pilgrims. The Porter also asked whence he was, and whither he was going. CHR. I am come from the city of Destruction, and am going to Mount Zion: but because the sun is now set, I desire, if I may, to lodge here to- night. PORT. What is your name? CHR. My name is now Christian, but my name at the first was Graceless: I came of the race of Japheth, whom God will persuade to dwell in the tents of Shem. Gen. 9:27. PORT. But how does it happen that you come so late? The sun is set. CHR. I had been here sooner, but that, wretched man that I am, I slept in the arbor that stands on the hill-side! Nay, I had, notwithstanding that, been here much sooner, but that in my sleep I lost my evidence, and came without it to the brow of the hill; and then feeling for it, and not finding it, I was forced with sorrow of heart to go back to the place where I slept my sleep, where I found it; and now I am come. PORT. Well, I will call out one of the virgins of this place, who will, if she likes your talk, bring you in to the rest of the family, according to the rules of the house. So Watchful the Porter rang a bell, at the sound of which came out of the door of the house a grave and beautiful damsel, named Discretion, and asked why she was called. The Porter answered, This man is on a journey from the city of Destruction to Mount Zion; but being weary and benighted, he asked me if he might lodge here to-night: so I told him I would call for thee, who, after discourse had with him, mayest do as seemeth thee good, even according to the law of the house. Then she asked him whence he was, and whither he was going; and he told her. She asked him also how he got into the way; and he told her. Then she asked him what he had seen and met with in the way, and he told her. And at last she asked his name. So he said, It is Christian; and I have so much the more a desire to lodge here to-night, because, by what I perceive, this place was built by the Lord of the hill for the relief and security of pilgrims. So she smiled, but the water stood in her eyes; and after a little pause she said, I will call forth two or three more of the family. So she ran to the door, and called out Prudence, Piety, and Charity, who, after a little more discourse with him, had him into the family; and many of them meeting him at the threshold of the house, said, Come in, thou blessed of the Lord; this house was built by the Lord of the hill on purpose to entertain such pilgrims in. Then he bowed his head, and followed them into the house. So when he was come in and sat down, they gave him something to drink, and consented together that, until supper was ready, some of them should have some particular discourse with Christian, for the best improvement of time; and they appointed Piety, Prudence, and Charity to discourse with him: and thus they began. PIETY. Come, good Christian, since we have been so loving to you as to receive you into our house this night, let us, if perhaps we may better ourselves thereby, talk with you of all things that have happened to you in your pilgrimage. CHR. With a very good will; and I am glad that you are so well disposed. PIETY. What moved you at first to betake yourself to a pilgrim's life? CHR. I was driven out of my native country by a dreadful sound that was in mine ears; to wit, that unavoidable destruction did attend me, if I abode in that place where I was. PIETY. But how did it happen that you came out of your country this way? CHR. It was as God would have it; for when I was under the fears of destruction, I did not know whither to go; but by chance there came a man, even to me, as I was trembling and weeping, whose name is Evangelist, and he directed me to the Wicket-gate, which else I should never have found, and so set me into the way that hath led me directly to this house. PIETY. But did you not come by the house of the Interpreter? CHR. Yes, and did see such things there, the remembrance of which will stick by me as long as I live, especially three things: to wit, how Christ, in despite of Satan, maintains his work of grace in the heart; how the man had sinned himself quite out of hopes of God's mercy; and also the dream of him that thought in his sleep the day of judgment was come. PIETY. Why, did you hear him tell his dream? CHR. Yes, and a dreadful one it was, I thought; it made my heart ache as he was telling of it, but yet I am glad I heard it. PIETY. Was this all you saw at the house of the Interpreter? CHR. No; he took me, and had me where he showed me a stately palace, and how the people were clad in gold that were in it; and how there came a venturous man, and cut his way through the armed men that stood in the door to keep him out; and how he was bid to come in, and win eternal glory. Methought those things did ravish my heart. I would have stayed at that good man's house a twelvemonth, but that I knew I had farther to go. PIETY. And what saw you else in the way? CHR. Saw? Why, I went but a little farther, and I saw One, as I thought in my mind, hang bleeding upon a tree; and the very sight of him made my burden fall off my back; for I groaned under a very heavy burden, but then it fell down from off me. It was a strange thing to me, for I never saw such a thing before: yea, and while I stood looking up, (for then I could not forbear looking,) three Shining Ones came to me. One of them testified that my sins were forgiven me; another stripped me of my rags, and gave me this broidered coat which you see; and the third set the mark which you see in my forehead, and gave me this sealed roll, (and with that he plucked it out of his bosom.) PIETY. But you saw more than this, did you not? CHR. The things that I have told you were the best: yet some other I saw, as, namely, I saw three men, Simple, Sloth, and Presumption, lie asleep, a little out of the way, as I came, with irons upon their heels; but do you think I could awake them? I also saw Formality and Hypocrisy come tumbling over the wall, to go, as they pretended, to Zion; but they were quickly lost, even as I myself did tell them, but they would not believe. But, above all, I found it hard work to get up this hill, and as hard to come by the lions' mouths; and, truly, if it had not been for the good man, the porter that stands at the gate, I do not know but that, after all, I might have gone back again; but I thank God I am here, and thank you for receiving me. Then Prudence thought good to ask him a few questions, and desired his answer to them. PRU. Do you not think sometimes of the country from whence you came? CHR. Yea, but with much shame and detestation. Truly, if I had been mindful of that country from whence I came out, I might have had opportunity to have returned; but now I desire a better country, that is, a heavenly one. Heb. 11:15,16. PRU. Do you not yet bear away with you some of the things that then you were conversant withal? CHR. Yes, but greatly against my will; especially my inward and carnal cogitations, with which all my countrymen, as well as myself, were delighted. But now all those things are my grief; and might I but choose mine own things, I would choose never to think of those things more: but when I would be a doing that which is best, that which is worst is with me. Rom. 7:15, 21. PRU. Do you not find sometimes as if those things were vanquished, which at other times are your perplexity? CHR. Yes, but that is but seldom; but they are to me golden hours in which such things happen to me. PRU. Can you remember by what means you find your annoyances at times as if they were vanquished? CHR. Yes: when I think what I saw at the cross, that will do it; and when I look upon my broidered coat, that will do it; and when I look into the roll that I carry in my bosom, that will do it; and when my thoughts wax warm about whither I am going, that will do it. PRU. And what is it that makes you so desirous to go to Mount Zion? CHR. Why, there I hope to see Him alive that did hang dead on the cross; and there I hope to be rid of all those things that to this day are in me an annoyance to me: there they say there is no death, Isa. 25:8; Rev. 21:4; and there I shall dwell with such company as I like best. For, to tell you the truth, I love Him because I was by Him eased of my burden; and I am weary of my inward sickness. I would fain be where I shall die no more, and with the company that shall continually cry, Holy, holy, holy. Then said Charity to Christian, Have you a family; Are you a married man? CHR. I have a wife and four small children. CHAR. And why did you not bring them along with you? CHR. Then Christian wept, and said, Oh, how willingly would I have done it! but they were all of them utterly averse to my going on pilgrimage. CHAR. But you should have talked to them, and have endeavored to show them the danger of staying behind. CHR. So I did; and told them also what God had shown to me of the destruction of our city; but I seemed to them as one that mocked, and they believed me not. Gen. 19:14. CHAR. And did you pray to God that he would bless your counsel to them? CHR. Yes, and that with much affection; for you must think that my wife and poor children were very dear to me. CHAR. But did you tell them of your own sorrow, and fear of destruction? for I suppose that destruction was visible enough to you. CHR. Yes, over, and over, and over. They might also see my fears in my countenance, in my tears, and also in my trembling under the apprehension of the judgment that did hang over our heads; but all was not sufficient to prevail with them to come with me. CHAR. But what could they say for themselves, why they came not? CHR. Why, my wife was afraid of losing this world, and my children were given to the foolish delights of youth; so, what by one thing, and what by another, they left me to wander in this manner alone. CHAR. But did you not, with your vain life, damp all that you, by words, used by way of persuasion to bring them away with you? CHR. Indeed, I cannot commend my life, for I am conscious to myself of many failings therein. I know also, that a man, by his conversation, may soon overthrow what, by argument or persuasion, he doth labor to fasten upon others for their good. Yet this I can say, I was very wary of giving them occasion, by any unseemly action, to make them averse to going on pilgrimage. Yea, for this very thing, they would tell me I was too precise, and that I denied myself of things (for their sakes) in which they saw no evil. Nay, I think I may say, that if what they saw in me did hinder them, it was my great tenderness in sinning against God, or of doing any wrong to my neighbor. CHAR. Indeed, Cain hated his brother, because his own works were evil, and his brother's righteous, 1 John, 3:12; and if thy wife and children have been offended with thee for this, they thereby show themselves to be implacable to good; thou hast delivered thy soul from their blood. Ezek. 3:19. Now I saw in my dream, that thus they sat talking together until supper was ready. So when they had made ready, they sat down to meat. Now the table was furnished with fat things, and with wine that was well refined; and all their talk at the table was about the Lord of the hill; as, namely, about what he had done, and wherefore he did what he did, and why he had builded that house; and by what they said, I perceived that he had been a great warrior, and had fought with and slain him that had the power of death, Heb. 2:14,15; but not without great danger to himself, which made me love him the more. For, as they said, and as I believe, said Christian, he did it with the loss of much blood. But that which put the glory of grace into all he did, was, that he did it out of pure love to his country. And besides, there were some of them of the household that said they had been and spoke with him since he did die on the cross; and they have attested that they had it from his own lips, that he is such a lover of poor pilgrims, that the like is not to be found from the east to the west. They, moreover, gave an instance of what they affirmed; and that was, he had stripped himself of his glory that he might do this for the poor; and that they heard him say and affirm, that he would not dwell in the mountain of Zion alone. They said, moreover, that he had made many pilgrims princes, though by nature they were beggars born, and their original had been the dunghill. 1 Sam. 2:8; Psa. 113:7. Thus they discoursed together till late at night; and after they had committed themselves to their Lord for protection, they betook themselves to rest. The pilgrim they laid in a large upper chamber, whose window opened towards the sun-rising. The name of the chamber was Peace, where he slept till break of day, and then he awoke and sang, "Where am I now? Is this the love and care Of Jesus, for the men that pilgrims are, Thus to provide that I should be forgiven, And dwell already the next door to heaven!" So in the morning they all got up; and, after some more discourse, they told him that he should not depart till they had shown him the rarities of that place. And first they had him into the study, where they showed him records of the greatest antiquity; in which, as I remember my dream, they showed him the pedigree of the Lord of the hill, that he was the Son of the Ancient of days, and came by eternal generation. Here also was more fully recorded the acts that he had done, and the names of many hundreds that he had taken into his service; and how he had placed them in such habitations that could neither by length of days, nor decays of nature, be dissolved. Then they read to him some of the worthy acts that some of his servants had done; as how they had subdued kingdoms, wrought righteousness, obtained promises, stopped the mouths of lions, quenched the violence of fire, escaped the edge of the sword, out of weakness were made strong, waxed valiant in fight, and turned to flight the armies of the aliens. Heb. 11:33,34. Then they read again another part of the records of the house, where it was shown how willing their Lord was to receive into his favor any, even any, though they in time past had offered great affronts to his person and proceedings. Here also were several other histories of many other famous things, of all which Christian had a view; as of things both ancient and modern, together with prophecies and predictions of things that have their certain accomplishment, both to the dread and amazement of enemies, and the comfort and solace of pilgrims. The next day they took him, and had him into the armory, where they showed him all manner of furniture which their Lord had provided for pilgrims, as sword, shield, helmet, breastplate, all-prayer, and shoes that would not wear out. And there was here enough of this to harness out as many men for the service of their Lord as there be stars in the heaven for multitude. They also showed him some of the engines with which some of his servants had done wonderful things. They showed him Moses' rod; the hammer and nail with which Jael slew Sisera; the pitchers, trumpets, and lamps too, with which Gideon put to flight the armies of Midian. Then they showed him the ox-goad wherewith Shamgar slew six hundred men. They showed him also the jawbone with which Samson did such mighty feats. They showed him moreover the sling and stone with which David slew Goliath of Gath; and the sword also with which their Lord will kill the man of sin, in the day that he shall rise up to the prey. They showed him besides many excellent things, with which Christian was much delighted. This done, they went to their rest again. Then I saw in my dream, that on the morrow he got up to go forward, but they desired him to stay till the next day also; and then, said they, we will, if the day be clear, show you the Delectable Mountains; which, they said, would yet farther add to his comfort, because they were nearer the desired haven than the place where at present he was; so he consented and stayed. When the morning was up, they had him to the top of the house, and bid him look south. So he did, and behold, at a great distance, he saw a most pleasant mountainous country, beautified with woods, vineyards, fruits of all sorts, flowers also, with springs and fountains, very delectable to behold. Isa. 33:16,17. Then he asked the name of the country. They said it was Immanuel's land; and it is as common, said they, as this hill is, to and for all the pilgrims. And when thou comest there, from thence thou mayest see to the gate of the celestial city, as the shepherds that live there will make appear. Now he bethought himself of setting forward, and they were willing he should. But first, said they, let us go again into the armory. So they did; and when he came there, they harnessed him from head to foot with what was of proof, lest perhaps he should meet with assaults in the way. He being therefore thus accoutred, walked out with his friends to the gate; and there he asked the Porter if he saw any pilgrim pass by. Then the Porter answered, Yes. CHR. Pray, did you know him? said he. PORT. I asked his name, and he told me it was Faithful. CHR. O, said Christian, I know him; he is my townsman, my near neighbor; he comes from the place where I was born. How far do you think he may be before? PORT. He is got by this time below the hill. CHR. Well, said Christian, good Porter, the Lord be with thee, and add to all thy plain blessings much increase for the kindness that thou hast showed me. THE FOURTH STAGE. Then he began to go forward; but Discretion, Piety, Charity, and Prudence would accompany him down to the foot of the hill. So they went on together, reiterating their former discourses, till they came to go down the hill. Then said Christian, As it was difficult coming up, so, so far as I can see, it is dangerous going down. Yes, said Prudence, so it is; for it is a hard matter for a man to go down into the valley of Humiliation, as thou art now, and to catch no slip by the way; therefore, said they, we are come out to accompany thee down the hill. So he began to go down, but very warily; yet he caught a slip or two. Then I saw in my dream, that these good companions, when Christian was got down to the bottom of the hill, gave him a loaf of bread, a bottle of wine, and a cluster of raisins; and then he went on his way, "Whilst Christian is among his godly friends, Their golden mouths make him sufficient mends For all his griefs; and when they let him go, He's clad with northern steel from top to toe." But now, in this valley of Humiliation, poor Christian was hard put to it; for he had gone but a little way before he espied a foul fiend coming over the field to meet him: his name is Apollyon. Then did Christian begin to be afraid, and to cast in his mind whether to go back, or to stand his ground. But he considered again, that he had no armor for his back, and therefore thought that to turn the back to him might give him greater advantage with ease to pierce him with his darts; therefore he resolved to venture and stand his ground: for, thought he, had I no more in mine eye than the saving of my life, it would be the best way to stand. So he went on, and Apollyon met him. Now the monster was hideous to behold: he was clothed with scales like a fish, and they are his pride; he had wings like a dragon, and feet like a bear, and out of his belly came fire and smoke; and his mouth was as the mouth of a lion. When he was come up to Christian, he beheld him with a disdainful countenance, and thus began to question him. APOL. Whence came you, and whither are you bound? CHR. I am come from the city of Destruction, which is the place of all evil, and I am going to the city of Zion. APOL. By this I perceive thou art one of my subjects; for all that country is mine, and I am the prince and god of it. How is it, then, that thou hast run away from thy king? Were it not that I hope thou mayest do me more service, I would strike thee now at one blow to the ground. CHR. I was, indeed, born in your dominions, but your service was hard, and your wages such as a man could not live on; for the wages of sin is death, Rom. 6:23; therefore, when I was come to years, I did, as other considerate persons do, look out if perhaps I might mend myself. APOL. There is no prince that will thus lightly lose his subjects, neither will I as yet lose thee; but since thou complainest of thy service and wages, be content to go back, and what our country will afford I do here promise to give thee. CHR. But I have let myself to another, even to the King of princes; and how can I with fairness go back with thee? APOL. Thou hast done in this according to the proverb, "changed a bad for a worse;" but it is ordinary for those that have professed themselves his servants, after a while to give him the slip, and return again to me. Do thou so to, and all shall be well. CHR. I have given him my faith, and sworn my allegiance to him; how then can I go back from this, and not be hanged as a traitor. APOL. Thou didst the same by me, and yet I am willing to pass by all, if now thou wilt yet turn again and go back. CHR. What I promised thee was in my non-age: and besides, I count that the Prince, under whose banner I now stand, is able to absolve me, yea, and to pardon also what I did as to my compliance with thee. And besides, O thou destroying Apollyon, to speak truth, I like his service, his wages, his servants, his government, his company, and country, better than thine; therefore leave off to persuade me farther: I am his servant, and I will follow him. APOL. Consider again, when thou art in cool blood, what thou art like to meet with in the way that thou goest. Thou knowest that for the most part his servants come to an ill end, because they are transgressors against me and my ways. How many of them have been put to shameful deaths! And besides, thou countest his service better than mine; whereas he never yet came from the place where he is, to deliver any that served him out of their enemies' hands: but as for me, how many times, as all the world very well knows, have I delivered, either by power or fraud, those that have faithfully served me, from him and his, though taken by them! And so will I deliver thee. CHR. His forbearing at present to deliver them, is on purpose to try their love, whether they will cleave to him to the end: and as for the ill end thou sayest they come to, that is most glorious in their account. For, for present deliverance, they do not much expect it; for they stay for their glory; and then they shall have it, when their Prince comes in his and the glory of the angels. APOL. Thou hast already been unfaithful in thy service to him; and how dost thou think to receive wages of him? CHR. Wherein, O Apollyon, have I been unfaithful to him? APOL. Thou didst faint at first setting out, when thou wast almost choked in the gulf of Despond. Thou didst attempt wrong ways to be rid of thy burden, whereas thou shouldst have stayed till thy Prince had taken it off. Thou didst sinfully sleep, and lose thy choice things. Thou wast almost persuaded also to go back at the sight of the lions. And when thou talkest of thy journey, and of what thou hast seen and heard, thou art inwardly desirous of vainglory in all that thou sayest or doest. CHR. All this is true, and much more which thou hast left out; but the Prince whom I serve and honor is merciful, and ready to forgive. But besides, these infirmities possessed me in thy country, for there I sucked them in, and I have groaned under them, been sorry for them, and have obtained pardon of my Prince. APOL. Then Apollyon broke out into a grievous rage, saying, I am an enemy to this Prince; I hate his person, his laws, and people: I am come out on purpose to withstand thee. CHR. Apollyon, beware what you do, for I am in the King's highway, the way of holiness; therefore take heed to yourself. APOL. Then Apollyon straddled quite over the whole breadth of the way, and said, I am void of fear in this matter. Prepare thyself to die; for I swear by my infernal den, that thou shalt go no farther: here will I spill thy soul. And with that he threw a flaming dart at his breast; but Christian had a shield in his hand, with which he caught it, and so prevented the danger of that. Then did Christian draw, for he saw it was time to bestir him; and Apollyon as fast made at him, throwing darts as thick as hail; by the which, notwithstanding all that Christian could do to avoid it, Apollyon wounded him in his head, his hand, and foot. This made Christian give a little back: Apollyon, therefore, followed his work amain, and Christian again took courage, and resisted as manfully as he could. This sore combat lasted for above half a day, even till Christian was almost quite spent: for you must know, that Christian, by reason of his wounds, must needs grow weaker and weaker. Then Apollyon, espying his opportunity, began to gather up close to Christian, and wrestling with him, gave him a dreadful fall; and with that Christian's sword flew out of his hand. Then said Apollyon, I am sure of thee now: and with that he had almost pressed him to death, so that Christian began to despair of life. But, as God would have it, while Apollyon was fetching his last blow, thereby to make a full end of this good man, Christian nimbly reached out his hand for his sword, and caught it, saying, Rejoice not against me, O mine enemy: when I fall, I shall arise, Mic. 7:8; and with that gave him a deadly thrust, which made him give back, as one that had received his mortal wound. Christian perceiving that, made at him again, saying, Nay, in all these things we are more than conquerors, through Him that loved us. Rom. 8:37. And with that Apollyon spread forth his dragon wings, and sped him away, that Christian saw him no more. James 4:7. In this combat no man can imagine, unless he had seen and heard, as I did, what yelling and hideous roaring Apollyon made all the time of the fight; he spake like a dragon: and on the other side, what sighs and groans burst from Christian's heart. I never saw him all the while give so much as one pleasant look, till he perceived he had wounded Apollyon with his two-edged sword; then, indeed, he did smile, and look upward! But it was the dreadfullest sight that ever I saw. So when the battle was over, Christian said, I will here give thanks to him that hath delivered me out of the mouth of the lion, to him that did help me against Apollyon. And so he did, saying, "Great Beelzebub, the captain of this fiend, Designed my ruin; therefore to this end He sent him harness'd out; and he, with rage That hellish was, did fiercely me engage: But blessed Michael helped me, and I, By dint of sword, did quickly make him fly: Therefore to Him let me give lasting praise, And thank and bless his holy name always." Then there came to him a hand with some of the leaves of the tree of life, the which Christian took and applied to the wounds that he had received in the battle, and was healed immediately. He also sat down in that place to eat bread, and to drink of the bottle that was given him a little before: so, being refreshed, he addressed himself to his journey with his sword drawn in his hand; for he said, I know not but some other enemy may be at hand. But he met with no other affront from Apollyon quite through this valley. Now at the end of this valley was another, called the Valley of the Shadow of Death; and Christian must needs go through it, because the way to the Celestial City lay through the midst of it. Now, this valley is a very solitary place. The prophet Jeremiah thus describes it: "A wilderness, a land of deserts and pits, a land of drought, and of the Shadow of Death, a land that no man" (but a Christian) "passeth through, and where no man dwelt." Jer. 2:6. Now here Christian was worse put to it than in his fight with Apollyon, as by the sequel you shall see. I saw then in my dream, that when Christian was got to the borders of the Shadow of Death, there met him two men, children of them that brought up an evil report of the good land Num.13:32, making haste to go back; to whom Christian spake as follows. CHR. Whither are you going? MEN. They said, Back, back; and we would have you do so too, if either life or peace is prized by you. CHR. Why, what's the matter? said Christian. MEN. Matter! said they; we were going that way as you are going, and went as far as we durst: and indeed we were almost past coming back; for had we gone a little further, we had not been here to bring the news to thee. CHR. But what have you met with? said Christian. MEN. Why, we were almost in the Valley of the Shadow of Death, but that by good hap we looked before us, and saw the danger before we came to it. Psa. 44:19; 107:19. CHR. But what have you seen? said Christian. MEN. Seen! why the valley itself, which is as dark as pitch: we also saw there the hobgoblins, satyrs, and dragons of the pit: we heard also in that valley a continual howling and yelling, as of a people under unutterable misery, who there sat bound in affliction and irons: and over that valley hang the discouraging clouds of confusion: Death also doth always spread his wings over it. In a word, it is every whit dreadful, being utterly without order. Job 3:5; 10:22. CHR. Then, said Christian, I perceive not yet, by what you have said, but that this is my way to the desired haven. Psalm 44:18,19; Jer. 2:6. MEN. Be it thy way; we will not choose it for ours. So they parted, and Christian went on his way, but still with his sword drawn in his hand, for fear lest he should be assaulted. I saw then in my dream, so far as this valley reached, there was on the right hand a very deep ditch; that ditch is it into which the blind have led the blind in all ages, and have both there miserably perished. Again, behold, on the left hand there was a very dangerous quag, into which, if even a good man falls, he finds no bottom for his foot to stand on: into that quag king David once did fall, and had no doubt therein been smothered, had not He that is able plucked him out. Psa. 69:14. The pathway was here also exceeding narrow, and therefore good Christian was the more put to it; for when he sought, in the dark, to shun the ditch on the one hand, he was ready to tip over into the mire on the other; also, when he sought to escape the mire, without great carefulness he would be ready to fall into the ditch. Thus he went on, and I heard him here sigh bitterly; for besides the danger mentioned above, the pathway was here so dark, that ofttimes when he lifted up his foot to go forward, he knew not where, or upon what he should set it next. About the midst of this valley I perceived the mouth of hell to be, and it stood also hard by the wayside. Now, thought Christian, what shall I do? And ever and anon the flame and smoke would come out in such abundance, with sparks and hideous noises, (things that cared not for Christian's sword, as did Apollyon before,) that he was forced to put up his sword, and betake himself to another weapon, called All-prayer, Eph. 6:18; so he cried, in my hearing, O Lord, I beseech thee, deliver my soul. Psa. 116:4. Thus he went on a great while, yet still the flames would be reaching towards him; also he heard doleful voices, and rushings to and fro, so that sometimes he thought he should be torn in pieces, or trodden down like mire in the streets. This frightful sight was seen, and these dreadful noises were heard by him for several miles together; and coming to a place where he thought he heard a company of fiends coming forward to meet him, he stopped, and began to muse what he had best to do. Sometimes he had half a thought to go back; then again he thought he might be half-way through the valley. He remembered also, how he had already vanquished many a danger; and that the danger of going back might be much more than for to go forward. So he resolved to go on; yet the fiends seemed to come nearer and nearer. But when they were come even almost at him, he cried out with a most vehement voice, I will walk in the strength of the Lord God. So they gave back, and came no farther. One thing I would not let slip. I took notice that now poor Christian was so confounded that he did not know his own voice; and thus I perceived it. Just when he was come over against the mouth of the burning pit, one of the wicked ones got behind him, and stepped up softly to him, and whisperingly suggested many grievous blasphemies to him, which he verily thought had proceeded from his own mind. This put Christian more to it than any thing that he met with before, even to think that he should now blaspheme Him that he loved so much before. Yet if he could have helped it, he would not have done it; but he had not the discretion either to stop his ears, or to know from whence these blasphemies came. When Christian had travelled in this disconsolate condition some considerable time, he thought he heard the voice of a man, as going before him, saying, Though I walk through the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I will fear no evil, for thou art with me. Psa. 23:4. Then was he glad, and that for these reasons: First, Because he gathered from thence, that some who feared God were in this valley as well as himself. Secondly, For that he perceived God was with them, though in that dark and dismal state. And why not, thought he, with me? though by reason of the impediment that attends this place, I cannot perceive it. Job 9:11. Thirdly, For that he hoped (could he overtake them) to have company by and by. So he went on, and called to him that was before; but he knew not what to answer, for that he also thought himself to be alone. And by and by the day broke: then said Christian, "He hath turned the shadow of death into the morning." Amos 5:8. Now morning being come, he looked back, not out of desire to return, but to see, by the light of the day, what hazards he had gone through in the dark. So he saw more perfectly the ditch that was on the one hand, and the quag that was on the other; also how narrow the way was which led betwixt them both. Also now he saw the hobgoblins, and satyrs, and dragons of the pit, but all afar off; for after break of day they came not nigh; yet they were discovered to him, according to that which is written, "He discovereth deep things out of darkness, and bringeth out to light the shadow of death." Job 12:22. Now was Christian much affected with this deliverance from all the dangers of his solitary way; which dangers, though he feared them much before, yet he saw them more clearly now, because the light of the day made them conspicuous to him. And about this time the sun was rising, and this was another mercy to Christian; for you must note, that though the first part of the Valley of the Shadow of Death was dangerous, yet this second part, which he was yet to go, was, if possible, far more dangerous; for, from the place where he now stood, even to the end of the valley, the way was all along set so full of snares, traps, gins, and nets here, and so full of pits, pitfalls, deep holes, and shelvings- down there, that had it now been dark, as it was when he came the first part of the way, had he had a thousand souls, they had in reason been cast away; but, as I said, just now the sun was rising. Then said he, "His Candle shineth on my head, and by his light I go through darkness." Job 29:3. In this light, therefore, he came to the end of the valley. Now I saw in my dream, that at the end of the valley lay blood, bones, ashes, and mangled bodies of men, even of pilgrims that had gone this way formerly; and while I was musing what should be the reason, I espied a little before me a cave, where two giants, Pope and Pagan, dwelt in old times; by whose power and tyranny the men whose bones, blood, ashes, etc., lay there, were cruelly put to death. But by this place Christian went without much danger, whereat I somewhat wondered; but I have learnt since, that Pagan has been dead many a day; and as for the other, though he be yet alive, he is, by reason of age, and also of the many shrewd brushes that he met with in his younger days, grown so crazy and stiff in his joints that he can now do little more than sit in his cave's mouth, grinning at pilgrims as they go by, and biting his nails because he cannot come at them. So I saw that Christian went on his way; yet, at the sight of the old man that sat at the mouth of the cave, he could not tell what to think, especially because he spoke to him, though he could not go after him, saying, You will never mend, till more of you be burned. But he held his peace, and set a good face on it; and so went by, and catched no hurt. Then sang Christian, "O world of wonders, (I can say no less,) That I should be preserved in that distress That I have met with here! O blessed be That hand that from it hath delivered me! Dangers in darkness, devils, hell, and sin, Did compass me, while I this vale was in; Yea, snares, and pits, and traps, and nets did lie My path about, that worthless, silly I Might have been catch'd, entangled, and cast down; But since I live, let Jesus wear the crown." THE FIFTH STAGE. Now, as Christian went on his way, he came to a little ascent, which was cast up on purpose that pilgrims might see before them: up there, therefore, Christian went; and looking forward, he saw Faithful before him upon his journey: Then said Christian aloud, Ho, ho; so-ho; stay, and I will be your companion. At that Faithful looked behind him; to whom Christian cried again, Stay, stay, till I come up to you. But Faithful answered, No, I am upon my life, and the avenger of blood is behind me. At this Christian was somewhat moved, and putting to all his strength, he quickly got up with Faithful, and did also overrun him; so the last was first. Then did Christian vaingloriously smile, because he had gotten the start of his brother; but not taking good heed to his feet, he suddenly stumbled and fell, and could not rise again until Faithful came up to help him. Then I saw in my dream, they went very lovingly on together, and had sweet discourse of all things that had happened to them in their pilgrimage; and thus Christian began. CHR. My honored and well-beloved brother Faithful, I am glad that I have overtaken you, and that God has so tempered our spirits that we can walk as companions in this so pleasant a path. FAITH. I had thought, my dear friend, to have had your company quite from our town, but you did get the start of me; wherefore I was forced to come thus much of the way alone. CHR. How long did you stay in the city of Destruction before you set out after me on your pilgrimage? FAITH. Till I could stay no longer; for there was a great talk presently after you were gone out, that our city would, in a short time, with fire from heaven, be burnt down to the ground. CHR. What, did your neighbors talk so? FAITH. Yes, it was for a while in every body's mouth. CHR. What, and did no more of them but you come out to escape the danger? FAITH. Though there was, as I said, a great talk thereabout, yet I do not think they did firmly believe it; for, in the heat of the discourse, I heard some of them deridingly speak of you and of your desperate journey, for so they called this your pilgrimage. But I did believe, and do still, that the end of our city will be with fire and brimstone from above; and therefore I have made my escape. CHR. Did you hear no talk of neighbor Pliable? FAITH. Yes, Christian, I heard that he followed you till he came to the Slough of Despond, where, as some said, he fell in; but he would not be known to have so done: but I am sure he was soundly bedabbled with that kind of dirt. CHR. And what said the neighbors to him? FAITH. He hath, since his going back, been had greatly in derision, and that among all sorts of people: some do mock and despise him, and scarce will any set him on work. He is now seven times worse than if he had never gone out of the city. CHR. But why should they be so set against him, since they also despise the way that he forsook? FAITH. O, they say, Hang him; he is a turncoat; he was not true to his profession! I think God has stirred up even His enemies to hiss at him, and make him a proverb, because he hath forsaken the way. Jer. 29:18,19. CHR. Had you no talk with him before you came out? FAITH. I met him once in the streets, but he leered away on the other side, as one ashamed of what he had done; So I spake not to him. CHR. Well, at my first setting out I had hopes of that man; but now I fear he will perish in the overthrow of the city. For it has happened to him according to the true proverb, The dog is turned to his vomit again, and the sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire. 2 Pet. 2:22. FAITH. These are my fears of him too; but who can hinder that which will be? CHR. Well, neighbor Faithful, said Christian, let us leave him, and talk of things that more immediately concern ourselves. Tell me now what you have met with in the way as you came; for I know you have met with some things, or else it may be writ for a wonder. FAITH. I escaped the slough that I perceive you fell into, and got up to the gate without that danger; only I met with one whose name was Wanton, that had like to have done me mischief. CHR. It was well you escaped her net: Joseph was hard put to it by her, and he escaped her as you did; but it had like to have cost him his life. Gen. 39:11-13. But what did she do to you? FAITH. You cannot think (but that you know something) what a flattering tongue she had; she lay at me hard to turn aside with her, promising me all manner of content. CHR. Nay, she did not promise you the content of a good conscience. FAITH. You know what I mean; all carnal and fleshly content. CHR. Thank God that you escaped her: the abhorred of the Lord shall fall into her pit. Prov. 22:14. FAITH. Nay, I know not whether I did wholly escape her or no. CHR. Why, I trow you did not consent to her desires? FAITH. No, not to defile myself; for I remembered an old writing that I had seen, which said, "Her steps take hold on Hell." Prov. 5:5. So I shut mine eyes, because I would not be bewitched with her looks. Job 31:1. Then she railed on me, and I went my way. CHR. Did you meet with no other assault as you came? FAITH. When I came to the foot of the hill called Difficulty, I met with a very aged man, who asked me what I was, and whither bound. I told him that I was a pilgrim, going to the Celestial City. Then said the old man, Thou lookest like an honest fellow; wilt thou be content to dwell with me for the wages that I shall give thee? Then I asked his name, and where he dwelt? He said his name was Adam the First, and that he dwelt in the town of Deceit. Eph. 4:22. I asked him then what was his work, and what the wages that he would give. He told me that his work was many delights; and his wages, that I should be his heir at last. I further asked him, what house he kept, and what other servants he had. So he told me that his house was maintained with all the dainties of the world, and that his servants were those of his own begetting. Then I asked how many children he had. He said that he had but three daughters, the Lust of the Flesh, the Lust of the Eyes, and the Pride of Life, 1 John, 2:16; and that I should marry them if I would. Then I asked, how long time he would have me live with him; And he told me, as long as he lived himself. CHR. Well, and what conclusion came the old man and you to at last? FAITH. Why, at first I found myself somewhat inclinable to go with the man, for I thought he spake very fair; but looking in his forehead, as I talked with him, I saw there written, "Put off the old man with his deeds." CHR. And how then? FAITH. Then it came burning hot into my mind, that, whatever he said, and however he flattered, when he got me home to his house he would sell me for a slave. So I bid him forbear to talk, for I would not come near the door of his house. Then he reviled me, and told me that he would send such a one after me that should make my way bitter to my soul. So I turned to go away from him; but just as I turned myself to go thence, I felt him take hold of my flesh, and give me such a deadly twitch back, that I thought he had pulled part of me after himself: this made me cry, "O wretched man." Rom. 7:24. So I went on my way up the hill. Now, when I had got above half-way up, I looked behind me, and saw one coming after me, swift as the wind; so he overtook me just about the place where the settle stands. CHR. Just there, said Christian, did I sit down to rest me; but being overcome with sleep, I there lost this roll out of my bosom. FAITH. But, good brother, hear me out. So soon as the man overtook me, it was but a word and a blow; for down he knocked me, and laid me for dead. But when I was a little come to myself again I asked him wherefore he served me so. He said because of my secret inclining to Adam the First. And with that he struck me another deadly blow on the breast, and beat me down backward; so I lay at his foot as dead as before. So when I came to myself again I cried him mercy: but he said, I know not how to show mercy; and with that he knocked me down again. He had doubtless made an end of me, but that one came by and bid him forbear. CHR. Who was that that bid him forbear? FAITH. I did not know him at first: but as he went by, I perceived the holes in his hands and in his side: Then I concluded that he was our Lord. So I went up the hill. CHR. That man that overtook you was Moses. He spareth none; neither knoweth he how to shew mercy to those that transgress the law. FAITH. I know it very well; it was not the first time that he has met with me. 'Twas he that came to me when I dwelt securely at home, and that told me he would burn my house over my head if I stayed there. CHR. But did you not see the house that stood there on the top of the hill, on the side of which Moses met you? FAITH. Yes, and the lions too, before I came at it. But, for the lions, I think they were asleep, for it was about noon; and because I had so much of the day before me, I passed by the Porter, and came down the hill. CHR. He told me, indeed, that he saw you go by; but I wish you had called at the house, for they would have showed you so many rarities that you would scarce have forgot them to the day of your death. But pray tell me, Did you meet nobody in the Valley of Humility? FAITH. Yes, I met with one Discontent, who would willingly have persuaded me to go back again with him: his reason was, for that the valley was altogether without honor. He told me, moreover, that to go there was the way to disoblige all my friends, as Pride, Arrogancy, Self -Conceit, Worldly Glory, with others, who he knew, as he said, would be very much offended if I made such a fool of myself as to wade through this valley. CHR. Well, and how did you answer him? FAITH. I told him, that although all these that he named, might claim a kindred of me, and that rightly, (for indeed they were my relations according to the flesh,) yet since I became a pilgrim they have disowned me, and I also have rejected them; and therefore they were to me now no more than if they had never been of my lineage. I told him, moreover, that as to this valley, he had quite misrepresented the thing; for before honor is humility, and a haughty spirit before a fall. Therefore, said I, I had rather go through this valley to the honor that was so accounted by the wisest, than choose that which he esteemed most worthy of our affections. CHR. Met you with nothing else in that valley? FAITH. Yes, I met with Shame; but of all the men that I met with on my pilgrimage, he, I think, bears the wrong name. The other would be said nay, after a little argumentation, and somewhat else; but this bold- faced Shame would never have done. CHR. Why, what did he say to you? FAITH. What? why, he objected against religion itself. He said it was a pitiful, low, sneaking business for a man to mind religion. He said, that a tender conscience was an unmanly thing; and that for a man to watch over his words and ways, so as to tie up himself from that hectoring liberty that the brave spirits of the times accustomed themselves unto, would make him the ridicule of the times. He objected also, that but few of the mighty, rich, or wise, were ever of my opinion; nor any of them neither, before they were persuaded to be fools, and to be of a voluntary fondness to venture the loss of all for nobody knows what. 1 Cor. 1:26; 3:18; Phil. 3:7-9; John 7:48. He, moreover, objected the base and low estate and condition of those that were chiefly the pilgrims of the times in which they lived; also their ignorance and want of understanding in all natural science. Yea, he did hold me to it at that rate also, about a great many more things than here I relate; as, that it was a shame to sit whining and mourning under a sermon, and a shame to come sighing and groaning home; that it was a shame to ask my neighbor forgiveness for petty faults, or to make restitution where I have taken from any. He said also, that religion made a man grow strange to the great, because of a few vices, which he called by finer names, and made him own and respect the base, because of the same religious fraternity: And is not this, said he, a shame? CHR. And what did you say to him? FAITH. Say? I could not tell what to say at first. Yea, he put me so to it, that my blood came up in my face; even this Shame fetched it up, and had almost beat me quite off. But at last I began to consider, that that which is highly esteemed among men, is had in abomination with God. Luke 16:15. And I thought again, this Shame tells me what men are; but he tells me nothing what God, or the word of God is. And I thought, moreover, that at the day of doom we shall not be doomed to death or life according to the hectoring spirits of the world, but according to the wisdom and law of the Highest. Therefore, thought I, what God says is best, is indeed best, though all the men in the world are against it. Seeing, then, that God prefers his religion; seeing God prefers a tender Conscience; seeing they that make themselves fools for the kingdom of heaven are wisest, and that the poor man that loveth Christ is richer than the greatest man in the world that hates him; Shame, depart, thou art an enemy to my salvation. Shall I entertain thee against my sovereign Lord? How then shall I look him in the face at his coming? Mark 8:38. Should I now be ashamed of his ways and servants, how can I expect the blessing? But indeed this Shame was a bold villain; I could scarcely shake him out of my company; yea, he would be haunting of me, and continually whispering me in the ear, with some one or other of the infirmities that attend religion. But at last I told him, that it was but in vain to attempt farther in this business; for those things that he disdained, in those did I see most glory: and so at last I got past this importunate one. And when I had shaken him off, then I began to sing, "The trials that those men do meet withal, That are obedient to the heavenly call, Are manifold, and suited to the flesh, And come, and come, and come again afresh; That now, or some time else, we by them may Be taken, overcome, and cast away. O let the pilgrims, let the pilgrims then, Be vigilant, and quit themselves like men." CHR. I am glad, my brother, that thou didst withstand this villain so bravely; for of all, as thou sayest, I think he has the wrong name; for he is so bold as to follow us in the streets, and to attempt to put us to shame before all men; that is, to make us ashamed of that which is good. But if he was not himself audacious, he would never attempt to do as he does. But let us still resist him; for, notwithstanding all his bravadoes, he promoteth the fool, and none else. "The wise shall inherit glory," said Solomon; "but shame shall be the promotion of fools." Prov. 3:35. FAITH. I think we must cry to Him for help against Shame, that would have us to be valiant for truth upon the earth. CHR. You say true; but did you meet nobody else in that valley? FAITH. No, not I; for I had sunshine all the rest of the way through that, and also through the Valley of the Shadow of Death. CHR. 'Twas well for you; I am sure it fared far otherwise with me. I had for a long season, as soon almost as I entered into that valley, a dreadful combat with that foul fiend Apollyon; yea, I thought verily he would have killed me, especially when he got me down, and crushed me under him, as if he would have crushed me to pieces; for as he threw me, my sword flew out of my hand: nay, he told me he was sure of me; but I cried to God, and he heard me, and delivered me out of all my troubles. Then I entered into the Valley of the Shadow of Death, and had no light for almost half the way through it. I thought I should have been killed there over and over; but at last day brake, and the sun rose, and I went through that which was behind with far more ease and quiet. Moreover, I saw in my dream, that as they went on, Faithful, as he chanced to look on one side, saw a man whose name was Talkative, walking at a distance beside them; for in this place there was room enough for them all to walk. He was a tall man, and something more comely at a distance than at hand. To this man Faithful addressed himself in this manner. FAITH. Friend, whither away? Are you going to the heavenly country? TALK. I am going to the same place. FAITH. That is well; then I hope we shall have your good company? TALK. With a very good will, will I be your companion. FAITH. Come on, then, and let us go together, and let us spend our time in discoursing of things that are profitable. TALK. To talk of things that are good, to me is very acceptable, with you or with any other; and I am glad that I have met with those that incline to so good a work; for, to speak the truth, there are but few who care thus to spend their time as they are in their travels, but choose much rather to be speaking of things to no profit; and this hath been a trouble to me. FAITH. That is, indeed, a thing to be lamented; for what thing so worthy of the use of the tongue and mouth of men on earth, as are the things of the God of heaven? TALK. I like you wonderful well, for your saying is full of conviction; and I will add, What thing is so pleasant, and what so profitable, as to talk of the things of God? What things so pleasant? that is, if a man hath any delight in things that are wonderful. For instance, if a man doth delight to talk of the history, or the mystery of things; or if a man doth love to talk of miracles, wonders, or signs, where shall he find things recorded so delightful, and so sweetly penned, as in the holy Scripture? FAITH. That is true; but to be profited by such things in our talk, should be our chief design. TALK. That's it that I said; for to talk of such things is most profitable; for by so doing a man may get knowledge of many things; as of the vanity of earthly things, and the benefit of things above. Thus in general; but more particularly, by this a man may learn the necessity of the new birth, the insufficiency of our works, the need of Christ's righteousness, etc. Besides, by this a man may learn what it is to repent, to believe, to pray, to suffer, or the like: by this, also, a man may learn what are the great promises and consolations of the Gospel, to his own comfort. Farther, by this a man may learn to refute false opinions, to vindicate the truth, and also to instruct the ignorant. FAITH. All this is true; and glad am I to hear these things from you. TALK. Alas! the want of this is the cause that so few understand the need of faith, and the necessity of a work of grace in their soul, in order to eternal life; but ignorantly live in the works of the law, by which a man can by no means obtain the kingdom of heaven. FAITH. But, by your leave, heavenly knowledge of these is the gift of God; no man attaineth to them by human industry, or only by the talk of them. TALK. All this I know very well; for a man can receive nothing, except it be given him from heaven: all is of grace, not of works. I could give you a hundred scriptures for the confirmation of this. FAITH. Well, then, said Faithful, what is that one thing that we shall at this time found our discourse upon? TALK. What you will. I will talk of things heavenly, or things earthly; things moral, or things evangelical; things sacred, or things profane; things past, or things to come; things foreign, or things at home; things more essential, or things circumstantial: provided that all be done to our profit. FAITH. Now did Faithful begin to wonder; and stepping to Christian, (for he walked all this while by himself,) he said to him, but softly, What a brave companion have we got! Surely, this man will make a very excellent pilgrim. CHR. At this Christian modestly smiled, and said, This man, with whom you are so taken, will beguile with this tongue of his, twenty of them that know him not. FAITH. Do you know him, then? CHR. Know him? Yes, better than he knows himself. FAITH. Pray what is he? CHR. His name is Talkative: he dwelleth in our town. I wonder that you should be a stranger to him, only I consider that our town is large. FAITH. Whose son is he? And whereabout doth he dwell? CHR. He is the son of one Say-well. He dwelt in Prating-Row; and he is known to all that are acquainted with him by the name of Talkative of Prating-Row; and, notwithstanding his fine tongue, he is but a sorry fellow. FAITH. Well, he seems to be a very pretty man. CHR. That is, to them that have not a thorough acquaintance with him, for he is best abroad; near home he is ugly enough. Your saying that he is a pretty man, brings to my mind what I have observed in the work of a painter, whose pictures show best at a distance; but very near, more unpleasing. FAITH. But I am ready to think you do but jest, because you smiled. CHR. God forbid that I should jest (though I smiled) in this matter, or that I should accuse any falsely. I will give you a further discovery of him. This man is for any company, and for any talk; as he talketh now with you, so will he talk when he is on the ale-bench; and the more drink he hath in his crown, the more of these things he hath in his mouth. Religion hath no place in his heart, or house, or conversation; all he hath lieth in his tongue, and his religion is to make a noise therewith. FAITH. Say you so? Then am I in this man greatly deceived. CHR. Deceived! you may be sure of it. Remember the proverb, "They say, and do not;" but the kingdom of God is not in word, but in power. Matt. 23:3; 1 Cor. 4:20. He talketh of prayer, of repentance, of faith, and of the new birth; but he knows but only to talk of them. I have been in his family, and have observed him both at home and abroad; and I know what I say of him is the truth. His house is as empty of religion as the white of an egg is of savor. There is there neither prayer, nor sign of repentance for sin; yea, the brute, in his kind, serves God far better than he. He is the very stain, reproach, and shame of religion to all that know him, Rom. 2:24,25; it can hardly have a good word in all that end of the town where he dwells, through him. Thus say the common people that know him, "A saint abroad, and a devil at home." His poor family finds it so; he is such a churl, such a railer at, and so unreasonable with his servants, that they neither know how to do for or speak to him. Men that have any dealings with him say, It is better to deal with a Turk than with him, for fairer dealings they shall have at their hands. This Talkative (if it be possible) will go beyond them, defraud, beguile, and overreach them. Besides, he brings up his sons to follow his steps; and if he finds in any of them a foolish timorousness, (for so he calls the first appearance of a tender conscience,) he calls them fools and blockheads, and by no means will employ them in much, or speak to their commendation before others. For my part, I am of opinion that he has, by his wicked life, caused many to stumble and fall; and will be, if God prevents not, the ruin of many more. FAITH. Well, my brother, I am bound to believe you, not only because you say you know him, but also because, like a Christian, you make your reports of men. For I cannot think that you speak these things of ill- will, but because it is even so as you say. CHR. Had I known him no more than you, I might, perhaps, have thought of him as at the first you did; yea, had I received this report at their hands only that are enemies to religion, I should have thought it had been a slander-a lot that often falls from bad men's mouths upon good men's names and professions. But all these things, yea, and a great many more as bad, of my own knowledge, I can prove him guilty of. Besides, good men are ashamed of him; they can neither call him brother nor friend; the very naming of him among them makes them blush, if they know him. FAITH. Well, I see that saying and doing are two things, and hereafter I shall better observe this distinction. CHR. They are two things indeed, and are as diverse as are the soul and the body; for, as the body without the soul is but a dead carcass, so saying, if it be alone, is but a dead carcass also. The soul of religion is the practical part. "Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father is this, to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep himself unspotted from the world." James 1:27; see also verses 22-26. This, Talkative is not aware of; he thinks that hearing and saying will make a good Christian; and thus he deceiveth his own soul. Hearing is but as the sowing of the seed; talking is not sufficient to prove that fruit is indeed in the heart and life. And let us assure ourselves, that at the day of doom men shall be judged according to their fruits. Matt. 13:23. It will not be said then, Did you believe? but, Were you doers, or talkers only? and accordingly shall they be judged. The end of the world is compared to our harvest, Matt. 13:30, and you know men at harvest regard nothing but fruit. Not that any thing can be accepted that is not of faith; but I speak this to show you how insignificant the profession of Talkative will be at that day. FAITH. This brings to my mind that of Moses, by which he describeth the beast that is clean. Lev. 11; Deut. 14. He is such an one that parteth the hoof, and cheweth the cud; not that parteth the hoof only, or that cheweth the cud only. The hare cheweth the cud, but yet is unclean, because he parteth not the hoof. And this truly resembleth Talkative: he cheweth the cud, he seeketh knowledge; he cheweth upon the word, but he divideth not the hoof. He parteth not with the way of sinners; but, as the hare, he retaineth the foot of the dog or bear, and therefore he is unclean. CHR. You have spoken, for aught I know, the true gospel sense of these texts. And I will add another thing: Paul calleth some men, yea, and those great talkers too, sounding brass, and tinkling cymbals, 1 Cor. 13:1, 3; that is, as he expounds them in another place, things without life giving sound. 1 Cor. 14:7. Things without life; that is, without the true faith and grace of the gospel; and consequently, things that shall never be placed in the kingdom of heaven among those that are the children of life; though their sound, by their talk, be as if it were the tongue or voice of an angel. FAITH. Well, I was not so fond of his company at first, but I am as sick of it now. What shall we do to be rid of him? CHR. Take my advice, and do as I bid you, and you shall find that he will soon be sick of your company too, except God shall touch his heart, and turn it. FAITH. What would you have me to do? CHR. Why, go to him, and enter into some serious discourse about the power of religion; and ask him plainly, (when he has approved of it, for that he will,) whether this thing be set up in his heart, house, or conversation. FAITH. Then Faithful stepped forward again, and said to Talkative, Come, what cheer? How is it now? TALK. Thank you, well: I thought we should have had a great deal of talk by this time. FAITH. Well, if you will, we will fall to it now; and since you left it with me to state the question, let it be this: How doth the saving grace of God discover itself when it is in the heart of man? TALK. I perceive, then, that our talk must be about the power of things. Well, it is a very good question, and I shall be willing to answer you. And take my answer in brief, thus: First, where the grace of God is in the heart, it causeth there a great outcry against sin. Secondly- FAITH. Nay, hold; let us consider of one at once. I think you should rather say, it shows itself by inclining the soul to abhor its sin. TALK. Why, what difference is there between crying out against, and abhorring of sin? FAITH. Oh! a great deal. A man may cry out against sin, of policy; but he cannot abhor it but by virtue of a godly antipathy against it. I have heard many cry out against sin in the pulpit, who yet can abide it well enough in the heart, house, and conversation. Gen. 39:15. Joseph's mistress cried out with a loud voice, as if she had been very holy; but she would willingly, notwithstanding that, have committed uncleanness with him. Some cry out against sin, even as the mother cries out against her child in her lap, when she calleth it slut and naughty girl, and then falls to hugging and kissing it. TALK. You lie at the catch, I perceive. FAITH. No, not I; I am only for setting things right. But what is the second thing whereby you would prove a discovery of a work of grace in the heart? TALK. Great knowledge of gospel mysteries. FAITH. This sign should have been first: but, first or last, it is also false; for knowledge, great knowledge, may be obtained in the mysteries of the Gospel, and yet no work of grace in the soul. Yea, if a man have all knowledge, he may yet be nothing, and so, consequently, be no child of God. 1 Cor. 13:2. When Christ said, "Do you know all these things?" and the disciples answered, Yes, he added, "Blessed are ye if ye do them." He doth not lay the blessing in the knowing of them, but in the doing of them. For there is a knowledge that is not attended with doing: "He that knoweth his Master's will, and doeth it not." A man may know like an angel, and yet be no Christian: therefore your sign of it is not true. Indeed, to know is a thing that pleaseth talkers and boasters; but to do is that which pleaseth God. Not that the heart can be good without knowledge, for without that the heart is naught. There are, therefore, two sorts of knowledge, knowledge that resteth in the bare speculation of things, and knowledge that is accompanied with the grace of faith and love, which puts a man upon doing even the will of God from the heart: the first of these will serve the talker; but without the other, the true Christian is not content. "Give me understanding, and I shall keep thy law; yea, I shall observe it with my whole heart." Psa. 119:34. TALK. You lie at the catch again: this is not for edification. FAITH. Well, if you please, propound another sign how this work of grace discovereth itself where it is. TALK. Not I, for I see we shall not agree. FAITH. Well, if you will not, will you give me leave to do it? TALK. You may use your liberty. FAITH. A work of grace in the soul discovereth itself, either to him that hath it, or to standers-by. To him that hath it, thus: It gives him conviction of sin, especially the defilement of his nature, and the sin of unbelief, for the sake of which he is sure to be damned, if he findeth not mercy at God's hand, by faith in Jesus Christ. This sight and sense of things worketh in him sorrow and shame for sin. Psa. 38:18; Jer. 31:19; John 16:8; Rom. 7:24; Mark 16:16; Gal. 2:16; Rev. 1:6. He findeth, moreover, revealed in him the Saviour of the world, and the absolute necessity of closing with him for life; at the which he findeth hungerings and thirstings after him; to which hungerings, etc., the promise is made. Now, according to the strength or weakness of his faith in his Saviour, so is his joy and peace, so is his love to holiness, so are his desires to know him more, and also to serve him in this world. But though, I say, it discovereth itself thus unto him, yet it is but seldom that he is able to conclude that this is a work of grace; because his corruptions now, and his abused reason, make his mind to misjudge in this matter: therefore in him that hath this work there is required a very sound judgment, before he can with steadiness conclude that this is a work of grace. John 16:9; Gal. 2:15,16; Acts 4:12; Matt. 5:6; Rev. 21:6. To others it is thus discovered: 1. By an experimental confession of his faith in Christ. 2. By a life answerable to that confession; to wit, a life of holiness-heart- holiness, family-holiness, (if he hath a family,) and by conversation- holiness in the world; which in the general teacheth him inwardly to abhor his sin, and himself for that, in secret; to suppress it in his family, and to promote holiness in the world: not by talk only, as a hypocrite or talkative person may do, but by a practical subjection in faith and love to the power of the word. Job 42:5,6; Psa. 50:23; Ezek. 20:43; Matt. 5:8; John 14:15; Rom. 10:10; Ezek. 36:25; Phil. 1:27; 3:17-20. And now, sir, as to this brief description of the work of grace, and also the discovery of it, if you have aught to object, object; if not, then give me leave to propound to you a second question. TALK. Nay, my part is not now to object, but to hear; let me, therefore, have your second question. FAITH. It is this: Do you experience this first part of the description of it; and doth your life and conversation testify the same? Or standeth your religion in word or tongue, and not in deed and truth? Pray, if you incline to answer me in this, say no more than you know the God above will say Amen to, and also nothing but what your conscience can justify you in; for not he that commendeth himself is approved, but whom the Lord commendeth. Besides, to say I am thus and thus, when my conversation, and all my neighbors, tell me I lie, is great wickedness. Then Talkative at first began to blush; but, recovering himself, thus he replied: You come now to experience, to conscience, and to God; and to appeal to him for justification of what is spoken. This kind of discourse I did not expect; nor am I disposed to give an answer to such questions, because I count not myself bound thereto, unless you take upon you to be a catechiser; and though you should so do, yet I may refuse to make you my judge. But I pray, will you tell me why you ask me such questions? FAITH. Because I saw you forward to talk, and because I knew not that you had aught else but notion. Besides, to tell you all the truth, I have heard of you that you are a man whose religion lies in talk, and that your conversation gives this your mouth-profession the lie. They say you are a spot among Christians, and that religion fareth the worse for your ungodly conversation; that some have already stumbled at your wicked ways, and that more are in danger of being destroyed thereby: your religion, and an ale-house, and covetousness, and uncleanness, and swearing, and lying, and vain company-keeping, etc., will stand together. The proverb is true of you which is said of a harlot, to wit, "That she is a shame to all women:" so are you a shame to all professors. TALK. Since you are so ready to take up reports, and to judge so rashly as you do, I cannot but conclude you are some peevish or melancholy man, not fit to be discoursed with; and so adieu. Then up came Christian, and said to his brother, I told you how it would happen; your words and his lusts could not agree. He had rather leave your company than reform his life. But he is gone, as I said: let him go; the loss is no man's but his own. He has saved us the trouble of going from him; for he continuing (as I suppose he will do) as he is, would have been but a blot in our company: besides, the apostle says, "From such withdraw thyself." FAITH. But I am glad we had this little discourse with him; it may happen that he will think of it again: however, I have dealt plainly with him, and so am clear of his blood if he perisheth. CHR. You did well to talk so plainly to him as you did. There is but little of this faithful dealing with men now-a-days, and that makes religion to stink so in the nostrils of many as it doth; for they are these talkative fools, whose religion is only in word, and who are debauched and vain in their conversation, that (being so much admitted into the fellowship of the godly) do puzzle the world, blemish Christianity, and grieve the sincere. I wish that all men would deal with such as you have done; then should they either be made more conformable to religion, or the company of saints would be too hot for them. Then did Faithful say, "How Talkative at first lifts up his plumes! How bravely doth he speak! How he presumes To drive down all before him! But so soon As Faithful talks of heart-work, like the moon That's past the full, into the wane he goes; And so will all but he that heart-work know." Thus they went on, talking of what they had seen by the way, and so made that way easy, which would otherwise no doubt have been tedious to them, for now they went through a wilderness. THE SIXTH STAGE. Now when they were got almost quite out of this wilderness, Faithful chanced to cast his eye back, and espied one coming after them, and he knew him. Oh! said Faithful to his brother, who comes yonder? Then Christian looked, and said, It is my good friend Evangelist. Aye, and my good friend too, said Faithful, for 'twas he that set me on the way to the gate. Now was Evangelist come up unto them, and thus saluted them. EVAN. Peace be with you, dearly beloved, and peace be to your helpers. CHR. Welcome, welcome, my good Evangelist: the sight of thy countenance brings to my remembrance thy ancient kindness and unwearied labors for my eternal good. FAITH. And a thousand times welcome, said good Faithful, thy company, O sweet Evangelist; how desirable is it to us poor pilgrims! EVAN. Then said Evangelist, How hath it fared with you, my friends, since the time of our last parting? What have you met with, and how have you behaved yourselves? Then Christian and Faithful told him of all things that had happened to them in the way; and how, and with what difficulty, they had arrived to that place. Right glad am I, said Evangelist, not that you have met with trials, but that you have been victors, and for that you have, notwithstanding many weaknesses, continued in the way to this very day. I say, right glad am I of this thing, and that for mine own sake and yours: I have sowed, and you have reaped; and the day is coming, when "both he that soweth, and they that reap, shall rejoice together," John 4:36; that is, if you hold out: "for in due season ye shall reap, if ye faint not." Gal. 6:9. The crown is before you, and it is an incorruptible one; "so run that ye may obtain it." 1 Cor. 9:24-27. Some there be that set out for this crown, and after they have gone far for it, another comes in and takes it from them: "hold fast, therefore, that you have; let no man take your crown." Rev. 3:11. You are not yet out of the gunshot of the devil; "you have not resisted unto blood, striving against sin." Let the kingdom be always before you, and believe steadfastly concerning the things that are invisible. Let nothing that is on this side the other world get within you. And, above all, look well to your own hearts and to the lusts thereof; for they are "deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked." Set your faces like a flint; you have all power in heaven and earth on your side. CHR. Then Christian thanked him for his exhortations; but told him withal, that they would have him speak farther to them for their help the rest of the way; and the rather, for that they well knew that he was a prophet, and could tell them of things that might happen unto them, and also how they might resist and overcome them. To which request Faithful also consented. So Evangelist began as followeth. EVAN. My sons, you have heard in the word of the truth of the Gospel, that you must "through many tribulations enter into the kingdom of heaven;" and again, that "in every city, bonds and afflictions abide you;" and therefore you cannot expect that you should go long on your pilgrimage without them, in some sort or other. You have found something of the truth of these testimonies upon you already, and more will immediately follow: for now, as you see, you are almost out of this wilderness, and therefore you will soon come into a town that you will by and by see before you; and in that town you will be hardly beset with enemies, who will strain hard but they will kill you; and be you sure that one or both of you must seal the testimony which you hold, with blood; but "be you faithful unto death, and the King will give you a crown of life." He that shall die there, although his death will be unnatural, and his pain, perhaps, great, he will yet have the better of his fellow; not only because he will be arrived at the Celestial City soonest, but because he will escape many miseries that the other will meet with in the rest of his journey. But when you are come to the town, and shall find fulfilled what I have here related, then remember your friend, and quit yourselves like men, and "commit the keeping of your souls to God in well doing, as unto a faithful Creator." Then I saw in my dream, that when they were got out of the wilderness, they presently saw a town before them, and the name of that town is Vanity; and at the town there is a fair kept, called Vanity Fair. It is kept all the year long. It beareth the name of Vanity Fair, because the town where it is kept is lighter than vanity, Psa. 62:9; and also because all that is there sold, or that cometh thither, is vanity; as is the saying of the wise, "All that cometh is vanity." Eccl. 11:8; see also 1:2-14; 2:11-17; Isa. 40:17. This fair is no new-erected business but a thing of ancient standing. I will show you the original of it. Almost five thousand years ago there were pilgrims walking to the Celestial City, as these two honest persons are: and Beelzebub, Apollyon, and Legion, with their companions, perceiving by the path that the pilgrims made, that their way to the city lay through this town of Vanity, they contrived here to set up a fair; a fair wherein should be sold all sorts of vanity, and that it should last all the year long. Therefore, at this fair are all such merchandise sold as houses, lands, trades, places, honors, preferments, titles, countries, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures; and delights of all sorts, as harlots, wives, husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls, silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not. And moreover, at this fair there is at all times to be seen jugglings, cheats, games, plays, fools, apes, knaves, and rogues, and that of every kind. Here are to be seen, too, and that for nothing, thefts, murders, adulteries, false-swearers, and that of a blood-red color. And, as in other fairs of less moment, there are the several rows and streets under their proper names, where such and such wares are vended; so here, likewise, you have the proper places, rows, streets, (namely, countries and kingdoms,) where the wares of this fair are soonest to be found. Here is the Britain Row, the French Row, the Italian Row, the Spanish Row, the German Row, where several sorts of vanities are to be sold. But, as in other fairs, some one commodity is as the chief of all the fair; so the ware of Rome and her merchandise is greatly promoted in this fair; only our English nation, with some others, have taken a dislike thereat. Now, as I said, the way to the Celestial City lies just through this town, where this lusty fair is kept; and he that will go to the city, and yet not go through this town, "must needs go out of the world." 1 Cor. 4:10. The Prince of princes himself, when here, went through this town to his own country, and that upon a fair-day too; yea, and, as I think, it was Beelzebub, the chief lord of this fair, that invited him to buy of his vanities, yea, would have made him lord of the fair, would he but have done him reverence as he went through the town. Yea, because he was such a person of honor, Beelzebub had him from street to street, and showed him all the kingdoms of the world in a little time, that he might, if possible, allure that blessed One to cheapen and buy some of his vanities; but he had no mind to the merchandise, and therefore left the town, without laying out so much as one farthing upon these vanities. Matt. 4:8,9; Luke 4:5-7. This fair, therefore, is an ancient thing, of long standing, and a very great fair. Now, these pilgrims, as I said, must needs go through this fair. Well, so they did; but behold, even as they entered into the fair, all the people in the fair were moved; and the town itself, as it were, in a hubbub about them, and that for several reasons: for, First, The Pilgrims were clothed with such kind of raiment as was diverse from the raiment of any that traded in that fair. The people, therefore, of the fair made a great gazing upon them: some said they were fools; 1 Cor. 4:9,10; some, they were bedlams; and some, they were outlandish men. Secondly, And as they wondered at their apparel, so they did likewise at their speech; for few could understand what they said. They naturally spoke the language of Canaan; but they that kept the fair were the men of this world: so that from one end of the fair to the other, they seemed barbarians each to the other. 1 Cor. 2:7,8. Thirdly, But that which did not a little amuse the merchandisers was, that these pilgrims set very light by all their wares. They cared not so much as to look upon them; and if they called upon them to buy, they would put their fingers in their ears, and cry, "Turn away mine eyes from beholding vanity," Psa. 119:37, and look upward, signifying that their trade and traffic was in heaven. Phil. 3: 20,21. One chanced, mockingly, beholding the carriage of the men, to say unto them, "What will ye buy?" But they, looking gravely upon him, said, "We buy the truth." Prov. 23:23. At that there was an occasion taken to despise the men the more; some mocking, some taunting, some speaking reproachfully, and some calling upon others to smite them. At last, things came to an hubbub and great stir in the fair, insomuch that all order was confounded. Now was word presently brought to the great one of the fair, who quickly came down, and deputed some of his most trusty friends to take those men into examination about whom the fair was almost overturned. So the men were brought to examination; and they that sat upon them asked them whence they came, whither they went, and what they did there in such an unusual garb. The men told them they were pilgrims and strangers in the world, and that they were going to their own country, which was the heavenly Jerusalem, Heb. 11:13-16; and that they had given no occasion to the men of the town, nor yet to the merchandisrs, thus to abuse them, and to let them in their journey, except it was for that, when one asked them what they would buy, they said they would buy the truth. But they that were appointed to examine them did not believe them to be any other than bedlams and mad, or else such as came to put all things into a confusion in the fair. Therefore they took them and beat them, and besmeared them with dirt, and then put them into the cage, that they might be made a spectacle to all the men of the fair. There, therefore, they lay for some time, and were made the objects of any man's sport, or malice, or revenge; the great one of the fair laughing still at all that befell them. But the men being patient, and "not rendering railing for railing, but contrariwise blessing," and giving good words for bad, and kindness for injuries done, some men in the fair, that were more observing and less prejudiced than the rest, began to check and blame the baser sort for their continual abuses done by them to the men. They, therefore, in an angry manner let fly at them again, counting them as bad as the men in the cage, and telling them that they seemed confederates, and should be made partakers of their misfortunes. The others replied that, for aught they could see, the men were quiet and sober, and intended nobody any harm; and that there were many that traded in their fair that were more worthy to be put into the cage, yea, and pillory too, than were the men that they had abused. Thus, after divers words had passed on both sides, (the men behaving themselves all the while very wisely and soberly before them,) they fell to some blows among themselves, and did harm one to another. Then were these two poor men brought before their examiners again, and were charged as being guilty of the late hubbub that had been in the fair. So they beat them pitifully, and hanged irons upon them, and led them in chains up and down the fair, for an example and terror to others, lest any should speak in their behalf, or join themselves unto them. But Christian and Faithful behaved themselves yet more wisely, and received the ignominy and shame that was cast upon them with so much meekness and patience, that it won to their side (though but few in comparison of the rest) several of the men in the fair. This put the other party yet into a greater rage, insomuch that they concluded the death of these two men. Wherefore they threatened that neither cage nor irons should serve their turn, but that they should die for the abuse they had done, and for deluding the men of the fair. Then were they remanded to the cage again, until further order should be taken with them. So they put them in, and made their feet fast in the stocks. Here, also, they called again to mind what they had heard from their faithful friend Evangelist, and were the more confirmed in their way and sufferings by what he told them would happen to them. They also now comforted each other, that whose lot it was to suffer, even he should have the best of it: therefore each man secretly wished that he might have that preferment. But committing themselves to the all-wise disposal of Him that ruleth all things, with much content they abode in the condition in which they were, until they should be otherwise disposed of. Then a convenient time being appointed, they brought them forth to their trial, in order to their condemnation. When the time was come, they were brought before their enemies and arraigned. The judge's name was Lord Hate-good; their indictment was one and the same in substance, though somewhat varying in form; the contents whereof was this: "That they were enemies to, and disturbers of, the trade; that they had made commotions and divisions in the town, and had won a party to their own most dangerous opinions, in contempt of the law of their prince." Then Faithful began to answer, that he had only set himself against that which had set itself against Him that is higher than the highest. And, said he, as for disturbance, I make none, being myself a man of peace: the parties that were won to us, were won by beholding our truth and innocence, and they are only turned from the worse to the better. And as to the king you talk of, since he is Beelzebub, the enemy of our Lord, I defy him and all his angels. Then proclamation was made, that they that had ought to say for their lord the king against the prisoner at the bar, should forthwith appear, and give in their evidence. So there came in three witnesses, to wit, Envy, Superstition, and Pickthank. They were then asked if they knew the prisoner at the bar; and what they had to say for their lord the king against him. Then stood forth Envy, and said to this effect: My lord, I have known this man a long time, and will attest upon my oath before this honorable bench, that he is- JUDGE. Hold; give him his oath. So they sware him. Then he said, My lord, this man, notwithstanding his plausible name, is one of the vilest men in our country; he neither regardeth prince nor people, law nor custom, but doeth all that he can to possess all men with certain of his disloyal notions, which he in the general calls principles of faith and holiness. And in particular, I heard him once myself affirm, that Christianity and the customs of our town of Vanity were diametrically opposite, and could not be reconciled. By which saying, my lord, he doth at once not only condemn all our laudable doings, but us in the doing of them. Then did the judge say to him, Hast thou any more to say? ENVY. My lord, I could say much more, only I would not be tedious to the court. Yet if need be, when the other gentlemen have given in their evidence, rather than any thing shall be wanting that will dispatch him, I will enlarge my testimony against him. So he was bid to stand by. Then they called Superstition, and bid him look upon the prisoner. They also asked, what he could say for their lord the king against him. Then they sware him; so he began. SUPER. My lord, I have no great acquaintance with this man, nor do I desire to have further knowledge of him. However, this I know, that he is a very pestilent fellow, from some discourse that I had with him the other day, in this town; for then, talking with him, I heard him say, that our religion was naught, and such by which a man could by no means please God. Which saying of his, my lord, your lordship very well knows what necessarily thence will follow, to wit, that we still do worship in vain, are yet in our sins, and finally shall be damned: and this is that which I have to say. Then was Pickthank sworn, and bid say what he knew in the behalf of their lord the king against the prisoner at the bar. PICK. My lord, and you gentlemen all, this fellow I have known of a long time, and have heard him speak things that ought not to be spoken; for he hath railed on our noble prince Beelzebub, and hath spoken contemptibly of his honorable friends, whose names are, the Lord Old Man, the Lord Carnal Delight, the Lord Luxurious, the Lord Desire of Vain Glory, my old Lord Lechery, Sir Having Greedy, with all the rest of our nobility: and he hath said, moreover, that if all men were of his mind, if possible, there is not one of these noblemen should have any longer a being in this town. Besides, he hath not been afraid to rail on you, my lord, who are now appointed to be his judge, calling you an ungodly villain, with many other such like vilifying terms, with which he hath bespattered most of the gentry of our town. When this Pickthank had told his tale, the judge directed his speech to the prisoner at the bar, saying, Thou runagate, heretic, and traitor, hast thou heard what these honest gentlemen have witnessed against thee? FAITH. May I speak a few words in my own defence? JUDGE. Sirrah, sirrah, thou deservest to live no longer, but to be slain immediately upon the place; yet, that all men may see our gentleness towards thee, let us hear what thou, vile runagate, hast to say. FAITH. 1. I say, then, in answer to what Mr. Envy hath spoken, I never said aught but this, that what rule, or laws, or custom, or people, were flat against the word of God, are diametrically opposite to Christianity. If I have said amiss in this, convince me of my error, and I am ready here before you to make my recantation. 2. As to the second, to wit, Mr. Superstition, and his charge against me, I said only this, that in the worship of God there is required a divine faith; but there can be no divine faith without a divine revelation of the will of God. Therefore, whatever is thrust into the worship of God that is not agreeable to divine revelation, cannot be done but by a human faith; which faith will not be profitable to eternal life. 3. As to what Mr. Pickthank hath said, I say, (avoiding terms, as that I am said to rail, and the like,) that the prince of this town, with all the rabblement, his attendants, by this gentleman named, are more fit for a being in hell than in this town and country. And so the Lord have mercy upon me. Then the judge called to the jury, (who all this while stood by to hear and observe,) Gentlemen of the jury, you see this man about whom so great an uproar hath been made in this town; you have also heard what these worthy gentlemen have witnessed against him; also, you have heard his reply and confession: it lieth now in your breasts to hang him, or save his life; but yet I think meet to instruct you in our law. There was an act made in the days of Pharaoh the Great, servant to our prince, that, lest those of a contrary religion should multiply and grow too strong for him, their males should be thrown into the river. Exod. 1:22. There was also an act made in the days of Nebuchadnezzar the Great, another of his servants, that whoever would not fall down and worship his golden image, should be thrown into a fiery furnace. Dan. 3:6. There was also an act made in the days of Darius, that whoso for some time called upon any god but him, should be cast into the lion's den. Dan. 6:7. Now, the substance of these laws this rebel has broken, not only in thought, (which is not to be borne,) but also in word and deed; which must, therefore, needs be intolerable. For that of Pharaoh, his law was made upon a supposition to prevent mischief, no crime being yet apparent; but here is a crime apparent. For the second and third, you see he disputeth against our religion; and for the treason that he hath already confessed, he deserveth to die the death. Then went the jury out, whose names were Mr. Blindman, Mr. No-good, Mr. Malice, Mr. Love-lust, Mr. Live-loose, Mr. Heady, Mr. High- mind, Mr. Enmity, Mr. Liar, Mr. Cruelty, Mr. Hate-light, and Mr. Implacable; who every one gave in his private verdict against him among themselves, and afterwards unanimously concluded to bring him in guilty before the judge. And first among themselves, Mr. Blindman, the foreman, said, I see clearly that this man is a heretic. Then said Mr. No-good, Away with such a fellow from the earth. Aye, said Mr. Malice, for I hate the very looks of him. Then said Mr. Love-lust, I could never endure him. Nor I, said Mr. Live-loose, for he would always be condemning my way. Hang him, hang him, said Mr. Heady. A sorry scrub, said Mr. High-mind. My heart riseth against him, said Mr. Enmity. He is a rogue, said Mr. Liar. Hanging is too good for him, said Mr. Cruelty. Let us dispatch him out of the way, said Mr. Hate-light. Then said Mr. Implacable, Might I have all the world given me, I could not be reconciled to him; therefore let us forthwith bring him in guilty of death. And so they did; therefore he was presently condemned to be had from the place where he was, to the place from whence he came, and there to be put to the most cruel death that could be invented. They therefore brought him out, to do with him according to their law; and first they scourged him, then they buffeted him, then they lanced his flesh with knives; after that, they stoned him with stones, then pricked him with their swords; and last of all, they burned him to ashes at the stake. Thus came Faithful to his end. Now I saw, that there stood behind the multitude a chariot and a couple of horses waiting for Faithful, who (so soon as his adversaries had dispatched him) was taken up into it, and straightway was carried up through the clouds with sound of trumpet, the nearest way to the celestial gate. But as for Christian, he had some respite, and was remanded back to prison: so he there remained for a space. But he who overrules all things, having the power of their rage in his own hand, so wrought it about, that Christian for that time escaped them, and went his way. And as he went, he sang, saying, "Well, Faithful, thou hast faithfully profest Unto thy Lord, with whom thou shalt be blest, When faithless ones, with all their vain delights, Are crying out under their hellish plights: Sing, Faithful, sing, and let thy name survive; For though they killed thee, thou art yet alive." THE SEVENTH STAGE. Now I saw in my dream, that Christian went not forth alone; for there was one whose name was Hopeful, (being so made by the beholding of Christian and Faithful in their words and behavior, in their sufferings at the fair,) who joined himself unto him, and entering into a brotherly covenant, told him that he would be his companion. Thus one died to bear testimony to the truth, and another rises out of his ashes to be a companion with Christian in his pilgrimage. This Hopeful also told Christian, that there were many more of the men in the fair that would take their time, and follow after. So I saw, that quickly after they were got out of the fair, they overtook one that was going before them, whose name was By-ends; so they said to him, What countryman, sir? and how far go you this way? He told them, that he came from the town of Fair-speech, and he was going to the Celestial City; but told them not his name. From Fair-speech? said Christian; is there any good that lives there? Prov. 26:25. BY. Yes, said By-ends, I hope so. CHR. Pray, sir, what may I call you? said Christian. BY. I am a stranger to you, and you to me: if you be going this way, I shall be glad of your company; if not, I must be content. CHR. This town of Fair-speech, said Christian, I have heard of; and, as I remember, they say it's a wealthy place. BY. Yes, I will assure you that it is; and I have very many rich kindred there. CHR. Pray, who are your kindred there, if a man may be so bold? BY. Almost the whole town; and in particular my Lord Turn-about, my Lord Time-server, my Lord Fair-speech, from whose ancestors that town first took its name; also, Mr. Smooth-man, Mr. Facing-both-ways, Mr. Any- thing; and the parson of our parish, Mr. Two-tongues, was my mother's own brother, by father's side; and, to tell you the truth, I am become a gentleman of good quality; yet my great-grandfather was but a waterman, looking one way and rowing another, and I got most of my estate by the same occupation. CHR. Are you a married man. BY. Yes, and my wife is a very virtuous woman, the daughter of a virtuous woman; she was my Lady Feigning's daughter; therefore she came of a very honorable family, and is arrived to such a pitch of breeding, that she knows how to carry it to all, even to prince and peasant. 'Tis true, we somewhat differ in religion from those of the stricter sort, yet but in two small points: First, we never strive against wind and tide. Secondly, we are always most zealous when religion goes in his silver slippers; we love much to walk with him in the street, if the sun shines and the people applaud him. Then Christian stepped a little aside to his fellow Hopeful, saying, it runs in my mind that this is one By-ends, of Fair-speech; and if it be he, we have as very a knave in our company as dwelleth in all these parts. Then said Hopeful, Ask him; methinks he should not be ashamed of his name. So Christian came up with him again, and said, Sir, you talk as if you knew something more than all the world doth; and, if I take not my mark amiss, I deem I have half a guess of you. Is not your name Mr. By-ends of Fair-speech? BY. This is not my name, but indeed it is a nickname that is given me by some that cannot abide me, and I must be content to bear it as a reproach, as other good men have borne theirs before me. CHR. But did you never give an occasion to men to call you by this name? BY. Never, never! The worst that ever I did to give them an occasion to give me this name was, that I had always the luck to jump in my judgment with the present way of the times, whatever it was, and my chance was to get thereby: but if things are thus cast upon me, let me count them a blessing; but let not the malicious load me therefore with reproach. CHR. I thought, indeed, that you were the man that I heard of; and to tell you what I think, I fear this name belongs to you more properly than you are willing we should think it doth. BY. Well if you will thus imagine, I cannot help it; you shall find me a fair company-keeper, if you will still admit me your associate. CHR. If you will go with us, you must go against wind and tide; the which, I perceive, is against your opinion: you must also own Religion in his rags, as well as when in his silver slippers; and stand by him, too, when bound in irons, as well as when he walketh the streets with applause. BY. You must not impose, nor lord it over my faith; leave me to my liberty, and let me go with you. CHR. Not a step farther, unless you will do, in what I propound, as we. Then said By-ends, I shall never desert my old principles, since they are harmless and profitable. If I may not go with you, I must do as I did before you overtook me, even go by myself, until some overtake me that will be glad of my company. Now I saw in my dream, that Christian and Hopeful forsook him, and kept their distance before him; but one of them, looking back, saw three men following Mr. By-ends; and, behold, as they came up with him, he made them a very low congee; and they also gave him a compliment. The men's names were, Mr. Hold-the-world, Mr. Money-love, and Mr. Save-all, men that Mr. By-ends had formerly been acquainted with; for in their minority they were schoolfellows, and taught by one Mr. Gripeman, a schoolmaster in Lovegain, which is a market-town in the county of Coveting, in the North. This Schoolmaster taught them the art of getting, either by violence, cozenage, flattering, lying, or by putting on a guise of religion; and these four gentlemen had attained much of the art of their master, so that they could each of them have kept such a school themselves. Well, when they had, as I said, thus saluted each other, Mr. Money-love said to Mr. By-ends, Who are they upon the road before us? For Christian and Hopeful were yet within view. BY. They are a couple of far country-men, that, after their mode, are going on pilgrimage. MONEY. Alas! why did they not stay, that we might have had their good company? for they, and we, and you, sir, I hope, are all going on pilgrimage. BY. We are so, indeed; but the men before us are so rigid, and love so much their own notions, and do also so lightly esteem the opinions of others, that let a man be ever so godly, yet if he jumps not with them in all things, they thrust him quite out of their company. SAVE. That is bad; but we read of some that are righteous overmuch, and such men's rigidness prevails with them to judge and condemn all but themselves. But I pray, what, and how many, were the things wherein you differed? BY. Why, they, after their headstrong manner, conclude that it is their duty to rush on their journey all weathers, and I am for waiting for wind and tide. They are for hazarding all for God at a clap; and I am for taking all advantages to secure my life and estate. They are for holding their notions, though all other men be against them; but I am for religion in what, and so far as the times and my safety will bear it. They are for religion when in rags and contempt; but I am for him when he walks in his silver slippers, in the sunshine, and with applause. HOLD-THE-WORLD. Aye, and hold you there still, good Mr. By-ends; for, for my part, I can count him but a fool, that having the liberty to keep what he has, shall be so unwise as to lose it. Let us be wise as serpents. It is best to make hay while the sun shines. You see how the bee lieth still in winter, and bestirs her only when she can have profit with pleasure. God sends sometimes rain, and sometimes sunshine: if they be such fools to go through the first, yet let us be content to take fair weather along with us. For my part, I like that religion best that will stand with the security of God's good blessings unto us; for who can imagine, that is ruled by his reason, since God has bestowed upon us the good things of this life, but that he would have us keep them for his sake? Abraham and Solomon grew rich in religion; and Job says, that a good man shall lay up gold as dust; but he must not be such as the men before us, if they be as you have described them. SAVE. I think that we are all agreed in this matter; and therefore there needs no more words about it. MONEY. No, there needs no more words about this matter, indeed; for he that believes neither Scripture nor reason, (and you see we have both on our side,) neither knows his own liberty nor seeks his own safety. BY. My brethren, we are, as you see, going all on pilgrimage; and for our better diversion from things that are bad, give me leave to propound unto you this question. Suppose a man, a minister, or a tradesman, etc., should have an advantage lie before him to get the good blessings of this life, yet so as that he can by no means come by them, except, in appearance at least, he becomes extraordinary zealous in some points of religion that he meddled not with before; may he not use this means to attain his end, and yet be a right honest man? MONEY. I see the bottom of your question; and with these gentlemen's good leave, I will endeavor to shape you an answer. And first, to speak to your question as it concerneth a minister himself: suppose a minister, a worthy man, possessed but of a very small benefice, and has in his eye a greater, more fat and plump by far; he has also now an opportunity of getting it, yet so as by being more studious, by preaching more frequently and zealously, and, because the temper of the people requires it, by altering of some of his principles; for my part, I see no reason why a man may not do this, provided he has a call, aye, and more a great deal besides, and yet be an honest man. For why? 1. His desire of a greater benefice is lawful, (this cannot be contradicted,) since it is set before him by Providence; so then he may get it if he can, making no question for conscience' sake. 2. Besides, his desire after that benefice makes him more studious, a more zealous preacher, etc., and so makes him a better man, yea, makes him better improve his parts, which is according to the mind of God. 3. Now, as for his complying with the temper of his people, by deserting, to serve them, some of his principles, this argueth, 1. That he is of a self-denying temper. 2. Of a sweet and winning deportment. And, 3. So more fit for the ministerial function. 4. I conclude, then, that a minister that changes a small for a great, should not, for so doing, be judged as covetous; but rather, since he is improved in his parts and industry thereby, be counted as one that pursues his call, and the opportunity put into his hand to do good. And now to the second part of the question, which concerns the tradesman you mentioned. Suppose such an one to have but a poor employ in the world, but by becoming religious he may mend his market, perhaps get a rich wife, or more and far better customers to his shop; for my part, I see no reason but this may be lawfully done. For why? 1. To become religious is a virtue, by what means soever a man becomes so. 2. Nor is it unlawful to get a rich wife, or more custom to my shop. 3. Besides, the man that gets these by becoming religious, gets that which is good of them that are good, by becoming good himself; so then here is a good wife, and good customers, and good gain, and all these by becoming religious, which is good: therefore, to become religious to get all these is a good and profitable design. This answer, thus made by Mr. Money-love to Mr. By-ends' question, was highly applauded by them all; wherefore they concluded, upon the whole, that it was most wholesome and advantageous. And because, as they thought, no man was able to contradict it; and because Christian and Hopeful were yet within call, they jointly agreed to assault them with the question as soon as they overtook them; and the rather, because they had opposed Mr. By-ends before. So they called after them, and they stopped and stood still till they came up to them; but they concluded, as they went, that not Mr. By-ends, but old Mr. Hold-the-world should propound the question to them, because, as they supposed, their answer to him would be without the remainder of that heat that was kindled betwixt Mr. By-ends and them at their parting a little before. So they came up to each other, and after a short salutation, Mr. Hold- the-world propounded the question to Christian and his fellow, and then bid them to answer if they could. Then said Christian, Even a babe in religion may answer ten thousand such questions. For if it be unlawful to follow Christ for loaves, as it is, John 6:26; how much more abominable is it to make of him and religion a stalking-horse to get and enjoy the world! Nor do we find any other than heathens, hypocrites, devils, and wizards, that are of this opinion. 1. Heathens: for when Hamor and Shechem had a mind to the daughter and cattle of Jacob, and saw that there was no way for them to come at them but by being circumcised, they said to their companions, If every male of us be circumcised, as they are circumcised, shall not their cattle, and their substance, and every beast of theirs be ours? Their daughters and their cattle were that which they sought to obtain, and their religion the stalking-horse they made use of to come at them. Read the whole story, Gen. 34:20-24. 2. The hypocritical Pharisees were also of this religion: long prayers were their pretence, but to get widows' houses was their intent; and greater damnation was from God their judgment. Luke 20:46,47. 3. Judas the devil was also of this religion: he was religious for the bag, that he might be possessed of what was put therein; but he was lost, cast away, and the very son of perdition. 4. Simon the wizard was of this religion too; for he would have had the Holy Ghost, that he might have got money therewith: and his sentence from Peter's mouth was according. Acts 8:19-22. 5. Neither will it go out of my mind, but that that man who takes up religion for the world, will throw away religion for the world; for so surely as Judas designed the world in becoming religious, so surely did he also sell religion and his Master for the same. To answer the question, therefore, affirmatively, as I perceive you have done, and to accept of, as authentic, such answer, is heathenish, hypocritical, and devilish; and your reward will be according to your works. Then they stood staring one upon another, but had not wherewith to answer Christian. Hopeful also approved of the soundness of Christian's answer; so there was a great silence among them. Mr. By-ends and his company also staggered and kept behind, that Christian and Hopeful might outgo them. Then said Christian to his fellow, If these men cannot stand before the sentence of men, what will they do with the sentence of God? And if they are mute when dealt with by vessels of clay, what will they do when they shall be rebuked by the flames of a devouring fire? Then Christian and Hopeful outwent them again, and went till they came at a delicate plain, called Ease, where they went with much content; but that plain was but narrow, so they were quickly got over it. Now at the farther side of that plain was a little hill, called Lucre, and in that hill a silver-mine, which some of them that had formerly gone that way, because of the rarity of it, had turned aside to see; but going too near the brim of the pit, the ground, being deceitful under them, broke, and they were slain: some also had been maimed there, and could not, to their dying day, be their own men again. Then I saw in my dream, that a little off the road, over against the silver-mine, stood Demas (gentleman-like) to call passengers to come and see; who said to Christian and his fellow, Ho! turn aside hither, and I will show you a thing. CHR. What thing so deserving as to turn us out of the way to see it? DEMAS. Here is a silver-mine, and some digging in it for treasure; if you will come, with a little pains you may richly provide for yourselves. HOPE. Then said Hopeful, let us go see. CHR. Not I, said Christian: I have heard of this place before now, and how many there have been slain; and besides, that treasure is a snare to those that seek it, for it hindereth them in their pilgrimage. Then Christian called to Demas, saying, Is not the place dangerous? Hath it not hindered many in their pilgrimage? Hosea 9:6. DEMAS. Not very dangerous, except to those that are careless; but withal he blushed as he spake. CHR. Then said Christian to Hopeful, Let us not stir a step, but still keep on our way. HOPE. I will warrant you, when By-ends comes up, if he hath the same invitation as we, he will turn in thither to see. CHR. No doubt thereof, for his principles lead him that way, and a hundred to one but he dies there. DEMAS. Then Demas called again, saying, But will you not come over and see? CHR. Then Christian roundly answered, saying, Demas, thou art an enemy to the right ways of the Lord of this way, and hast been already condemned for thine own turning aside, by one of his Majesty's judges, 2 Tim. 4:10; and why seekest thou to bring us into the like condemnation? Besides, if we at all turn aside, our Lord the King will certainly hear thereof, and will there put us to shame, where we would stand with boldness before him. Demas cried again, that he also was one of their fraternity; and that if they would tarry a little, he also himself would walk with them. CHR. Then said Christian, What is thy name? Is it not the same by which I have called thee? DEMAS. Yes, my name is Demas; I am the son of Abraham. CHR. I know you; Gehazi was your great-grandfather, and Judas your father, and you have trod in their steps; it is but a devilish prank that thou usest: thy father was hanged for a traitor, and thou deservest no better reward. 2 Kings 5:20-27; Matt.26:14,15; 27:3-5. Assure thyself, that when we come to the King, we will tell him of this thy behavior. Thus they went their way. By this time By-ends and his companions were come again within sight, and they at the first beck went over to Demas. Now, whether they fell into the pit by looking over the brink thereof, or whether they went down to dig, or whether they were smothered in the bottom by the damps that commonly arise, of these things I am not certain; but this I observed, that they were never seen again in the way. Then sang Christian, "By-ends and silver Demas both agree; One calls, the other runs, that he may be A sharer in his lucre: so these two Take up in this world, and no farther go." Now I saw that, just on the other side of this plain, the pilgrims came to a place where stood an old monument, hard by the highway-side, at the sight of which they were both concerned, because of the strangeness of the form thereof; for it seemed to them as if it had been a woman transformed into the shape of a pillar. Here, therefore, they stood looking and looking upon it, but could not for a time tell what they should make thereof. At last Hopeful espied, written above upon the head thereof, a writing in an unusual hand; but he being no scholar, called to Christian (for he was learned) to see if he could pick out the meaning: so he came, and after a little laying of letters together, he found the same to be this, "Remember Lot's wife." So he read it to his fellow; after which they both concluded that that was the pillar of salt into which Lot's wife was turned, for her looking back with a covetous heart when she was going from Sodom for safety. Gen. 19:26. Which sudden and amazing sight gave them occasion for this discourse. CHR. Ah, my brother, this is a seasonable sight: it came opportunely to us after the invitation which Demas gave us to come over to view the hill Lucre; and had we gone over, as he desired us, and as thou wast inclined to do, my brother, we had, for aught I know, been made, like this woman, a spectacle for those that shall come after to behold. HOPE. I am sorry that I was so foolish, and am made to wonder that I am not now as Lot's wife; for wherein was the difference betwixt her sin and mine? She only looked back, and I had a desire to go see. Let grace be adored; and let me be ashamed that ever such a thing should be in mine heart. CHR. Let us take notice of what we see here, for our help from time to come. This woman escaped one judgment, for she fell not by the destruction of Sodom; yet she was destroyed by another, as we see: she is turned into a pillar of salt. HOPE. True, and she may be to us both caution and example; caution, that we should shun her sin; or a sign of what judgment will overtake such as shall not be prevented by this caution: so Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, with the two hundred and fifty men that perished in their sin, did also become a sign or example to others to beware. Numb. 16:31,32; 26:9,10. But above all, I muse at one thing, to wit, how Demas and his fellows can stand so confidently yonder to look for that treasure, which this woman but for looking behind her after, (for we read not that she stepped one foot out of the way,) was turned into a pillar of salt; especially since the judgment which overtook her did make her an example within sight of where they are; for they cannot choose but see her, did they but lift up their eyes. CHR. It is a thing to be wondered at, and it argueth that their hearts are grown desperate in the case; and I cannot tell who to compare them to so fitly, as to them that pick pockets in the presence of the judge, or that will cut purses under the gallows. It is said of the men of Sodom, that they were "sinners exceedingly," because they were sinners "before the Lord," that is, in his eyesight, and notwithstanding the kindnesses that he had shown them; for the land of Sodom was now like the garden of Eden as heretofore. Gen. 13:10-13. This, therefore, provoked him the more to jealousy, and made their plague as hot as the fire of the Lord out of heaven could make it. And it is most rationally to be concluded, that such, even such as these are, that shall sin in the sight, yea, and that too in despite of such examples that are set continually before them, to caution them to the contrary, must be partakers of severest judgments. HOPE. Doubtless thou hast said the truth; but what a mercy is it, that neither thou, but especially I, am not made myself this example! This ministereth occasion to us to thank God, to fear before him, and always to remember Lot's wife. I saw then that they went on their way to a pleasant river, which David the king called "the river of God;" but John, "the river of the water of life." Psa. 65:9; Rev. 22:1; Ezek. 47:1-9. Now their way lay just upon the bank of this river: here, therefore, Christian and his companion walked with great delight; they drank also of the water of the river, which was pleasant and enlivening to their weary spirits. Besides, on the banks of this river, on either side, were green trees with all manner of fruit; and the leaves they ate to prevent surfeits, and other diseases that are incident to those that heat their blood by travel. On either side of the river was also a meadow, curiously beautified with lilies; and it was green all the year long. In this meadow they lay down and slept, for here they might lie down safely. Psa. 23:2; Isa. 14:30. When they awoke they gathered again of the fruit of the trees, and drank again of the water of the river, and then lay down again to sleep. Thus they did several days and nights. Then they sang; "Behold ye, how these Crystal Streams do glide, To comfort pilgrims by the highway-side. The meadows green, besides their fragrant smell, Yield dainties for them; And he that can tell What pleasant fruit, yea, leaves these trees do yield, Will soon sell all, that he may buy this field." So when they were disposed to go on, (for they were not as yet at their journey's end,) they ate, and drank, and departed. Now I beheld in my dream, that they had not journeyed far, but the river and the way for a time parted, at which they were not a little sorry; yet they durst not go out of the way. Now the way from the river was rough, and their feet tender by reason of their travels; so the souls of the pilgrims were much discouraged because of the way. Numb. 21:4. Wherefore, still as they went on, they wished for a better way. Now, a little before them, there was on the left hand of the road a meadow, and a stile to go over into it, and that meadow is called By-path meadow. Then said Christian to his fellow, If this meadow lieth along by our wayside, let's go over into it. Then he went to the stile to see, and behold a path lay along by the way on the other side of the fence. It is according to my wish, said Christian; here is the easiest going; come, good Hopeful, and let us go over. HOPE. But how if this path should lead us out of the way? CHR. That is not likely, said the other. Look, doth it not go along by the wayside? So Hopeful, being persuaded by his fellow, went after him over the stile. When they were gone over, and were got into the path, they found it very easy for their feet; and withal, they, looking before them, espied a man walking as they did, and his name was Vain- Confidence: so they called after him, and asked him whither that way led. He said, To the Celestial Gate. Look, said Christian, did not I tell you so? by this you may see we are right. So they followed, and he went before them. But behold the night came on, and it grew very dark; so that they that went behind lost the sight of him that went before. He therefore that went before, (Vain-Confidence by name,) not seeing the way before him, fell into a deep pit, which was on purpose there made, by the prince of those grounds, to catch vain-glorious fools withal, and was dashed in pieces with his fall. Isa. 9:16. Now, Christian and his fellow heard him fall. So they called to know the matter, but there was none to answer, only they heard a groaning. Then said Hopeful, Where are we now? Then was his fellow silent, as mistrusting that he had led him out of the way; and now it began to rain, and thunder, and lighten in a most dreadful manner, and the water rose amain. Then Hopeful groaned in himself, saying, Oh that I had kept on my way! CHR. Who could have thought that this path should have led us out of the way? HOPE. I was afraid on't at the very first, and therefore gave you that gentle caution. I would have spoke plainer, but that you are older than I. CHR. Good brother, be not offended; I am sorry I have brought thee out of the way, and that I have put thee into such imminent danger. Pray, my brother, forgive me; I did not do it of an evil intent. HOPE. Be comforted, my brother, for I forgive thee; and believe, too, that this shall be for our good. CHR. I am glad I have with me a merciful brother: but we must not stand here; let us try to go back again. HOPE. But, good brother, let me go before. CHR. No, if you please, let me go first, that if there be any danger, I may be first therein, because by my means we are both gone out of the way. HOPE. No, said Hopeful, you shall not go first, for your mind being troubled may lead you out of the way again. Then for their encouragement they heard the voice of one saying, "Let thine heart be toward the highway, even the way that thou wentest: turn again." Jer. 31:21. But by this time the waters were greatly risen, by reason of which the way of going back was very dangerous. (Then I thought that it is easier going out of the way when we are in, than going in when we are out.) Yet they adventured to go back; but it was so dark, and the flood was so high, that in their going back they had like to have been drowned nine or ten times. Neither could they, with all the skill they had, get again to the stile that night. Wherefore at last, lighting under a little shelter, they sat down there till the day brake; but being weary, they fell asleep. Now there was, not far from the place where they lay, a castle, called Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair, and it was in his grounds they now were sleeping: wherefore he, getting up in the morning early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep in his grounds. Then with a grim and surly voice, he bid them awake, and asked them whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told him they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. Then said the giant, You have this night trespassed on me by trampling in and lying on my grounds, and therefore you must go along with me. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. They also had but little to say, for they knew themselves in a fault. The giant, therefore, drove them before him, and put them into his castle, into a very dark dungeon, nasty and stinking to the spirits of these two men. Here, then, they lay from Wednesday morning till Saturday night, without one bit of bread, or drop of drink, or light, or any to ask how they did; they were, therefore, here in evil case, and were far from friends and acquaintance. Psa. 88:18. Now in this place Christian had double sorrow, because it was through his unadvised counsel that they were brought into this distress. Now Giant Despair had a wife, and her name was Diffidence: so when he was gone to bed he told his wife what he had done, to wit, that he had taken a couple of prisoners, and cast them into his dungeon for trespassing on his grounds. Then he asked her also what he had best do further to them. So she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound, and he told her. Then she counseled him, that when he arose in the morning he should beat them without mercy. So when he arose, he getteth him a grievous crab-tree cudgel, and goes down into the dungeon to them, and there first falls to rating of them as if they were dogs, although they gave him never a word of distaste. Then he falls upon them, and beats them fearfully, in such sort that they were not able to help themselves, or to turn them upon the floor. This done, he withdraws and leaves them there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress: so all that day they spent the time in nothing but sighs and bitter lamentations. The next night, she, talking with her husband further about them, and understanding that they were yet alive, did advise him to counsel them to make away with themselves. So when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly manner, as before, and perceiving them to be very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day before, he told them, that since they were never like to come out of that place, their only way would be forthwith to make an end of themselves, either with knife, halter, or poison; for why, said he, should you choose to live, seeing it is attended with so much bitterness? But they desired him to let them go. With that he looked ugly upon them, and rushing to them, had doubtless made an end of them himself, but that he fell into one of his fits, (for he sometimes in sunshiny weather fell into fits,) and lost for a time the use of his hands; wherefore he withdrew, and left them as before to consider what to do. Then did the prisoners consult between themselves whether it was best to take his counsel or no; and thus they began to discourse: CHR. Brother, said Christian, what shall we do? The life that we now live is miserable. For my part, I know not whether it is best to live thus, or to die out of hand. My soul chooseth strangling rather than life, and the grave is more easy for me than this dungeon. Job. 7:15. Shall we be ruled by the giant? HOPE. Indeed our present condition is dreadful, and death would be far more welcome to me than thus for ever to abide; but yet, let us consider, the Lord of the country to which we are going hath said, "Thou shalt do no murder," no, not to another man's person; much more, then, are we forbidden to take his counsel to kill ourselves. Besides, he that kills another, can but commit murder upon his body; but for one to kill himself, is to kill body and soul at once. And moreover, my brother, thou talkest of ease in the grave; but hast thou forgotten the hell whither for certain the murderers go? for "no murderer hath eternal life," etc. And let us consider again, that all the law is not in the hand of Giant Despair: others, so far as I can understand, have been taken by him as well as we, and yet have escaped out of his hands. Who knows but that God, who made the world, may cause that Giant Despair may die; or that, at some time or other, he may forget to lock us in; or that he may, in a short time, have another of his fits before us, and may lose the use of his limbs? And if ever that should come to pass again, for my part, I am resolved to pluck up the heart of a man, and to try my utmost to get from under his hand. I was a fool that I did not try to do it before. But, however, my brother, let us be patient, and endure a while: the time may come that may give us a happy release; but let us not be our own murderers. With these words Hopeful at present did moderate the mind of his brother; so they continued together in the dark that day, in their sad and doleful condition. Well, towards evening the giant goes down into the dungeon again, to see if his prisoners had taken his counsel. But when he came there he found them alive; and truly, alive was all; for now, what for want of bread and water, and by reason of the wounds they received when he beat them, they could do little but breathe. But I say, he found them alive; at which he fell into a grievous rage, and told them, that seeing they had disobeyed his counsel, it should be worse with them than if they had never been born. At this they trembled greatly, and I think that Christian fell into a swoon; but coming a little to himself again, they renewed their discourse about the giant's counsel, and whether yet they had best take it or no. Now Christian again seemed for doing it; but Hopeful made his second reply as followeth: HOPE. My brother, said he, rememberest thou not how valiant thou hast been heretofore? Apollyon could not crush thee, nor could all that thou didst hear, or see, or feel, in the Valley of the Shadow of Death. What hardship, terror, and amazement hast thou already gone through; and art thou now nothing but fears! Thou seest that I am in the dungeon with thee, a far weaker man by nature than thou art. Also this giant hath wounded me as well as thee, and hath also cut off the bread and water from my mouth, and with thee I mourn without the light. But let us exercise a little more patience. Remember how thou playedst the man at Vanity Fair, and wast neither afraid of the chain nor cage, nor yet of bloody death: wherefore let us (at least to avoid the shame that it becomes not a Christian to be found in) bear up with patience as well as we can. Now night being come again, and the giant and his wife being in bed, she asked him concerning the prisoners, and if they had taken his counsel: to which he replied, They are sturdy rogues; they choose rather to bear all hardships than to make away with themselves. Then said she, Take them into the castle-yard to-morrow, and show them the bones and skulls of those that thou hast already dispatched, and make them believe, ere a week comes to an end, thou wilt tear them in pieces, as thou hast done their fellows before them. So when the morning was come, the giant goes to them again, and takes them into the castle-yard, and shows them as his wife had bidden him. These, said he, were pilgrims, as you are, once, and they trespassed on my grounds, as you have done; and when I thought fit I tore them in pieces; and so within ten days I will do you: get you down to your den again. And with that he beat them all the way thither. They lay, therefore, all day on Saturday in a lamentable case, as before. Now, when night was come, and when Mrs. Diffidence and her husband the giant was got to bed, they began to renew their discourse of their prisoners; and withal, the old giant wondered that he could neither by his blows nor counsel bring them to an end. And with that his wife replied, I fear, said she, that they live in hopes that some will come to relieve them; or that they have picklocks about them, by the means of which they hope to escape. And sayest thou so, my dear? said the giant; I will therefore search them in the morning. Well, on Saturday, about midnight they began to pray, and continued in prayer till almost break of day. Now, a little before it was day, good Christian, as one half amazed, brake out into this passionate speech: What a fool, quoth he, am I, thus to lie in a stinking dungeon, when I may as well walk at liberty! I have a key in my bosom, called Promise, that will, I am persuaded, open any lock in Doubting Castle. Then said Hopeful, That is good news; good brother, pluck it out of thy bosom, and try. Then Christian pulled it out of his bosom, and began to try at the dungeon-door, whose bolt, as he turned the key, gave back, and the door flew open with ease, and Christian and Hopeful both came out. Then he went to the outward door that leads into the castle-yard, and with his key opened that door also. After he went to the iron gate, for that must be opened too; but that lock went desperately hard, yet the key did open it. They then thrust open the gate to make their escape with speed; but that gate, as it opened, made such a creaking, that it waked Giant Despair, who hastily rising to pursue his prisoners, felt his limbs to fail, for his fits took him again, so that he could by no means go after them. Then they went on, and came to the King's highway, and so were safe, because they were out of his jurisdiction. Now, when they were gone over the stile, they began to contrive with themselves what they should do at that stile, to prevent those that shall come after from falling into the hands of Giant Despair. So they consented to erect there a pillar, and to engrave upon the side thereof this sentence: "Over this stile is the way to Doubting Castle, which is kept by Giant Despair, who despiseth the King of' the Celestial country, and seeks to destroy his holy pilgrims." Many, therefore, that followed after, read what was written, and escaped the danger. This done, they sang as follows: "Out of the way we went, and then we found What 'twas to tread upon forbidden ground: And let them that come after have a care, Lest heedlessness makes them as we to fare; Lest they, for trespassing, his prisoners are, Whose castle's Doubting, and whose name's Despair." THE EIGHTH STAGE. They went then till they came to the Delectable Mountains, which mountains belong to the Lord of that hill of which we have spoken before. So they went up to the mountains, to behold the gardens and orchards, the vineyards and fountains of water; where also they drank and washed themselves, and did freely eat of the vineyards. Now, there were on the tops of these mountains shepherds feeding their flocks, and they stood by the highway-side. The pilgrims, therefore, went to them, and leaning upon their staffs, (as is common with weary pilgrims when they stand to talk with any by the way,) they asked, Whose Delectable Mountains are these; and whose be the sheep that feed upon them? SHEP. These mountains are Emmanuel's land, and they are within sight of his city; and the sheep also are his, and he laid down his life for them. John 10:11,15. CHR. Is this the way to the Celestial City? SHEP. You are just in your way. CHR. How far is it thither? SHEP. Too far for any but those who shall get thither indeed. CHR. Is the way safe or dangerous? SHEP. Safe for those for whom it is to be safe; but transgressors shall fall therein. Hos. 14:9. CHR. Is there in this place any relief for pilgrims that are weary and faint in the way? SHEP. The Lord of these mountains hath given us a charge not to be forgetful to entertain strangers, Heb. 13:2; therefore the good of the place is before you . I saw also in my dream, that when the shepherds perceived that they were wayfaring men, they also put questions to them, (to which they made answer as in other places,) as, Whence came you? and, How got you into the way? and, By what means have you so persevered therein? for but few of them that begin to come hither, do show their face on these mountains. But when the shepherds heard their answers, being pleased therewith, they looked very lovingly upon them, and said, Welcome to the Delectable Mountains. The shepherds, I say, whose names were Knowledge, Experience, Watchful, and Sincere, took them by the hand, and had them to their tents, and made them partake of that which was ready at present. They said moreover, We would that you should stay here a while, to be acquainted with us, and yet more to solace yourselves with the good of these Delectable Mountains. Then they told them that they were content to stay. So they went to their rest that night, because it was very late. Then I saw in my dream, that in the morning the shepherds called up Christian and Hopeful to walk with them upon the mountains. So they went forth with them, and walked a while, having a pleasant prospect on every side. Then said the shepherds one to another, Shall we show these pilgrims some wonders? So when they had concluded to do it, they had them first to the top of a hill called Error, which was very steep on the farthest side, and bid them look down to the bottom. So Christian and Hopeful looked down, and saw at the bottom several men dashed all to pieces by a fall that they had had from the top. Then said Christian, What meaneth this? The shepherds answered, Have you not heard of them that were made to err, by hearkening to Hymenius and Philetus, as concerning the faith of the resurrection of the body? 2 Tim. 2:17,18. They answered, Yes. Then said the shepherds, Those that you see lie dashed in pieces at the bottom of this mountain are they; and they have continued to this day unburied, as you see, for an example to others to take heed how they clamber too high, or how they come too near the brink of this mountain. Then I saw that they had them to the top of another mountain, and the name of that is Caution, and bid them look afar off; which, when they did, they perceived, as they thought, several men walking up and down among the tombs that were there; and they perceived that the men were blind, because they stumbled sometimes upon the tombs, and because they could not get out from among them. Then said Christian, What means this? The shepherds then answered, Did you not see, a little below these mountains, a stile that led into a meadow, on the left hand of this way? They answered, Yes. Then said the shepherds, From that stile there goes a path that leads directly to Doubting Castle, which is kept by Giant Despair; and these men (pointing to them among the tombs) came once on pilgrimage, as you do now, even until they came to that same stile. And because the right way was rough in that place, they chose to go out of it into that meadow, and there were taken by Giant Despair, and cast into Doubting Castle; where after they had a while been kept in the dungeon, he at last did put out their eyes, and led them among those tombs, where he has left them to wander to this very day, that the saying of the wise man might be fulfilled, "He that wandereth out of the way of understanding shall remain in the congregation of the dead." Prov. 21:16. Then Christian and Hopeful looked upon one another, with tears gushing out, but yet said nothing to the shepherds. Then I saw in my dream, that the shepherds had them to another place in a bottom, where was a door on the side of a hill; and they opened the door, and bid them look in. They looked in, therefore, and saw that within it was very dark and smoky; they also thought that they heard there a rumbling noise, as of fire, and a cry of some tormented, and that they smelt the scent of brimstone. Then said Christian, What means this? The shepherds told them, This is a by-way to hell, a way that hypocrites go in at; namely, such as sell their birthright, with Esau; such as sell their Master, with Judas; such as blaspheme the Gospel, with Alexander; and that lie and dissemble, with Ananias and Sapphira his wife. Then said Hopeful to the shepherds, I perceive that these had on them, even every one, a show of pilgrimage, as we have now; had they not? SHEP. Yes, and held it a long time, too. HOPE. How far might they go on in pilgrimage in their day, since they, notwithstanding, were miserably cast away? SHEP. Some farther, and some not so far as these mountains. Then said the pilgrims one to the other, We had need to cry to the Strong for strength. SHEP. Aye, and you will have need to use it, when you have it, too. By this time the pilgrims had a desire to go forward, and the shepherds a desire they should; so they walked together towards the end of the mountains. Then said the shepherds one to another, Let us here show the pilgrims the gates of the Celestial City, if they have skill to look through our perspective glass. The pilgrims lovingly accepted the motion: so they had them to the top of a high hill, called Clear, and gave them the glass to look. Then they tried to look; but the remembrance of that last thing that the shepherds had shown them made their hands shake, by means of which impediment they could not look steadily through the glass; yet they thought they saw something like the gate, and also some of the glory of the place. Then they went away, and sang, "Thus by the shepherds secrets are reveal'd, Which from all other men are kept concealed: Come to the shepherds then, if you would see Things deep, things hid, and that mysterious be." When they were about to depart, one of the shepherds gave them a note of the way. Another of them bid them beware of the Flatterer. The third bid them take heed that they slept not upon Enchanted Ground. And the fourth bid them God speed. So I awoke from my dream. THE NINTH STAGE. And I slept, and dreamed again, and saw the same two pilgrims going down the mountains along the highway towards the city. Now, a little below these mountains, on the left hand, lieth the country of Conceit, from which country there comes into the way in which the pilgrims walked, a little crooked lane. Here, therefore, they met with a very brisk lad that came out of that country, and his name was Ignorance. So Christian asked him from what parts he came, and whither he was going. IGNOR. Sir, I was born in the country that lieth off there, a little on the left hand, and I am going to the Celestial City. CHR. But how do you think to get in at the gate, for you may find some difficulty there? IGNOR. As other good people do, said he. CHR. But what have you to show at that gate, that the gate should be opened to you? IGNOR. I know my Lord's will, and have been a good liver; I pay every man his own; I pray, fast, pay tithes, and give alms, and have left my country for whither I am going. CHR. But thou camest not in at the wicket-gate, that is at the head of this way; thou camest in hither through that same crooked lane, and therefore I fear, however thou mayest think of thyself, when the reckoning-day shall come, thou wilt have laid to thy charge, that thou art a thief and a robber, instead of getting admittance into the city. IGNOR. Gentlemen, ye be utter strangers to me; I know you not: be content to follow the religion of your country, and I will follow the religion of mine. I hope all will be well. And as for the gate that you talk of, all the world knows that is a great way off of our country. I cannot think that any man in all our parts doth so much as know the way to it; nor need they matter whether they do or no, since we have, as you see, a fine, pleasant, green lane, that comes down from our country, the next way into the way. When Christian saw that the man was wise in his own conceit, he said to Hopeful whisperingly, "There is more hope of a fool than of him." Prov. 26:12. And said, moreover, "When he that is a fool walketh by the way, his wisdom faileth him, and he saith to every one that he is a fool. Eccles. 10:3. What, shall we talk farther with him, or outgo him at present, and so leave him to think of what he hath heard already, and then stop again for him afterwards, and see if by degrees we can do any good to him? Then said Hopeful, "Let Ignorance a little while now muse On what is said, and let him not refuse Good counsel to embrace, lest he remain Still ignorant of what's the chiefest gain. God saith, those that no understanding have, (Although he made them,) them he will not save." HOPE. He further added, It is not good, I think, to say so to him all at once; let us pass him by, if you will, and talk to him anon, even as he is able to bear it. So they both went on, and Ignorance he came after. Now, when they had passed him a little way, they entered into a very dark lane, where they met a man whom seven devils had bound with seven strong cords, and were carrying him back to the door that they saw on the side of the hill. Matt. 12:45; Prov. 5:22. Now good Christian began to tremble, and so did Hopeful, his companion; yet, as the devils led away the man, Christian looked to see if he knew him; and he thought it might be one Turn-away, that dwelt in the town of Apostacy. But he did not perfectly see his face, for he did hang his head like a thief that is found; but being gone past, Hopeful looked after him, and espied on his back a paper with this inscription, "Wanton professor, and damnable apostate." Then said Christian to his fellow, Now I call to remembrance that which was told me of a thing that happened to a good man hereabout. The name of the man was Little-Faith; but a good man, and he dwelt in the town of Sincere. The thing was this. At the entering in at this passage, there comes down from Broadway-gate, a lane, called Dead-Man's lane; so called because of the murders that are commonly done there; and this Little- Faith going on pilgrimage, as we do now, chanced to sit down there and sleep. Now there happened at that time to come down the lane from Broadway-gate, three sturdy rogues, and their names were Faint-Heart, Mistrust, and Guilt, three brothers; and they, espying Little-Faith where he was, came galloping up with speed. Now the good man was just awaked from his sleep, and was getting up to go on his journey. So they came up all to him, and with threatening language bid him stand. At this, Little-Faith looked as white as a sheet, and had neither power to fight nor fly. Then said Faint-Heart, Deliver thy purse; but he making no haste to do it, (for he was loth to lose his money,) Mistrust ran up to him, and thrusting his hand into his pocket, pulled out thence a bag of silver. Then he cried out, Thieves, thieves! With that, Guilt, with a great club that was in his hand, struck Little-Faith on the head, and with that blow felled him flat to the ground, where he lay bleeding as one that would bleed to death. All this while the thieves stood by. But at last, they hearing that some were upon the road, and fearing lest it should be one Great-Grace, that dwells in the town of Good- Confidence, they betook themselves to their heels, and left this good man to shift for himself. Now, after a while, Little-Faith came to himself, and getting up, made shift to scramble on his way. This was the story. HOPE. But did they take from him all that ever he had? CHR. No; the place where his jewels were they never ransacked; so those he kept still. But, as I was told, the good man was much afflicted for his loss; for the thieves got most of his spending-money. That which they got not, as I said, were jewels; also, he had a little odd money left, but scarce enough to bring him to his journey's end. Nay, (if I was not misinformed,) he was forced to beg as he went, to keep himself alive, for his jewels he might not sell; but beg and do what he could, he went, as we say, with many a hungry belly the most part of the rest of the way. 1 Pet. 4:18. HOPE. But is it not a wonder they got not from him his certificate, by which he was to receive his admittance at the Celestial Gate? CHR. It is a wonder; but they got not that, though they missed it not through any good cunning of his; for he, being dismayed by their coming upon him, had neither power nor skill to hide any thing; so it was more by good providence than by his endeavor that they missed of that good thing. 2 Tim. 1:12-14; 2 Pet. 2:9. HOPE. But it must needs be a comfort to him they got not this jewel from him. CHR. It might have been great comfort to him, had he used it as he should; but they that told me the story said that he made but little use of it all the rest of the way, and that because of the dismay that he had in their taking away his money. Indeed, he forgot it a great part of the rest of his journey; and besides, when at any time it came into his mind, and he began to be comforted therewith, then would fresh thoughts of his loss come again upon him, and these thoughts would swallow up all. HOPE. Alas, poor man, this could not but be a great grief to him. CHR. Grief? Aye, a grief indeed! Would it not have been so to any of us, had we been used as he, to be robbed and wounded too, and that in a strange place, as he was? It is a wonder he did not die with grief, poor heart. I was told that he scattered almost all the rest of the way with nothing but doleful and bitter complaints; telling, also, to all that overtook him, or that he overtook in the way as he went, where he was robbed, and how; who they were that did it, and what he had lost; how he was wounded, and that he hardly escaped with life. HOPE. But it is a wonder that his necessity did not put him upon selling or pawning some of his jewels, that he might have wherewith to relieve himself in his journey. CHR. Thou talkest like one upon whose head is the shell to this very day. For what should he pawn them? or to whom should he sell them? In all that country where he was robbed, his jewels were not accounted of; nor did he want that relief which could from thence be administered to him. Besides, had his jewels been missing at the gate of the Celestial City, he had (and that he knew well enough) been excluded from an inheritance there, and that would have been worse to him than the appearance and villany of ten thousand thieves. HOPE. Why art thou so tart, my brother? Esau sold his birthright, and that for a mess of pottage, Heb. 12:16; and that birthright was his greatest jewel: and if he, why might not Little-Faith do so too? CHR. Esau did sell his birthright indeed, and so do many besides, and by so doing exclude themselves from the chief blessing, as also that caitiff did; but you must put a difference betwixt Esau and Little- Faith, and also betwixt their estates. Esau's birthright was typical; but Little-Faith's jewels were not so. Esau's belly was his god; but Little-Faith's belly was not so. Esau's want lay in his fleshy appetite; Little-Faith's did not so. Besides, Esau could see no further than to the fulfilling of his lusts: For I am at the point to die, said he: and what good will this birthright do me? Gen. 25:32. But Little- Faith, though it was his lot to have but a little faith, was by his little faith kept from such extravagances, and made to see and prize his jewels more than to sell them, as Esau did his birthright. You read not any where that Esau had faith, no, not so much as a little; therefore no marvel, where the flesh only bears sway, (as it will in that man where no faith is to resist,) if he sells his birthright and his soul and all, and that to the devil of hell; for it is with such as it is with the ass, who in her occasion cannot be turned away, Jer. 2:24: when their minds are set upon their lusts, they will have them, whatever they cost. But Little-Faith was of another temper; his mind was on things divine; his livelihood was upon things that were spiritual, and from above: therefore, to what end should he that is of such a temper sell his jewels (had there been any that would have bought them) to fill his mind with empty things? Will a man give a penny to fill his belly with hay? or can you persuade the turtle-dove to live upon carrion, like the crow? Though faithless ones can, for carnal lusts, pawn, or mortgage, or sell what they have, and themselves outright to boot; yet they that have faith, saving faith, though but a little of it, cannot do so. Here, therefore, my brother, is thy mistake. HOPE. I acknowledge it; but yet your severe reflection had almost made me angry. CHR. Why, I did but compare thee to some of the birds that are of the brisker sort, who will run to and fro in untrodden paths with the shell upon their heads: but pass by that, and consider the matter under debate, and all shall be well betwixt thee and me. HOPE. But, Christian, these three fellows, I am persuaded in my heart, are but a company of cowards: would they have run else, think you, as they did, at the noise of one that was coming on the road? Why did not Little-Faith pluck up a greater heart? He might, methinks, have stood one brush with them, and have yielded when there had been no remedy. CHR. That they are cowards, many have said, but few have found it so in the time of trial. As for a great heart, Little-Faith had none; and I perceive by thee, my brother, hadst thou been the man concerned, thou art but for a brush, and then to yield. And verily, since this is the height of thy stomach now they are at a distance from us, should they appear to thee as they did to him, they might put thee to second thoughts. But consider again, that they are but journeymen thieves; They serve under the king of the bottomless pit, who, if need be, will come to their aid himself, and his voice is as the roaring of a lion. 1 Pet. 5:8. I myself have been engaged as this Little-Faith was, and I found it a terrible thing. These three villains set upon me, and I beginning like a Christian to resist, they gave but a call, and in came their master. I would, as the saying is, have given my life for a penny, but that, as God would have it, I was clothed with armor of proof. Aye, and yet, though I was so harnessed, I found it hard work to quit myself like a man: no man can tell what in that combat attends us, but he that hath been in the battle himself. HOPE. Well, but they ran, you see, when they did but suppose that one Great-Grace was in the way. CHR. True, they have often fled, both they and their master, when Great- Grace hath but appeared; and no marvel, for he is the King's champion. But I trow you will put some difference between Little-Faith and the King's champion. All the King's subjects are not his champions; nor can they, when tried, do such feats of war as he. Is it meet to think that a little child should handle Goliath as David did? or that there should be the strength of an ox in a wren? Some are strong, some are weak; some have great faith, some have little: this man was one of the weak, and therefore he went to the wall. HOPE. I would it had been Great-Grace, for their sakes. CHR. If it had been he, he might have had his hands full: for I must tell you, that though Great-Grace is excellent good at his weapons, and has, and can, so long as he keeps them at sword's point, do well enough with them; yet if they get within him, even Faint-Heart, Mistrust, or the other, it shall go hard but they will throw up his heels. And when a man is down, you know, what can he do? Whoso looks well upon Great-Grace's face, will see those scars and cuts there that shall easily give demonstration of what I say. Yea, once I heard that he should say, (and that when he was in the combat,) We despaired even of life. How did these sturdy rogues and their fellows make David groan, mourn, and roar! Yea, Heman, Psa. 88, and Hezekiah too, though champions in their days, were forced to bestir them when by these assaulted; and yet, notwithstanding, they had their coats soundly brushed by them. Peter, upon a time, would go try what he could do; but though some do say of him that he is the prince of the apostles, they handled him so that they made him at last afraid of a sorry girl. Besides, their king is at their whistle; he is never out of hearing; and if at any time they be put to the worst, he, if possible, comes in to help them; and of him it is said, "The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold; the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon. He esteemeth iron as straw, and brass as rotten wood. The arrow cannot make him fly; sling-stones are turned with him into stubble. Darts are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a spear." Job 41:26-29. What can a man do in this case? It is true, if a man could at every turn have Job's horse, and had skill and courage to ride him, he might do notable things. "For his neck is clothed with thunder. He will not be afraid as a grasshopper: the glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength; he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha! and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shoutings." Job 39:19-25. But for such footmen as thee and I are, let us never desire to meet with an enemy, nor vaunt as if we could do better, when we hear of others that have been foiled, nor be tickled at the thoughts of our own manhood; for such commonly come by the worst when tried. Witness Peter, of whom I made mention before: he would swagger, aye, he would; he would, as his vain mind prompted him to say, do better and stand more for his Master than all men: but who so foiled and run down by those villains as he? When, therefore, we hear that such robberies are done on the King's highway, two things become us to do. 1. To go out harnessed, and be sure to take a shield with us: for it was for want of that, that he who laid so lustily at Leviathan could not make him yield; for, indeed, if that be wanting, he fears us not at all. Therefore, he that had skill hath said, "Above all, take the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked." Eph. 6:16. 2. It is good, also, that we desire of the King a convoy, yea, that he will go with us himself. This made David rejoice when in the Valley of the Shadow of Death; and Moses was rather for dying where he stood, than to go one step without his God. Exod. 33:15. O, my brother, if he will but go along with us, what need we be afraid of ten thousands that shall set themselves against us? Psa. 3:5-8; 27:1-3. But without him, the proud helpers fall under the slain. Isa. 10:4. I, for my part, have been in the fray before now; and though (through the goodness of Him that is best) I am, as you see, alive, yet I cannot boast of any manhood. Glad shall I be if I meet with no more such brunts; though I fear we are not got beyond all danger. However, since the lion and the bear have not as yet devoured me, I hope God will also deliver us from the next uncircumcised Philistine. Then sang Christian, "Poor Little-Faith! hast been among the thieves? Wast robb'd? Remember this, whoso believes, And get more faith; then shall you victors be Over ten thousand-else scarce over three." So they went on, and Ignorance followed. They went then till they came at a place where they saw a way put itself into their way, and seemed withal to lie as strait as the way which they should go; and here they knew not which of the two to take, for both seemed strait before them: therefore here they stood still to consider. And as they were thinking about the way, behold a man black of flesh, but covered with a very light robe, come to them, and asked them why they stood there. They answered, they were going to the Celestial City, but knew not which of these ways to take. "Follow me," said the man, "it is thither that I am going." So they followed him in the way that but now came into the road, which by degrees turned, and turned them so far from the city that they desired to go to, that in a little time their faces were turned away from it; yet they follow him. But by and by, before they were aware, he led them both within the compass of a net, in which they were both so entangled that they knew not what to do; and with that the white robe fell off the black man's back. Then they saw where they were. Wherefore there they lay crying some time, for they could not get themselves out. CHR. Then said Christian to his fellow, Now do I see myself in an error. Did not the shepherds bid us beware of the Flatterer? As is the saying of the wise man, so we have found it this day: "A man that flattereth his neighbor, spreadeth a net for his feet." Prov. 29:5. HOPE. They also gave us a note of directions about the way, for our more sure finding thereof; but therein we have also forgotten to read, and have not kept ourselves from the paths of the destroyer. Here David was wiser than we; for saith he, "Concerning the works of men, by the word of thy lips I have kept me from the paths of the Destroyer." Psa. 17:4. Thus they lay bewailing themselves in the net. At last they espied a Shining One coming towards them with a whip of small cords in his hand. When he was come to the place where they were, he asked them whence they came, and what they did there. They told him that they were poor pilgrims going to Zion, but were led out of their way by a black man clothed in white, who bid us, said they, follow him, for he was going thither too. Then said he with the whip, It is Flatterer, a false apostle, that hath transformed himself into an angel of light. Dan. 11:32; 2 Cor. 11:13,14. So he rent the net, and let the men out. Then said he to them, Follow me, that I may set you in your way again. So he led them back to the way which they had left to follow the Flatterer. Then he asked them, saying, Where did you lie the last night? They said, With the shepherds upon the Delectable Mountains. He asked them then if they had not of the shepherds a note of direction for the way. They answered, Yes. But did you not, said he, when you were at a stand, pluck out and read your note? They answered, No. He asked them, Why? They said they forgot. He asked, moreover, if the shepherds did not bid them beware of the Flatterer. They answered, Yes; but we did not imagine, said they, that this fine-spoken man had been he. Rom. 16:17,18. Then I saw in my dream, that he commanded them to lie down; which when they did, he chastised them sore, to teach them the good way wherein they should walk, Deut. 25:2; 2 Chron. 6:27; and as he chastised them, he said, "As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten; be zealous, therefore, and repent." Rev. 3:19. This done, he bids them to go on their way, and take good heed to the other directions of the shepherds. So they thanked him for all his kindness, and went softly along the right way, singing, "Come hither, you that walk along the way, See how the pilgrims fare that go astray: They catched are in an entangling net, Cause they good counsel lightly did forget: 'Tis true, they rescued were; but yet, you see, They're scouged to boot; let this your caution be." Now, after awhile, they perceived afar off, one coming softly, and alone, all along the highway, to meet them. Then said Christian to his fellow, Yonder is a man with his back towards Zion, and he is coming to meet us. HOPE. I see him; let us take heed to ourselves now, lest he should prove a Flatterer also. So he drew nearer and nearer, and at last came up to them. His name was Atheist, and he asked them whither they were going. CHR. We are going to Mount Zion. Then Atheist fell into a very great laughter. CHR. What's the meaning of your laughter? ATHEIST. I laugh to see what ignorant persons you are, to take upon you so tedious a journey, and yet are like to have nothing but your travel for your pains. CHR. Why, man, do you think we shall not be received? ATHEIST. Received! There is not such a place as you dream of in all this world. CHR. But there is in the world to come. ATHEIST. When I was at home in mine own country I heard as you now affirm, and from that hearing went out to see, and have been seeking this city these twenty years, but find no more of it than I did the first day I set out. Eccles. 10:15; Jer. 17:15. CHR. We have both heard, and believe, that there is such a place to be found. ATHEIST. Had not I, when at home, believed, I had not come thus far to seek; but finding none, (and yet I should, had there been such a place to be found, for I have gone to seek it farther than you,) I am going back again, and will seek to refresh myself with the things that I then cast away for hopes of that which I now see is not. CHR. Then said Christian to Hopeful his companion, Is it true which this man hath said? HOPE. Take heed, he is one of the Flatterers. Remember what it cost us once already for our hearkening to such kind of fellows. What! no Mount Zion? Did we not see from the Delectable Mountains the gate of the city? Also, are we not now to walk by faith? 2 Cor. 5:7. Let us go on, lest the man with the whip overtake us again. You should have taught me that lesson, which I will sound you in the ears withal: "Cease, my son, to hear the instruction that causeth to err from the words of knowledge." Prov. 19:27. I say, my brother, cease to hear him, and let us believe to the saving of the soul. CHR. My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of our belief myself, but to prove thee, and to fetch from thee a fruit of the honesty of thy heart. As for this man, I know that he is blinded by the God of this world. Let thee and me go on, knowing that we have belief of the truth; and no lie is of the truth. 1 John, 5:21. HOPE. Now do I rejoice in hope of the glory of God. So they turned away from the man; and he, laughing at them, went his way. I then saw in my dream, that they went on until they came into a certain country whose air naturally tended to make one drowsy, if he came a stranger into it. And here Hopeful began to be very dull, and heavy to sleep: wherefore he said unto Christian, I do now begin to grow so drowsy that I can scarcely hold open mine eyes; let us lie down here, and take one nap. CHR. By no means, said the other; lest, sleeping, we never awake more. HOPE. Why, my brother? sleep is sweet to the laboring man; we may be refreshed, if we take a nap. CHR. Do you not remember that one of the shepherds bid us beware of the Enchanted Ground? He meant by that, that we should beware of sleeping; wherefore "let us not sleep, as do others; but let us watch and be sober." 1 Thess. 5:6. HOPE. I acknowledge myself in a fault; and had I been here alone, I had by sleeping run the danger of death. I see it is true that the wise man saith, "Two are better than one." Eccl. 4:9. Hitherto hath thy company been my mercy; and thou shalt have a good reward for thy labor. CHR. Now, then, said Christian, to prevent drowsiness in this place, let us fall into good discourse. HOPE. With all my heart, said the other. CHR. Where shall we begin? HOPE. Where God began with us. But do you begin, if you please. CHR. I will sing you first this song: "When saints do sleepy grow, let them come hither, And hear how these two pilgrims talk together; Yea, let them learn of them in any wise, Thus to keep ope their drowsy, slumb'ring eyes. Saints' fellowship, if it be managed well, Keeps them awake, and that in spite of hell." Then Christian began, and said, I will ask you a question. How came you to think at first of doing what you do now? HOPE. Do you mean, how came I at first to look after the good of my soul? CHR. Yes, that is my meaning. HOPE. I continued a great while in the delight of those things which were seen and sold at our fair; things which I believe now would have, had I continued in them still, drowned me in perdition and destruction. CHR. What things were they? HOPE. All the treasures and riches of the world. Also I delighted much in rioting, reveling, drinking, swearing, lying, uncleanness, Sabbath- breaking, and what not, that tended to destroy the soul. But I found at last, by hearing and considering of things that are divine, which, indeed, I heard of you, as also of beloved Faithful, that was put to death for his faith and good living in Vanity Fair, that the end of these things is death, Rom. 6:21-23; and that for these things' sake, the wrath of God cometh upon the children of disobedience. Eph. 5:6. CHR. And did you presently fall under the power of this conviction? HOPE. No, I was not willing presently to know the evil of sin, nor the damnation that follows upon the commission of it; but endeavored, when my mind at first began to be shaken with the word, to shut mine eyes against the light thereof. CHR. But what was the cause of your carrying of it thus to the first workings of God's blessed Spirit upon you? HOPE. The causes were, 1. I was ignorant that this was the work of God upon me. I never thought that by awakenings for sin, God at first begins the conversion of a sinner. 2. Sin was yet very sweet to my flesh, and I was loth to leave it. 3. I could not tell how to part with mine old companions, their presence and actions were so desirable unto me. 4. The hours in which convictions were upon me, were such troublesome and such heart-affrighting hours, that I could not bear, no not so much as the remembrance of them upon my heart. CHR. Then, as it seems, sometimes you got rid of your trouble? HOPE. Yes, verily, but it would come into my mind again; and then I should be as bad, nay, worse than I was before. CHR. Why, what was it that brought your sins to mind again? HOPE. Many things; as, 1. If I did but meet a good man in the streets; or, 2. If I have heard any read in the Bible; or, 3. If mine head did begin to ache; or, 4. If I were told that some of my neighbors were sick; or, 5. If I heard the bell toll for some that were dead; or, 6. If I thought of dying myself; or, 7. If I heard that sudden death happened to others. 8. But especially when I thought of myself, that I must quickly come to judgment. CHR. And could you at any time, with ease, get off the guilt of sin, when by any of these ways it came upon you? HOPE. No, not I; for then they got faster hold of my conscience; and then, if I did but think of going back to sin, (though my mind was turned against it,) it would be double torment to me. CHR. And how did you do then? HOPE. I thought I must endeavor to mend my life; for else, thought I, I am sure to be damned. CHR. And did you endeavor to mend? HOPE. Yes, and fled from, not only my sins, but sinful company too, and betook me to religious duties, as praying, reading, weeping for sin, speaking truth to my neighbors, etc. These things did I, with many others, too much here to relate. CHR. And did you think yourself well then? HOPE. Yes, for a while; but at the last my trouble came tumbling upon me again, and that over the neck of all my reformations. CHR. How came that about, since you were now reformed? HOPE. There were several things brought it upon me, especially such sayings as these: "All our righteousnesses are as filthy rags." Isa. 64:6. "By the works of the law shall no flesh be justified." Gal. 2:16. "When ye have done all these things, say, We are unprofitable," Luke 17:10; with many more such like. From whence I began to reason with myself thus: If all my righteousnesses are as filthy rags; if by the deeds of the law no man can be justified; and if, when we have done all, we are yet unprofitable, then is it but a folly to think of heaven by the law. I farther thought thus: If a man runs a hundred pounds into the shopkeeper's debt, and after that shall pay for all that he shall fetch; yet if his old debt stands still in the book uncrossed, the shopkeeper may sue him for it, and cast him into prison, till he shall pay the debt. CHR. Well, and how did you apply this to yourself? HOPE. Why, I thought thus with myself: I have by my sins run a great way into God's book, and my now reforming will not pay off that score; therefore I should think still, under all my present amendments, But how shall I be freed from that damnation that I brought myself in danger of by my former transgressions? CHR. A very good application: but pray go on. HOPE. Another thing that hath troubled me ever since my late amendments, is, that if I look narrowly into the best of what I do now, I still see sin, new sin, mixing itself with the best of that I do; so that now I am forced to conclude, that notwithstanding my former fond conceits of myself and duties, I have committed sin enough in one day to send me to hell, though my former life had been faultless. CHR. And what did you do then? HOPE. Do! I could not tell what to do, until I broke my mind to Faithful; for he and I were well acquainted. And he told me, that unless I could obtain the righteousness of a man that never had sinned, neither mine own, nor all the righteousness of the world, could save me. CHR. And did you think he spake true? HOPE. Had he told me so when I was pleased and satisfied with my own amendments, I had called him fool for his pains; but now, since I see my own infirmity, and the sin which cleaves to my best performance, I have been forced to be of his opinion. CHR. But did you think, when at first he suggested it to you, that there was such a man to be found, of whom it might justly be said, that he never committed sin? HOPE. I must confess the words at first sounded strangely; but after a little more talk and company with him, I had full conviction about it. CHR. And did you ask him what man this was, and how you must be justified by him? HOPE. Yes, and he told me it was the Lord Jesus, that dwelleth on the right hand of the Most High. Heb. 10:12-21. And thus, said he, you must be justified by him, even by trusting to what he hath done by himself in the days of his flesh, and suffered when he did hang on the tree. Rom. 4:5; Col. 1:14; 1 Pet. 1:19. I asked him further, how that man's righteousness could be of that efficacy, to justify another before God. And he told me he was the mighty God, and did what he did, and died the death also, not for himself, but for me; to whom his doings, and the worthiness of them, should be imputed, if I believed on him. CHR. And what did you do then? HOPE. I made my objections against my believing, for that I thought he was not willing to save me. CHR. And what said Faithful to you then? HOPE. He bid me go to him and see. Then I said it was presumption. He said, No; for I was invited to come. Matt. 11:28. Then he gave me a book of Jesus' inditing, to encourage me the more freely to come; and he said concerning that book, that every jot and tittle thereof stood firmer than heaven and earth. Matt. 24:35. Then I asked him what I must do when I came; and he told me I must entreat upon my knees, Psa. 95:6; Dan. 6:10, with all my heart and soul, Jer. 29:12,13, the Father to reveal him to me. Then I asked him further, how I must make my supplications to him; and he said, Go, and thou shalt find him upon a mercy-seat, where he sits all the year long to give pardon and forgiveness to them that come. Exod. 25:22; Lev. 16:2; Num. 7:89; Heb. 4:16. I told him, that I knew not what to say when I came; and he bid say to this effect: God be merciful to me a sinner, and make me to know and believe in Jesus Christ; for I see, that if his righteousness had not been, or I have not faith in that righteousness, I am utterly cast away. Lord, I have heard that thou art a merciful God, and hast ordained that thy Son Jesus Christ should be the Saviour of the world; and moreover, that thou art willing to bestow him upon such a poor sinner as I am-and I am a sinner indeed. Lord, take therefore this opportunity, and magnify thy grace in the salvation of my soul, through thy Son Jesus Christ. Amen. CHR. And did you do as you were bidden? HOPE. Yes, over, and over, and over. CHR. And did the Father reveal the Son to you? HOPE. Not at the first, nor second, nor third, nor fourth, nor fifth, no, nor at the sixth time neither. CHR. What did you do then? HOPE. What? why I could not tell what to do. CHR. Had you not thoughts of leaving off praying? HOPE. Yes; an hundred times twice told. CHR. And what was the reason you did not? HOPE. I believed that it was true which hath been told me, to wit, that without the righteousness of this Christ, all the world could not save me; and therefore, thought I with myself, if I leave off, I die, and I can but die at the throne of grace. And withal this came into my mind, "If it tarry, wait for it; because it will surely come, and will not tarry." Hab. 2:3. So I continued praying until the Father showed me his Son. CHR. And how was he revealed unto you? HOPE. I did not see him with my bodily eyes, but with the eyes of my understanding, Eph. 1:18,19; and thus it was. One day I was very sad, I think sadder than at any one time in my life; and this sadness was through a fresh sight of the greatness and vileness of my sins. And as I was then looking for nothing but hell, and the everlasting damnation of my soul, suddenly, as I thought, I saw the Lord Jesus looking down from heaven upon me, and saying, "Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved." Acts 16:31. But I replied, Lord, I am a great, a very great sinner: and he answered, "My grace is sufficient for thee." 2 Cor. 12:9. Then I said, But, Lord, what is believing? And then I saw from that saying, "He that cometh to me shall never hunger, and he that believeth on me shall never thirst," John 6:35, that believing and coming was all one; and that he that came, that is, that ran out in his heart and affections after salvation by Christ, he indeed believed in Christ. Then the water stood in mine eyes, and I asked further, But, Lord, may such a great sinner as I am be indeed accepted of thee, and be saved by thee? And I heard him say, "And him that cometh to me, I will in no wise cast out." John 6:37. Then I said, But how, Lord, must I consider of thee in my coming to thee, that my faith may be placed aright upon thee? Then he said, "Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners." 1 Tim. 1:15. He is the end of the law for righteousness to every one that believes. Rom.10:4, and chap. 4. He died for our sins, and rose again for our justification. Rom. 4:25. He loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood. Rev. 1:5. He is the Mediator between God and us. 1 Tim. 2:5. He ever liveth to make intercession for us. Heb. 7:25. From all which I gathered, that I must look for righteousness in his person, and for satisfaction for my sins by his blood: that what he did in obedience to his Father's law, and in submitting to the penalty thereof, was not for himself, but for him that will accept it for his salvation, and be thankful. And now was my heart full of joy, mine eyes full of tears, and mine affections running over with love to the name, people, and ways of Jesus Christ. CHR. This was a revelation of Christ to your soul indeed. But tell me particularly what effect this had upon your spirit. HOPE. It made me see that all the world, notwithstanding all the righteousness thereof, is in a state of condemnation. It made me see that God the Father, though he be just, can justly justify the coming sinner. It made me greatly ashamed of the vileness of my former life, and confounded me with the sense of mine own ignorance; for there never came a thought into my heart before now that showed me so the beauty of Jesus Christ. It made me love a holy life, and long to do something for the honor and glory of the name of the Lord Jesus. Yea, I thought that had I now a thousand gallons of blood in my body, I could spill it all for the sake of the Lord Jesus. I saw then in my dream, that Hopeful looked back, and saw Ignorance, whom they had left behind, coming after. Look, said he to Christian, how far yonder youngster loitereth behind. CHR. Aye, aye, I see him: he careth not for our company. HOPE. But I trow it would not have hurt him, had he kept pace with us hitherto. CHR. That is true; but I warrant you he thinketh otherwise. HOPE. That I think he doth; but, however, let us tarry for him. (So they did.) Then Christian said to him, Come away, man; why do you stay so behind? IGNOR. I take my pleasure in walking alone, even more a great deal than in company, unless I like it the better. Then said Christian to Hopeful, (but softly,) Did I not tell you he cared not for our company? But, however, said he, come up, and let us talk away the time in this solitary place. Then, directing his speech to Ignorance, he said, Come, how do you do? How stands it between God and your soul now? IGNOR. I hope, well; for I am always full of good motions, that come into my mind to comfort me as I walk. CHR. What good motions? Pray tell us. IGNOR. Why, I think of God and heaven. CHR. So do the devils and damned souls. IGNOR. But I think of them, and desire them. CHR. So do many that are never like to come there. "The soul of the sluggard desireth, and hath nothing." Prov. 13:4. IGNOR. But I think of them, and leave all for them. CHR. That I doubt: for to leave all is a very hard matter; yea, a harder matter than many are aware of. But why, or by what, art thou persuaded that thou hast left all for God and heaven? IGNOR. My heart tells me so. CHR. The wise man says, "He that trusteth in his own heart is a fool." Prov. 28:26. IGNOR. That is spoken of an evil heart; but mine is a good one. CHR. But how dost thou prove that? IGNOR. It comforts me in hopes of heaven. CHR. That may be through its deceitfulness; for a man's heart may minister comfort to him in the hopes of that thing for which he has yet no ground to hope. IGNOR. But my heart and life agree together; and therefore my hope is well-grounded. CHR. Who told thee that thy heart and life agree together? IGNOR. My heart tells me so. CHR. "Ask my fellow if I be a thief." Thy heart tells thee so! Except the word of God beareth witness in this matter, other testimony is of no value. IGNOR. But is it not a good heart that hath good thoughts? and is not that a good life that is according to God's commandments? CHR. Yes, that is a good heart that hath good thoughts, and that is a good life that is according to God's commandments; but it is one thing indeed to have these, and another thing only to think so. IGNOR. Pray, what count you good thoughts, and a life according to God's commandments? CHR. There are good thoughts of divers kinds; some respecting ourselves, some God, some Christ, and some other things. IGNOR. What be good thoughts respecting ourselves? CHR. Such as agree with the word of God. IGNOR. When do our thoughts of ourselves agree with the word of God? CHR. When we pass the same judgment upon ourselves which the word passes. To explain myself: the word of God saith of persons in a natural condition, "There is none righteous, there is none that doeth good." It saith also, that, "every imagination of the heart of man is only evil, and that continually." Gen. 6:5; Rom. 3. And again, "The imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth." Gen. 8:21. Now, then, when we think thus of ourselves, having sense thereof, then are our thoughts good ones, because according to the word of God. IGNOR. I will never believe that my heart is thus bad. CHR. Therefore thou never hadst one good thought concerning thyself in thy life. But let me go on. As the word passeth a judgment upon our hearts, so it passeth a judgment upon our ways; and when the thoughts of our hearts and ways agree with the judgment which the word giveth of both, then are both good, because agreeing thereto. IGNOR. Make out your meaning. CHR. Why, the word of God saith, that man's ways are crooked ways, not good but perverse; it saith, they are naturally out of the good way, that they have not known it. Psa. 125:5; Prov. 2:15; Rom. 3:12. Now, when a man thus thinketh of his ways, I say, when he doth sensibly, and with heart-humiliation, thus think, then hath he good thoughts of his own ways, because his thoughts now agree with the judgment of the word of God. IGNOR. What are good thoughts concerning God? CHR. Even, as I have said concerning ourselves, when our thoughts of God do agree with what the word saith of him; and that is, when we think of his being and attributes as the word hath taught, of which I cannot now discourse at large. But to speak of him with reference to us: then have we right thoughts of God when we think that he knows us better than we know ourselves, and can see sin in us when and where we can see none in ourselves; when we think he knows our inmost thoughts, and that our heart, with all its depths, is always open unto his eyes; also when we think that all our righteousness stinks in his nostrils, and that therefore he cannot abide to see us stand before him in any confidence, even in all our best performances. IGNOR. Do you think that I am such a fool as to think that God can see no further than I; or that I would come to God in the best of my performances? CHR. Why, how dost thou think in this matter? IGNOR. Why, to be short, I think I must believe in Christ for justification. CHR. How! think thou must believe in Christ, when thou seest not thy need of him! Thou neither seest thy original nor actual infirmities; but hast such an opinion of thyself, and of what thou doest, as plainly renders thee to be one that did never see the necessity of Christ's personal righteousness to justify thee before God. How, then, dost thou say, I believe in Christ? IGNOR. I believe well enough, for all that. CHR. How dost thou believe? IGNOR. I believe that Christ died for sinners; and that I shall be justified before God from the curse, through his gracious acceptance of my obedience to his laws. Or thus, Christ makes my duties, that are religious, acceptable to his Father by virtue of his merits, and so shall I be justified. CHR. Let me give an answer to this confession of thy faith. 1. Thou believest with a fantastical faith; for this faith is nowhere described in the word. 2. Thou believest with a false faith; because it taketh justification from the personal righteousness of Christ, and applies it to thy own. 3. This faith maketh not Christ a justifier of thy person, but of thy actions; and of thy person for thy action's sake, which is false. 4. Therefore this faith is deceitful, even such as will leave thee under wrath in the day of God Almighty: for true justifying faith puts the soul, as sensible of its lost condition by the law, upon flying for refuge unto Christ's righteousness; (which righteousness of his is not an act of grace by which he maketh, for justification, thy obedience accepted with God, but his personal obedience to the law, in doing and suffering for us what that required at our hands;) this righteousness, I say, true faith accepteth; under the skirt of which the soul being shrouded, and by it presented as spotless before God, it is accepted, and acquitted from condemnation. IGNOR. What! would you have us trust to what Christ in his own person has done without us? This conceit would loosen the reins of our lust, and tolerate us to live as we list: for what matter how we live, if we may be justified by Christ's personal righteousness from all, when we believe it? CHR. Ignorance is thy name, and as thy name is, so art thou: even this thy answer demonstrateth what I say. Ignorant thou art of what justifying righteousness is, and as ignorant how to secure thy soul, through the faith of it, from the heavy wrath of God. Yea, thou also art ignorant of the true effects of saving faith in this righteousness of Christ, which is to bow and win over the heart to God in Christ, to love his name, his word, ways, and people, and not as thou ignorantly imaginest. HOPE. Ask him if ever he had Christ revealed to him from heaven. IGNOR. What! you are a man for revelations! I do believe, that what both you and all the rest of you say about that matter, is but the fruit of distracted brains. HOPE. Why, man, Christ is so hid in God from the natural apprehensions of the flesh, that he cannot by any man be savingly known, unless God the Father reveals him to him. IGNOR. That is your faith, but not mine, yet mine, I doubt not, is as good as yours, though I have not in my head so many whimsies as you. CHR. Give me leave to put in a word. You ought not so slightly to speak of this matter: for this I will boldly affirm, even as my good companion hath done, that no man can know Jesus Christ but by the revelation of the Father: yea, and faith too, by which the soul layeth hold upon Christ, (if it be right,) must be wrought by the exceeding greatness of his mighty power, Matt. 11:27; 1 Cor. 12:3; Eph. 1:17-19; the working of which faith, I perceive, poor Ignorance, thou art ignorant of. Be awakened, then, see thine own wretchedness, and fly to the Lord Jesus; and by his righteousness, which is the righteousness of God, (for he himself is God,) thou shalt be delivered from condemnation. IGNOR.You go so fast I cannot keep pace with you; do you go on before: I must stay a while behind. Then they said, "Well, Ignorance, wilt thou yet foolish be, To slight good counsel, ten times given thee? And if thou yet refuse it, thou shalt know, Ere long, the evil of thy doing so. Remember, man, in time: stoop, do not fear: Good counsel, taken well, saves; therefore hear. But if thou yet shalt slight it, thou wilt be The loser, Ignorance, I'll warrant thee." THE TENTH STAGE. Then Christian addressed himself thus to his fellow: CHR. Well, come, my good Hopeful, I perceive that thou and I must walk by ourselves again. So I saw in my dream, that they went on apace before, and Ignorance he came hobbling after. Then said Christian to his companion, I much pity this poor man: it will certainly go ill with him at last. HOPE. Alas! there are abundance in our town in his condition, whole families, yea, whole streets, and that of pilgrims too; and if there be so many in our parts, how many, think you, must there be in the place where he was born? CHR. Indeed, the word saith, "He hath blinded their eyes, lest they should see," etc. But, now we are by ourselves, what do you think of such men? Have they at no time, think you, convictions of sin, and so, consequently, fears that their state is dangerous? HOPE. Nay, do you answer that question yourself, for you are the elder man. CHR. Then I say, sometimes (as I think) they may; but they being naturally ignorant, understand not that such convictions tend to their good; and therefore they do desperately seek to stifle them, and presumptuously continue to flatter themselves in the way of their own hearts. HOPE. I do believe, as you say, that fear tends much to men's good, and to make them right at their beginning to go on pilgrimage. CHR. Without all doubt it doth, if it be right; for so says the word, "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." Job 28:28; Psalm 111:10; Prov. 1:7; 9:10. HOPE. How will you describe right fear? CHR. True or right fear is discovered by three things: 1. By its rise; it is caused by saving convictions for sin. 2. It driveth the soul to lay fast hold of Christ for salvation. 3. It begetteth and continueth in the soul a great reverence of God, his word, and ways; keeping it tender, and making it afraid to turn from them, to the right hand or to the left, to any thing that may dishonor God, break its peace, grieve the Spirit, or cause the enemy to speak reproachfully. HOPE. Well said; I believe you have said the truth. Are we now almost got past the Enchanted Ground? CHR. Why? are you weary of this discourse? HOPE. No, verily, but that I would know where we are. CHR. We have not now above two miles further to go thereon. But let us return to our matter. Now, the ignorant know not that such conviction as tend to put them in fear, are for their good, and therefore they seek to stifle them. HOPE. How do they seek to stifle them? CHR. 1. They think that those fears are wrought by the devil, (though indeed they are wrought of God,) and thinking so, they resist them, as things that directly tend to their overthrow. 2. They also think that these fears tend to the spoiling of their faith; when, alas for them, poor men that they are, they have none at all; and therefore they harden their hearts against them. 3. They presume they ought not to fear, and therefore, in despite of them, wax presumptuously confident. 4. They see that those fears tend to take away from them their pitiful old self- holiness, and therefore they resist them with all their might. HOPE. I know something of this myself; for before I knew myself it was so with me. CHR. Well, we will leave, at this time, our neighbor Ignorance by himself, and fall upon another profitable question. HOPE. With all my heart; but you shall still begin. CHR. Well then, did you not know, about ten years ago, one Temporary in your parts, who was a forward man in religion then? HOPE. Know him! yes; he dwelt in Graceless, a town about two miles off of Honesty, and he dwelt next door to one Turnback. CHR. Right; he dwelt under the same roof with him. Well, that man was much awakened once: I believe that then he had some sight of his sins, and of the wages that were due thereto. HOPE. I am of your mind, for (my house not being above three miles from him) he would oft-times come to me, and that with many tears. Truly I pitied the man, and was not altogether without hope of him; but one may see, it is not every one that cries, "Lord, Lord!" CHR. He told me once that he was resolved to go on pilgrimage, as we go now; but all of a sudden he grew acquainted with one Save-self, and then he became a stranger to me. HOPE. Now, since we are talking about him, let us a little inquire into the reason of the sudden backsliding of him and such others. CHR. It may be very profitable; but do you begin. HOPE. Well, then, there are, in my judgment, four reasons for it: 1. Though the consciences of such men are awakened, yet their minds are not changed: therefore, when the power of guilt weareth away, that which provoked them to be religious ceaseth; wherefore they naturally turn to their own course again; even as we see the dog that is sick of what he hath eaten, so long as his sickness prevails, he vomits and casts up all; not that he doth this of a free mind, (if we may say a dog has a mind,) but because it troubleth his stomach: but now, when his sickness is over, and so his stomach eased, his desires being not at all alienated from his vomit, he turns him about, and licks up all; and so it is true which is written, "The dog is turned to his own vomit again." 2 Pet. 2:22. Thus, I say, being hot for heaven, by virtue only of the sense and fear of the torments of hell, as their sense and fear of damnation chills and cools, so their desires for heaven and salvation cool also. So then it comes to pass, that when their guilt and fear is gone, their desires for heaven and happiness die, and they return to their course again. 2. Another reason is, they have slavish fears that do overmaster them: I speak now of the fears that they have of men; "For the fear of man bringeth a snare." Prov. 29:25. So then, though they seem to be hot for heaven so long as the flames of hell are about their ears, yet, when that terror is a little over, they betake themselves to second thoughts, namely, that it is good to be wise and not to run (for they know not what) the hazard of losing all, or at least of bringing themselves into unavoidable and unnecessary troubles; and so they fall in with the world again. 3. The shame that attends religion lies also as a block in their way: they are proud and haughty, and religion in their eye is low and contemptible: therefore when they have lost their sense of hell and the wrath to come, they return again to their former course. 4. Guilt, and to meditate terror, are grievous to them; they like not to see their misery before they come into it; though perhaps the sight of at it first, if they loved that sight, might make them fly whither the righteous fly and are safe; but because they do, as I hinted before, even shun the thoughts of guilt and terror, therefore, when once they are rid of their awakenings about the terrors and wrath of God, they harden their hearts gladly, and choose such ways as will harden them more and more. CHR. You are pretty near the business, for the bottom of all is for want of a change in their mind and will. And therefore they are but like the felon that standeth before the judge: he quakes and trembles, and seems to repent most heartily, but the bottom of all is the fear of the halter: not that he hath any detestation of the offence, as it is evident; because, let but this man have his liberty, and he will be a thief, and so a rogue still; whereas, if his mind was changed, he would be otherwise. HOPE. Now I have showed you the reason of their going back, do you show me the manner thereof. CHR. So I will willingly. 1. They draw off their thoughts, all that they may, from the remembrance of God, death, and judgment to come. 2. Then they cast off by degrees private duties, as closet prayer, curbing their lusts, watching, sorrow for sin, and the like. 3. Then they shun the company of lively and warm Christians. 4. After that, they grow cold to public duty, as hearing, reading, godly conference, and the like. 5. They then begin to pick holes, as we say, in the coats of some of the godly, and that devilishly, that they may have a seeming color to throw religion (for the sake of some infirmities they have espied in them) behind their backs. 6. Then they begin to adhere to, and associate themselves with, carnal, loose, and wanton men. 7. Then they give way to carnal and wanton discourses in secret; and glad are they if they can see such things in any that are counted honest, that they may the more boldly do it through their example. 8. After this they begin to play with little sins openly. 9. And then, being hardened, they show themselves as they are. Thus, being launched again into the gulf of misery, unless a miracle of grace prevent it, they everlastingly perish in their own deceivings. Now I saw in my dream, that by this time the pilgrims were got over the Enchanted Ground, and entering into the country of Beulah, whose air was very sweet and pleasant, Isaiah 62:4-12; Song 2:10-12; the way lying directly through it, they solaced themselves there for a season. Yea, here they heard continually the singing of birds, and saw every day the flowers appear in the earth, and heard the voice of the turtle in the land. In this country the sun shineth night and day: wherefore this was beyond the Valley of the Shadow of Death, and also out of the reach of Giant Despair; neither could they from this place so much as see Doubting Castle. Here they were within sight of the city they were going to; also here met them some of the inhabitants thereof; for in this land the shining ones commonly walked, because it was upon the borders of heaven. In this land also the contract between the Bride and the Bridegroom was renewed; yea, here, "as the bridegroom rejoiceth over the bride, so doth God rejoice over them." Here they had no want of corn and wine; for in this place they met with abundance of what they had sought for in all their pilgrimage. Here they heard voices from out of the city, loud voices, saying, "Say ye to the daughter of Zion, Behold, thy salvation cometh! Behold, his reward is with him!" Here all the inhabitants of the country called them "the holy People, the redeemed of the Lord, sought out," etc. Now, as they walked in this land, they had more rejoicing than in parts more remote from the kingdom to which they were bound; and drawing near to the city, they had yet a more perfect view thereof: It was builded of pearls and precious stones, also the streets thereof were paved with gold; so that, by reason of the natural glory of the city, and the reflection of the sunbeams upon it, Christian with desire fell sick; Hopeful also had a fit or two of the same disease: wherefore here they lay by it a while, crying out because of their pangs, "If you see my Beloved, tell him that I am sick of love." But, being a little strengthened, and better able to bear their sickness, they walked on their way, and came yet nearer and nearer, where were orchards, vineyards, and gardens, and their gates opened into the highway. Now, as they came up to these places, behold the gardener stood in the way; to whom the pilgrims said, Whose goodly vineyards and gardens are these? He answered, they are the King's, and are planted here for his own delight, and also for the solace of pilgrims. So the gardener had them into the vineyards, and bid them refresh themselves with the dainties, Deut. 23:24; he also showed them there the King's walks and arbors where he delighted to be: And here they tarried and slept. Now I beheld in my dream, that they talked more in their sleep at this time than ever they did in all their journey; and, being in a muse thereabout, the gardener said even to me, Wherefore musest thou at the matter? It is the nature of the fruit of the grapes of these vineyards, "to go down so sweetly as to cause the lips of them that are asleep to speak." Song 7:9. So I saw that when they awoke, they addressed themselves to go up to the city. But, as I said, the reflection of the sun upon the city (for the city was pure gold, Rev. 21:18,) was so extremely glorious, that they could not as yet with open face behold it, but through an instrument made for that purpose. 2 Cor. 3:18. So I saw, that as they went on, there met them two men in raiment that shone like gold, also their faces shone as the light. These men asked the pilgrims whence they came; and they told them. They also asked them where they had lodged, what difficulties and dangers, what comforts and pleasures, they had met with in the way; and they told them. Then said the men that met them, You have but two difficulties more to meet with, and then you are in the City. Christian then and his companion asked the men to go along with them: so they told them that they would; But, said they, you must obtain it by your own faith. So I saw in my dream, that they went on together till they came in sight of the gate. Now I further saw, that betwixt them and the gate was a river; but there was no bridge to go over, and the river was very deep. At the sight, therefore, of this river the pilgrims were much stunned; but the men that went with them said, You must go through, or you cannot come at the gate. The pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other way to the gate. To which they answered, Yes; but there hath not any, save two, to wit, Enoch and Elijah, been permitted to tread that path since the foundation of the world, nor shall until the last trumpet shall sound. The pilgrims then, especially Christian, began to despond in their mind, and looked this way and that, but no way could be found by them by which they might escape the river. Then they asked the men if the waters were all of a depth. They said, No; yet they could not help them in that case; for, said they, you shall find it deeper or shallower as you believe in the King of the place. Then they addressed themselves to the water, and entering, Christian began to sink, and crying out to his good friend Hopeful, he said, I sink in deep waters; the billows go over my head; all his waves go over me. Selah. Then said the other, Be of good cheer, my brother: I feel the bottom, and it is good. Then said Christian, Ah! my friend, the sorrows of death have compassed me about, I shall not see the land that flows with milk and honey. And with that a great darkness and horror fell upon Christian, so that he could not see before him. Also here he in a great measure lost his senses, so that he could neither remember nor orderly talk of any of those sweet refreshments that he had met with in the way of his pilgrimage. But all the words that he spoke still tended to discover that he had horror of mind, and heart-fears that he should die in that river, and never obtain entrance in at the gate. Here also, as they that stood by perceived, he was much in the troublesome thoughts of the sins that he had committed, both since and before he began to be a pilgrim. It was also observed that he was troubled with apparitions of hobgoblins and evil spirits; for ever and anon he would intimate so much by words. Hopeful therefore here had much ado to keep his brother's head above water; yea, sometimes he would be quite gone down, and then, ere a while, he would rise up again half dead. Hopeful did also endeavor to comfort him, saying, Brother, I see the gate, and men standing by to receive us; but Christian would answer, It is you, it is you they wait for; for you have been hopeful ever since I knew you. And so have you, said he to Christian. Ah, brother, (said he,) surely if I was right he would now arise to help me; but for my sins he hath brought me into the snare, and hath left me. Then said Hopeful, My brother, you have quite forgot the text where it is said of the wicked, "There are no bands in their death, but their strength is firm; they are not troubled as other men, neither are they plagued like other men." Psa. 73:4,5. These troubles and distresses that you go through in these waters, are no sign that God hath forsaken you; but are sent to try you, whether you will call to mind that which heretofore you have received of his goodness, and live upon him in your distresses. Then I saw in my dream, that Christian was in a muse a while. To whom also Hopeful added these words, Be of good cheer, Jesus Christ maketh thee whole. And with that Christian brake out with a loud voice, Oh, I see him again; and he tells me, "When thou passest through the waters, I will be with thee; and through the rivers, they shall not overflow thee." Isa. 43:2. Then they both took courage, and the enemy was after that as still as a stone, until they were gone over. Christian, therefore, presently found ground to stand upon, and so it followed that the rest of the river was but shallow. Thus they got over. Now, upon the bank of the river, on the other side, they saw the two shining men again, who there waited for them. Wherefore, being come out of the river, they saluted them, saying, We are ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for those that shall be the heirs of salvation. Thus they went along towards the gate. Now you must note, that the city stood upon a mighty hill; but the pilgrims went up that hill with ease, because they had these two men to lead them up by the arms: they had likewise left their mortal garments behind them in the river; for though they went in with them, they came out without them. They therefore went up here with much agility and speed, though the foundation upon which the city was framed was higher than the clouds; they therefore went up through the region of the air, sweetly talking as they went, being comforted because they safely got over the river, and had such glorious companions to attend them. The talk that they had with the shining ones was about the glory of the place; who told them that the beauty and glory of it was inexpressible. There, said they, is "Mount Sion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the innumerable company of angels, and the spirits of just men made perfect." Heb. 12:22-24. You are going now, said they, to the paradise of God, wherein you shall see the tree of life, and eat of the never-fading fruits thereof: and when you come there you shall have white robes given you, and your walk and talk shall be every day with the King, even all the days of eternity. Rev. 2:7; 3:4,5; 22:5. There you shall not see again such things as you saw when you were in the lower region upon earth; to wit, sorrow, sickness, affliction, and death; "For the former things are passed away." Rev. 21:4. You are going now to Abraham, to Isaac, and Jacob, and to the prophets, men that God hath taken away from the evil to come, and that are now "resting upon their beds, each one walking in his righteousness." The men then asked, What must we do in the holy place? To whom it was answered, You must there receive the comfort of all your toil, and have joy for all your sorrow; you must reap what you have sown, even the fruit of all your prayers, and tears, and sufferings for the King by the way. Gal. 6:7,8. In that place you must wear crowns of gold, and enjoy the perpetual sight and vision of the Holy One; for "there you shall see him as he is." 1 John, 3:2. There also you shall serve him continually with praise, with shouting and thanksgiving, whom you desired to serve in the world, though with much difficulty, because of the infirmity of your flesh. There your eyes shall be delighted with seeing, and your ears with hearing the pleasant voice of the Mighty One. There you shall enjoy your friends again that are gone thither before you; and there you shall with joy receive even every one that follows into the holy place after you. There also you shall be clothed with glory and majesty, and put into an equipage fit to ride out with the King of Glory. When he shall come with sound of trumpet in the clouds, as upon the wings of the wind, you shall come with him; and when he shall sit upon the throne of judgment, you shall sit by him; yea, and when he shall pass sentence upon all the workers of iniquity, let them be angels or men, you also shall have a voice in that judgment, because they were his and your enemies. Also, when he shall again return to the city, you shall go too with sound of trumpet, and be ever with him. 1 Thess. 4:14-17; Jude 14,15; Dan. 7:9,10; 1 Cor. 6:2,3. Now, while they were thus drawing towards the gate, behold a company of the heavenly host came out to meet them: to whom it was said by the other two shining ones, These are the men that have loved our Lord when they were in the world, and that have left all for his holy name; and he hath sent us to fetch them, and we have brought them thus far on their desired journey, that they may go in and look their Redeemer in the face with joy. Then the heavenly host gave a great shout, saying, "Blessed are they that are called to the marriage-supper of the Lamb." Rev. 19:9. There came out also at this time to meet them several of the King's trumpeters, clothed in white and shining raiment, who, with melodious noises and loud, made even the heavens to echo with their sound. These trumpeters saluted Christian and his fellow with ten thousand welcomes from the world; and this they did with shouting and sound of trumpet. This done, they compassed them round on every side; some went before, some behind, and some on the right hand, and some on the left, (as it were to guard them through the upper regions,) continually sounding as they went, with melodious noise, in notes on high; so that the very sight was to them that could behold it as if heaven itself was come down to meet them. Thus, therefore, they walked on together; and, as they walked, ever and anon these trumpeters, even with joyful sound, would, by mixing their music with looks and gestures, still signify to Christian and his brother how welcome they were into their company, and with what gladness they came to meet them. And now were these two men, as it were, in heaven, before they came to it, being swallowed up with the sight of angels, and with hearing of their melodious notes. Here also they had the city itself in view; and they thought they heard all the bells therein to ring, to welcome them thereto. But, above all, the warm and joyful thoughts that they had about their own dwelling there with such company, and that for ever and ever; oh, by what tongue or pen can their glorious joy be expressed! Thus they came up to the gate. Now when they were come up to the gate, there was written over it, in letters of gold, "BLESSED ARE THEY THAT DO HIS COMMANDMENTS, THAT THEY MAY HAVE RIGHT TO THE TREE OF LIFE, AND MAY ENTER IN THROUGH THE GATES INTO THE CITY." Then I saw in my dream, that the shining men bid them call at the gate: the which when they did, some from above looked over the gate, to wit, Enoch, Moses, and Elijah, etc., to whom it was said, These pilgrims are come from the City of Destruction, for the love that they bear to the King of this place; and then the pilgrims gave in unto them each man his certificate, which they had received in the beginning: those therefore were carried in unto the King, who, when he had read them, said, Where are the men? To whom it was answered, They are standing without the gate. The King then commanded to open the gate, "That the righteous nation (said he) that keepeth the truth may enter in." Isa. 26:2. Now I saw in my dream, that these two men went in at the gate; and lo, as they entered, they were transfigured; and they had raiment put on that shone like gold. There were also that met them with harps and crowns, and gave them to them; the harps to praise withal, and the crowns in token of honor. Then I heard in my dream, that all the bells in the city rang again for joy, and that it was said unto them, "ENTER YE INTO THE JOY OF YOUR LORD." I also heard the men themselves, that they sang with a loud voice, saying, "BLESSING, AND HONOR, AND GLORY, AND POWER, BE UNTO HIM THAT SITTETH UPON THE THRONE, AND UNTO THE LAMB, FOR EVER AND EVER." Now, just as the gates were opened to let in the men, I looked in after them, and behold the city shone like the sun; the streets also were paved with gold; and in them walked many men, with crowns on their heads, palms in their hands, and golden harps, to sing praises withal. There were also of them that had wings, and they answered one another without intermission, saying, Holy, holy, holy is the Lord. And after that they shut up the gates; which, when I had seen, I wished myself among them. Now, while I was gazing upon all these things, I turned my head to look back, and saw Ignorance come up to the river side; but he soon got over, and that without half the difficulty which the other two men met with. For it happened that there was then in that place one Vain-Hope, a ferryman, that with his boat helped him over; so he, as the other I saw, did ascend the hill, to come up to the gate; only he came alone, neither did any man meet him with the least encouragement. When he was come up to the gate, he looked up to the writing that was above, and then began to knock, supposing that entrance should have been quickly administered to him; but he was asked by the men that looked over the top of the gate, Whence come you? and what would you have? He answered, I have ate and drank in the presence of the King, and he has taught in our streets. Then they asked him for his certificate, that they might go in and show it to the King: so he fumbled in his bosom for one, and found none. Then said they, Have you none? but the man answered never a word. So they told the King, but he would not come down to see him, but commanded the two shining ones, that conducted Christian and Hopeful to the city, to go out and take Ignorance, and bind him hand and foot, and have him away. Then they took him up, and carried him through the air to the door that I saw in the side of the hill, and put him in there. Then I saw that there was a way to hell, even from the gate of heaven, as well as from the City of Destruction. So I awoke, and behold it was a dream. CONCLUSION. Now, reader, I have told my dream to thee, See if thou canst interpret it to me, Or to thyself, or neighbor: but take heed Of misinterpreting; for that, instead Of doing good, will but thyself abuse: By misinterpreting, evil ensues. Take heed, also, that thou be not extreme In playing with the outside of my dream; Nor let my figure or similitude Put thee into a laughter, or a feud. Leave this for boys and fools; but as for thee, Do thou the substance of my matter see. Put by the curtains, look within my veil, Turn up my metaphors, and do not fail. There, if thou seekest them, such things thou'lt find As will be helpful to an honest mind. What of my dross thou findest there, be bold To throw away, but yet preserve the gold. What if my gold be wrapped up in ore? None throw away the apple for the core: But if thou shalt cast all away as vain, I know not but 't will make me dream again. THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS FROM THIS WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME; DELIVERED UNDER THE SIMILTUDE OF A DREAM. PART II. WHEREIN IS SET FORTH THE MANNER OF THE SETTING OUT OF CHRISTIAN'S WIFE AND CHILDREN; THEIR DANGEROUS JOURNEY, AND SAFE ARRIVAL AT THE DESIRED COUNTRY. I have used similtudes.-Hos. 12:10. THE THE AUTHOR'S WAY OF SENDING FORTH HIS SECOND PART OF THE PILGRIM. Go, now, my little Book, to every place Where my first Pilgrim has but shown his face: Call at their door: if any say, Who's there? Then answer thou, Christiana is here. If they bid thee come in, then enter thou, With all thy boys; and then, as thou know'st how, Tell who they are, also from whence they came; Perhaps they'll know them by their looks, or name: But if they should not, ask them yet again, If formerly they did not entertain One Christian, a Pilgrim? If they say They did, and were delighted in his way; Then let them know that these related were Unto him; yea, his wife and children are. Tell them, that they have left their house and home; Are turned Pilgrims; seek a world to come; That they have met with hardships in the way; That they do meet with troubles night and day; That they have trod on serpents; fought with devils; Have also overcome a many evils; Yea, tell them also of the next who have, Of love to pilgrimage, been stout and brave Defenders of that way; and how they still Refuse this world to do their Father's will. Go tell them also of those dainty things That pilgrimage unto the Pilgrim brings. Let them acquainted be, too, how they are Beloved of their King, under his care; What goodly mansions he for them provides; Though they meet with rough winds and swelling tides, How brave a calm they will enjoy at last, Who to their Lord, and by his ways hold fast. Perhaps with heart and hand they will embrace Thee, as they did my firstling; and will grace Thee and thy fellows with such cheer and fare, As show well, they of Pilgrims lovers are. OBJECTION I. But how if they will not believe of me That I am truly thine? 'cause some there be That counterfeit the Pilgrim and his name, Seek, by disguise, to seem the very same; And by that means have wrought themselves into The hands and houses of I know not who. ANSWER. 'Tis true, some have, of late, to counterfeit My Pilgrim, to their own my title set; Yea, others half my name, and title too, Have stitched to their books, to make them do. But yet they, by their features, do declare Themselves not mine to be, whose'er they are. If such thou meet'st with, then thine only way Before them all, is, to say out thy say In thine own native language, which no man Now useth, nor with ease dissemble can. If, after all, they still of you shall doubt, Thinking that you, like gypsies, go about, In naughty wise the country to defile; Or that you seek good people to beguile With things unwarrantable; send for me, And I will testify you pilgrims be; Yea, I will testify that only you My Pilgrims are, and that alone will do. OBJECTION II. But yet, perhaps, I may enquire for him Of those who wish him damned life and limb. What shall I do, when I at such a door For Pilgrims ask, and they shall rage the more? ANSWER. Fright not thyself, my Book, for such bugbears Are nothing else but groundless fears. My Pilgrim's book has traveled sea and land, Yet could I never come to understand That it was slighted or turned out of door By any Kingdom, were they rich or poor. In France and Flanders, where men kill each other, My Pilgrim is esteemed a friend, a brother. In Holland, too, 'tis said, as I am told, My Pilgrim is with some, worth more than gold. Highlanders and wild Irish can agree My Pilgrim should familiar with them be. 'Tis in New England under such advance, Receives there so much loving countenance, As to be trimm'd, newcloth'd, and deck'd with gems, That it might show its features, and its limbs. Yet more: so comely doth my Pilgrim walk, That of him thousands daily sing and talk. If you draw nearer home, it will appear My Pilgrim knows no ground of shame or fear: City and country will him entertain, With Welcome, Pilgrim; yea, they can't refrain From smiling, if my Pilgrim be but by, Or shows his head in any company. Brave gallants do my Pilgrim hug and love, Esteem it much, yea, value it above Things of greater bulk; yea, with delight Say, my lark's leg is better than a kite. Young ladies, and young gentlewomen too, Do not small kindness to my Pilgrim show; Their cabinets, their bosoms, and their hearts, My Pilgrim has; 'cause he to them imparts His pretty riddles in such wholsome strains, As yield them profit double to thetr pains Of reading; yea, I think I may be bold To say some prize him far above their gold. The very children that do walk the street, If they do but my holy Pilgrim meet, Salute him will; will wish him well, and say, He is the only stripling of the day. They that have never seen him, yet admire What they have heard of him, and much desire To have his company, and hear him tell Those Pilgrim stories which he knows so well. Yea, some that did not love him at first, But call'd him fool and noddy, say they must, Now they have seen and heard him, him commend And to those whom they love they do him send. Wherefore, my Second Part, thou need'st not be Afraid to show thy head: none can hurt thee, That wish but well to him that went before; 'Cause thou com'st after with a second store Of things as good, as rich, as profitable, For young, for old, for stagg'ring, and for stable. OBJECTION III. But some there be that say, He laughs too loud And some do say, His Head is in a cloud. Some say, His words and stories are so dark, They know not how, by them, to find his mark. ANSWER. One may, I think, say, Both his laughs and cries May well be guess'd at by his wat'ry eyes. Some things are of that nature, as to make One's fancy chuckle, while his heart doth ache: When Jacob saw his Rachel with the sheep, He did at the same time both kiss and weep. Whereas some say, A cloud is in his head; That doth but show his wisdom's covered With its own mantles-and to stir the mind To search well after what it fain would find, Things that seem to be hid in words obscure Do but the godly mind the more allure To study what those sayings should contain, That speak to us in such a cloudy strain. I also know a dark similitude Will on the curious fancy more intrude, And will stick faster in the heart and head, Than things from similes not borrowed. Wherefore, my Book, let no discouragement Hinder thy travels. Behold, thou art sent To friends, not foes; to friends that will give place To thee, thy pilgrims, and thy words embrace. Besides, what my first Pilgrim left conceal'd, Thou, my brave second Pilgrim, hast reveal'd; What Christian left lock'd up, and went his way, Sweet Christiana opens with her key. OBJECTION IV. But some love not the method of your first: Romance they count it; throw't away as dust. If I should meet with such, what should I say? Must I slight them as they slight me, or nay? ANSWER. My Christiana, if with such thou meet, By all means, in all loving wise them greet; Render them not reviling for revile, But, if they frown, I prithee on them smile: Perhaps 'tis nature, or some ill report, Has made them thus despise, or thus retort. Some love no fish, some love no cheese, and some Love not their friends, nor their own house or home; Some start at pig, slight chicken, love not fowl More than they love a cuckoo or an owl. Leave such, my Christiana, to their choice, And seek those who to find thee will rejoice; By no means strive, but, in most humble wise, Present thee to them in thy Pilgrim's guise. Go then, my little Book, and show to all That entertain and bid thee welcome shall, What thou shalt keep close shut up from the rest; And wish what thou shalt show them may be bless'd To them for good, and make them choose to be Pilgrims, by better far than thee or me. Go, then, I say, tell all men who thou art: Say, I am Christiana; and my part Is now, with my four sons, to tell you what It is for men to take a Pilgrim's lot. Go, also, tell them who and what they be That now do go on pilgrimage with thee; Say, Here's my neighbor Mercy: she is one That has long time with me a pilgrim gone: Come, see her in her virgin face, and learn 'Twixt idle ones and pilgrims to discern. Yea, let young damsels learn of her to prize The world which is to come, in any wise. When little tripping maidens follow God, And leave old doting sinners to his rod, 'Tis like those days wherein the young ones cried Hosanna! when the old ones did deride. Next tell them of old Honest, whom you found With his white hairs treading the Pilgrim's ground; Yea, tell them how plain-hearted this man was; How after his good Lord he bare the cross. Perhaps with some gray head, this may prevail With Christ to fall in love, and sin bewail. Tell them also, how Master Fearing went On pilgrimage, and how the time he spent In solitariness, with fears and cries; And how, at last, he won the joyful prize. He was a good man, though much down in spirit; He is a good man, and doth life inherit. Tell them of Master Feeble-mind also, Who not before, but still behind would go. Show them also, how he had like been slain, And how one Great-Heart did his life regain. This man was true of heart; though weak in grace, One might true godliness read in his face. Then tell them of Master Ready-to-Halt, A man with crutches, but much without fault. Tell them how Master Feeble-mind and he Did love, and in opinion much agree. And let all know, though weakness was their chance, Yet sometimes one could sing, the other dance. Forget not Master Valiant-for-the-Truth, That man of courage, though a very youth: Tell every one his spirit was so stout, No man could ever make him face about; And how Great-Heart and he could not forbear, But pull down Doubting-Castle, slay Despair! Overlook not Master Despondency, Nor Much-afraid, his daughter, though they lie Under such mantles, as may make them look (With some) as if their God had them forsook. They softly went, but sure; and, at the end, Found that the Lord of Pilgrims was their friend. When thou hast told the world of all these things, Then turn about, my Book, and touch these strings; Which, if but touched, will such music make, They'll make a cripple dance, a giant quake. Those riddles that lie couched within thy breast, Freely propound, expound; and for the rest Of thy mysterious lines, let them remain For those whose nimble fancies shall them gain. Now may this little Book a blessing be To those who love this little Book and me; And may its buyer have no cause to say, His money is but lost or thrown away. Yea, may this second Pilgrim yield that fruit As may with each good Pilgrim's fancy suit; And may it some persuade, that go astray, To turn their feet and heart to the right way, Is the hearty prayer of The Author, JOHN BUNYAN. THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. PART II. COURTEOUS COMPANIONS, Some time since, to tell you my dream that I had of Christian the pilgrim, and of his dangerous journey towards the Celestial country, was pleasant to me and profitable to you. I told you then also what I saw concerning his wife and children, and how unwilling they were to go with him on pilgrimage; insomuch that he was forced to go on his progress without them; for he durst not run the danger of that destruction which he feared would come by staying with them in the City of Destruction: wherefore, as I then showed you, he left them and departed. Now it hath so happened, through the multiplicity of business, that I have been much hindered and kept back from my wonted travels into those parts whence he went, and so could not, till now, obtain an opportunity to make further inquiry after those whom he left behind, that I might give you an account of them. But having had some concerns that way of late, I went down again thitherward. Now, having taken up my lodging in a wood about a mile off the place, as I slept, I dreamed again. And as I was in my dream, behold, an aged gentleman came by where I lay; and, because he was to go some part of the way that I was traveling, methought I got up and went with him. So, as we walked, and as travelers usually do, I was as if we fell into a discourse; and our talk happened to be about Christian and his travels; for thus I began with the old man: Sir, said I, what town is that there below, that lieth on the left hand of our way? Then said Mr. Sagacity, (for that was his name,) It is the City of Destruction, a populous place, but possessed with a very ill-conditioned and idle sort of people. I thought that was that city, quoth I; I went once myself through that town; and therefore know that this report you give of it is true. SAG. Too true! I wish I could speak truth in speaking better of them that dwell therein. Well, sir, quoth I, then I perceive you to be a well-meaning man, and so one that takes pleasure to hear and tell of that which is good. Pray, did you never hear what happened to a man some time ago of this town, (whose name was Christian,) that went on a pilgrimage up towards the higher regions? SAG. Hear of him! Aye, and I also heard of the molestations, troubles, wars, captivities, cries, groans, frights, and fears, that he met with and had on his journey. Besides, I must tell you, all our country rings of him; there are but few houses that have heard of him and his doings, but have sought after and got the records of his pilgrimage; yea, I think I may say that his hazardous journey has got many well-wishers to his ways; for, though when he was here he was fool in every man's mouth, yet now he is gone he is highly commended of all. For 'tis said he lives bravely where he is: yea, many of them that are resolved never to run his hazards, yet have their mouths water at his gains. They may, quoth I, well think, if they think any thing that is true, that he liveth well where he is; for he now lives at, and in the fountain of life, and has what he has without labor and sorrow, for there is no grief mixed therewith. But, pray what talk have the people about him? SAG. Talk! the people talk strangely about him: some say that he now walks in white, Rev. 3:4; that he has a chain of gold about his neck; that he has a crown of gold, beset with pearls, upon his head: others say, that the shining ones, who sometimes showed themselves to him in his journey, are become his companions, and that he is as familiar with them where he is, as here one neighbor is with another. Besides, it is confidently affirmed concerning him, that the King of the place where he is has bestowed upon him already a very rich and pleasant dwelling at court, and that he every day eateth and drinketh, and walketh and talketh with him, and receiveth of the smiles and favors of him that is Judge of all there. Zech. 3:7; Luke 14:14,15. Moreover, it is expected of some, that his Prince, the Lord of that country, will shortly come into these parts, and will know the reason, if they can give any, why his neighbors set so little by him, and had him so much in derision, when they perceived that he would be a pilgrim. Jude, 14,15. For they say, that now he is so in the affections of his Prince, that his Sovereign is so much concerned with the indignities that were cast upon Christian when he became a pilgrim, that he will look upon all as if done unto himself, Luke 10:16; and no marvel, for it was for the love that he had to his Prince that he ventured as he did. I dare say, quoth I; I am glad on't; I am glad for the poor man's sake, for that now he has rest from his labor, and for that he now reapeth the benefit of his tears with joy; and for that he has got beyond the gun- shot of his enemies, and is out of the reach of them that hate him. Rev. 14:13; Psa. 126:5,6. I also am glad for that a rumor of these things is noised abroad in this country; who can tell but that it may work some good effect on some that are left behind? But pray, sir, while it is fresh in my mind, do you hear anything of his wife and children? Poor hearts! I wonder in my mind what they do. SAG. Who? Christiana and her sons? They are like to do as well as Christian did himself; for though they all played the fool at first, and would by no means be persuaded by either the tears or entreaties of Christian, yet second thoughts have wrought wonderfully with them: so they have packed up, and are also gone after him. Better and better, quoth I: but, what! wife and children, and all? SAG. It is true: I can give you an account of the matter, for I was upon the spot at the instant, and was thoroughly acquainted with the whole affair. Then, said I, a man, it seems, may report it for a truth. SAG. You need not fear to affirm it: I mean, that they are all gone on pilgrimage, both the good woman and her four boys. And being we are, as I perceive, going some considerable way together, I will give you an account of the whole matter. This Christiana, (for that was her name from the day that she with her children betook themselves to a pilgrim's life,) after her husband was gone over the river, and she could hear of him no more, her thoughts began to work in her mind. First, for that she had lost her husband, and for that the loving bond of that relation was utterly broken betwixt them. For you know, said he to me, nature can do no less but entertain the living with many a heavy cogitation, in the remembrance of the loss of loving relations. This, therefore, of her husband did cost her many a tear. But this was not all; for Christiana did also begin to consider with herself, whether her unbecoming behavior towards her husband was not one cause that she saw him no more, and that in such sort he was taken away from her. And upon this came into her mind, by swarms, all her unkind, unnatural, and ungodly carriage to her dear friend; which also clogged her conscience, and did load her with guilt. She was, moreover, much broken with recalling to remembrance the restless groans, brinish tears, and self-bemoanings of her husband, and how she did harden her heart against all his entreaties and loving persuasions of her and her sons to go with him; yea, there was not any thing that Christian either said to her, or did before her, all the while that his burden did hang on his back, but it returned upon her like a flash of lightning, and rent the caul of her heart in sunder; especially that bitter outcry of his, "What shall I do to be saved?" did ring in her ears most dolefully. Then said she to her children, Sons, we are all undone. I have sinned away your father, and he is gone: he would have had us with him, but I would not go myself: I also have hindered you of life. With that the boys fell into tears, and cried out to go after their father. Oh, said Christiana, that it had been but our lot to go with him! then had it fared well with us, beyond what it is like to do now. For, though I formerly foolishly imagined, concerning the troubles of your father, that they proceeded of a foolish fancy that he had, or for that he was overrun with melancholy humors; yet now it will not out of my mind, but that they sprang from another cause; to wit, for that the light of life was given him, James 1:23-25; John 8:12; by the help of which, as I perceive, he has escaped the snares of death. Prov. 14:27. Then they all wept again, and cried out, Oh, woe worth the day! The next night Christiana had a dream; and, behold, she saw as if a broad parchment was opened before her, in which were recorded the sum of her ways; and the crimes, as she thought looked very black upon her. Then she cried out aloud in her sleep, "Lord, have mercy upon me a sinner!" Luke 18:13; and the little children heard her. After this she thought she saw two very ill-favored ones standing by her bedside, and saying, What shall we do with this woman? for she cries out for mercy, waking and sleeping: if she be suffered to go on as she begins, we shall lose her as we have lost her husband. Wherefore we must, by one way or other, seek to take her off from the thoughts of what shall be hereafter, else all the world cannot help but she will become a pilgrim. Now she awoke in a great sweat, also a trembling was upon her: but after a while she fell to sleeping again. And then she thought she saw Christian, her husband, in a place of bliss among many immortals, with a harp in his hand, standing and playing upon it before One that sat on a throne with a rainbow about his head. She saw also, as if he bowed his head with his face to the paved work that was under his Prince's feet, saying, "I heartily thank my Lord and King for bringing me into this place." Then shouted a company of them that stood round about, and harped with their harps; but no man living could tell what they said but Christian and his companions. Next morning, when she was up, had prayed to God, and talked with her children a while, one knocked hard at the door; to whom she spake out, saying, "If thou comest in God's name, come in." So he said, "Amen;" and opened the door, and saluted her with, "Peace be to this house." The which when he had done, he said, "Christiana, knowest thou wherefore I am come?" Then she blushed and trembled; also her heart began to wax warm with desires to know from whence he came, and what was his errand to her. So he said unto her, "My name is Secret; I dwell with those that are on high. It is talked of where I dwell as if thou hadst a desire to go thither: also there is a report that thou art aware of the evil thou hast formerly done to thy husband, in hardening of thy heart against his way, and in keeping of these babes in their ignorance. Christiana, the Merciful One has sent me to tell thee, that he is a God ready to forgive, and that he taketh delight to multiply the pardon of offences. He also would have thee to know, that he inviteth thee to come into his presence, to his table, and that he will feed thee with the fat of his house, and with the heritage of Jacob thy father. "There is Christian, thy husband that was, with legions more, his companions, ever beholding that face that doth minister life to beholders; and they will all be glad when they shall hear the sound of thy feet step over thy Father's threshold." Christiana at this was greatly abashed in herself, and bowed her head to the ground. This visitor proceeded, and said, "Christiana, here is also a letter for thee, which I have brought from thy husband's King." So she took it, and opened it, but it smelt after the manner of the best perfume. Song 1:3. Also it was written in letters of gold. The contents of the letter were these, That the King would have her to do as did Christian her husband; for that was the way to come to his city, and to dwell in his presence with joy for ever. At this the good woman was quite overcome; so she cried out to her visitor, Sir, will you carry me and my children with you, that we also may go and worship the King? Then said the visitor, Christiana, the bitter is before the sweet. Thou must through troubles, as did he that went before thee, enter this Celestial City. Wherefore I advise thee to do as did Christian thy husband: go to the Wicket-gate yonder, over the plain, for that stands at the head of the way up which thou must go; and I wish thee all good speed. Also I advise that thou put this letter in thy bosom, that thou read therein to thyself and to thy children until you have got it by heart; for it is one of the songs that thou must sing while thou art in this house of thy pilgrimage, Psalm 119:54; also this thou must deliver in at the further gate. Now I saw in my dream, that this old gentleman, as he told me the story, did himself seem to be greatly affected therewith. He moreover proceeded, and said, So Christiana called her sons together, and began thus to address herself unto them: "My sons, I have, as you may perceive, been of late under much exercise in my soul about the death of your father: not for that I doubt at all of his happiness, for I am satisfied now that he is well. I have also been much affected with the thoughts of my own state and yours, which I verily believe is by nature miserable. My carriage also to your father in his distress is a great load to my conscience; for I hardened both mine own heart and yours against him, and refused to go with him on pilgrimage. The thoughts of these things would now kill me outright, but that for a dream which I had last night, and but that for the encouragement which this stranger has given me this morning. Come, my children, let us pack up, and begone to the gate that leads to the Celestial country, that we may see your father, and be with him and his companions in peace, according to the laws of that land. Then did her children burst out into tears, for joy that the heart of their mother was so inclined. So their visitor bid them farewell; and they began to prepare to set out for their journey. But while they were thus about to be gone, two of the women that were Christiana's neighbors came up to her house, and knocked at her door. To whom she said as before, If you come in God's name, come in. At this the women were stunned; for this kind of language they used not to hear, or to perceive to drop from the lips of Christiana. Yet they came in: but behold, they found the good woman preparing to be gone from her house. So they began, and said, Neighbor, pray what is your meaning by this? Christiana answered, and said to the eldest of them, whose name was Mrs. Timorous, I am preparing for a journey. This Timorous was daughter to him that met Christian upon the Hill of Difficulty, and would have had him go back for fear of the lions. TIM. For what journey, I pray you? CHR. Even to go after my good husband. And with that she fell a weeping. TIM. I hope not so, good neighbor; pray, for your poor children's sake, do not so unwomanly cast away yourself. CHR. Nay, my children shall go with me; not one of them is willing to stay behind. TIM. I wonder in my very heart what or who has brought you into this mind! CHR. O neighbor, knew you but as much as I do, I doubt not but that you would go along with me. TIM. Prithee, what new knowledge hast thou got, that so worketh off thy mind from thy friends, and that tempteth thee to go nobody knows where? CHR. Then Christiana replied, I have been sorely afflicted since my husband's departure from me; but especially since he went over the river. But that which troubleth me most is, my churlish carriage to him when he was under his distress. Besides, I am now as he was then; nothing will serve me but going on pilgrimage. I was a dreaming last night that I saw him. O that my soul was with him! He dwelleth in the presence of the King of the country; he sits and eats with him at his table; he is become a companion of immortals, and has a house now given him to dwell in, to which the best palace on earth, if compared, seems to me but a dunghill. 2 Cor. 5:1-4. The Prince of the place has also sent for me, with promise of entertainment, if I shall come to him; his messenger was here even now, and has brought me a letter, which invites me to come. And with that she plucked out her letter, and read it, and said to them, What now will you say to this? TIM. Oh, the madness that has possessed thee and thy husband, to run yourselves upon such difficulties! You have heard, I am sure what your husband did meet with, even in a manner at the first step that he took on his way, as our neighbor Obstinate can yet testify, for he went along with him; yea, and Pliable too, until they, like wise men, were afraid to go any further. We also heard, over and above, how he met with the lions, Apollyon, the Shadow of Death, and many other things. Nor is the danger that he met with at Vanity Fair to be forgotten by thee. For if he, though a man, was so hard put to it, what canst thou, being but a poor woman, do? Consider also, that these four sweet babes are thy children, thy flesh and thy bones. Wherefore, though thou shouldest be so rash as to cast away thyself, yet, for the sake of the fruit of thy body, keep thou at home. But Christiana said unto her, Tempt me not, my neighbor: I have now a price put into my hands to get gain, and I should be a fool of the greatest size if I should have no heart to strike in with the opportunity. And for that you tell me of all these troubles which I am like to meet with in the way, they are so far from being to me a discouragement, that they show I am in the right. The bitter must come before the sweet, and that also will make the sweet the sweeter. Wherefore, since you came not to my house in God's name, as I said, I pray you to be gone, and not to disquiet me further. Then Timorous reviled her, and said to her fellow, Come, neighbor Mercy, let us leave her in her own hands, since she scorns our counsel and company. But Mercy was at a stand, and could not so readily comply with her neighbor; and that for a two fold reason. 1. Her bowels yearned over Christiana. So she said within herself, if my neighbor will needs be gone, I will go a little way with her, and help her. 2. Her bowels yearned over her own soul; for what Christiana had said had taken some hold upon her mind. Wherefore she said within herself again, I will yet have more talk with this Christiana; and, if I find truth and life in what she shall say, I myself with my heart shall also go with her. Wherefore Mercy began thus to reply to her neighbor Timorous: MER. Neighbor, I did indeed come with you to see Christiana this morning; and since she is, as you see, taking of her last farewell of the country, I think to walk this sunshiny morning a little with her, to help her on her way. But she told her not of her second reason, but kept it to herself. TIM. Well, I see you have a mind to go a fooling too; but take heed in time, and be wise: while we are out of danger, we are out; but when we are in, we are in. So Mrs. Timorous returned to her house, and Christiana betook herself to her journey. But when Timorous was got home to her house she sends for some of her neighbors, to wit, Mrs. Bat's-Eyes, Mrs. Inconsiderate, Mrs. Light-Mind, and Mrs. Know-Nothing. So when they were come to her house, she falls to telling of the story of Christiana, and of her intended journey. And thus she began her tale: TIM. Neighbors, having had little to do this morning, I went to give Christiana a visit; and when I came at the door I knocked, as you know it is our custom; and she answered, If you come in God's name, come in. So in I went, thinking all was well; but, when I came in I found her preparing herself to depart the town, she, and also her children. So I asked her what was her meaning by that. And she told me, in short, that she was now of a mind to go on pilgrimage, as did her husband. She told me also of a dream that she had, and how the King of the country where her husband was, had sent an inviting letter to come thither. Then said Mrs. Know-Nothing, And what, do you think she will go? TIM. Aye, go she will, whatever comes on't; and methinks I know it by this; for that which was my great argument to persuade her to stay at home, (to wit, the troubles she was like to meet with on the way,) is one great argument with her to put her forward on her journey. For she told me in so many words, The bitter goes before the sweet; yea, and forasmuch as it doth, it makes the sweet the sweeter. MRS. BAT'S-EYES. Oh, this blind and foolish woman! said she; and will she not take warning by her husband's afflictions? For my part, I see, if he were here again, he would rest himself content in a whole skin, and never run so many hazards for nothing. Mrs. Inconsiderate also replied, saying, Away with such fantastical fools from the town: a good riddance, for my part, I say, of her; should she stay where she dwells, and retain this her mind, who could live quietly by her? for she will either be dumpish, or unneighborly, or talk of such matters as no wise body can abide. Wherefore, for my part, I shall never be sorry for her departure; let her go, and let better come in her room: it was never a good world since these whimsical fools dwelt in it. Then Mrs. Light-Mind added as followeth: Come, put this kind of talk away. I was yesterday at Madam Wanton's, where we were as merry as the maids. For who do you think should be there but I and Mrs. Love-the- Flesh, and three or four more, with Mrs. Lechery, Mrs. Filth, and some others: so there we had music and dancing, and what else was meet to fill up the pleasure. And I dare say, my lady herself is an admirable well-bred gentlewoman, and Mr. Lechery is as pretty a fellow. THE FIRST STAGE. By this time Christiana was got on her way, and Mercy went along with her: so as they went, her children being there also, Christiana began to discourse. And, Mercy, said Christiana, I take this as an unexpected favor, that thou shouldest set forth out of doors with me to accompany me a little in the way. MER. Then said young Mercy, (for she was but young,) If I thought it would be to purpose to go with you, I would never go near the town any more. CHR. Well, Mercy, said Christiana, cast in thy lot with me: I well know what will be the end of our pilgrimage: my husband is where he would not but be for all the gold in the Spanish mines. Nor shalt thou be rejected, though thou goest but upon my invitation. The King, who hath sent for me and my children, is one that delighteth in mercy. Besides, if thou wilt, I will hire thee, and thou shalt go along with me as my servant. Yet we will have all things in common betwixt thee and me: only go along with me. MER. But how shall I be ascertained that I also should be entertained? Had I this hope but from one that can tell, I would make no stick at all, but would go, being helped by Him that can help, though the way was never so tedious. CHR. Well, loving Mercy, I will tell thee what thou shalt do: go with me to the Wicket-gate, and there I will further inquire for thee; and if there thou shalt not meet with encouragement, I will be content that thou return to thy place: I will also pay thee for thy kindness which thou showest to me and my children, in the accompanying of us in the way that thou dost. MER. Then will I go thither, and will take what shall follow; and the Lord grant that my lot may there fall, even as the King of heaven shall have his heart upon me. Christiana then was glad at heart, not only that she had a companion, but also for that she had prevailed with this poor maid to fall in love with her own salvation. So they went on together, and Mercy began to weep. Then said Christiana, Wherefore weepeth my sister so? MER. Alas! said she, who can but lament, that shall but rightly consider what a state and condition my poor relations are in, that yet remain in our sinful town? And that which makes my grief the more heavy is, because they have no instructor, nor any to tell them what is to come. CHR. Pity becomes pilgrims; and thou dost weep for thy friends, as my good Christian did for me when he left me: he mourned for that I would not heed nor regard him; but his Lord and ours did gather up his tears, and put them into his bottle; and now both I and thou, and these my sweet babes, are reaping the fruit and benefit of them. I hope, Mercy, that these tears of thine will not be lost; for the truth hath said, that "they that sow in tears shall reap in joy." And "he that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with him." Psa. 126:5,6. Then said Mercy, "Let the Most Blessed be my guide, If it be his blessed will, Unto his gate, into his fold, Up to his holy hill. And let him never suffer me To swerve, or turn aside From his free-grace and holy ways, Whate'er shall me betide. And let him gather them of mine That I have left behind; Lord, make them pray they may be thine, With all their heart and mind." Now my old friend proceeded, and said, But when Christiana came to the Slough of Despond, she began to be at a stand; For, said she, this is the place in which my dear husband had like to have been smothered with mud. She perceived, also, that notwithstanding the command of the King to make this place for pilgrims good, yet it was rather worse than formerly. So I asked if that was true. Yes, said the old gentleman, too true; for many there be that pretend to be the King's laborers, and that say they are for mending the King's highways, who bring dirt and dung instead of stones, and so mar instead of mending. Here Christiana therefore, with her boys, did make a stand. But said Mercy, Come, let us venture; only let us be wary. Then they looked well to their steps, and made a shift to get staggering over. Yet Christiana had like to have been in, and that not once or twice. Now they had no sooner got over, but they thought they heard words that said unto them, "Blessed is she that believeth; for there shall be a performance of those things which were told her from the Lord." Luke 1:45. Then they went on again; and said Mercy to Christiana, had I as good ground to hope for a loving reception at the Wicket-gate as you, I think no Slough of Despond would discourage me. Well, said the other, you know your sore, and I know mine; and, good friend, we shall all have enough evil before we come to our journey's end. For can it be imagined that the people who design to attain such excellent glories as we do, and who are so envied that happiness as we are, but that we shall meet with what fears and snares, with what troubles and afflictions they can possibly assault us with that hate us? And now Mr. Sagacity left me to dream out my dream by myself. Wherefore, methought I saw Christiana, and Mercy, and the boys, go all of them up to the gate: to which, when they were come, they betook themselves to a short debate about how they must manage their calling at the gate, and what should be said unto him that did open to them: so it was concluded, since Christiana was the eldest, that she should knock for entrance, and that she should speak to him that did open, for the rest. So Christiana began to knock, and as her poor husband did, she knocked and knocked again. But instead of any that answered, they all thought they heard as if a dog came barking upon them; a dog, and a great one too; and this made the women and children afraid. Nor durst they for a while to knock any more, for fear the mastiff should fly upon them. Now, therefore, they were greatly tumbled up and down in their minds, and knew not what to do: knock they durst not, for fear of the dog; go back they durst not, for fear the keeper of that gate should espy them as they so went, and should be offended with them; at last they thought of knocking again, and knocked more vehemently than they did at first. Then said the keeper of the gate, Who is there? So the dog left off to bark, and he opened unto them. Then Christiana made low obeisance, and said, Let not our Lord be offended with his handmaidens, for that we have knocked at his princely gate. Then said the keeper, Whence come ye? And what is it that you would have? Christiana answered, We are come from whence Christian did come, and upon the same errand as he; to wit, to be, if it shall please you, graciously admitted by this gate into the way that leads unto the Celestial City. And I answer, my Lord, in the next place, that I am Christiana, once the wife of Christian, that now is gotten above. With that the keeper of the gate did marvel, saying, What, is she now become a pilgrim that but a while ago abhorred that life? Then she bowed her head, and said, Yea; and so are these my sweet babes also. Then he took her by the hand and led her in, and said also, Suffer little children to come unto me; and with that he shut up the gate. This done, he called to a trumpeter that was above, over the gate, to entertain Christiana with shouting, and the sound of trumpet for joy. So he obeyed, and sounded, and filled the air with his melodious notes. Now all this while poor Mercy did stand without, trembling and crying, for fear that she was rejected. But when Christiana had got admittance for herself and her boys, then she began to make intercession for Mercy. CHR. And she said, My Lord, I have a companion that stands yet without, that is come hither upon the same account as myself: one that is much dejected in her mind, for that she comes, as she thinks, without sending for; whereas I was sent for by my husband's King to come. Now Mercy began to be very impatient, and each minute was as long to her as an hour; wherefore she prevented Christiana from a fuller interceding for her, by knocking at the gate herself. And she knocked then so loud that she made Christiana to start. Then said the keeper of the gate, Who is there? And Christiana said, It is my friend. So he opened the gate, and looked out, but Mercy was fallen down without in a swoon, for she fainted, and was afraid that no gate should be opened to her. Then he took her by the hand, and said, Damsel, I bid thee arise. Oh, sir, said she, I am faint; there is scarce life left in me. But he answered, that one once said, "When my soul fainted within me I remembered the Lord: and my prayer came unto thee, into thy holy temple." Jonah 2:7. Fear not, but stand upon thy feet, and tell me wherefore thou art come. MER. I am come for that unto which I was never invited, as my friend Christiana was. Hers was from the King, and mine was but from her. Wherefore I fear I presume. KEEP. Did she desire thee to come with her to this place? MER. Yes; and, as my Lord sees, I am come. And if there is any grace and forgiveness of sins to spare, I beseech that thy poor handmaid may be a partaker thereof. Then he took her again by the hand, and led her gently in, and said, I pray for all them that believe on me, by what means soever they come unto me. Then said he to those that stood by, Fetch something and give it to Mercy to smell on, thereby to stay her faintings; so they fetched her a bundle of myrrh, and a while after she was revived. And now were Christiana and her boys, and Mercy, received of the Lord at the head of the way, and spoken kindly unto by him. Then said they yet further unto him, We are sorry for our sins, and beg of our Lord his pardon, and further information what we must do. I grant pardon, said he, by word and deed; by word in the promise of forgiveness, by deed in the way I obtained it. Take the first from my lips with a kiss, and the other as it shall be revealed. Song 1:2; John 20:20. Now I saw in my dream, that he spake many good words unto them, whereby they were greatly gladdened. He also had them up to the top of the gate, and showed them by what deed they were saved; and told them withal, that that sight they would have again as they went along in the way, to their comfort. So he left them awhile in a summer parlor below, where they entered into talk by themselves; and thus Christiana began. O how glad am I that we are got in hither. MER. So you well may; but I, of all, have cause to leap for joy. CHR. I thought one time, as I stood at the gate, because I had knocked and none did answer, that all our labor had been lost, especially when that ugly cur made such a heavy barking against us. MER. But my worst fear was after I saw that you was taken into his favor, and that I was left behind. Now, thought I, it is fulfilled which is written, "Two women shall be grinding at the mill; the one shall be taken, and the other left." Matt. 24:41. I had much ado to forbear crying out, Undone! And afraid I was to knock any more; but when I looked up to what was written over the gate, I took courage. I also thought that I must either knock again, or die; so I knocked, but I cannot tell how, for my spirit now struggled between life and death. CHR. Can you not tell how you knocked? I am sure your knocks were so earnest that the very sound of them made me start; I thought I never heard such knocking in all my life; I thought you would come in by a violent hand, or take the kingdom by storm. Matt. 11:12. MER. Alas! to be in my case, who that so was could but have done so? You saw that the door was shut upon me, and there was a most cruel dog thereabout. Who, I say, that was so faint-hearted as I, would not have knocked with all their might? But pray, what said my Lord to my rudeness? Was he not angry with me? CHR. When he heard your lumbering noise, he gave a wonderful innocent smile; I believe what you did pleased him well, for he showed no sign to the contrary. But I marvel in my heart why he keeps such a dog: had I known that before, I should not have had heart enough to have ventured myself in this manner. But now we are in, we are in, and I am glad with all my heart. MER. I will ask, if you please, next time he comes down, why he keeps such a filthy cur in his yard; I hope he will not take it amiss. Do so, said the children, and persuade him to hang him; for we are afraid he will bite us when we go hence. So at last he came down to them again, and Mercy fell to the ground on her face before him, and worshiped, and said, "Let my Lord accept the sacrifice of praise which I now offer unto him with the calves of my lips." So he said unto her, Peace be to thee; stand up. But she continued upon her face, and said, "Righteous art thou, O Lord, when I plead with thee; yet let me talk with thee of thy judgments." Jer. 12:1. Wherefore dost thou keep so cruel a dog in thy yard, at the sight of which such women and children as we are ready to fly from thy gate for fear? He answered and said, That dog has another owner; he also is kept close in another man's ground, only my pilgrims hear his barking; he belongs to the castle which you see there at a distance, but can come up to the walls of this place. He has frighted many an honest pilgrim from worse to better, by the great voice of his roaring. Indeed, he that owneth him doth not keep him out of any good-will to me or mine, but with intent to keep the pilgrims from coming to me, and that they may be afraid to come and knock at this gate for entrance. Sometimes also he has broken out, and has worried some that I loved; but I take all at present patiently. I also give my pilgrims timely help, so that they are not delivered to his power, to do with them what his doggish nature would prompt him to. But what my purchased one, I trow, hadst thou known never so much beforehand, thou wouldest not have been afraid of a dog. The beggars that go from door to door, will, rather than lose a supposed alms, run the hazard of the bawling, barking, and biting too of a dog; and shall a dog, a dog in another man's yard, a dog whose barking I turn to the profit of pilgrims, keep any from coming to me? I deliver them from the lions, and my darling from the power of the dog. Psa. 22:21,22. MER. Then said Mercy, I confess my ignorance; I spake what I understood not; I acknowledge that thou doest all things well. CHR. Then Christiana began to talk of their journey, and to inquire after the way. So he fed them and washed their feet, and set them in the way of his steps, according as he had dealt with her husband before. THE SECOND STAGE. So I saw in my dream, that they walked on their way, and had the weather very comfortable to them. Then Christiana began to sing, saying, Blessed be the day that I began A pilgrim for to be; And blessed also be the man That thereto moved me. 'Tis true, 't was long ere I began To seek to live for ever; But now I run fast as I can: 'Tis better late than never. Our tears to joy, our fears to faith, Are turned, as we see; Thus our beginning (as one saith) Shows what our end will be. Now there was, on the other side of the wall that fenced in the way up which Christiana and her companions were to go, a garden, and that garden belonged to him whose was that barking dog, of whom mention was made before. And some of the fruit-trees that grew in that garden shot their branches over the wall; and being mellow, they that found them did gather them up, and eat of them to their hurt. So Christiana's boys, as boys are apt to do, being pleased with the trees, and with the fruit that hung thereon, did pluck them, and began to eat. Their mother did also chide them for so doing, But still the boys went on. Well, said she, my sons, you transgress, for that fruit is none of ours; but she did not know that it belonged to the enemy: I'll warrant you, if she had she would have been ready to die for fear. But that passed, and they went on their way. Now, by that they were gone about two bow-shots from the place that led them into the way, they espied two very ill- favored ones coming down apace to meet them. With that, Christiana and Mercy her friend covered themselves with their veils, and so kept on their journey: the children also went on before; so that at last they met together. Then they that came down to meet them, came just up to the women, as if they would embrace them; but Christiana said, stand back, or go peaceably as you should. Yet these two, as men that are deaf, regarded not Christiana's words, but began to lay hands upon them: at that Christiana waxing very wroth, spurned at them with her feet. Mercy also, as well as she could, did what she could to shift them. Christiana again said to them, Stand back, and be gone, for we have no money to lose, being pilgrims, as you see, and such too as live upon the charity of our friends. ILL-FAV. Then said one of the two men, We make no assault upon you for money, but are come out to tell you, that if you will but grant one small request which we shall ask, we will make women of you for ever. CHR. Now Christiana, imagining what they should mean, made answer again, We will neither hear, nor regard, nor yield to what you shall ask. We are in haste, and cannot stay; our business is a business of life and death. So again she and her companion made a fresh essay to go past them; but they letted them in their way. ILL-FAV. And they said, We intend no hurt to your lives; it is another thing we would have. CHR. Aye, quoth Christiana, you would have us body and soul, for I know it is for that you are come; but we will die rather upon the spot, than to suffer ourselves to be brought into such snares as shall hazard our well-being hereafter. And with that they both shrieked out, and cried, Murder! murder! and so put themselves under those laws that are provided for the protection of women. Deut. 22:25-27. But the men still made their approach upon them, with design to prevail against them. They therefore cried out again. Now they being, as I said, not far from the gate in at which they came, their voice was heard from whence they were, thither: wherefore some of the house came out, and knowing that it was Christiana's tongue, they made haste to her relief. But by that they were got within sight of them, the women were in a very great scuffle; the children also stood crying by. Then did he that came in for their relief call out to the ruffians, saying, What is that thing you do? Would you make my Lord's people to transgress? He also attempted to take them, but they did make their escape over the wall into the garden of the man to whom the great dog belonged; so the dog became their protector. This Reliever then came up to the women, and asked them how they did. So they answered, We thank thy Prince, pretty well, only we have been somewhat affrighted: we thank thee also for that thou camest in to our help, otherwise we had been overcome. RELIEVER. So, after a few more words, this Reliever said as followeth: I marveled much, when you were entertained at the gate above, seeing ye knew that ye were but weak women, that you petitioned not the Lord for a conductor; then might you have avoided these troubles and dangers; for he would have granted you one. CHR. Alas! said Christiana, we were so taken with our present blessing, that dangers to come were forgotten by us. Besides, who could have thought, that so near the King's palace there could have lurked such naughty ones? Indeed, it had been well for us had we asked our Lord for one; but since our Lord knew it would be for our profit, I wonder he sent not one along with us. REL. It is not always necessary to grant things not asked for, lest by so doing they become of little esteem; but when the want of a thing is felt, it then comes under, in the eyes of him that feels it, that estimate that properly is its due, and so consequently will be thereafter used. Had my Lord granted you a conductor, you would not either so have bewailed that oversight of yours, in not asking for one, as now you have occasion to do. So all things work for good, and tend to make you more wary. CHR. Shall we go back again to my Lord, and confess our folly, and ask one? REL. Your confession of your folly I will present him with. To go back again, you need not, for in all places where you shall come, you will find no want at all; for in every one of my Lord's lodgings, which he has prepared for the reception of his pilgrims, there is sufficient to furnish them against all attempts whatsoever. But, as I said, He will be inquired of by them, to do it for them. Ezek. 36:37. And 'tis a poor thing that is not worth asking for. When he had thus said, he went back to his place, and the pilgrims went on their way. MER. Then said Mercy, What a sudden blank is here! I made account that we had been past all danger, and that we should never see sorrow more. CHR. Thy innocency, my sister, said Christiana to Mercy, may excuse thee much; but as for me, my fault is so much the greater, for that I saw this danger before I came out of the doors, and yet did not provide for it when provision might have been had. I am much to be blamed. MER. Then said Mercy, How knew you this before you came from home? Pray open to me this riddle. CHR. Why, I will tell you. Before I set foot out of doors, one night as I lay in my bed I had a dream about this; for methought I saw two men, as like these as ever any in the world could look, stand at my bed's feet, plotting how they might prevent my salvation. I will tell you their very words. They said, (it was when I was in my troubles,) What shall we do with this woman? for she cries out, waking and sleeping, for forgiveness: if she be sufferet do go on as she begins, we shall lose her as we have lost her husband. This you know might have made me take heed, and have provided when provision might have been had. MER. Well, said Mercy, as by this neglect we have an occasion ministered unto us to behold our own imperfections, so our Lord has taken occasion thereby to make manifest the riches of his grace; for he, as we see, has followed us with unasked kindness, and has delivered us from their hands that were stronger than we, of his mere good pleasure. Thus now, when they had talked away a little more time, they drew near to a house which stood in the way, which house was built for the relief of pilgrims, as you will find more fully related in the first part of these records of the Pilgrim's Progress. So they drew on towards the house, (the house of the Interpreter;) and when they came to the door, they heard a great talk in the house. Then they gave ear, and heard, as they thought, Christiana mentioned by name; for you must know that there went along, even before her, a talk of her and her children's going on pilgrimage. And this was the most pleasing to them, because they had heard that she was Christian's wife, that woman who was some time ago so unwilling to hear of going on pilgrimage. Thus, therefore, they stood still, and heard the good people within commending her who they little thought stood at the door. At last Christiana knocked, as she had done at the gate before. Now, when she had knocked, there came to the door a young damsel, and opened the door, and looked, and behold, two women were there. DAM. Then said the damsel to them, With whom would you speak in this place? CHR. Christiana answered, We understand that this is a privileged place for those that are become pilgrims, and we now at this door are such: wherefore we pray that we may be partakers of that for which we at this time are come; for the day, as thou seest, is very far spent, and we are loth to-night to go any further. DAM. Pray, what may I call your name, that I may tell it to my Lord within. CHR. My name is Christiana; I was the wife of that pilgrim that some years ago did travel this way, and these be his four children. This maiden also is my companion, and is going on pilgrimage too. INNOCENT. Then Innocent ran in, (for that was her name,) and said to those within, Can you think who is at the door? There is Christiana and her children, and her companion, all waiting for entertainment here. Then they leaped for joy, and went and told their Master. So he came to the door and looking upon her, he said, Art thou that Christiana whom Christian the good man left behind him when he betook himself to a pilgrim's life. CHR. I am that woman that was so hard-hearted as to slight my husband's troubles, and that left him to go on in his journey alone, and these are his four children; but now I also am come, for I am convinced that no way is right but this. INTER. Then is fulfilled that which is written of the man that said to his son, "Go work to-day in my vineyard; and he said to his father, I will not: but afterwards repented and went." Matt. 21:29. CHR. Then said Christiana, So be it: Amen. God made it a true saying upon me, and grant that I may be found at the last of him in peace, without spot, and blameless. INTER. But why standest thou thus at the door? Come in, thou daughter of Abraham; we were talking of thee but now, for tidings have come to us before how thou art become a pilgrim. Come, children, come in; come, maiden, come in. So he had them all into the house. So when they were within, they were bidden to sit down and rest them; the which when they had done, those that attended upon the pilgrims in the house came into the room to see them. And one smiled, and another smiled, and they all smiled for joy that Christiana was become a pilgrim: They also looked upon the boys; they stroked them over their faces with the hand, in token of their kind reception of them: they also carried it lovingly to Mercy, and bid them all welcome into their Master's house. After a while, because supper was not ready, the Interpreter took them into his Significant Rooms, and showed them what Christian, Christiana's husband, had seen some time before. Here, therefore, they saw the man in the cage, the man and his dream, the man that cut his way through his enemies, and the picture of the biggest of them all, together with the rest of those things that were then so profitable to Christian. This done, and after those things had been somewhat digested by Christiana and her company, the Interpreter takes them apart again, and has them first into a room where was a man that could look no way but downwards, with a muck-rake in his hand. There stood also one over his head with a celestial crown in his hand, and proffered him that crown for his muck-rake; but the man did neither look up nor regard, but raked to himself the straws, the small sticks, and dust of the floor. Then said Christiana, I persuade myself that I know somewhat the meaning of this; for this is a figure of a man of this world: is it not, good sir? INTER. Thou hast said right, said he; and his muck-rake doth show his carnal mind. And whereas thou seest him rather give heed to rake up straws and sticks, and the dust of the floor, than to do what He says that calls to him from above with the celestial crown in his hand; it is to show, that heaven is but as a fable to some, and that things here are counted the only things substantial. Now, whereas it was also showed thee that the man could look no way but downwards, it is to let thee know that earthly things, when they are with power upon men's minds, quite carry their hearts away from God. CHR. Then said Christiana, O deliver me from this muck-rake. Prov. 30:8. INTER. That prayer, said the Interpreter, has lain by till it is almost rusty: "Give me not riches," is scarce the prayer of one in ten thousand. Straws, and sticks, and dust, with most, are the great things now looked after. With that Christiana and Mercy wept, and said, It is, alas! too true. When the Interpreter had shown them this, he had them into the very best room in the house; a very brave room it was. So he bid them look round about, and see if they could find any thing profitable there. Then they looked round and round; for there was nothing to be seen but a very great spider on the wall, and that they overlooked. MER. Then said Mercy, Sir, I see nothing; but Christiana held her peace. INTER. But, said the Interpreter, look again. She therefore looked again, and said, Here is not any thing but an ugly spider, who hangs by her hands upon the wall. Then said he, Is there but one spider in all this spacious room? Then the water stood in Christiana's eyes, for she was a woman quick of apprehension; and she said, Yea, Lord, there are more here than one; yea, and spiders whose venom is far more destructive than that which is in her. The Interpreter then looked pleasantly on her, and said, Thou hast said the truth. This made Mercy to blush, and the boys to cover their faces; for they all began now to understand the riddle. Then said the Interpreter again, "The spider taketh hold with her hands," as you see, "and is in kings' palaces." Prov. 30:28. And wherefore is this recorded, but to show you, that, how full of the venom of sin soever you be, yet you may, by the hand of Faith, lay hold of and dwell in the best room that belongs to the King's house above? CHR. I thought, said Christiana, of something of this; but I could not imagine it at all. I thought that we were like spiders, and that we looked like ugly creatures, in what fine room soever we were: but that by this spider, that venomous and ill-favored creature, we were to learn how to act faith, that came not into my thoughts; and yet she had taken hold with her hands, and, as I see, dwelleth in the best room in the house. God has made nothing in vain. Then they seemed all to be glad; but the water stood in their eyes; yet they looked one upon another, and also bowed before the Interpreter. He had them into another room, where were a hen and chickens, and bid them observe a while. So one of the chickens went to the trough to drink, and every time she drank she lifted up her head and her eyes towards heaven. See, said he, what this little chick doth, and learn of her to acknowledge whence your mercies come, by receiving them with looking up. Yet again, said he, observe and look: so they gave heed, and perceived that the hen did walk in a fourfold method towards her chickens: 1. She had a common call, and that she hath all the day long. 2. She had a special call, and that she had but sometimes. 3. She had a brooding note. Matt. 23:37. And, 4. She had an outcry. Now, said he, compare this hen to your King and these chickens to his obedient ones; for, answerable to her, he himself hath his methods which he walketh in towards his people. By his common call, he gives nothing; by his special call, he always has something to give; he has also a brooding voice, for them that are under his wing; and he has an outcry, to give the alarm when he seeth the enemy come. I choose, my darlings, to lead you into the room where such things are, because you are women, and they are easy for you. CHR. And, sir, said Christiana, pray let us see some more. So he had them into the slaughter-house, where was a butcher killing a sheep; and behold, the sheep was quiet, and took her death patiently. Then said the Interpreter, You must learn of this sheep to suffer and to put up with wrongs without murmurings and complaints. Behold how quietly she takes her death, and, without objecting, she suffereth her skin to be pulled over her ears. Your King doth call you his sheep. After this he led them into his garden, where was great variety of flowers; and he, said, Do you see all these? So Christiana said, Yes. Then said he again, Behold, the flowers are diverse in stature, in quality, and color, and smell, and virtue; and some are better than others; also, where the gardener has set them, there they stand, and quarrel not one with another. Again, he had them into his field, which he had sown with wheat and corn: but when they beheld, the tops of all were cut off, and only the straw remained. He said again, This ground was dunged, and ploughed, and sowed, but what shall we do with the crop? Then said Christiana, Burn some, and make muck of the rest. Then said the Interpreter again, Fruit, you see, is that thing you look for; and for want of that you condemn it to the fire, and to be trodden under foot of men: beware that in this you condemn not yourselves. Then, as they were coming in from abroad, they espied a little robin with a great spider in his mouth. So the Interpreter said, Look here. So they looked, and Mercy wondered, but Christiana said, What a disparagement is it to such a pretty little bird as the . robin-red- breast; he being also a bird above many, that loveth to maintain a kind of sociableness with men! I had thought they had lived upon crumbs of bread, or upon other such harmless matter: I like him worse than I did. The Interpreter then replied, This robin is an emblem, very apt to set forth some professors by; for to sight they are, as this robin, pretty of note, color, and carriage. They seem also to have a very great love for professors that are sincere; and, above all others, to desire to associate with them, and to be in their company, as if they could live upon the good man's crumbs. They pretend also, that therefore it is that they frequent the house of the godly, and the appointments of the Lord: but when they are by themselves, as the robin, they can catch and gobble up spiders; they can change their diet, drink iniquity, and swallow down sin like water. So, when they were come again into the house, because supper as yet was not ready, Christiana again desired that the Interpreter would either show or tell some other things that are profitable. Then the Interpreter began, and said, The fatter the sow is, the more she desires the mire; the fatter the ox is, the more gamesomely he goes to the slaughter; and the more healthy the lustful man is, the more prone he is unto evil. There is a desire in women to go neat and find; and it is a comely thing to be adorned with that which in God's sight is of great price. 'T is easier watching a night or two, than to sit up a whole year together: so 't is easier for one to begin to profess well, than to hold out as he should to the end. Every shipmaster, when in a storm, will willingly cast that overboard which is of the smallest value in the vessel; but who will throw the best out first? None but he that feareth not God. One leak will sink a ship, and one sin will destroy a sinner. He that forgets his friend is ungrateful unto him; but he that forgets his Saviour is unmerciful to himself. He that lives in sin, and looks for happiness hereafter, is like him that soweth cockle, and thinks to fill his barn with wheat or barley. If a man would live well, let him fetch his last day to him, and make it always his company- keeper. Whispering, and change of thoughts, prove that sin is in the world. If the world, which God sets light by, is counted a thing of that worth with men, what is heaven, that God commendeth? If the life that is attended with so many troubles, is so loth to be let go by us, what is the life above? Every body will cry up the goodness of men; but who is there that is, as he should be, affected with the goodness of God? We seldom sit down to meat, but we eat, and leave. So there is in Jesus Christ more merit and righteousness than the whole world has need of. When the Interpreter had done, he takes them out into his garden again, and had them to a tree whose inside was all rotten and gone, and yet it grew and had leaves. Then said Mercy, What means this? This tree, said he, whose outside is fair, and whose inside is rotten, is that to which many may be compared that are in the garden of God; who with their mouths speak high in behalf of God, but indeed will do nothing for him; whose leaves are fair, but their heart good for nothing but to be tinder for the devil's tinder-box. Now supper was ready, the table spread, and all things set on the board: so they sat down, and did eat, when one had given thanks. And the Interpreter did usually entertain those that lodged with him with music at meals; so the minstrels played. There was also one that did sing, and a very fine voice he had. His song was this: "The Lord is only my support, And he that doth me feed; How can I then want any thing Whereof I stand in need?" When the song and music were ended, the Interpreter asked Christiana what it was that at first did move her thus to betake herself to a pilgrim's life. Christiana answered, First, the loss of my husband came into my mind, at which I was heartily grieved; but all that was but natural affection. Then after that came the troubles and pilgrimage of my husband into my mind, and also how like a churl I had carried it to him as to that. So guilt took hold of my mind, and would have drawn me into the pond, but that opportunely I had a dream of the well-being of my husband, and a letter sent me by the King of that country where my husband dwells, to come to him. The dream and the letter together so wrought upon my mind that they forced me to this way. INTER. But met you with no opposition before you set out of doors? CHR. Yes, a neighbor of mine, one Mrs. Timorous: she was akin to him that would have persuaded my husband to go back, for fear of the lions. She also befooled me, for, as she called it, my intended desperate adventure; she also urged what she could to dishearten me from it, the hardships and troubles that my husband met with in the way; but all this I got over pretty well. But a dream that I had of two ill-looking ones, that I thought did plot how to make me miscarry in my journey, that hath troubled me much: yea, it still runs in my mind, and makes me afraid of every one that I meet, lest they should meet me to do me a mischief, and to turn me out of my way. Yea, I may tell my Lord, though I would not have every body know of it, that between this and the gate by which we got into the way, we were both so sorely assaulted that we were made to cry out murder; and the two that made this assault upon us, were like the two that I saw in my dream. Then said the Interpreter, Thy beginning is good; thy latter end shall greatly increase. So he addressed himself to Mercy, and said unto her, And what moved thee to come hither, sweet heart? MER. Then Mercy blushed and trembled, and for a while continued silent. INTER. Then said he, Be not afraid; only believe, and speak thy mind. MER. So she began, and said, Truly, sir, my want of experience is that which makes me covet to be in silence, and that also that fills me with fears of coming short at last. I cannot tell of visions and dreams, as my friend Christiana can; nor know I what it is to mourn for my refusing the counsel of those that were good relations. INTER. What was it, then, dear heart, that hath prevailed with thee to do as thou hast done? MER. Why, when our friend here was packing up to be gone from our town, I and another went accidentally to see her. So we knocked at the door and went in. When we were within, and seeing what she was doing, we asked her what was her meaning. She said she was sent for to go to her husband; and then she up and told us how she had seen him in a dream, dwelling in a curious place, among immortals, wearing a crown, playing upon a harp, eating and drinking at his Prince's table, and singing praises to him for bringing him thither, etc. Now, methought, while she was telling these things unto us, my heart burned within me. And I said in my heart, If this be true, I will leave my father and my mother, and the land of my nativity, and will, if I may, go along with Christiana. So I asked her further of the truth of these things, and if she would let me go with her; for I saw now that there was no dwelling, but with the danger of ruin, any longer in our town. But yet I came away with a heavy heart; not for that I was unwilling to come away, but for that so many of my relations were left behind. And I am come with all the desire of my heart, and will go, if I may, with Christiana unto her husband and his King. INTER. Thy setting out is good, for thou hast given credit to the truth; thou art a Ruth, who did, for the love she bare to Naomi and to the Lord her God, leave father and mother, and the land of her nativity, to come out and go with a people she knew not heretofore. "The Lord recompense thy work, and a full reward be given thee of the Lord God of Israel, under whose wings thou art come to trust." Ruth 2:11,12. Now supper was ended, and preparation was made for bed; the women were laid singly alone, and the boys by themselves. Now when Mercy was in bed, she could not sleep for joy, for that now her doubts of missing at last were removed further from her than ever they were before. So she lay blessing and praising God, who had such favor for her. In the morning they arose with the sun, and prepared themselves for their departure; but the Interpreter would have them tarry a while; For, said he, you must orderly go from hence. Then said he to the damsel that first opened unto them, Take them and have them into the garden to the bath, and there wash them and make them clean from the soil which they had gathered by traveling. Then Innocent the damsel took them and led them into the garden, and brought them to the bath; so she told them that there they must wash and be clean, for so her Master would have the women to do that called at his house as they were going on pilgrimage. Then they went in and washed, yea, they and the boys, and all; and they came out of that bath, not only sweet and clean, but also much enlivened and strengthened in their joints. So when they came in, they looked fairer a deal than when they went out to the washing. When they were returned out of the garden from the bath, the Interpreter took them and looked upon them, and said unto them, "Fair as the moon." Then he called for the seal wherewith they used to be sealed that were washed in his bath. So the seal was brought, and he set his mark upon them, that they might be known in the places whither they were yet to go. Now the seal was the contents and sum of the passover which the children of Israel did eat, Exod. 13: 8-10, when they came out of the land of Egypt; and the mark was set between their eyes. This seal greatly added to their beauty, for it was an ornament to their faces. It also added to their gravity, and made their countenance more like those of angels. Then said the Interpreter again to the damsel that waited upon these women, Go into the vestry, and fetch out garments for these people. So she went and fetched out white raiment, and laid it down before him; so he commanded them to put it on: it was fine linen, white and clean. When the women were thus adorned, they seemed to be a terror one to the other; for that they could not see that glory each one had in herself, which they could see in each other. Now therefore they began to esteem each other better than themselves. For, You are fairer than I am, said one; and, You are more comely than I am, said another. The children also stood amazed, to see into what fashion they were brought. THE THIRD STAGE. The Interpreter then called for a man-servant of his, one Great-heart, and bid him take A sword, and helmet, and shield; and, Take these my daughters, said he, conduct them to the house called Beautiful, at which place they will rest next. So he took his weapons, and went before them; and the Interpreter said, God speed. Those also that belonged to the family, sent them away with many a good wish. So they went on their way, and sang, This place hath been our second stage: Here we have heard, and seen Those good things, that from age to age To others hid have been. The dunghill-raker, spider, hen, The chicken, too, to me Have taught a lesson: let me then Conformed to it be. The butcher, garden, and the field, The robin and his bait, Also the rotten tree, doth yield Me argument of weight, To move me for to watch and pray, To strive to be sincere; To take my cross up day by day, And serve the Lord with fear. Now I saw in my dream, that they went on, and Great-Heart before them. So they went, and came to the place where Christian's burden fell off his back and tumbled into a sepulchre. Here then they made a pause; and here also they blessed God. Now, said Christiana, it comes to my mind what was said to us at the gate, to wit, that we should have pardon by word and deed: by word, that is, by the promise; by deed, to wit, in the way it was obtained. What the promise is, of that I know something; but what is it to have pardon by deed, or in the way that it was obtained, Mr. Great-Heart, I suppose you know; wherefore, if you please, let us hear your discourse thereof. GREAT. Pardon by the deed done, is pardon obtained by some one for another that hath need thereof; not by the person pardoned, but in the way, saith another, in which I have obtained it. So then, to speak to the question more at large, the pardon that you, and Mercy, and these boys have attained, was obtained by another; to wit, by him that let you in at the gate. And he hath obtained it in this double way; he hath performed righteousness to cover you, and spilt his blood to wash you in. CHR. But if he parts with his righteousness to us, what will he have for himself? GREAT. He has more righteousness than you have need of, or than he needeth himself. CHR. Pray make that appear. GREAT. With all my heart: but first I must premise, that he of whom we are now about to speak, is one that has not his fellow: He has two natures in one person, plain to be distinguished, impossible to be divided. Unto each of these natures a righteousness belongeth, and each righteousness is essential to that nature; so that one may as easily cause that nature to be extinct, as to separate its justice or righteousness from it. Of these righteousnesses therefore, we are not made partakers, so as that they, or any of them, should be put upon us, that we might be made just, and live thereby. Besides these, there is a righteousness which this person has, as these two natures are joined in one. And this is not the righteousness of the Godhead, as distinguished from the manhood; nor the righteousness of the manhood, as distinguished from the Godhead; but a righteousness which standeth in the union of both natures, and may properly be called the righteousness that is essential to his being prepared of God to the capacity of the mediatory office, which he was to be entrusted with. If he parts with his first righteousness, he parts with his Godhead; if he parts with his second righteousness, he parts with the purity of his manhood; if he parts with his third, he parts with that perfection that capacitates him to the office of mediation. He has therefore another righteousness, which standeth in performance, or obedience to a revealed will; and that is what he puts upon sinners, and that by which their sins are covered. Wherefore he saith, "As by one man's disobedience many were made sinners, so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous." Rom. 5:19. CHR. But are the other righteousnesses of no use to us? GREAT. Yes; for though they are essential to his natures and office, and cannot be communicated unto another, yet it is by virtue of them that the righteousness that justifies is for that purpose efficacious. The righteousness of his Godhead gives virtue to his obedience; the righteousness of his manhood giveth capability to his obedience to justify; and the righteousness that standeth in the union of these two natures to his office, giveth authority to that righteousness to do the work for which it was ordained. So then here is a righteousness that Christ, as God, has no need of; for he is God without it: Here is a righteousness that Christ, as man, has no need of to make him so; for he is perfect man without it. Again, here is a righteousness that Christ, as God-man, has no need of; for he is perfectly so without it. Here then is a righteousness that Christ, as God, and as God-man, has no need of, with reference to himself, and therefore he can spare it; a justifying righteousness, that he for himself wanteth not, and therefore giveth it away: Hence it is called the gift of righteousness. This righteousness, since Christ Jesus the Lord has made himself under the law, must be given away; for the law doth not only bind him that is under it, to do justly, but to use charity. Rom. 5:17. Wherefore he must, or ought by the law, if he hath two coats, to give one to him that hath none. Now, our Lord indeed hath two coats, one for himself, and one to spare; wherefore he freely bestows one upon those that have none. And thus, Christiana and Mercy, and the rest of you that are here, doth your pardon come by deed, or by the work of another man. Your Lord Christ is he that worked, and hath given away what he wrought for, to the next poor beggar he meets. But again, in order to pardon by deed, there must something be paid to God as a price, as well as something prepared to cover us withal. Sin has delivered us up to the just curse of a righteous law: now from this curse we must be justified by way of redemption, a price being paid for the harms we have done; and this is by the blood of your Lord, who came and stood in your place and stead, and died your death for your transgressions: Thus has he ransomed you from your transgressions by blood, and covered your polluted and deformed souls with righteousness, Rom. 8:34; for the sake of which, God passeth by you and will not hurt you when he comes to judge the world. Gal. 3:13. CHR. This is brave! Now I see that there was something to be learned by our being pardoned by word and deed. Good Mercy, let us labor to keep this in mind: and, my children, do you remember it also. But, sir, was not this it that made my good Christian's burden fall from off his shoulder, and that made him give three leaps for joy? GREAT. Yes, it was the belief of this that cut those strings that could not be cut by other means; and it was to give him a proof of the virtue of this, that he was suffered to carry his burden to the cross. CHR. I thought so; for though my heart was lightsome and joyous before, yet it is ten times more lightsome and joyous now. And I am persuaded by what I have felt, though I have felt but little as yet, that if the most burdened man in the world was here, and did see and believe as I now do, it would make his heart the more merry and blithe. GREAT. There is not only comfort and the ease of a burden brought to us by the sight and consideration of these, but an endeared affection begot in us by it: for who can, if he doth but once think that pardon comes not only by promise but thus, but be affected with the way and means of his redemption, and so with the man that hath wrought it for him? CHR. True; methinks it makes my heart bleed to think that he should bleed for me. Oh, thou loving One: Oh, thou blessed One. Thou deservest to have me; thou hast bought me. Thou deservest to have me all: thou hast paid for me ten thousand times more than I am worth. No marvel that this made the tears stand in my husband's eyes, and that it made him trudge so nimbly on. I am persuaded he wished me with him: but, vile wretch that I was, I let him come all alone. Oh, Mercy, that thy father and mother were here; yea, and Mrs. Timorous also: nay, I wish now with all my heart that here was Madam Wanton too. Surely, surely, their hearts would be affected; nor could the fear of the one, nor the powerful lusts of the other, prevail with them to go home again, and to refuse to become good pilgrims. GREAT. You speak now in the warmth of your affections; will it, think you, be always thus with you? Besides, this is not communicated to every one, nor to every one that did see your Jesus bleed. There were that stood by, and that saw the blood run from the heart to the ground, and yet were so far off this, that instead of lamenting, they laughed at him, and, instead of becoming his disciples, did harden their hearts against him. So that all that you have, my daughters, you have by peculiar impression made by a divine contemplating upon what I have spoken to you. Remember, that 'twas told you, that the hen, by her common call, gives no meat to her chickens. This you have therefore by a special grace. Now I saw in my dream, that they went on until they were come to the place that Simple, and Sloth, and Presumption, lay and slept in when Christian went by on pilgrimage: and behold, they were hanged up in irons a little way off on the other side. MER. Then said Mercy to him that was their guide and conductor, what are these three men; and for what are they hanged there? GREAT. These three men were men of very bad qualities; they had no mind to be pilgrims themselves, and whomsoever they could, they hindered. They were sloth and folly themselves, and whomsoever they could persuade they made so too, and withal taught them to presume that they should do well at last. They were asleep when Christian went by; and now you go by, they are hanged. MER. But could they persuade any to be of their opinion? GREAT. Yes, they turned several out of the way. There was Slow-pace that they persuaded to do as they. They also prevailed with one Short- wind, with one No-heart, with one Linger-after-Lust, and with one Sleepy -head, and with a young woman, her name was Dull, to turn out of the way and become as they. Besides, they brought up an ill report of your Lord, persuading others that he was a hard taskmaster. They also brought up an evil report of the good Land, saying, it was not half so good as some pretended it was. They also began to vilify his servants, and to count the best of them meddlesome, troublesome busybodies. Further, they would call the bread of God husks; the comforts of his children, fancies; the travel and labor of pilgrims, things to no purpose. CHR. Nay, said Christiana, if they were such, they shall never be bewailed by me: they have but what they deserve; and I think it is well that they stand so near the highway, that others may see and take warning. But had it not been well if their crimes had been engraven in some plate of iron or brass, and left here where they did their mischiefs, for a caution to other bad men? GREAT. So it is, as you may well perceive, if you will go a little to the wall. MER. No, no; let them hang, and their names rot, and their crimes live forever against them. I think it a high favor that they were hanged before we came hither: who knows else what they might have done to such poor women as we are? Then she turned it into a song, saying, "Now then you three hang there, and be a sign To all that shall against the truth combine. And let him that comes after, fear this end, If unto pilgrims he is not a friend. And thou, my soul, of all such men beware, That unto holiness opposers are." Thus they went on till they came to the foot of the hill Difficulty, where again the good Mr. Great-Heart took an occasion to tell them what happened there when Christian himself went by. So he had them first to the spring. Lo, saith he, this is the spring that Christian drank of before he went up this hill: and then it was clear and good; but now it is dirty with the feet of some that are not desirous that pilgrims here should quench their thirst. Ezek. 34:18,19. Thereat Mercy said, And why so envious, trow? But, said their guide, it will do, if taken up and put into a vessel that is sweet and good; for then the dirt will sink to the bottom, and the water come out by itself more clear. Thus therefore Christiana and her companions were compelled to do. They took it up, and put it into an earthen pot, and so let it stand till the dirt was gone to the bottom, and then they drank thereof. Next he showed them the two by-ways that were at the foot of the hill, where Formality and Hypocrisy lost themselves. And, said he, these are dangerous paths. Two were here cast away when Christian came by; and although, as you see these ways are since stopped up with chains, posts, and a ditch, yet there are those that will choose to adventure here rather than take the pains to go up this hill. CHR. "The way of transgressors is hard." Prov. 13:15. It is a wonder that they can get into these ways without danger of breaking their necks. GREAT. They will venture: yea, if at any time any of the King's servants do happen to see them, and do call upon them, and tell them that they are in the wrong way, and do bid them beware of the danger, then they railingly return them answer, and say, "As for the word that thou hast spoken unto us in the name of the King, we will not hearken unto thee; but we will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth out of our own mouths." Jer. 44:16,17. Nay, if you look a little further, you shall see that these ways are made cautionary enough, not only by these posts, and ditch, and chain, but also by being hedged up: yet they will choose to go there. CHR. They are idle; they love not to take pains; up-hill way is unpleasant to them. So it is fulfilled unto them as it is written, "The way of the slothful man is full of thorns." Prov. 15:19. Yea, they will rather choose to walk upon a snare than to go up this hill, and the rest of this way to the city. Then they set forward, and began to go up the hill, and up the hill they went. But before they got to the top, Christiana began to pant, and said, I dare say this is a breathing hill; no marvel if they that love their ease more than their souls choose to themselves a smoother way. Then said Mercy, I must sit down: also the least of the children began to cry. Come, come, said Great-Heart, sit not down here; for a little above is the Prince's arbor. Then he took the little boy by the hand, and led him up thereto. When they were come to the arbor, they were very willing to sit down, for they were all in a pelting heat. Then said Mercy, "How sweet is rest to them that labor." Matt. 11:28; and how good is the Prince of pilgrims to provide such resting-places for them! Of this arbor I have heard much; but I never saw it before. But here let us beware of sleeping; for, as I have heard, it cost poor Christian dear. Then said Mr. Great-Heart to the little ones, Come, my pretty boys, how do you do? What think you now of going on pilgrimage? Sir, said the least, I was almost beat out of heart; but I thank you for lending me a hand at my need. And I remember now what my mother hath told me, namely, that the way to heaven is as a ladder, and the way to hell is as down a hill. But I had rather go up the ladder to life, than down the hill to death. Then said Mercy, But the proverb is, "To go down the hill is easy." But James said, (for that was his name,) The day is coming when, in my opinion, when going down the hill will be the hardest of all. 'Tis a good boy, said his master; thou hast given her a right answer. Then Mercy smiled, but the little boy did blush. CHR. Come, said Christiana, will you eat a bit to sweeten your mouths, while you sit here to rest your legs? for I have here a piece of pomegranate which Mr. Interpreter put into my hand just when I came out of his door; he gave me also a piece of an honeycomb, and a little bottle of spirits. I thought he gave you something, said Mercy, because he called you aside. Yes, so he did, said the other; but, said Christiana, it shall be still as I said it should, when at first we came from home; thou shalt be a sharer in all the good that I have, because thou so willingly didst become my companion. Then she gave to them, and they did eat, both Mercy and the boys. And said Christiana to Mr. Great-Heart, Sir, will you do as we? But he answered, You are going on pilgrimage, and presently I shall return; much good may what you have do you: at home I eat the same every day. THE FOURTH STAGE. Now when they had eaten and drank, and had chatted a little longer, their guide said to them, The day wears away; if you think good, let us prepare to be going. So they got up to go, and the little boys went before; But Christiana forgot to take her bottle of spirits with her, so she sent her little boy back to fetch it. Then said Mercy, I think this is a losing place: here Christian lost his roll, and here Christiana left her bottle behind her. Sir, what is the cause of this? So their guide made answer, and said, The cause is sleep, or forgetfulness: some sleep when they should keep awake, and some forget when they should remember; and this is the very cause why often, at the resting-places, some pilgrims in some things come off losers. Pilgrims should watch, and remember what they have already received, under their greatest enjoyments; but for want of doing so, oftentimes their rejoicing ends in tears, and their sunshine in a cloud: witness the story of Christian at this place. When they were come to the place where Mistrust and Timorous met Christian, to persuade him to go back for fear of the lions, they perceived as it were a stage, and before it, towards the road, a broad plate with a copy of verses written thereon, and underneath the reason of raising up that stage in that place rendered. The verses were, "Let him that sees this stage, take heed Unto his heart and tongue; Lest, if he do not, here he speed As some have long agone." The words underneath the verses were, "This stage was built to punish those upon, who, through timorousness or mistrust, shall be afraid to go further on pilgrimage. Also, on this stage both Mistrust and Timorous were burned through the tongue with a hot iron, for endeavoring to hinder Christian on his journey." Then said Mercy, This is much like to the saying of the Beloved: "What shall be given unto thee, or what shall be done unto thee, thou false tongue? Sharp arrows of the mighty, with coals of juniper. Psa. 120:3,4. So they went on till they came within sight of the lions. Now Mr. Great-Heart was a strong man, so he was not afraid of a lion: But yet when they were come up to the place where the lions were, the boys, that went before, were now glad to cringe behind, for they were afraid of the lions; so they stepped back, and went behind. At this their guide smiled, and said, How now, my boys; do you love to go before when no danger doth approach, and love to come behind so soon as the lions appear? Now, as they went on, Mr. Great-heart drew his sword, with intent to make a way for the pilgrims in spite of the lions. Then there appeared one that, it seems, had taken upon him to back the lions; and he said to the pilgrims' guide, What is the cause of your coming hither? Now the name of that man was Grim, or Bloody-man because of his slaying of pilgrims; and he was of the race of the giants. GREAT. Then said the pilgrims' guide, These women and children are going on pilgrimage, and this is the way they must go; and go it they shall, in spite of thee and the lions. GRIM. This is not their way, neither shall they go therein. I am come forth to withstand them, and to that end will back the lions. Now, to say the truth, by reason of the fierceness of the lions, and of the grim carriage of him that did back them, this way had of late lain much unoccupied, and was almost grown over with grass. CHR. Then said Christiana, Though the highways have been unoccupied heretofore, and though the travellers have been made in times past to walk through by-paths, it must not be so now I am risen, now I am risen a mother in Israel. Judges 5:6,7. GRIM. Then he swore by the lions that it should; and therefore bid them turn aside, for they should not have passage there. But Great-Heart their guide made first his approach unto Grim, and laid so heavily on him with his sword that he forced him to retreat. GRIM. Then said he that attempted to back the lions, Will you slay me upon mine own ground? GREAT. It is the King's highway that we are in, and in this way it is that thou hast placed the lions; but these women, and these children, though weak, shall hold on their way in spite of thy lions. And with that he gave him again a downright blow, and brought him upon his knees. With this blow also he broke his helmet, and with the next he cut off an arm. Then did the giant roar so hideously that his voice frightened the women, and yet they were glad to see him lie sprawling upon the ground. Now the lions were chained, and so of themselves could do nothing. Wherefore, when old Grim, that intended to back them, was dead, Mr. Great-Heart said to the pilgrims, Come now, and follow me, and no hurt shall happen to you from the lions. They therefore went on, but the women trembled as they passed by them; the boys also looked as if they would die; but they all got by without further hurt. Now, when they were within sight of the Porter's lodge, they soon came up unto it; but they made the more haste after this to go thither, because it is dangerous traveling there in the night. So when they were come to the gate, the guide knocked, and the Porter cried, Who is there? But as soon as the guide had said, It is I, he knew his voice, and came down, for the guide had oft before that come thither as a conductor of pilgrims. When he was come down, he opened the gate; and seeing the guide standing just before it, (for he saw not the women, for they were behind him,) he said unto him, How now, Mr. Great-Heart, what is your business here so late at night? I have brought, said he, some pilgrims hither, where, by my Lord's commandment, they must lodge: I had been here some time ago, had I not been opposed by the giant that did use to back the lions. But I, after a long and tedious combat with him, have cut him off, and have brought the pilgrims hither in safety. POR. Will you not go in, and stay till morning? GREAT. No, I will return to my Lord to-night. CHR. O, sir, I know not how to be willing you should leave us in our pilgrimage: you have been so faithful and loving to us, you have fought so stoutly for us, you have been so hearty in counselling of us, that I shall never forget your favor towards us. MER. Then said Mercy, O that we might have thy company to our journey's end! How can such poor women as we hold out in a way so full of troubles as this way is, without a friend and defender? JAMES. Then said James, the youngest of the boys, Pray, sir, be persuaded to go with us, and help us, because we are so weak, and the way so dangerous as it is. GREAT. I am at my Lord's commandment; if he shall allot me to be your guide quite through, I will willingly wait upon you. But here you failed at first; for when he bid me come thus far with you, then you should have begged me of him to have gone quite through with you, and he would have granted your request. However, at present I must withdraw; and so, good Christiana, Mercy, and my brave children, adieu. Then the Porter, Mr. Watchful, asked Christiana of her country, and of her kindred. And she said, I came from the city of Destruction. I am a widow woman, and my husband is dead, his name was Christian, the pilgrim. How! said the Porter, was he your husband? Yes, said she, and these are his children and this, pointing to Mercy, is one of my town's-women. Then the Porter rang his bell, as at such times he is wont, and there come to the door one of the damsels, whose name was Humble-Mind; and to her the Porter said, Go tell it within, that Christiana, the wife of Christian, and her children, are come hither on pilgrimage. She went in, therefore, and told it. But oh, what noise for gladness was there within when the damsel did but drop that out of her mouth! So they came with haste to the Porter, for Christana stood still at the door. Then some of the most grave said unto her, Come in, Christiana, come in, thou wife of that good man; come in, thou blessed woman, come in, with all that are with thee. So she went in, and they followed her that were her children and companions. Now when they were gone in, they were had into a large room, where they were bidden to sit down: so they sat down, and the chief of the house were called to see and welcome the guests. Then they came in, and understanding who they were, did salute each other with a kiss, and said, Welcome, ye vessels of the grace of God; welcome to us, your friends. Now, because it was somewhat late, and because the pilgrims were weary with their journey, and also made faint with the sight of the fight, and of the terrible lions, they desired, as soon as might be, to prepare to go to rest. Nay, said those of the family, refresh yourselves first with a morsel of meat; for they had prepared for them a lamb, with the accustomed sauce belonging thereto, Exod. 12:21; John 1:29; for the Porter had heard before of their coming, and had told it to them within. So when they had supped, and ended their prayer with a psalm, they desired they might go to rest. But let us, said Christiana, if we may be so bold as to choose, be in that chamber that was my husband's when he was here; so they had them up thither, and they all lay in a room. When they were at rest, Christiana and Mercy entered into discourse about things that were convenient. CHR. Little did I think once, when my husband went on pilgrimage, that I should ever have followed him. MER. And you as little thought of lying in his bed, and in his chamber to rest, as you do now. CHR. And much less did I ever think of seeing his face with comfort, and of worshiping the Lord the King with him; and yet now I believe I shall. MER. Hark, don't you hear a noise? CHR. Yes, it is, as I believe, a noise of music, for joy that we are here. MER. Wonderful! Music in the house, music in the heart, and music also in heaven, for joy that we are here! Thus they talked a while, and then betook themselves to sleep. So in the morning when they were awake, Christiana said to Mercy, What was the matter that you did laugh in your sleep to-night? I suppose you were in a dream. MER. So I was, and a sweet dream it was; but are you sure I laughed? CHR. Yes, you laughed heartily; but prithee, Mercy, tell me thy dream. MER. I was a dreaming that I sat all alone in a solitary place, and was bemoaning of the hardness of my heart. Now I had not sat there long but methought many were gathered about me to see me, and to hear what it was that I said. So they hearkened, and I went on bemoaning the hardness of my heart. At this, some of them laughed at me, some called me fool, and some began to thrust me about. With that, methought I looked up and saw one coming with wings towards me. So he came directly to me, and said, Mercy, what aileth thee? Now when he had heard me make my complaint, he said, Peace be to thee; he also wiped my eyes with his handkerchief, and clad me in silver and gold. Ezek. 16:8-11. He put a chain about my neck, and ear-rings in mine ears, and a beautiful crown upon my head. Then he took me by the hand, and said, Mercy, come after me. So he went up, and I followed till we came at a golden gate. Then he knocked; and when they within had opened, the man went in, and I followed him up to a throne, upon which one sat; and he said to me, Welcome, daughter. The place looked bright and twinkling, like the stars, or rather like the sun, and I thought that I saw your husband there; so I awoke from my dream. But did I laugh? CHR. Laugh! aye, and well you might to see yourself so well. For you must give me leave to tell you that it was a good dream; and that, as you have begun to find the first part true, so you shall find the second at last. "God speaks once, yea, twice, yet man perceiveth it not; in a dream, in a vision of the night, when deep sleep falleth upon men, in slumberings upon the bed." Job 33:14,15. We need not, when abed, to lie awake to talk with God; he can visit us while we sleep, and cause us then to hear his voice. Our heart oftentimes wakes when we sleep, and God can speak to that, either by words, by proverbs, by signs and similitudes, as well as if one was awake. MER. Well, I am glad of my dream; for I hope ere long to see it fulfilled, to the making me laugh again. CHR. I think it is now high time to rise, and to know what we must do. MER. Pray, if they invite us to stay a while, let us willingly accept of the proffer. I am the more willing to stay a while here, to grow better acquainted with these maids: methinks Prudence, Piety, and Charity, have very comely and sober countenances. CHR. We shall see what they will do. So when they were up and ready, they came down, and they asked one another of their rest, and if it was comfortable or not. MER. Very good, said Mercy: it was one of the best night's lodgings that ever I had in my life. Then said Prudence and Piety, If you will be persuaded to stay here a while, you shall have what the house will afford. CHAR. Aye, and that with a very good will, said Charity. So they consented, and stayed there about a month or above, and became very profitable one to another. And because Prudence would see how Christiana had brought up her children, she asked leave of her to catechise them. So she gave her free consent. Then she began with her youngest, whose name was James. PRUD. And she said, Come, James, canst thou tell me who made thee? JAMES. God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. PRUD. Good boy. And canst thou tell who saved thee? JAMES. God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. PRUD. Good boy still. But how doth God the Father save thee? JAMES. By his grace. PRUD. How doth God the Son save thee? JAMES. By his righteousness, death and blood, and life. PRUD. And how doth God the Holy Ghost save thee? JAMES. By his illumination, by his renovation, and by his preservation. Then said Prudence to Christiana, You are to be commended for thus bringing up your children. I suppose I need not ask the rest these questions, since the youngest of them can answer them so well. I will therefore now apply myself to the next youngest. PRUD. Then she said, Come, Joseph, (for his name was Joseph,) will you let me catechise you? JOSEPH. With all my heart. PRUD. What is man? JOSEPH. A reasonable creature, so made by God, as my brother said. PRUD. What is supposed by this word, saved? JOSEPH. That man, by sin, has brought himself into a state of captivity and misery. PRUD. What is supposed by his being saved by the Trinity? JOSEPH. That sin is so great and mighty a tyrant that none can pull us out of its clutches but God; and that God is so good and loving to man, as to pull him indeed out of this miserable state. PRUD. What is God's design in saving poor men? JOSEPH. The glorifying of his name, of his grace, and justice, etc., and the everlasting happiness of his creature. PRUD. Who are they that will be saved? JOSEPH. They that accept of his salvation. PRUD. Good boy, Joseph; thy mother hath taught thee well, and thou hast hearkened unto what she has said unto thee. Then said Prudence to Samuel, who was the eldest but one, PRUD. Come, Samuel, are you willing that I should catechise you? SAM. Yes, forsooth, if you please. PRUD. What is heaven? SAM. A place and state most blessed, because God dwelleth there. PRUD. What is hell? SAM. A place and state most woful, because it is the dwelling-place of sin, the devil, and death. PRUD. Why wouldst thou go to heaven? SAM. That I may see God, and serve him without weariness; that I may see Christ, and love him everlastingly; that I may have that fullness of the Holy Spirit in me which I can by no means here enjoy. PRUD. A very good boy, and one that has learned well. Then she addressed herself to the eldest, whose name was Matthew; and she said to him, Come, Matthew, shall I also catechise you? MATT. With a very good will. PRUD. I ask then, if there was ever any thing that had a being antecedent to or before God? MATT. No, for God is eternal; nor is there any thing, excepting himself, that had a being until the beginning of the first day. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is. PRUD. What do you think of the Bible? MATT. It is the holy word of God. PRUD. Is there nothing written therein but what you understand? MATT. Yes, a great deal. PRUD. What do you do when you meet with places therein that you do not understand? MATT. I think God is wiser than I. I pray also that he will please to let me know all therein that he knows will be for my good. PRUD. How believe you as touching the resurrection of the dead? MATT. I believe they shall rise the same that was buried; the same in nature, though not in corruption. And I believe this upon a double account: first, because God has promised it; secondly, because he is able to perform it. Then said Prudence to the boys, You must still hearken to your mother; for she can teach you more. You must also diligently give ear to what good talk you shall hear from others: for your sakes do they speak good things. Observe also, and that with carefulness, what the heavens and the earth do teach you; but especially be much in the meditation of that book which was the cause of your father's becoming a pilgrim. I, for my part, my children, will teach you what I can while you are here, and shall be glad if you will ask me questions that tend to godly edifying. Now by that these pilgrim's had been at this place a week, Mercy had a visitor that pretended some good-will unto her, and his name was Mr. Brisk; a man of some breeding, and that pretended to religion, but a man that stuck very close to the world. So he came once or twice, or more, to Mercy, and offered love unto her. Now Mercy was of a fair countenance, and therefore the more alluring. Her mind also was to be always busying of herself in doing; for when she had nothing to do for herself, she would be making hose and garments for others, and would bestow them upon those that had need. And Mr. Brisk not knowing where or how she disposed of what she made, seemed to be greatly taken, for that he found her never idle. I will warrant her a good housewife, quoth he to himself. Mercy then revealed the business to the maidens that were of the house, and inquired of them concerning him, for they did know him better than she. So they told her that he was a very busy young man, and one who pretended to religion, but was, as they feared, a stranger to the power of that which is good. Nay then, said Mercy, I will look no more on him; for I purpose never to have a clog to my soul. Prudence then replied, that there needed no matter of great discouragement to be given to him; her continuing so as she had begun to do for the poor, would quickly cool his courage. So the next time he comes he finds her at her old work, making things for the poor. Then said he, What, always at it? Yes, said she, either for myself or for others. And what canst thou earn a day? said he. I do these things, said she, that I may be rich in good works, laying up in store for myself a good foundation against the time to come, that I may lay hold on eternal life. 1 Tim. 6:17-19. Why, prithee, what doest thou with them? said he. Clothe the naked, said she. With that his countenance fell. So he forbore to come at her again. And when he was asked the reason why, he said, that Mercy was a pretty lass, but troubled with ill conditions. When he had left her, Prudence said, Did I not tell thee that Mr. Brisk would soon forsake thee? yea, he will rise up an ill report of thee; for, notwithstanding his pretence to religion, and his seeming love to Mercy, yet Mercy and he are of tempers so different that I believe they will never come together. MER. I might have had husbands before now, though I spoke not of it to any; but they were such as did not like my conditions, though never did any of them find fault with my person. So they and I could not agree. PRUD. Mercy in our days is but little set by any further than as to its name: the practice which is set forth by thy conditions, there are but few that can abide. MER. Well, said Mercy, if nobody will have me, I will die unmarried, or my conditions shall be to me as a husband: for I cannot change my nature; and to have one who lies cross to me in this, that I purpose never to admit of as long as I live. I had a sister named Bountiful, that was married to one of these churls, but he and she could never agree; but because my sister was resolved to do as she had begun, that is, to show kindness to the poor, therefore her husband first cried her down at the cross, and then turned her out of his doors. PRUD. And yet he was a professor, I warrant you? MER. Yes, such a one as he was, and of such as he the world is now full: but I am for none of them all. Now Matthew, the eldest son of Christiana, fell sick, and his sickness was sore upon him, for he was much pained in his bowels, so that he was with it at times pulled, as it were, both ends together. There dwelt also not far from thence one Mr. Skill, an ancient and well-approved physician. So Christiana desired it, and entered the room, and had a little observed the boy, he concluded that he was sick of the gripes. Then he said to his mother, What diet has Matthew of late fed upon? Diet! said Christiana, nothing but what is wholesome. The physician answered, This boy has been tampering with something that lies in his stomach undigested, and that will not away without means. And I tell you he must be purged, or else he will die. SAM. Then said Samuel, Mother, what was that which my brother did gather up and eat as soon as we were come from the gate that is at the head of this way? You know that there was an orchard on the left hand, on the other side of the wall, and some of the trees hung over the wall, and my brother did pluck and eat. CHR. True, my child, said Christiana, he did take thereof, and did eat: naughty boy as he was, I chid him, and yet he would eat thereof. SKILL. I knew he had eaten something that was not wholesome food; and that food, to wit, that fruit, is even the most hurtful of all. It is the fruit of Beelzebub's orchard. I do marvel that none did warn you of it; many have died thereof. CHR. Then Christiana began to cry; and she said, Oh, naughty boy! and Oh, careless mother! what shall I do for my son? SKILL. Come, do not be too much dejected; the boy may do well again, but he must purge and vomit. CHR. Pray, sir, try the utmost of your skill with him, whatever it costs. SKILL. Nay, I hope I shall be reasonable. So he made him a purge, but it was too weak; it was said it was made of the blood of a goat, the ashes of a heifer, and some of the juice of hyssop. Heb. 9:13, 19; 10: 1-4. When Mr. Skill had seen that that purge was too weak, he made one to the purpose. It was made ex carne et sanguine Christi, 7 John 6:54- 57; Heb. 9:14; (you know physicians give strange medicines to their patients:) and it was made into pills, with a promise or two, and a proportionable quantity of salt. Mark 9:49. Now, he was to take them three at a time, fasting, in half a quarter of a pint of the tears of repentance. Zech. 12:10. When this potion was prepared, and brought to the boy, he was loth to take it, though torn with the gripes as if he should be pulled in pieces. Come, come, said the physician, you must take it. It goes against my stomach, said the boy. I must have you take it, said his mother. I shall vomit it up again, said the boy. Pray, sir, said Christiana to Mr. Skill, how does it taste? It has no ill taste, said the doctor; and with that she touched one of the pills with the tip of her tongue. Oh, Matthew, said she, this potion is sweeter than honey. If thou lovest thy mother, if thou lovest thy brothers, if thou lovest Mercy, if thou lovest thy life, take it. So, with much ado, after a short prayer for the blessing of God upon it, he took it, and it wrought kindly with him. It caused him to purge; it caused him to sleep, and to rest quietly; it put him into a fine heat and breathing sweat, and did quite rid him of his gripes. So in a little time he got up, and walked about with a staff, and would go from room to room, and talk with Prudence, Piety, and Charity, of his distemper, and how he was healed. So when the boy was healed, Christiana asked Mr. Skill, saying, Sir, what will content you for your pains and care to and of my child? And he said, You must pay the master of the College of Physicians, Heb. 13:11-15, according to rules made in that case and provided. CHR. But, sir, said she, what is this pill good for else? SKILL. It is a universal pill; it is good against all the diseases that pilgrims are incident to; and when it is well prepared, it will keep good, time out of mind. CHR. Pray, sir, make me up twelve boxes of them; for if I can get these, I will never take other physic. SKILL. These pills are good to prevent diseases, as well as to cure when one is sick. Yea, I dare say it, and stand to it, that if a man will but use this physic as he should, it will make him live for ever. John 6:51. But, good Christiana, thou must give these pills no other way but as I have prescribed; for if you do, they will do no good. So he gave unto Christiana physic for herself, and her boys, and for Mercy; and bid Matthew take heed how he ate any more green plums; and kissed them, and went his way. It was told you before, that Prudence bid the boys, that if at any time they would, they should ask her some questions that might be profitable and she would say something to them. MATT. Then Matthew, who had been sick, asked her, why for the most part physic should be bitter to our palates. PRUD. To show how unwelcome the word of God and the effects thereof are to a carnal heart. MATT. Why does physic, if it does good, purge, and cause to vomit? PRUD. To show that the word, when it works effectually, cleanseth the heart and mind. For look, what the one doth to the body, the other doth to the soul. MATT. What should we learn by seeing the flame of our fire go upwards, and by seeing the beams and sweet influences of the sun strike downwards? PRUD. By the going up of the fire, we are taught to ascend to heaven by fervent and hot desires. And by the sun sending his heat, beams, and sweet influences downwards, we are taught the Saviour of the world, though high, reaches down with his grace and love to us below. MATT. Whence have the clouds their water? PRUD. Out of the sea. MATT. What may we learn from that? PRUD. That ministers should fetch their doctrine from God. MATT. Why do they empty themselves upon the earth? PRUD. To show that ministers should give out what they know of God to the world. MATT. Why is the rainbow caused by the sun? PRUD. To show that the covenant of God's grace is confirmed to us in Christ. MATT. Why do the springs come from the sea to us through the earth? PRUD. To show that the grace of God comes to us through the body of Christ. MATT. Why do some of the springs rise out of the tops of high hills? PRUD. To show that the Spirit of grace shall spring up in some that are great and mighty, as well as in many that are poor and low. MATT. Why doth the fire fasten upon the candle-wick? PRUD. To show that unless grace doth kindle upon the heart, there will be no true light of life in us. MATT. Why are the wick, and tallow and all, spent to maintain the light of the candle? PRUD. To show that body and soul, and all, should be at the service of, and spend themselves to maintain in good condition that grace of God that is in us. MATT. Why doth the pelican pierce her own breast with her bill? PRUD. To nourish her young ones with her blood, and thereby to show that Christ the blessed so loved his young, (his people,) as to save them from death by his blood. MATT. What may one learn by hearing the cock to crow? PRUD. Learn to remember Peter's sin, and Peter's repentance. The cock's crowing shows also, that day is coming on: let, then, the crowing of the cock put thee in mind of that last and terrible day of judgment. Now about this time their month was out; wherefore they signified to those of the house, that it was convenient for them to up and be going. Then said Joseph to his mother, It is proper that you forget not to send to the house of Mr. Interpreter, to pray him to grant that Mr. Great- Heart should be sent unto us, that he may be our conductor for the rest of the way. Good boy, said she, I had almost forgot. So she drew up a petition, and prayed Mr. Watchful the porter to send it by some fit man to her good friend Mr. Interpreter; who, when it was come, and he had seen the contents of the petition, said to the messenger, Go, tell them that I will send him. When the family where Christiana was, saw that they had a purpose to go forward, they called the whole house together, to give thanks to their King for sending of them such profitable guests as these. Which done, they said unto Christiana, And shall we not show thee something, as our custom is to do to pilgrims, on which thou mayest meditate when thou art upon the way? So they took Christiana, her children, and Mercy, into the closet, and showed them one of the apples that Eve ate of, and that she also did give to her husband, and that for the eating of which they were both turned out of paradise, and asked her what she thought that was. Then Christiana said, It is food or poison, I know not which. So they opened the matter to her, and she held up her hands and wondered. Gen. 3:6; Rom. 7:24. Then they had her to a place, and showed her Jacob's ladder. Gen. 28:12. Now at that time there were some angels ascending upon it. So Christiana looked and looked to see the angels go up: so did the rest of the company. Then they were going into another place, to show them something else; but James said to his mother, Pray, bid them stay here a little longer, for this is a curious sight. So they turned again, and stood feeding their eyes with this so pleasant a prospect. After this, they had them into a place where did hang up a golden anchor. So they bid Christiana take it down; for said they, You shall have it with you, for it is of absolute necessity that you should, that you may lay hold of that within the veil, Heb. 6:19, and stand stedfast in case you should meet with turbulent weather, Joel 3:16: so they were glad thereof. Then they took them, and had them to the mount upon which Abraham our father offered up Isaac his son, and showed them the altar, the wood, the fire, and the knife, for they remain to be seen to this very day. Gen. 22:9. When they had seen it, they held up their hands, and blessed themselves, and said, Oh, what a man for love to his Master, and for denial to himself, was Abraham! After they had showed them all these things, Prudence took them into a dining room, where stood a pair of excellent virginals; 8 so she played upon them, and turned what she had showed them into this excellent song, saying, "Eve's apple we have showed you; Of that be you aware: You have seen Jacob's ladder too, Upon which angels are. An anchor you received have; But let not these suffice, Until with Abra'm you have gave Your best, a sacrifice." Now, about this time, one knocked at the door; so the Porter opened, and behold, Mr. Great-Heart was there. But when he was come in, what joy was there! for it came now afresh again into their minds, how but a while ago he had slain old Grim Bloody-man the giant, and had delivered them from the lions. Then said Mr. Great-Heart to Christiana and to Mercy, My Lord has sent each of you a bottle of wine, and also some parched corn, together with a couple of pomegranates; he has also sent the boys some figs and raisins; to refresh you in your way. Then they addressed themselves to their journey, and Prudence and Piety went along with them. When they came to the gate, Christiana asked the Porter if any of late went by. He said, No; only one, some time since, who also told me, that of late there had been a great robbery committed on the King's highway as you go. But, said he, the thieves are taken, and will shortly be tried for their lives. Then Christiana and Mercy were afraid; but Matthew said, Mother, fear nothing, as long as Mr. Great-Heart is to go with us, and to be our conductor. Then said Christiana to the Porter, Sir, I am much obliged to you for all the kindnesses that you have showed to me since I came hither; and also for that you have been so loving and kind to my children. I know not how to gratify your kindness; wherefore, pray, as a token of my respect to you, accept of this small mite. So she put a gold angel 9 in his hand; and he made her a low obeisance, and said, "Let thy garments be always white; and let thy head want no ointment." Eccles. 9:8. Let Mercy live and not die, and let not her works be few. Deut. 33:6. And to the boys he said, Do you fly youthful lusts, and follow after godliness with them that are grave and wise, 2 Tim. 2:22: so shall you put gladness into your mother's heart, and obtain praise of all that are sober-minded. So they thanked the Porter, and departed. THE FIFTH STAGE. Now I saw in my dream, that they went forward until they were come to the brow of the Hill; where Piety, bethinking herself, cried out, Alas, I have forgot what I intended to bestow upon Christiana and her companions: I will go back and fetch it. So she ran and fetched it. While she was gone, Christiana thought she heard, in a grove a little way off on the right hand, a most curious melodious note, with words much like these: "Through all my life thy favor is So frankly showed to me, That in thy House for evermore My dwelling-place shall be." And listening still, she thought she heard another answer it, saying, "For why? The Lord our God is good; His mercy is forever sure; His truth at all times firmly stood, And shall from age to age endure." So Christiana asked Prudence who it was that made those curious notes. Song 2:11,12. They are, answered she, our country birds: they sing these notes but seldom, except it be at the spring, when the flowers appear, and the sun shines warm, and then you may hear them all day long. I often, said she, go out to hear them; we also oft-times keep them tame in our house. They are very fine company for us when we are melancholy: also they make the woods, and groves, and solitary places, places desirable to be in. By this time Piety was come again. So she said to Christiana, Look here, I have brought thee a scheme of all those things that thou hast seen at our house, upon which thou mayest look when thou findest thyself forgetful, and call those things again to remembrance for thy edification and comfort. Now they began to go down the hill into the Valley of Humiliation. It was a steep hill, and the way was slippery; but they were very careful; so they got down pretty well. When they were down in the valley, Piety said to Christiana, This is the place where Christian your husband met, with the foul fiend Apollyon, and where they had that dreadful fight that they had: I know you cannot but have heard thereof. But be of good courage; as long as you have here Mr. Great-Heart to be your guide and conductor, we hope you will fare the better. So when these two had committed the pilgrims unto the conduct of their guide, he went forward, and they went after. GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, We need not be so afraid of this valley, for here is nothing to hurt us, unless we procure it to ourselves. It is true, Christian did here meet with Apollyon, with whom he had also a sore combat: but that fray was the fruit of those slips that he got in his going down the hill: for they that get slips there, must look for combats here. And hence it is, that this valley has got so hard a name. For the common people, when they hear that some frightful thing has befallen such an one in such a place, are of opinion that that place is haunted with some foul fiend, or evil spirit; when, alas! it is for the fruit of their doing, that such things do befal them there. This Valley of Humiliation is of itself as fruitful a place as any the crow flies over; and I am persuaded, if we could hit upon it, we might find somewhere hereabouts something that might give us an account why Christian was so hardly beset in this place. Then said James to his mother, Lo, yonder stands a pillar, and it looks as if something was written thereon; let us go and see what it is. So they went and found there written, "Let Christian's slips, before he came hither, and the battles that he met with in this place, be a warning to those that come after." Lo, said their guide, did not I tell you that there was something hereabouts that would give intimation of the reason why Christian was so hard beset in this place? Then turning to Christiana, he said, No disparagement to Christian more than to any others whose hap and lot it was. For it is easier going up than down this hill, and that can be said but of few hills in all these parts of the world. But we will leave the good man; he is at rest: he also had a brave victory over his enemy. Let Him grant, that dwelleth above, that we fare no worse, when we come be tried, than he. But we will come again to this Valley of Humiliation. It is the best and most fruitful piece of ground in all those parts. It is fat ground, and as you see, consisteth much in meadows; and if a man was to come here in the summer-time, as we do now, if he knew not any thing before thereof, and if he also delighted himself in the sight of his eyes, he might see that which would be delightful to him. Behold how green this valley is; also how beautified with lillies. Song 2:1. I have known many laboring men that have got good estates in this Valley of Humiliation; for God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the humble. James 4:6; 1 Pet. 5:5. Indeed it is a very fruitful soil, and doth bring forth by handfuls. Some also have wished that the next way to their Father's house were here, that they might be troubled no more with either hills or mountains to go over; but the way is the way, and there is an end. Now, as they were going along, and talking, they espied a boy feeding his father's sheep. The boy was in very mean clothes, but of a very fresh and well-favored countenance; and as he sat by himself, he sung. Hark, said Mr. Great-Heart, to what the shepherd's boy saith. So they hearkened and he said, "He that is down, needs fear no fall; He that is low, no pride: He that is humble, ever shall Have God to be his guide. I am content with what I have, Little be it or much; And, Lord, contentment still I crave, Because thou savest such. Fulness to such, a burden is, That go on pilgrimage; Here little, and hereafter bliss, Is best from Age to Age." Then said the guide, Do you hear him? I will dare to say, that this boy lives a merrier life, and wears more of that herb called heart's-ease in his bosom, than he that is clad in silk and velvet. But we will proceed in our discourse. In this valley our Lord formerly had his country-house: he loved much to be here. He loved also to walk these meadows, for he found the air was pleasant. Besides, here a man shall be free from the noise, and from the hurryings of this life: all states are full of noise and confusion; only the Valley of Humiliation is that empty and solitary place. Here a man shall not be so let and hindered in his contemplation as in other places he is apt to be. This is a valley that nobody walks in but those that love a pilgrim's life. And though Christian had the hard hap to meet here with Apollyon, and to enter with him in a brisk encounter, yet I must tell you, that in former times men have met with angels here, Hos. 12:4,5, have found pearls here, Matt. 13:46, and have in this place found the words of life. Prov. 8:36. Did I say our Lord had here in former days his country-house, and that he loved here to walk? I will add-in this place, and to the people that love and trace these grounds, he has left a yearly revenue, to be faithfully paid them at certain seasons, for their maintenance by the way, and for their further encouragement to go on in their pilgrimage. SAM. Now, as they went on, Samuel said to Mr. Great-Heart, Sir, I perceive that in this valley my father and Apollyon had their battle; but whereabout was the fight? for I perceive this valley is large. GREAT. Your father had the battle with Apollyon at a place yonder before us, in a narrow passage, just beyond Forgetful Green. And indeed that place is the most dangerous place in all these parts. For if at any time pilgrims meet with any brunt, it is when they forget what favours they have received, and how unworthy they are of them. This is the place also where others have been hard put to it. But more of the place when we are come to it; for I persuade myself that to this day there remains either some sign of the battle, or some monument to testify that such a battle there was fought. MER. Then said Mercy, I think I am as well in this valley as I have been anywhere else in all our journey: the place, methinks, suits with my spirit. I love to be in such places, where there is no rattling with coaches, nor rumbling with wheels. Methinks, here one may, without much molestation, be thinking what he is, whence he came, what he has done, and to what the King has called him. Here one may think, and break at heart, and melt in one's spirit, until one's eyes become as the fish- pools in Heshbon. Song 7:4. They that go rightly through this valley of Baca, make it a well; the rain that God sends down from heaven upon them that are here, also filleth the pools. This valley is that from whence also the King will give to his their vineyards; and they that go through it shall sing, as Christian did, for all he met with Apollyon. Psa. 84:5-7; Hos. 2:15. GREAT. 'Tis true, said their guide; I have gone through this valley many a time, and never was better than when here. I have also been a conduct to several pilgrims, and they have confessed the same. "To this man will I look," saith the King, "even to him that is poor, and of a contrite spirit, and trembleth at my word." Isa. 66:2. Now they were come to the place where the aforementioned battle was fought: Then said the guide to Christiana, her children, and Mercy, This is the place; on this ground Christian stood, and up there came Apollyon against him; and look. And, look, did I not tell you? here is some of your husband's blood upon these stones to this day: Behold, also, how here and there are yet to be seen upon the place, some of the shivers of Apollyon's broken darts. See, also, how they did beat the ground with their feet as they fought, to make good their places against each other; how also with their by-blows they did split the very stones in pieces. Verily, Christian did here play the man, and showed himself as stout as Hercules could, had he been there, even he himself. When Apollyon was beat, he made his retreat to the next valley, that is called, the Valley of the Shadow of Death, unto which we shall come anon. Lo, yonder also stands a monument, on which is engraven this battle, and Christian's victory, to his fame, throughout all ages: So because it stood just on the way-side before them, they stepped to it, and read the writing, which word for word was this: "Hard by here was a battle fought, Most strange, and yet most true; Christian and Apollyon fought Each other to subdue. The man so bravely play'd the man, He made the fiend to fly; Of which a monument I stand, The same to testify." When they had passed by this place, they came upon the borders of the Shadow of Death. This Valley was longer than the other; a place also most strangely haunted with evil things, as many are able to testify: but these women and children went the better through it, because they had daylight, and because Mr. Great-Heart was their conductor. When they were entering upon this valley, they thought they heard a groaning, as of dying men; a very great groaning. They thought also that they did hear words of lamentation, spoken as of some in extreme torment. These things made the boys to quake; the women also looked pale and wan; but their guide bid them be of good comfort. So they went on a little further, and they thought that they felt the ground begin to shake under them, as if some hollow place was there: they heard also a kind of hissing, as of serpents, but nothing as yet appeared. Then said the boys, Are we not yet at the end of this doleful place? But the guide also bid them be of good courage, and look well to their feet; lest haply, said he, you be taken in some snare. Now James began to be sick; but I think the cause thereof was fear: so his mother gave him some of that glass of spirits that had been given her at the Interpreter's house, and three of the pills that Mr. Skill had prepared, and the boy began to revive. Thus they went on till they came to about the middle of the valley; and then Christiana said, Methinks I see something yonder upon the road before us, a thing of a shape such as I have not seen. Then said Joseph, Mother, what is it? An ugly thing, child; an ugly thing, said she. But, mother, what is it like? said he. 'Tis like I cannot tell what, said she; and now it is but a little way off. Then said she, It is nigh. Well, said Mr. Great-Heart, let them that are most afraid keep close to me. So the fiend came on, and the conductor met it; but when it was come to him, it vanished to all their sights. Then remembered they what had been said some time ago: "Resist the devil, and he will flee from you." James 4:7. They went therefore on, as being a little refreshed. But they had not gone far, before Mercy, looking behind her, saw, as she thought, something most like a lion, and it came at a great padding pace after: and it had a hollow voice of roaring; and at every roar it gave, it made the valley echo, and all their hearts to ache, save the heart of him that was their guide. So it came up and Mr. Great-Heart went behind, and put the pilgrims all before him. The lion also came on apace, and Mr. Great-Heart addressed himself to give him battle. 1 Pet. 5:8,9. But when he saw that it was determined that resistance should be made, he also drew back, and came no further. Then they went on again, and their conductor went before them, till they came to a place where was cast up a pit the whole breadth of the way; and before they could be prepared to go over that, a great mist and a darkness fell upon them, so that they could not see. Then said the pilgrims, Alas! what now shall we do? But their guide made answer, Fear not; stand still, and see what an end will be put to this also; so they stayed there, because their path was marred. They then also thought that they did hear more apparently the noise and rushing of the enemies; the fire also and the smoke of the pit were much easier to be discerned. Then said Christiana to Mercy, Now I see what my poor husband went through. I have heard much of this place, but I never was here before now. Poor man! he went here all alone in the night; he had night almost quite through the way: also these fiends were busy about him, as if they would have torn him in pieces. Many have spoken of it; but none can tell what the Valley of the Shadow of Death should mean until they come in themselves. The heart knoweth its own bitterness; and a stranger intermeddleth not with its joy. Prov. 14:10. To be here is a fearful thing. GREAT. This is like doing business in great waters, or like going down into the deep. This is like being in the heart of the sea, and like going down to the bottoms of the mountains. Now it seems as if the earth, with its bars, were about us for ever. But let them that walk in darkness, and have no light, trust in the name of the Lord, and stay upon their God. Isa. 50:10. For my part, as I have told you already, I have gone often through this valley, and have been much harder put to it than now I am: and yet you see I am alive. I would not boast, for that I am not mine own saviour; but I trust we shall have a good deliverance. Come, let us pray for light to Him that can lighten our darkness, and that can rebuke not only these, but all the Satans in hell. So they cried and prayed, and God sent light and deliverance, for there was now no let in their way; no, not there where but now they were stopped with a pit. Yet they were not got through the valley. So they went on still, and met with great stinks and loathsome smells, to the great annoyance of them. Then said Mercy to Christiana, It is not so pleasant being here as at the gate, or at the Interpreter's, or at the house where we lay last. O but, said one of the boys, it is not so bad to go through here, as it is to abide here, always; and for aught I know, one reason why we must go this way to the house prepared for us is, that our home might be the sweeter to us. Well said, Samuel, quoth the guide; thou hast now spoke like a man. Why, if ever I get out here again, said the boy, I think I shall prize light and good way better than I ever did in all my life. Then said the guide, We shall be out by and by. So on they went, and Joseph said, Cannot we see to the end of this valley as yet? Then said the guide, Look to your feet, for we shall presently be among the snares: so they looked to their feet, and went on; but they were troubled much with the snares. Now, when they were come among the snares, they espied a man cast into the ditch on the left hand, with his flesh all rent and torn. Then said the guide, That is one Heedless, that was going this way: he has lain there a great while. There was one Take-Heed with him when he was taken and slain, but he escaped their hands. You cannot imagine how many are killed hereabouts, and yet men are so foolishly venturous as to set out lightly on pilgrimage, and to come without a guide. Poor Christian! it was a wonder that he here escaped; but he was beloved of his God: also he had a good heart of his own, or else he could never have done it. Now they drew towards the end of this way; and just there where Christian had seen the cave when he went by, out thence came forth Maul, a giant. This Maul did use to spoil young pilgrims with sophistry; and he called Great-Heart by his name, and said unto him, How many times have you been forbidden to do these things? Then said Mr. Great-Heart, What things? What things! quoth the giant; you know what things: but I will put an end to your trade. But, pray, said Mr. Great-Heart, before we fall to it, let us understand wherefore we must fight. Now the women and children stood trembling, and knew not what to do. Quoth the giant, You rob the country, and rob it with the worst of thefts. These are but generals, said Mr. Great-Heart; come to particulars, man. Then said the giant, Thou practisest the craft of a kidnapper; thou gatherest up women and children, and carriest them into a strange country, to the weakening of my master's kingdom. But now Great-Heart replied, I am a servant of the God of heaven; my business is to persuade sinners to repentance. I am commanded to do my endeavors to turn men, women, and children, from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan unto God; and if this be indeed the ground of thy quarrel, let us fall to it as soon as thou wilt. Then the giant came up, and Mr. Great-Heart went to meet him; and as he went he drew his sword, but the giant had a club. So without more ado they fell to it, and at the first blow the giant struck Mr. Great-Heart down upon one of his knees. With that the women and children cried out. So Mr. Great-Heart recovering himself, laid about him in full lusty manner, and gave the giant a wound in his arm. Thus he fought for the space of an hour, to that height of heat that the breath came out of the giant's nostrils as the heat doth out of a boiling cauldron. Then they sat down to rest them; but Mr. Great-Heart betook himself to prayer. Also the women and children did nothing but sigh and cry all the time that the battle did last. When they had rested them, and taken breath, they both fell to it again; and Mr. Great-Heart, with a blow, fetched the giant down to the ground. Nay, hold, let me recover, quoth he: so Mr. Great-Heart fairly let him get up. So to it they went again, and the giant missed but little of all to breaking Mr. Great-Heart's scull with his club. Mr. Great-Heart seeing that, runs to him in the full heat of his spirit, and pierceth him under the fifth rib. With that the giant began to faint, and could hold up his club no longer. Then Mr. Great-Heart seconded his blow, and smit the head of the giant from his shoulders. Then the women and children rejoiced, and Mr. Great-Heart also praised God for the deliverance he had wrought. When this was done, they amongst them erected a pillar, and fastened the giant's head thereon, and wrote under in letters that passengers might read, "He that did wear this head was one That pilgrims did misuse; He stopped their way, he spared none, But did them all abuse; Until that I Great-Heart arose, The pilgrims guide to be; Until that I did him oppose That was their enemy." THE SIXTH STAGE. Now I saw that they went on to the ascent that was a little way off, cast up to be a prospect for pilgrims. That was the place from whence Christian had the first sight of Faithful his brother. Wherefore, here they sat down and rested. They also here did eat and drink, and make merry, for that they had gotten deliverance from this so dangerous an enemy. As they sat thus and did eat, Christiana asked the guide, if he had caught no hurt in the battle? Then said Mr. Great-Heart, No, save a little on my flesh; yet that also shall be so far from being to my detriment, that it is at present a proof of my love to my master and you, and shall be a means, by grace, to increase my reward at last. CHR. But were you not afraid, good sir, when you saw him come with his club? GREAT. It is my duty, said he, to mistrust my own ability, that I may have reliance on Him who is stronger than all. CHR. But what did you think when he fetched you down to the ground at the first blow? GREAT. Why, I thought, quoth he, that so my Master himself was served, and yet he it was that conquered at last. 2 Cor. 4:10,11; Rom. 8:37. MATT. When you all have thought what you please, I think God has been wonderfully good unto us, both in bringing us out of this valley, and in delivering us out of the hand of this enemy. For my part, I see no reason why we should distrust our God any more, since he has now, and in such a place as this, given us such testimony of his love. Then they got up, and went forward. Now a little before them stood an oak; and under it, when they came to it, they found an old pilgrim fast asleep. They knew that he was a pilgrim by his clothes, and his staff, and his girdle. So the guide, Mr. Great-Heart, awaked him; and the old gentleman, as he lifted up his eyes, cried out, What's the matter? Who are you; and what is your business here? GREAT. Come, man, be not so hot; here are none but friends. Yet the old man gets up, and stands upon his guard, and will know of them what they are. Then said the guide, My name is Great-Heart: I am the guide of these pilgrims that are going to the Celestial country. HON. Then said Mr. Honest, I cry you mercy: I feared that you had been of the company of those that some time ago did rob Little-Faith of his money; but, now I look better about me, I perceive you are honester people. GREAT. Why, what would or could you have done to have helped yourself, if indeed we had been of that company? HON. Done! Why, I would have fought as long as breath had been in me: and had I so done, I am sure you could never have given me the worst on't; for a Christian can never be overcome, unless he shall yield of himself. GREAT. Well said, father Honest, quoth the guide; for by this I know thou art a cock of the right kind, for thou hast said the truth. HON. And by this also I know that thou knowest what true pilgrimage is; for all others do think that we are the soonest overcome of any. GREAT. Well, now we are so happily met, pray let me crave your name, and the name of the place you came from. HON. My name I cannot tell you, but I came from the town of Stupidity: it lieth about four degrees beyond the city of Destruction. GREAT. Oh, Are you that countryman? Then I deem I have half a guess of you: your name is Old Honesty, is it not? HON. So the old gentleman blushed, and said, Not honesty in the abstract, but Honest is my name; and I wish that my nature may agree to what I am called. But, sir, said the old gentleman, how could you guess that I am such a man, since I came from such a place? GREAT. I had heard of you before, by my Master; for he knows all things that are done on the earth. But I have often wondered that any should come from your place; for your town is worse than is the city of Destruction itself. HON. Yes, we lie more off from the sun, and so are more cold and senseless. But were a man in a mountain of ice, yet if the Sun of righteousness will arise upon him, his frozen heart shall feel a thaw; and thus it has been with me. GREAT. I believe it, father Honest, I believe it; for I know the thing is true. Then the old gentleman saluted all the pilgrims with a holy kiss of charity, and asked them their names, and how they had fared since they set out on their pilgrimage. CHR. Then said Christiana, My name I suppose you have heard of; good Christian was my husband, and these four are his children. But can you think how the old gentleman was taken, when she told him who she was? He skipped, he smiled, he blessed them with a thousand good wishes, saying, HON. I have heard much of your husband, and of his travels and wars which he underwent in his days. Be it spoken to your comfort, the name of your husband rings all over these parts of the world: his faith, his courage, his enduring, and his sincerity under all, had made his name famous. Then he turned him to the boys, and asked them of their names, which they told him. Then said he unto them, Matthew, be thou like Matthew the publican, not in vice, but in virtue. Matt. 10:3. Samuel, said he, be thou like Samuel the prophet, a man of faith and prayer. Psa. 99:6. Joseph, said he, be thou like Joseph in Potiphar's house, chaste, and one that flees from temptation. Gen. 39. And James, be thou like James the just, and like James the brother of our Lord. Acts 1:13. Then they told him of Mercy, and how she had left her town and her kindred to come along with Christiana and with her sons. At that the old honest man said, Mercy is thy name: by mercy shalt thou be sustained and carried through all those difficulties that shall assault thee in thy way, till thou shalt come thither where thou shalt look the Fountain of mercy in the face with comfort. All this while the guide, Mr. Great-Heart, was very well pleased, and smiled upon his companions. Now, as they walked along together, the guide asked the old gentleman if he did not know one Mr. Fearing, that came on pilgrimage out of his parts. HON. Yes, very well, said he. He was a man that had the root of the matter in him; but he was one of the most troublesome pilgrims that ever I met with in all my days. GREAT. I perceive you knew him, for you have given a very right character of him. HON. Knew him! I was a great companion of his; I was with him most an end; when he first began to think upon what would come upon us hereafter, I was with him. GREAT. I was his guide from my Master's house to the gates of the Celestial City. HON. Then you knew him to be a troublesome one. GREAT. I did so; but I could very well bear it; for men of my calling are oftentimes intrusted with the conduct of such as he was. HON. Well then, pray let us hear a little of him, and how he managed himself under your conduct. GREAT. Why, he was always afraid that he should come short of whither he had a desire to go. Every thing frightened him that he heard any body speak of, if it had but the least appearance of opposition in it. I heard that he lay roaring at the Slough of Despond for above a month together; nor durst he, for all he saw several go over before him, venture, though they many of them offered to lend him their hands. He would not go back again, neither. The Celestial City-he said he should die if he came not to it; and yet he was dejected at every difficulty, and stumbled at every straw that any body cast in his way. Well, after he had lain at the Slough of Despond a great while, as I have told you, one sunshiny morning, I do not know how, he ventured, and so got over; but when he was over, he would scarce believe it. He had, I think, a Slough of Despond in his mind, a slough that he carried every where with him, or else he could never have been as he was. So he came up to the gate, you know what I mean, that stands at the head of this way, and there also he stood a good while before he would venture to knock. When the gate was opened, he would give back, and give place to others, and say that he was not worthy. For, all he got before some to the gate, yet many of them went in before him. There the poor man would stand shaking and shrinking; I dare say it would have pitied one's heart to have seen him. Nor would he go back again. At last he took the hammer that hanged on the gate, in his hand, and gave a small rap or two; then one opened to him, but he shrunk back as before. He that opened stepped out after him, and said, Thou trembling one, what wantest thou? With that he fell down to the ground. He that spoke to him wondered to see him so faint, so he said to him, Peace be to thee; up, for I have set open the door to thee; come in, for thou art blessed. With that he got up, and went in trembling; and when he was in, he was ashamed to show his face. Well, after he had been entertained there a while, as you know how the manner is, he was bid go on his way, and also told the way he should take. So he went on till he came out to our house; but as he behaved himself at the gate, so he did at my Master the Interpreter's door. He lay there about in the cold a good while, before he would adventure to call; yet he would not go back: and the nights were long and cold then. Nay, he had a note of necessity in his bosom to my master to receive him, and grant him the comfort of his house, and also to allow him a stout and valiant conductor, because he was himself so chicken-hearted a man; and yet for all that he was afraid to call at the door. So he lay up and down thereabouts, till, poor man, he was almost starved; yea, so great was his dejection, that though he saw several others for knocking get in, yet he was afraid to venture. At last, I think I looked out of the window, and perceiving a man to be up and down about the door, I went out to him, and asked what he was: but, poor man, the water stood in his eyes; so I perceived what he wanted. I went therefore in, and told it in the house, and we showed the thing to our Lord: so he sent me out again, to entreat him to come in; but I dare say, I had hard work to do it. At last he came in; and I will say that for my Lord, he carried it wonderful lovingly to him. There were but a few good bits at the table, but some of it was laid upon his trencher. Then he presented the note; and my Lord looked thereon, and said his desire should be granted. So when he had been there a good while, he seemed to get some heart, and to be a little more comfortable. For my Master, you must know, is one of very tender bowels, especially to them that are afraid; wherefore he carried it so towards him as might tend most to his encouragement. Well, when he had had a sight of the things of the place, and was ready to take his journey to go to the city, my Lord, as he did to Christian before, gave him a bottle of spirits, and some comfortable things to eat. Thus we set forward, and I went before him; but the man was but of few words, only he would sigh aloud. When we were come to where the three fellows were hanged, he said that he doubted that that would be his end also. Only he seemed glad when he saw the cross and the sepulchre. There I confess he desired to stay a little to look; and he seemed for a while after to be a little cheery. When he came to the Hill Difficulty, he made no stick at that, nor did he much fear the lions: for you must know, that his troubles were not about such things as these; his fear was about his acceptance at last. I got him in at the house Beautiful, I think, before he was willing. Also, when he was in, I brought him acquainted with the damsels of the place; but he was ashamed to make himself much in company. He desired much to be alone; yet he always loved good talk, and often would get behind the screen to hear it. He also loved much to see ancient things, and to be pondering them in his mind. He told me afterward, that he loved to be in those two houses from which he came last, to wit, at the gate, and that of the Interpreter, but that he durst not be so bold as to ask. When we went also from the house Beautiful, down the hill, into the Valley of Humiliation, he went down as well as ever I saw a man in my life; for he cared not how mean he was, so he might be happy at last. Yea, I think there was a kind of sympathy betwixt that Valley and him; for I never saw him better in all his pilgrimage than he was in that Valley. Here he would lie down, embrace the ground, and kiss the very flowers that grew in this valley. Lam. 3:27-29. He would now be up every morning by break of day, tracing and walking to and fro in the valley. But when he was come to the entrance of the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I thought I should have lost my man: not for that he had any inclination to go back; that he always abhorred; but he was ready to die for fear. Oh, the hobgoblins will have me! the hobgoblins will have me! cried he; and I could not beat him out of it. He made such a noise, and such an outcry here, that had they but heard him, it was enough to encourage them to come and fall upon us. But this I took very great notice of, that this valley was as quiet when we went through it, as ever I knew it before or since. I suppose those enemies here had now a special check from our Lord, and a command not to meddle until Mr. Fearing had passed over it. It would be too tedious to tell you of all; we will therefore only mention a passage or two more. When he was come to Vanity Fair, I thought he would have fought with all the men in the fair. I feared there we should have been both knocked on the head, so hot was he against their fooleries. Upon the Enchanted Ground he was very wakeful. But when he was come at the river where was no bridge, there again he was in a heavy case. Now, now, he said, he should be drowned forever, and so never see that face with comfort that he had come so many miles to behold. And here also I took notice of what was very remarkable: the water of that river was lower at this time than ever I saw it in all my life; so he went over at last, not much above wetshod. When he was going up to the gate, I began to take leave of him, and to wish him a good reception above. So he said, I shall, I shall. Then parted we asunder, and I saw him no more. HON. Then it seems he was well at last? GREAT. Yes, yes, I never had doubt about him. He was a man of a choice spirit, only he was always kept very low, and that made his life so burdensome to himself, and so troublesome to others. Psa. 88. He was, above many, tender of sin: he was so afraid of doing injuries to others, that he often would deny himself of that which was lawful, because he would not offend. Rom. 14:21; 1 Cor. 8:13. HON. But what should be the reason that such a good man should be all his days so much in the dark? GREAT. There are two sorts of reasons for it. One is, the wise God will have it so: some must pipe, and some must weep. Matt. 11:16. Now Mr. Fearing was one that played upon the bass. He and his fellows sound the sackbut, whose notes are more doleful than the notes of other music are: though indeed, some say, the bass is the ground of music. And for my part, I care not at all for that profession which begins not in heaviness of mind. The first string that the musician usually touches is the bass, when he intends to put all in tune. God also plays upon this string first, when he sets the soul in tune for himself. Only there was the imperfection of Mr. Fearing; he could play upon no other music but this till towards his latter end. [I make bold to talk thus metaphorically for the ripening of the wits of young readers, and because, in the book of Revelation, the saved are compared to a company of musicians, that play upon their trumpets and harps, and sing their songs before the throne.Rev. 5:8; 14:2,3.] HON. He was a very zealous man, as one may see by the relation you have given of him. Difficulties, lions, or Vanity Fair, he feared not at all; it was only sin, death, and hell, that were to him a terror, because he had some doubts about his interest in that celestial country. GREAT. You say right; those were the things that were his troublers; and they, as you have well observed, arose from the weakness of his mind thereabout, not from weakness of spirit as to the practical part of a pilgrim's life. I dare believe that, as the proverb is, he could have bit a firebrand, had it stood in his way; but the things with which he was oppressed, no man ever yet could shake off with ease. CHR. Then said Christiana, This relation of Mr. Fearing has done me good; I thought nobody had been like me. But I see there was some semblance betwixt this good man and me: only we differed in two things. His troubles were so great that they broke out; but mine I kept within. His also lay so hard upon him, they made him that he could not knock at the houses provided for entertainment; but my trouble was always such as made me knock the louder. MER. If I might also speak my heart, I must say that something of him has also dwelt in me. For I have ever been more afraid of the lake, and the loss of a place in paradise, than I have been of the loss other things. O, thought I, may I have the happiness to have a habitation there! 'Tis enough, though I part with all the world to win it. MATT. Then said Matthew, Fear was one thing that made me think that I was far from having that within me which accompanies salvation. But if it was so with such a good man as he, why may it not also go well with me? JAMES. No fears no grace, said James. Though there is not always grace where there is the fear of hell, yet, to be sure, there is no grace where there is no fear of God. GREAT. Well said, James; thou hast hit the mark. For the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom; and to be sure, they that want the beginning have neither middle nor end. But we will here conclude our discourse of Mr. Fearing, after we have sent after him this farewell. "Well, Master Fearing, thou didst fear Thy God, and wast afraid Of doing any thing, while here, That would have thee betrayed. And didst thou fear the lake and pit? Would others do so too! For, as for them that want thy wit, They do themselves undo." Now I saw that they still went on in their talk. For after Mr. Great- Heart had made an end with Mr. Fearing, Mr. Honest began to tell them of another, but his name was Mr. Self-will. He pretended himself to be a pilgrim, said Mr. Honest; but I persuade myself he never came in at the gate that stands at the head of the way. GREAT. Had you ever any talk with him about it? HON. Yes, more than once or twice; but he would always be like himself, self-willed. He neither cared for man, nor argument, nor yet example; what his mind prompted him to, that he would do, and nothing else could he be got to do. GREAT. Pray, what principles did he hold? for I suppose you can tell. HON. He held that a man might follow the vices as well as the virtues of pilgrims; and that if he did both, he should be certainly saved. GREAT. How? If he had said, it is possible for the best to be guilty of the vices, as well as to partake of the virtues of pilgrims, he could not much have been blamed; for indeed we are exempted from no vice absolutely, but on condition that we watch and strive. But this, I perceive, is not the thing; but if I understand you right, your meaning is, that he was of opinion that it was allowable so to be. HON. Aye, aye, so I mean, and so he believed and practised. GREAT. But what grounds had he for his so saying? HON. Why, he said he had the Scripture for his warrant. GREAT. Prithee, Mr. Honest, present us with a few particulars. HON. So I will. He said, to have to do with other men's wives had been practised by David, God's beloved; and therefore he could do it. He said, to have more women than one was a thing that Solomon practised, and therefore he could do it. He said, that Sarah and the godly midwives of Egypt lied, and so did save Rahab, and therefore he could do it. He said, that the disciples went at the bidding of their Master, and took away the owner's ass, and therefore he could do so too. He said, that Jacob got the inheritance of his father in a way of guile and dissimulation, and therefore he could do so too. GREAT. High base indeed! And are you sure he was of this opinion? HON. I heard him plead for it, bring Scripture for it, bring arguments for it, etc. GREAT. An opinion that is not fit to be with any allowance in the world! HON. You must understand me rightly: he did not say that any man might do this; but that they who had the virtues of those that did such things, might also do the same. GREAT. But what more false than such a conclusion? For this is as much as to say, that because good men heretofore have sinned of infirmity, therefore he had allowance to do it of a presumptuous mind; or that if, because a child, by the blast of the wind, or for that it stumbled at a stone, fell down and defiled itself in the mire, therefore he might wilfully lie down and wallow like a boar therein. Who could have thought that any one could so far have been blinded by the power of lust? But what is written must be true: they "stumble at the word, being disobedient; whereunto also they were appointed." 1 Peter, 2:8. His supposing that such may have the godly men's virtues, who addict themselves to their vices, is also a delusion as strong as the other. To eat up the sin of God's people, Hos. 4:8, as a dog licks up filth, is no sign that one is possessed with their virtues. Nor can I believe that one who is of this opinion, can at present have faith or love in him. But I know you have made strong objections against him; prithee what can he say for himself? HON. Why, he says, to do this by way of opinion, seems abundantly more honest than to do it, and yet hold contrary to it in opinion. GREAT. A very wicked answer. For though to let loose the bridle to lusts, while our opinions are against such things, is bad; yet, to sin, and plead a toleration so to do, is worse: the one stumbles beholders accidentally, the other leads them into the snare. HON. There are many of this man's mind, that have not this man's mouth; and that makes going on pilgrimage of so little esteem as it is. GREAT. You have said the truth, and it is to be lamented: but he that feareth the King of paradise, shall come out of them all. CHR. There are strange opinions in the world. I know one that said, it was time enough to repent when we come to die. GREAT. Such are not overwise; that man would have been loth, might he have had a week to run twenty miles in his life, to defer his journey to the last hour of that week. HON. You say right; and yet the generality of them who count themselves pilgrims, do indeed do thus. I am, as you see, an old man, and have been a traveller in this road many a day; and I have taken notice of many things. I have seen some that have set out as if they would drive all the world before them, who yet have, in a few days, died as they in the wilderness, and so never got sight of the promised land. I have seen some that have promised nothing at first setting out to be pilgrims, and who one would have thought could not have lived a day, that have yet proved very good pilgrims. I have seen some who have run hastily forward, that again have, after a little time, run just as fast back again. I have seen some who have spoken very well of a pilgrim's life at first, that after a while have spoken as much against it. I have heard some, when they first set out for paradise, say positively, there is such a place, who, when they have been almost there, have come back again, and said there is none. I have heard some vaunt what they would do in case they should be opposed, that have, even at a false alarm, fled faith, the pilgrim's way, and all. Now, as they were thus on their way, there came one running to meet them, and said, Gentlemen, and you of the weaker sort, if you love life, shift for yourselves, for the robbers are before you. GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, They be the three that set upon Little-Faith heretofore. Well, said he, we are ready for them: so they went on their way. Now they looked at every turning when they should have met with the villains; but whether they heard of Mr. Great-Heart, or whether they had some other game, they came not up to the pilgrims. Christiana then wished for an inn to refresh herself and her children, because they were weary. Then said Mr. Honest, There is one a little before us, where a very honorable disciple, one Gaius, dwells. Rom. 16:23. So they all concluded to turn in thither; and the rather, because the old gentleman gave him so good a report. When they came to the door they went in, not knocking, for folks use not to knock at the door of an inn. Then they called for the master of the house, and he came to them. So they asked if they might lie there that night. GAIUS. Yes, gentlemen, if you be true men; for my house is for none but pilgrims. Then were Christiana, Mercy, and the boys the more glad, for that the innkeeper was a lover of pilgrims. So they called for rooms, and he showed them one for Christiana and her children and Mercy, and another for Mr. Great-Heart and the old gentleman. GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, good Gaius, what hast thou for supper? for these pilgrims have come far to-day, and are weary. GAIUS. It is late, said Gaius, so we cannot conveniently go out to seek food; but such as we have you shall be welcome to, if that will content. GREAT. We will be content with what thou hast in the house; for as much as I have proved thee, thou art never destitute of that which is convenient. Then he went down and spake to the cook, whose name was, Taste-that- which-is-good, to get ready supper for so many pilgrims. This done, he comes up again, saying, Come, my good friends, you are welcome to me, and I am glad that I have a house to entertain you in; and while supper is making ready, if you please, let us entertain one another with some good discourse: so they all said, Content. GAIUS. Then said Gaius, Whose wife is this aged matron? and whose daughter is this young damsel? GREAT. This woman is the wife of one Christian, a pilgrim of former times; and these are his four children. The maid is one of her acquaintance, one that she hath persuaded to come with her on pilgrimage. The boys take all after their father, and covet to tread in his steps; yea, if they do but see any place where the old pilgrim hath lain, or any print of his foot, it ministereth joy to their hearts, and they covet to lie or tread in the same. GAIUS. Then said Gaius, Is this Christian's wife, and are these Christian's children? I knew your husband's father, yea, also his father's father. Many have been good of this stock; their ancestors dwelt first at Antioch. Acts 11:26. Christian's progenitors (I suppose you have heard your husband talk of them) were very worthy men. They have, above any that I know, showed themselves men of great virtue and courage for the Lord of the pilgrims, his ways, and them that loved him. I have heard of many of your husband's relations that have stood all trials for the sake of the truth. Stephen, that was one of the first of the family from whence your husband sprang, was knocked on the head with stones. Acts 7:59, 60. James, another of this generation, was slain with the edge of the sword. Acts 12:2. To say nothing of Paul and Peter, men anciently of the family from whence your husband came, there was Ignatius, who was cast to the lions; Romanus, whose flesh was cut by pieces from his bones; and Polycarp, that played the man in the fire. There was he that was hanged up in a basket in the sun for the wasps to eat; and he whom they put into a sack, and cast him into the sea to be drowned. It would be impossible utterly to count up all of that family who have suffered injuries and death for the love of a pilgrim's life. Nor can I but be glad to see that thy husband has left behind him four such boys as these. I hope they will bear up their father's name, and tread in their father's steps, and come to their father's end. GREAT. Indeed, sir, they are likely lads: they seem to choose heartily their father's ways. GAIUS. That is it that I said. Wherefore Christian's family is like still to spread abroad upon the face of the ground, and yet to be numerous upon the face of the earth; let Christiana look out some damsels for her sons, to whom they may be betrothed, etc., that the name of their father, and the house of his progenitors, may never be forgotten in the world. HON. 'Tis pity his family should fall and be extinct. GAIUS. Fall it cannot, but be diminished it may; but let Christiana take my advice, and that is the way to uphold it. And, Christiana, said this innkeeper, I am glad to see thee and thy friend Mercy together here, a lovely couple. And if I may advise, take Mercy into a nearer relation to thee: if she will, let her be given to Matthew thy eldest son. It is the way to preserve a posterity in the earth. So this match was concluded, and in process of time they were married: but more of that hereafter. Gaius also proceeded, and said, I will now speak on the behalf of women, to take away their reproach. For as death and the curse came into the world by a woman, Gen. 3, so also did life and health: God sent forth his Son, made of a woman. Gal. 4:4. Yea, to show how much they that came after did abhor the act of the mother, this sex in the Old Testament coveted children, if happily this or that woman might be the mother of the Saviour of the world. I will say again, that when the Saviour was come, women rejoiced in him, before either man or angel. Luke 1:42-46. I read not that ever any man did give unto Christ so much as one groat; but the women followed him, and ministered to him of their substance. Luke 8:2,3. 'Twas a woman that washed his feet with tears, Luke 7:37-50, and a woman that anointed his body at the burial. John 11:2; 12:3. They were women who wept when he was going to the cross, Luke 23:27, and women that followed him from the cross, Matt. 27:55,56; Luke 23:55, and sat over against his sepulchre when he was buried. Matt. 27:61. They were women that were first with him at his resurrection-morn, Luke 24:1, and women that brought tidings first to his disciples that he was risen from the dead. Luke 24:22,23. Women therefore are highly favored, and show by these things that they are sharers with us in the grace of life. Now the cook sent up to signify that supper was almost ready, and sent one to lay the cloth, and the trenchers, and to set the salt and bread in order. Then said Matthew, The sight of this cloth, and of this forerunner of the supper, begetteth in me a greater appetite for my food than I had before. GAIUS. So let all ministering doctrines to thee in this life beget in thee a greater desire to sit at the supper of the great King in his kingdom; for all preaching, books, and ordinances here, are but as the laying of the trenchers, and the setting of salt upon the board, when compared with the feast which our Lord will make for us when we come to his house. So supper came up. And first a heave-shoulder and a wave-breast were set on the table before them; to show that they must begin their meal with prayer and praise to God. The heave-shoulder David lifted up his heart to God with; and with the wave-breast, where his heart lay, he used to lean upon his harp when he played. Lev. 7: 32-34; 10:14,15; Psalm 25:1; Heb. 13:15. These two dishes were very fresh and good, and they all ate heartily thereof. The next they brought up was a bottle of wine, as red as blood. Deut. 32:14 ; Judges 9:13; John 15:5. So Gaius said to them, Drink freely; this is the true juice of the vine, that makes glad the heart of God and man. So they drank and were merry. The next was a dish of milk well crumbed; Gaius said, Let the boys have that, that they may grow thereby. 1 Pet. 2:1,2. Then they brought up in course a dish of butter and honey. Then said Gaius, Eat freely of this, for this is good to cheer up and strengthen your judgments and understandings. This was our Lord's dish when he was a child: "Butter and honey shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil, and choose the good." Isa. 7:15. Then they brought them up a dish of apples, and they were very good- tasted fruit. Then said Matthew, May we eat apples, since it was such by and with which the serpent beguiled our first mother? Then said Gaius, "Apples were they with which we were beguil'd, Yet sin, not apples, hath our souls defil'd: Apples forbid, if ate, corrupt the blood; To eat such, when commanded, does us good: Drink of his flagons then, thou church, his dove, And eat his apples, who art sick of love." Then said Matthew, I made the scruple, because I a while since was sick with the eating of fruit. GAIUS. Forbidden fruit will make you sick; but not what our Lord has tolerated. While they were thus talking, they were presented with another dish, and it was a dish of nuts. Song 6:11. Then said some at the table, Nuts spoil tender teeth, especially the teeth of children: which when Gaius heard, he said, "Hard texts are nuts, (I will not call them cheaters,) Whose shells do keep the kernel from the eaters: Open the shells, and you shall have the meat; They here are brought for you to crack and eat." Then were they very merry, and sat at the table a long time, talking of many things. Then said the old gentleman, My good landlord, while we are cracking your nuts, if you please, do you open this riddle: "A man there was, though some did count him mad, The more he cast away, the more he had." Then they all gave good heed, wondering what good Gaius would say; so he sat still a while, and then thus replied: "He who bestows his goods upon the poor, Shall have as much again, and ten times more." Then said Joseph, I dare say, sir, I did not think you could have found it out. Oh, said Gaius, I have been trained up in this way a great while: nothing teaches like experience. I have learned of my Lord to be kind, and have found by experience that I have gained thereby. There is that scattereth, and yet increaseth; and there is that withholdeth more than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty: There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing; there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches. Prov. 11:24; 13:7. Then Samuel whispered to Christiana, his mother, and said, Mother, this is a very good man's house: let us stay here a good while, and let my brother Matthew be married here to Mercy, before we go any further. The which Gaius the host overhearing, said, With a very good will, my child. So they stayed there more than a month, and Mercy was given to Matthew to wife. While they stayed here, Mercy, as her custom was, would be making coats and garments to give to the poor, by which she brought a very good report upon the pilgrims. But to return again to our story: After supper the lads desired a bed, for they were weary with travelling: Then Gaius called to show them their chamber; but said Mercy, I will have them to bed. So she had them to bed, and they slept well: but the rest sat up all night; for Gaius and they were such suitable company, that they could not tell how to part. After much talk of their Lord, themselves, and their journey, old Mr. Honest, he that put forth the riddle to Gaius, began to nod. Then said Great-Heart, What, sir, you begin to be drowsy; come, rub up, now here is a riddle for you. Then said Mr. Honest, Let us hear it. Then replied Mr. Great-heart, "He that would kill, must first be overcome: Who live abroad would, first must die at home." Ha, said Mr. Honest, it is a hard one; hard to expound, and harder to practise. But come, landlord, said he, I will, if you please, leave my part to you: do you expound it, and I will hear what you say. No, said Gaius, it was put to you, and it is expected you should answer it. Then said the old gentleman, "He first by grace must conquered be, That sin would mortify; Who that he lives would convince me, Unto himself must die." It is right, said Gaius; good doctrine and experience teach this. For, first, until grace displays itself, and overcomes the soul with its glory, it is altogether without heart to oppose sin. Besides, if sin is Satan's cords, by which the soul lies bound, how should it make resistance before it is loosed from that infirmity? Secondly, Nor will any one that knows either reason or grace, believe that such a man can be a living monument of grace that is a slave to his own corruptions. And now it comes into my mind, I will tell you a story worth the hearing. There were two men that went on pilgrimage; the one began when he was young, the other when he was old. The young man had strong corruptions to grapple with; the old man's were weak with the decays of nature. The young man trod his steps as even as did the old one, and was every way as light as he. Who now, or which of them, had their graces shining clearest, since both seemed to be alike? HON. The young man's, doubtless. For that which makes head against the greatest opposition, gives best demonstration that it is strongest; especially when it also holdeth pace with that which meets not with half so much, as to be sure old age does not. Besides, I have observed that old men have blessed themselves with this mistake; namely, taking the decays of nature for a gracious conquest over corruptions, and so have been apt to beguile themselves. Indeed, old men that are gracious are best able to give advice to them that are young, because they have seen most of the emptiness of things: but yet, for an old and a young man to set out both together, the young one has the advantage of the fairest discovery of a work of grace within him, though the old man's corruptions are naturally the weakest. Thus they sat talking till break of day. Now, when the family were up, Christiana bid her son James that he should read a chapter; so he read 53d of Isaiah. When he had done, Mr. Honest asked why it was said that the Saviour was to come "out of a dry ground;" and also, that "he had no form nor comeliness in him." GREAT. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, To the first I answer, because the church of the Jews, of which Christ came, had then lost almost all the sap and spirit of religion. To the second I say, the words are spoken in the person of unbelievers, who, because they want the eye that can see into our Prince's heart, therefore they judge of him by the meanness of his outside; just like those who, not knowing that precious stones are covered over with a homely crust, when they have found one, because they know not what they have found, cast it away again, as men do a common stone. Well, said Gaius, now you are here, and since, as I know, Mr. Great- Heart is good at his weapons, if you please, after we have refreshed ourselves, we will walk into the fields, to see if we can do any good. About a mile from hence there is one Slay-good, a giant, that doth much annoy the King's highway in these parts; and I know whereabout his haunt is. He is master of a number of thieves: 't would be well if we could clear these parts of him. So they consented and went: Mr. Great-Heart with his sword, helmet, and shield; and the rest with spears and staves. When they came to the place where he was, they found him with one Feeble -mind in his hand, whom his servants had brought unto him, having taken him in the way. Now the giant was rifling him, with a purpose after that to pick his bones; for he was of the nature of flesheaters. Well, so soon as he saw Mr. Great-Heart and his friends at the mouth of his cave, with their weapons, he demanded what they wanted. GREAT. We want thee; for we are come to revenge the quarrels of the many that thou hast slain of the pilgrims, when thou hast dragged them out of the King's highway: wherefore come out of thy cave. So he armed himself and came out, and to battle they went, and fought for above an hour, and then stood still to take wind. SLAY. Then said the giant, Why are you here on my ground? GREAT. To revenge the blood of pilgrims, as I told thee before. So they went to it again, and the giant made Mr. Great-Heart give back; but he came up again, and in the greatness of his mind he let fly with such stoutness at the giant's head and sides, that he made him let his weapon fall out of his hand. So he smote him, and slew him, and cut off his head, and brought it away to the inn. He also took Feeble-mind the pilgrim, and brought him with him to his lodgings. When they were come home, they showed his head to the family, and set it up, as they had done others before, for a terror to those that should attempt to do as he hereafter. Then they asked Mr. Feeble-Mind how he fell into his hands. FEEBLE. Then said the poor man, I am a sickly man, as you see: and because death did usually once a day knock at my door, I thought I should never be well at home; so I betook myself to a pilgrim's life, and have traveled hither from the town of Uncertain, where I and my father were born. I am a man of no strength at all of body, nor yet of mind, but would, if I could, though I can but crawl, spend my life in the pilgrim's way. When I came at the gate that is at the head of the way, the Lord of that place did entertain me freely; neither objected he against my weakly looks, nor against my feeble mind; but gave me such things as were necessary for my journey, and bid me hope to the end. When I came to the house of the Interpreter, I received much kindness there: and because the hill of Difficulty was judged too hard for me, I was carried up that by one of his servants. Indeed, I have found much relief from pilgrims, though none were willing to go so softly as I am forced to do: yet still as they came on, they bid me be of good cheer, and said, that it was the will of their Lord that comfort should be given to the feeble-minded, 1 Thess. 5:14; and so went on their own pace. When I was come to Assault-lane, then this giant met with me, and bid me prepare for an encounter. But, alas, feeble one that I was, I had more need of a cordial; so he came up and took me. I conceited he would not kill me. Also when he had got me into his den, since I went not with him willingly, I believed I should come out alive again; for I have heard, that not any pilgrim that is taken captive by violent hands, if he keeps heart whole towards his Master, is, by the laws of providence, to die by the hand of the enemy. Robbed I looked to be, and robbed to be sure I am; but I have, as you see, escaped with life, for the which I thank my King as the author, and you as the means. Other brunts I also look for; but this I have resolved on, to wit, to run when I can, to go when I cannot run, and to creep when I cannot go. As to the main, I thank him that loved me, I am fixed; my way is before me, my mind is beyond the river that has no bridge, though I am, as you see, but of a feeble mind. HON. Then said old Mr. Honest, Have not you, sometime ago, been acquainted with one Mr. Fearing, a pilgrim? FEEBLE. Acquainted with him! Yes, he came from the town of Stupidity, which lieth four degrees to the northward of the city of Destruction, and as many off of where I was born: yet we were well acquainted, for indeed he was my uncle, my father's brother. He and I have been much of a temper: he was a little shorter than I, but yet we were much of a complexion. HON. I perceive you knew him, and I am apt to believe also that you were related one to another; for you have his whitely look, a cast like his with your eye, and your speech is much alike. FEEBLE. Most have said so that have known us both: and, besides, what I have read in him I have for the most part found in myself. GAIUS. Come, sir, said good Gaius, be of good cheer; you are welcome to me, and to my house. What thou hast a mind to, call for freely; and what thou wouldst have my servants do for thee, they will do it with a ready mind. Then said Mr. Feeble-mind, This is an unexpected favor, and as the sun shining out of a very dark cloud. Did giant Slay-good intend me this favor when he stopped me, and resolved to let me go no further? Did he intend, that after he had rifled my pockets I should go to Gaius mine host? Yet so it is. Now, just as Mr. Feeble-mind and Gaius were thus in talk, there came one running, and called at the door, and said, that about a mile and a half off there was one Mr. Not-right, a pilgrim, struck dead upon the place where he was, with a thunderbolt. FEEBLE. Alas! said Mr. Feeble-mind, is he slain? He overtook me some days before I came so far as hither, and would be my company-keeper. He was also with me when Slay-good the giant took me, but he was nimble of his heels, and escaped; but it seems he escaped to die, and I was taken to live. "What one would think doth seek to slay outright, Ofttimes delivers from the saddest plight. That very Providence whose face is death, Doth ofttimes to the lowly life bequeath. I taken was, he did escape and flee; Hands cross'd gave death to him and life to me." Now, about this time Matthew and Mercy were married; also Gaius gave his daughter Phebe to James, Matthew's brother, to wife; after which time they yet stayed about ten days at Gaius' house, spending their time and the seasons like as pilgrims use to do. When they were to depart, Gaius made them a feast, and they did eat and drink, and were merry. Now the hour was come that they must be gone; wherefore Mr. Great-heart called for a reckoning. But Gaius told him, that at his house it was not the custom for pilgrims to pay for their entertainment. He boarded them by the year, but looked for his pay from the good Samaritan, who had promised him, at his return, whatsoever charge he was at with them, faithfully to repay him. Luke 10:34,35. Then said Mr. Great-heart to him, GREAT. Beloved, thou doest faithfully whatsoever thou doest to the brethren, and to strangers, who have borne witness of thy charity before the church, whom if thou yet bring forward on their journey, after a godly sort, thou shalt do well. 3 John 5,6. Then Gaius took his leave of them all, and his children, and particularly of Mr. Feeble-mind. He also gave him something to drink by the way. Now Mr. Feeble-mind, when they were going out of the door, made as if he intended to linger. The which, when Mr. Great-Heart espied, he said, Come, Mr. Feeble-mind, pray do you go along with us: I will be your conductor, and you shall fare as the rest. FEEBLE. Alas! I want a suitable companion. You are all lusty and strong, but I, as you see, am weak; I choose, therefore, rather to come behind, lest, by reason of my many infirmities, I should be both a burden to myself and to you. I am, as I said, a man of a weak and feeble mind, and shall be offended and made weak at that which others can bear. I shall like no laughing; I shall like no gay attire; I shall like no unprofitable questions. Nay, I am so weak a man as to be offended with that which others have a liberty to do. I do not yet know all the truth: I am a very ignorant Christian man. Sometimes, if I hear some rejoice in the Lord, it troubles me because I cannot do so too. It is with me as it is with a weak man among the strong, or as with a sick man among the healthy, or as a lamp despised; so that I know not what to do. "He that is ready to slip with his feet is as a lamp despised in the thought of him that is at ease." Job 12:5. GREAT. But, brother, said Mr. Great-Heart, I have it in commission to comfort the feeble-minded, and to support the weak. You must needs go along with us; we will wait for you; we will lend you our help; we will deny ourselves of some things, both opinionative and practical, for your sake: we will not enter into doubtful disputations before you; we will be made all things to you, rather than you shall be left behind. 1 Thess. 5:14; Rom. 14; 1 Cor. 8:9-13; 9:22. Now, all this while they were at Gaius' door; and behold, as they were thus in the heat of their discourse, Mr. Ready-to-halt came by, with his crutches in his hand, and he also was going on pilgrimage. FEEBLE. Then said Mr. Feeble-mind to him, Man, how camest thou hither? I was but now complaining that I had not a suitable companion, but thou art according to my wish. Welcome, welcome, good Mr. Ready-to-halt; I hope thou and I may be some help. READY. I shall be glad of thy company, said the other; and, good Mr. Feeble-mind, rather than we will part, since we are thus happily met, I will lend thee one of my crutches. FEEBLE. Nay, said he, though I thank thee for thy good-will, I am not inclined to halt before I am lame. Howbeit, I think when occasion is, it may help me against a dog. READY. If either myself or my crutches can do thee a pleasure, we are both at thy command, good Mr. Feeble-mind. Thus, therefore, they went on. Mr. Great-Heart and Mr. Honest went before, Christiana and her children went next, and Mr. Feeble-mind came behind, and Mr. Ready-to-halt with his crutches. Then said Mr. Honest, HON. Pray, sir, now we are upon the road, tell us some profitable things of some that have gone on pilgrimage before us. GREAT. With a good will. I suppose you have heard how Christian of old did meet with Apollyon in the Valley of Humiliation, and also what hard work he had to go through the Valley of the Shadow of Death. Also I think you cannot but have heard how Faithful was put to it by Madam Wanton, with Adam the First, with one Discontent, and Shame; four as deceitful villains as a man can meet with upon the road. HON.Yes, I have heard of all this; but indeed good Faithful was hardest put to it with Shame: he was an unwearied one. GREAT. Aye; for, as the pilgrim well said, he of all men had the wrong name. HON. But pray, sir, where was it that Christian and Faithful met Talkative? That same was also a notable one. GREAT. He was a confident fool; yet many follow his ways. HON. He had like to have beguiled Faithful. GREAT. Aye, but Christian put him into a way quickly to find him out. Thus they went on till they came to the place where Evangelist met with Christian and Faithful, and prophesied to them what should befall them at Vanity Fair. Then said their guide, Hereabouts did Christian and Faithful meet with Evangelist, who prophesied to them of what troubles they should meet with at Vanity Fair. HON. Say you so? I dare say it was a hard chapter that then he did read unto them. GREAT. It was so, but he gave them encouragement withal. But what do we talk of them? They were a couple of lion-like men; they had set their faces like a flint. Do not you remember how undaunted they were when they stood before the judge? HON. Well: Faithful bravely suffered. GREAT. So he did, and as brave things came on't; for Hopeful, and some others, as the story relates it, were converted by his death. HON. Well, but pray go on; for you are well acquainted with things. GREAT. Above all that Christian met with after he had passed through Vanity Fair, one By-ends was the arch one. HON. By-ends! what was he? GREAT. A very arch fellow, a downright hypocrite; one that would be religious, whichever way the world went; but so cunning, that he would be sure never to lose or suffer for it. He had his mode of religion for every fresh occasion, and his wife was as good at it as he. He would turn from opinion to opinion; yea, and plead for so doing, too. But, so far as I could learn, he came to an ill end with his by-ends; nor did I ever hear that any of his children were ever of any esteem with any that truly feared God. Now by this time they were come within sight of the town of Vanity, where Vanity Fair is kept. So, when they saw that they were so near the town, they consulted with one another how they should pass through the town; and some said one thing, and some another. At last Mr. Great- Heart said, I have, as you may understand, often been a conductor of pilgrims through this town. Now, I am acquainted with one Mr. Mnason, Acts 21:16, a Cyprusian by nation, an old disciple, at whose house we may lodge. If you think good, we will turn in there. Content, said old Honest; Content, said Christiana; Content, said Mr. Feeble-mind; and so they said all. Now you must think it was eventide by that they got to the outside of the town; but Mr. Great-Heart knew the way to the old man's house. So thither they came; and he called at the door, and the old man within knew his tongue as soon as ever he heard it; so he opened the door, and they all came in. Then said Mnason, their host, How far have ye come to-day? So they said, from the house of Gaius our friend. I promise you, said he, you have gone a good stitch. You may well be weary; sit down. So they sat down. GREAT. Then said their guide, Come, what cheer, good sirs? I dare say you are welcome to my friend. MNAS. I also, said Mr. Mnason, do bid you welcome; and whatever you want, do but say, and we will do what we can to get it for you. HON. Our great want, a while since, was harbor and good company, and now I hope we have both. MNAS. For harbor, you see what it is; but for good company, that will appear in the trial. GREAT. Well, said Mr. Great-Heart, will you have the pilgrims up into their lodging? MNAS. I will, said Mr. Mnason. So he had them to their respective places; and also showed them a very fair dining-room, where they might be, and sup together until the time should come to go to rest. Now, when they were seated in their places, and were a little cheery after their journey, Mr. Honest asked his landlord if there was any store of good people in the town. MNAS. We have a few: for indeed they are but a few when compared with them on the other side. HON. But how shall we do to see some of them? for the sight of good men to them that are going on pilgrimage, is like the appearing of the moon and stars to them that are sailing upon the seas. MNAS. Then Mr. Mnason stamped with his foot, and his daughter Grace came up. So he said unto her, Grace, go you, tell my friends, Mr. Contrite, Mr. Holy-man, Mr. Love-saints, Mr. Dare-not-lie, and Mr. Penitent, that I have a friend or two at my house who have a mind this evening to see them. So Grace went to call them, and they came; and after salutation made, they sat down together at the table. Then said Mr. Mnason their landlord, My neighbors, I have, as you see, a company of strangers come to my house; they are pilgrims: they come from afar, and are going to Mount Zion. But who, quoth he, do you think this is? pointing his finger to Christiana. It is Christiana, the wife of Christian, the famous pilgrim, who, with Faithful his brother, was so shamefully handled in our town. At that they stood amazed, saying, We little thought to see Christiana when Grace came to call us; wherefore this is a very comfortable surprise. They then asked her of her welfare, and if these young men were her husband's sons. And when she had told them they were, they said, The King whom you love and serve make you as your father, and bring you where he is in peace. HON. Then Mr. Honest (when they were all sat down) asked Mr. Contrite and the rest, in what posture their town was at present. CONT. You may be sure we are full of hurry in fair-time. 'T is hard keeping our hearts and spirits in good order when we are in a cumbered condition. He that lives in such a place as this is, and has to do with such as we have, has need of an item to caution him to take heed every moment of the day. HON. But how are your neighbors now for quietness? CONT. They are much more moderate now than formerly. You know how Christian and Faithful were used at our town; but of late, I say, they have been far more moderate. I think the blood of Faithful lieth as a load upon them till now; for since they burned him, they have been ashamed to burn any more. In those days we were afraid to walk the street; but now we can show our heads. Then the name of a professor was odious; now, especially in some parts of our town, (for you know our town is large,) religion is counted honorable. Then said Mr. Contrite to them, Pray how fareth it with you in your pilgrimage? how stands the country affected towards you? HON. It happens to us as it happeneth to wayfaring men: sometimes our way is clean, sometimes foul; sometimes up hill, sometimes down hill; we are seldom at a certainty. The wind is not always on our backs, nor is every one a friend that we meet with in the way. We have met with some notable rubs already, and what are yet behind we know not; but for the most part, we find it true that has been talked of old, A good man must suffer trouble. CONT. You talk of rubs; what rubs have you met withal? HON. Nay, ask Mr. Great-Heart, our guide; for he can give the best account of that. GREAT. We have been beset three or four times already. First, Christiana and her children were beset by two ruffians, who they feared would take away their lives. We were beset by Giant Bloody-man, Giant Maul, and Giant Slay-good. Indeed, we did rather beset the last than were beset by him. And thus it was: after we had been some time at the house of Gaius mine host, and of the whole church, we were minded upon a time to take our weapons with us, and go see if we could light upon any of those that are enemies to pilgrims; for we heard that there was a notable one thereabouts. Now Gaius knew his haunt better than I, because he dwelt thereabout. So we looked, and looked, till at last we discerned the mouth of his cave: then we were glad, and plucked up our spirits. So we approached up to his den; and lo, when we came there, he had dragged, by mere force, into his net, this poor man, Mr. Feeble- mind, and was about to bring him to his end. But when he saw us, supposing, as we thought, he had another prey, he left the poor man in his hole, and came out. So we fell to it full sore, and he lustily laid about him; but, in conclusion, he was brought down to the ground, and his head cut off, and set up by the way-side for a terror to such as should after practise such ungodliness. That I tell you the truth, here is the man himself to affirm it, who was as a lamb taken out of the mouth of the lion. FEEBLE. Then said Mr. Feeble-mind, I found this true, to my cost and comfort: to my cost, when he threatened to pick my bones every moment; and to my comfort, when I saw Mr. Great-Heart and his friends, with their weapons, approach so near for my deliverance. HOLY. Then said Mr. Holy-man, There are two things that they have need to possess who go on pilgrimage; courage, and an unspotted life. If they have not courage, they can never hold on their way; and if their lives be loose, they will make the very name of a pilgrim stink. LOVE. Then said Mr. Love-saints, I hope this caution is not needful among you: but truly there are many that go upon the road, who rather declare themselves strangers to pilgrimage, than strangers and pilgrims on the earth. DARE. Then said Mr. Dare-not-lie, 'Tis true. They have neither the pilgrim's weed, nor the pilgrim's courage; they go not uprightly, but all awry with their feet; one shoe goeth inward, another outward; and their hosen are out behind: here a rag, and there a rent, to the disparagement of their Lord. PEN. These things, said Mr. Penitent, they ought to be troubled for; nor are the pilgrims like to have that grace put upon them and their Pilgrim's Progress as they desire, until the way is cleared of such spots and blemishes. Thus they sat talking and spending the time until supper was set upon the table, unto which they went, and refreshed their weary bodies: so they went to rest. Now they staid in the fair a great while, at the house of Mr. Mnason, who in process of time gave his daughter Grace unto Samuel, Christian's son, to wife, and his daughter Martha to Joseph. The time, as I said, that they staid here, was long, for it was not now as in former times. Wherefore the pilgrims grew acquainted with many of the good people of the town, and did them what service they could. Mercy, as she was wont, labored much for the poor: wherefore their bellies and backs blessed her, and she was there an ornament to her profession. And, to say the truth for Grace, Phebe, and Martha, they were all of a very good nature, and did much good in their places. They were also all of them very fruitful; so that Christian's name, as was said before, was like to live in the world. While they lay here, there came a monster out of the woods, and slew many of the people of the town. It would also carry away their children, and teach them to suck its whelps. Now, no man in the town durst so much as face this monster; but all fled when they heard the noise of his coming. The monster was like unto no one beast on the earth. Its body was like a dragon, and it had seven heads and ten horns. It made great havoc of children, and yet it was governed by a woman. Rev. 17:3. This monster propounded conditions to men; and such men as loved their lives more than their souls, accepted of those conditions. So they came under. Now Mr. Great-Heart, together with those who came to visit the pilgrims at Mr. Mnason's house, entered into a covenant to go and engage this beast, if perhaps they might deliver the people of this town from the paws and mouth of this so devouring a serpent. Then did Mr. Great-Heart, Mr. Contrite, Mr. Holy-man, Mr. Dare-not- lie, and Mr. Penitent, with their weapons, go forth to meet him. Now the monster at first was very rampant, and looked upon these enemies with great disdain; but they so belabored him, being sturdy men at arms, that they made him make a retreat: so they came home to Mr. Mnason's house again. The monster, you must know, had his certain seasons to come out in, and to make his attempts upon the children of the people of the town. At these seasons did these valiant worthies watch him, and did still continually assault him; insomuch that in process of time he became not only wounded, but lame. Also he has not made that havoc of the townsmen's children as formerly he had done; and it is verily believed by some that this beast will die of his wounds. This, therefore, made Mr. Great-Heart and his fellows of great fame in this town; so that many of the people that wanted their taste of things, yet had a reverent esteem and respect for them. Upon this account, therefore, it was, that these pilgrims got not much hurt here. True, there were some of the baser sort, that could see no more than a mole, nor understand any more than a beast; these had no reverence for these men, and took no notice of their valor and adventures. THE SEVENTH STAGE. Well, the time grew on that the pilgrims must go on their way; wherefore they prepared for their journey. They sent for their friends; they conferred with them; they had some time set apart therein to commit each other to the protection of their Prince. There were again that brought them of such things as they had, that were fit for the weak and the strong, for the women and the men, and so laded them with such things as were necessary. Acts 28:10. Then they set forward on their way; and their friends accompanying them so far as was convenient, they again committed each other to the protection of their King, and parted. They therefore that were of the pilgrims' company went on, and Mr. Great-Heart went before them. Now, the women and children being weakly, they were forced to go as they could bear; by which means Mr. Ready-to- halt and Mr. Feeble-mind, had more to sympathize with their condition. When they were gone from the townsmen, and when their friends had bid them farewell, they quickly came to the place where Faithful was put to death. Therefore they made a stand, and thanked him that had enabled him to bear his cross so well; and the rather, because they now found that they had a benefit by such a manly suffering as his was. They went on therefore after this a good way further, talking of Christian and Faithful, and how Hopeful joined himself to Christian after that Faithful was dead. Now they were come up with the hill Lucre, where the silver mine was which took Demas off from his pilgrimage, and into which, as some think, By-ends fell and perished; wherefore they considered that. But when they were come to the old monument that stood over against the hill Lucre, to wit, to the pillar of salt, that stood also within view of Sodom and its stinking lake, they marvelled, as did Christian before, that men of such knowledge and ripeness of wit as they were, should be so blinded as to turn aside here. Only they considered again, that nature is not affected with the harms that others have met with, especially if that thing upon which they look has an attracting virtue upon the foolish eye. I saw now, that they went on till they came to the river that was on this side of the Delectable Mountains; to the river where the fine trees grow on both sides, and whose leaves, if taken inwardly, are good against surfeits; where the meadows are green all the year long, and where they might lie down safely. Psa. 23:2. By this river-side, in the meadows, there were cotes and folds for sheep, a house built for the nourishing and bringing up of those lambs, the babes of those women that go on pilgrimage. Also there was here one that was intrusted with them, who could have compassion; and that could gather these lambs with his arm, and carry them in his bosom, and gently lead those that were with young. Heb. 5:2; Isa. 40:11. Now, to the care of this man Christiana admonished her four daughters to commit their little ones, that by these waters they might be housed, harbored, succored, and nourished, and that none of them might be lacking in time to come. This man, if any of them go astray, or be lost, will bring them again; he will also bind up that which was broken, and will strengthen them that are sick. Jer. 23:4; Ezek. 34:11-16. Here they will never want meat, drink, and clothing; here they will be kept from thieves and robbers; for this man will die before one of those committed to his trust shall be lost. Besides, here they shall be sure to have good nurture and admonition, and shall be taught to walk in right paths, and that you know is a favor of no small account. Also here, as you see, are delicate waters, pleasant meadows, dainty flowers, variety of trees, and such as bear wholesome fruit: fruit, not like that which Matthew ate of, that fell over the wall out of Beelzebub's garden; but fruit that procureth health where there is none, and that continueth and increaseth it where it is. So they were content to commit their little ones to him; and that which was also an encouragement to them so to do, was, for that all this was to be at the charge of the King, and so was as an hospital to young children and orphans. Now they went on. And when they were come to By-path Meadow, to the stile over which Christian went with his fellow Hopeful, when they were taken by Giant Despair and put into Doubting Castle, they sat down, and consulted what was best to be done: to wit, now they were so strong, and had got such a man as Mr. Great-Heart for their conductor, whether they had not best to make an attempt upon the giant, demolish his castle, and if there were any pilgrims in it, to set them at liberty before they went any further. So one said one thing, and another said the contrary. One questioned if it was lawful to go upon unconsecrated ground; another said they might, provided their end was good; but Mr. Great-Heart said, Though that assertion offered last cannot be universally true, yet I have a commandment to resist sin, to overcome evil, to fight the good fight of faith: and I pray, with whom should I fight this good fight, if not with Giant Despair? I will therefore attempt the taking away of his life, and the demolishing of Doubting Castle. Then said he, Who will go with me? Then said old Honest, I will. And so will we too, said Christiana's four sons, Matthew, Samuel, Joseph, and James; for they were young men and strong. 1 John 2:13,14. So they left the women in the road, and with them Mr. Feeble-mind, and Mr. Ready-to-halt with his crutches, to be their guard until they came back; for in that place the Giant Despair dwelt so near, they keeping in the road, a little child might lead them. Isa. 11:6. So Mr. Great-Heart, old Honest, and the four young men, went to go up to Doubting Castle, to look for Giant Despair. When they came at the castle gate, they knocked for entrance with an unusual noise. At that the old Giant comes to the gate, and Diffidence his wife follows. Then said he, Who and what is he that is so hardy, as after this manner to molest the Giant Despair? Mr. Great-Heart replied, It is I, Great- Heart, one of the King of the Celestial country's conductors of pilgrims to their place; and I demand of thee that thou open thy gates for my entrance: prepare thyself also to fight, for I am come to take away thy head; and to demolish Doubting Castle. Now Giant Despair, because he was a giant, thought no man could overcome him: and again thought he, Since heretofore I have made a conquest of angels, shall Great-Heart make me afraid? So he harnessed himself, and went out. He had a cap of steel upon his head, a breast-plate of fire girded to him, and he came out in iron shoes, with a great club in his hand. Then these six men made up to him, and beset him behind and before: also, when Diffidence the giantess came up to help him, old Mr. Honest cut her down at one blow. Then they fought for their lives, and Giant Despair was brought down to the ground, but was very loth die. He struggled hard, and had, as they say, as many lives as a cat; but Great- Heart was his death, for he left him not till he had severed his head from his shoulders. Then they fell to demolishing Doubting Castle, and that you know might with ease be done, since Giant Despair was dead. They were seven days in destroying of that; and in it of pilgrims they found one Mr. Despondency, almost starved to death, and one Much-afraid, his daughter: these two they saved alive. But it would have made you wonder to have seen the dead bodies that lay here and there in the castle yard, and how full of dead men's bones the dungeon was. When Mr. Great-Heart and his companions had performed this exploit, they took Mr. Despondency, and his daughter Much-afraid, into their protection; for they were honest people, though they were prisoners in Doubting Castle to that tyrant Giant Despair. They, therefore, I say, took with them the head of the giant, (for his body they had buried under a heap of stones,) and down to the road and to their companions they came, and showed them what they had done. Now, when Feeble-mind and Ready-to-halt saw that it was the head of Giant Despair indeed, they were very jocund and merry. Now Christiana, if need was, could play upon the viol, and her daughter Mercy upon the lute: so, since they were so merry disposed, she played them a lesson, and Ready-to-halt would dance. So he took Despondency's daughter, Much-afraid, by the hand, and to dancing they went in the road. True, he could not dance without one crutch in his hand, but I promise you he footed it well: also the girl was to be commended, for she answered the music handsomely. As for Mr. Despondency, the music was not so much to him; he was for feeding rather than dancing, for that he was almost starved. So Christiana gave him some of her bottle of spirits for present relief, and then prepared him something to eat; and in a little time the old gentleman came to himself, and began to be finely revived. Now I saw in my dream, when all these things were finished, Mr. Great- Heart took the head of Giant Despair, and set it upon a pole by the highway-side, right over against the pillar that Christian erected for a caution to pilgrims that came after, to take heed of entering into his grounds. Then he writ under it upon a marble stone these verses following: "This is the head of him whose name only In former times did pilgrims terrify. His castle's down, and Diffidence his wife Brave Mr. Great-Heart has bereft of life. Despondency, his daughter Much-afraid, Great-Heart for them also the man has play'd. Who hereof doubts, if he'll but cast his eye Up hither, may his scruples satisfy. This head also, when doubting cripples dance, Doth show from fears they have deliverance." When these men had thus bravely showed themselves against Doubting Castle, and had slain Giant Despair, they went forward, and went on till they came to the Delectable Mountains, where Christian and Hopeful refreshed themselves with the varieties of the place. They also acquainted themselves with the shepherds there, who welcomed them, as they had done Christian before, unto the Delectable Mountains. Now the shepherds seeing so great a train follow Mr. Great-Heart, (for with him they were well acquainted,) they said unto him, Good sir, you have got a goodly company here; pray where did you find all these? Then Mr. Great-Heart replied, "First, here is Christiana and her train, Her sons, and her sons' wives, who, like the wain, Keep by the pole, and do by compass steer From sin to grace, else they had not been here. Next here's old Honest come on pilgrimage, Ready-to-halt too, who I dare engage True-hearted is, and so is Feeble-mind, Who willing was not to be left behind. Despondency, good man, is coming after, And so also is Much-afraid, his daughter. May we have entertainment here, or must We further go? Let's knew whereon to trust." Then said the shepherds, This is a comfortable company. You are welcome to us; for we have for the feeble, as well as for the strong. Our Prince has an eye to what is done to the least of these; therefore Infirmity must not be a block to our entertainment. Matt. 25:40. So they had them to the palace door, and then said unto them, Come in, Mr. Feeble-Mind; come in Mr. Ready-to-halt; Come in, Mr. Despondency, and Mrs. Much-afraid his daughter. These, Mr. Great-Heart, said the shepherds to the guide, we call in by name, for that they are most subject to draw back; but as for you, and the rest that are strong, we leave you to your wonted liberty. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, This day I see that grace doth shine in your faces, and that you are my Lord's shepherds indeed; for that you have not pushed these diseased neither with side nor shoulder, but have rather strewed their way into the palace with flowers, as you should. Ezek. 34:21. So the feeble and weak went in, and Mr. Great-Heart and the rest did follow. When they were also set down, the shepherds said to those of the weaker sort, What is it that you would have? for, said they, all things must be managed here to the supporting of the weak, as well as to the warning of the unruly. So they made them a feast of things easy of digestion, and that were pleasant to the palate and nourishing; the which when they had received, they went to their rest, each one respectively unto his proper place. When morning was come, because the mountains were high and the day clear, and because it was the custom of the shepherds to show the pilgrims before their departure some rarities, therefore, after they were ready, and had refreshed themselves, the shepherds took them out into the fields, and showed them first what they had shown to Christian before. Then they had them to some new places. The first was Mount Marvel, where they looked, and beheld a man at a distance that tumbled the hills about with words. Then they asked the shepherds what that should mean. So they told them, that that man was the son of one Mr. Great-grace, of whom you read in the first part of the records of the Pilgrim's Progress; and he is set there to teach pilgrims how to believe down, or to tumble out of their ways, what difficulties they should meet with, by faith. Mark 11:23,24. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, I know him; he is a man above many. Then they had them to another place, called Mount Innocence. And there they saw a man clothed all in white; and two men, Prejudice and Ill- will, continually casting dirt upon him. Now behold, the dirt, whatsoever they cast at him, would in a little time fall off again, and his garment would look as clear as if no dirt had been cast thereat. Then said the pilgrims, What means this? The shepherds answered, This man is named Godlyman, and this garment is to show the innocency of his life. Now, those that throw dirt at him are such as hate his well- doing; but, as you see the dirt will not stick upon his clothes, so it shall be with him that liveth innocently in the world. Whoever they be that would make such men dirty, they labor all in vain; for God, by that a little time is spent, will cause that their innocence shall break forth as the light, and their righteousness as the noonday. Then they took them, and had them to Mount Charity, where they showed them a man that had a bundle of cloth lying before him, out of which he cut coats and garments for the poor that stood about him; yet his bundle or roll of cloth was never the less. Then said they, What should this be? This is, said the shepherds, to show you, that he who has a heart to give of his labor to the poor, shall never want wherewithal. He that watereth shall be watered himself. And the cake that the widow gave to the prophet did not cause that she had the less in her barrel. They had them also to the place where they saw one Fool and one Want-wit washing an Ethiopian, with intention to make him white; but the more they washed him, the blacker he was. Then they asked the shepherds what that should mean. So they told them, saying, Thus it is with the vile person; all means used to get such a one a good name, shall in conclusion tend but to make him more abominable. Thus it was with the pharisees; and so it shall be with all hypocrites. Then said Mercy, the wife of Matthew, to Christiana her mother, Mother, I would, if it might be, see the hole in the hill, or that commonly called the By-way to hell. So her mother brake her mind to the shepherds. Then they went to the door; it was on the side of an hill; and they opened it, and bid Mercy hearken a while. So she hearkened, and heard one saying, Cursed be my father for holding of my feet back from the way of peace and life. Another said, Oh that I had been torn in pieces before I had, to save my life, lost my soul! And another said, If I were to live again, how would I deny myself, rather than to come to this place! Then there was as if the very earth groaned and quaked under the feet of this young woman for fear; so she looked white, and came trembling away, saying, Blessed be he and she that is delivered from this place! Now, when the shepherds had shown them all these things, then they had them back to the palace, and entertained them with what the house would afford. But Mercy, being a young and married woman, longed for something that she saw there, but was ashamed to ask. Her mother-in-law then asked her what she ailed, for she looked as one not well. Then said Mercy, There is a looking-glass hangs up in the dining-room, off which I cannot take my mind; if, therefore, I have it not, I think I shall miscarry. Then said her mother, I will mention thy wants to the shepherds, and they will not deny thee. But she said, I am ashamed that these men should know that I longed. Nay, my daughter, said she, it is no shame, but a virtue, to long for such a thing as that. So Mercy said, Then mother, if you please, ask the shepherds if they are willing to sell it. Now the glass was one of a thousand. It would present a man, one way, with his own features exactly; and turn it but another way, and it would show one the very face and similitude of the Prince of pilgrims himself. Yes, I have talked with them that can tell, and they have said that they have seen the very crown of thorns upon his head by looking in that glass; they have therein also seen the holes in his hands, his feet, and his side. Yea, such an excellency is there in this glass, that it will show him to one where they have a mind to see him, whether living or dead; whether in earth, or in heaven; whether in a state of humiliation, or in his exaltation; whether coming to suffer, or coming to reign. James 1:23; 1 Cor. 13:12; 2 Cor. 3:18. Christiana therefore went to the shepherds apart, (now the names of the shepherds were Knowledge, Experience, Watchful, and Sincere,) and said unto them, There is one of my daughters, a breeding woman, that I think doth long for something that she hath seen in this house; and she thinks that she shall miscarry if she should by you be denied. EXPERIENCE. Call her, call her, she shall assuredly have what we can help her to. So they called her, and said to her, Mercy, what is that thing thou wouldst have? Then she blushed, and said, The great glass that hangs up in the dining-room. So Sincere ran and fetched it, and with a joyful consent it was given her. Then she bowed her head, and gave thanks, and said, By this I know that I have obtained favor in your eyes. They also gave to the other young women such things as they desired, and to their husbands great commendations, for that they had joined with Mr. Great-Heart in the slaying of Giant Despair, and the demolishing of Doubting Castle. About Christiana's neck the shepherds put a bracelet, and so did they about the necks of her four daughters; also they put ear-rings in their ears, and jewels on their foreheads. When they were minded to go hence, they let them go in peace, but gave not to them those certain cautions which before were given to Christian and his companion. The reason was, for that these had Great-Heart to be their guide, who was one that was well acquainted with things, and so could give them their cautions more seasonably, to wit, even when the danger was nigh the approaching. What cautions Christian and his companion had received of the shepherds, they had also lost by that the time was come that they had need to put them in practice. Wherefore, here was the advantage that this company had over the other. From thence they went on singing, and they said, "Behold how fitly are the stages set For their relief that pilgrims are become, And how they us receive without one let, That make the other life our mark and home! What novelties they have to us they give, That we, though pilgrims, joyful lives may live; They do upon us, too, such things bestow, That show we pilgrims are, where'er we go." THE EIGHTH STAGE. When they were gone from the shepherds, they quickly came to the place where Christian met with one Turn-away that dwelt in the town of Apostasy. Wherefore of him Mr. Great-Heart their guide now put them in mind, saying, This is the place where Christian met with one Turn-away, who carried with him the character of his rebellion at his back. And this I have to say concerning this man; he would hearken to no counsel, but once a falling, persuasion could not stop him. When he came to the place where the cross and sepulchre were, he did meet with one that did bid him look there; but he gnashed with his teeth, and stamped, and said he was resolved to go back to his own town. Before he came to the gate, he met with Evangelist, who offered to lay hands on him, to turn him into the way again; but this Turn-away resisted him, and having done much despite unto him, he got away over the wall, and so escaped his hand. Then they went on; and just at the place where Little-Faith formerly was robbed, there stood a man with his sword drawn, and his face all over with blood. Then said Mr. Great-Heart, Who art thou? The man made answer, saying, I am one whose name is Valiant-for-truth. I am a pilgrim, and am going to the Celestial City. Now, as I was in my way, there were three men that did beset me, and propounded unto me these three things: 1. Whether I would become one of them. 2. Or go back from whence I came. 3. Or die upon the place. Prov. 1:11-14. To the first I answered, I had been a true man for a long season, and therefore it could not be expected that I should now cast in my lot with thieves. Then they demanded what I would say to the second. So I told them that the place from whence I came, had I not found incommodity there, I had not forsaken it at all; but finding it altogether unsuitable to me, and very unprofitable for me, I forsook it for this way. Then they asked me what I said to the third. And I told them my life cost far more dear than that I should lightly give it away. Besides, you have nothing to do thus to put things to my choice; wherefore at your peril be it if you meddle. Then these three, to wit, Wild-head, Inconsiderate, and Pragmatic, drew upon me, and I also drew upon them. So we fell to it, one against three, for the space of above three hours. They have left upon me, as you see, some of the marks of their valor, and have also carried away with them some of mine. They are but just now gone; I suppose they might, as the saying is, hear your horse dash, and so they betook themselves to flight. GREAT. But here was great odds, three against one . VALIANT. 'Tis true; but little and more are nothing to him that has the truth on his side: "Though an host should encamp against me," said one, Psa. 27:3, "my heart shall not fear: though war should rise against me, in this will I be confident," etc. Besides, said he, I have read in some records, that one man has fought an army: and how many did Samson slay with the jawbone of an ass! GREAT. Then said the guide, Why did you not cry out, that some might have come in for your succor? VALIANT. So I did to my King, who I knew could hear me, and afford invisible help, and that was sufficient for me. GREAT. Then said Great-Heart to Mr. Valiant-for-truth, Thou hast worthily behaved thyself; let me see thy sword. So he showed it him. When he had taken it in his hand, and looked thereon awhile, he said, Ha, it is a right Jerusalem blade. VALIANT. It is so. Let a man have one of these blades, with a hand to wield it, and skill to use it, and he may venture upon an angel with it. He need not fear its holding, if he can but tell how to lay on. Its edge will never blunt. It will cut flesh and bones, and soul, and spirit, and all. Heb. 4:12. GREAT. But you fought a great while; I wonder you was not weary. VALIANT. I fought till my sword did cleave to my hand; and then they were joined together as if a sword grew out of my arm; and when the blood ran through my fingers, then I fought with most courage. GREAT. Thou hast done well; thou hast resisted unto blood, striving against sin. Thou shalt abide by us, come in and go out with us; for we are thy companions. Then they took him and washed his wounds, and gave him of what they had, to refresh him: and so they went together. Now, as they went on, because Mr. Great-Heart was delighted in him, (for he loved one greatly that he found to be a man of his hands,) and because there were in company those that were feeble and weak, therefore he questioned with him about many things; as first, what countryman he was. VALIANT. I am of Dark-land; for there was I born, and there my father and mother are still. GREAT. Dark-land! said the guide; doth not that lie on the same coast with the City of Destruction? VALIANT. Yes, it doth. Now that which caused me to come on pilgrimage was this. We had one Mr. Tell-true come into our parts, and he told it about what Christian had done, that went from the City of Destruction; namely, how he had forsaken his wife and children, and had betaken himself to a pilgrim's life. It was also confidently reported, how he had killed a serpent that did come out to resist him in his journey; and how he got through to whither he intended. It was also told what welcome he had at all his Lord's lodgings, especially when he came to the gates of the Celestial City; for there, said the man, he was received with sound of trumpet by a company of shining ones. He told also how all the bells in the city did ring for joy at his reception, and what golden garments he was clothed with; with many other things that now I shall forbear to relate. In a word, that man so told the story of Christian and his travels that my heart fell into a burning haste to be gone after him; nor could father or mother stay me. So I got from them, and am come thus far on my way. GREAT. You came in at the gate, did you not? VALIANT. Yes, yes; for the same man also told us, that all would be nothing if we did not begin to enter this way at the gate. GREAT. Look you, said the guide to Christiana, the pilgrimage of your husband, and what he has gotten thereby, is spread abroad far and near. VALIANT. Why, is this Christian's wife? GREAT. Yes, that it is; and these also are his four sons. VALIANT. What, and going on pilgrimage too? GREAT. Yes, verily, they are following after. VALIANT. It glads me at the heart. Good man, how joyful will he be when he shall see them that would not go with him, yet to enter after him in at the gates into the Celestial City. GREAT. Without doubt it will be a comfort to him; for, next to the joy of seeing himself there, it will be a joy to meet there his wife and children. VALIANT. But now you are upon that, pray let me hear your opinion about it. Some make a question whether we shall know one another when we are there. GREAT. Do you think they shall know themselves then, or that they shall rejoice to see themselves in that bliss? And if they think they shall know and do this, why not know others, and rejoice in their welfare also? Again, since relations are our second self, though that state will be dissolved there, yet why may it not be rationally concluded that we shall be more glad to see them there than to see they are wanting? VALIANT. Well, I perceive whereabouts you are as to this. Have you any more things to ask me about my beginning to come on pilgrimage? GREAT. Yes; were your father and mother willing that you should become a pilgrim? VALIANT. O no; they used all means imaginable to persuade me to stay at home. GREAT. Why, what could they say against it? VALIANT. They said it was an idle life; and if I myself were not inclined to sloth and laziness, I would never countenance a pilgrim's condition. GREAT. And what did they say else? VALIANT. Why, they told me that it was a dangerous way; yea, the most dangerous way in the world, said they, is that which the pilgrims go. GREAT. Did they show you wherein this way is so dangerous? VALIANT. Yes; and that in many particulars. GREAT. Name some of them. VALIANT. They told me of the Slough of Despond, where Christian was well -nigh smothered. They told me, that there were archers standing ready in Beelzebub-castle to shoot them who should knock at the Wicket-gate for entrance. They told me also of the wood and dark mountains; of the hill Difficulty; of the lions; and also of the three giants, Bloody-man, Maul, and Slay-good. They said, moreover, that there was a foul fiend haunted the Valley of Humiliation; and that Christian was by him almost bereft of life. Besides, said they, you must go over the Valley of the Shadow of Death, where the hobgoblins are, where the light is darkness, where the way is full of snares, pits, traps, and gins. They told me also of Giant Despair, of Doubting Castle, and of the ruin that the pilgrims met with here. Further they said I must go over the Enchanted Ground, which was dangerous; And that after all this I should find a river, over which there was no bridge; and that that river did lie betwixt me and the Celestial country. GREAT. And was this all? VALIANT. No. They also told me that this way was full of deceivers, and of persons that lay in wait there to turn good men out of the path. GREAT. But how did they make that out? VALIANT. They told me that Mr. Wordly Wiseman did lie there in wait to deceive. They said also, that there were Formality and Hypocrisy continually on the road. They said also, that By-ends, Talkative, or Demas, would go near to gather me up; that the Flatterer would catch me in his net; or that, with green-headed Ignorance, I would presume to go on to the gate, from whence he was sent back to the hole that was in the side of the hill, and made to go the by-way to hell. GREAT. I promise you this was enough to discourage you; but did they make an end here? VALIANT. No, stay. They told me also of many that had tried that way of old, and that had gone a great way therein, to see if they could find something of the glory there that so many had so much talked of from time to time, and how they came back again, and befooled themselves for setting a foot out of doors in that path, to the satisfaction of all the country. And they named several that did so, as Obstinate and Pliable, Mistrust and Timorous, Turn-away and old Atheist, with several more; who, they said, had some of them gone far to see what they could find, but not one of them had found so much advantage by going as amounted to the weight of a feather. GREAT. Said they any thing more to discourage you? VALIANT. Yes. They told me of one Mr. Fearing, who was a pilgrim, and how he found his way so solitary that he never had a comfortable hour therein; also, that Mr. Despondency had like to have been starved therein: yea, and also (which I had almost forgot) that Christian himself, about whom there has been such a noise, after all his adventures for a celestial crown, was certainly drowned in the Black River, and never went a foot further; however it was smothered up. GREAT. And did none of these things discourage you? VALIANT. No; they seemed but as so many nothings to me. GREAT. How came that about? VALIANT. Why, I still believed what Mr. Tell-true had said; and that carried me beyond them all. GREAT. Then this was your victory, even your faith. VALIANT. It was so. I believed, and therefore came out, got into the way, fought all that set themselves against me, and, by believing, am come to this place. "Who would true valor see, Let him come hither; One here will constant be, Come wind, come weather There's no discouragement Shall make him once relent His first avow'd intent To be a pilgrim. Whoso beset him round With dismal stories, Do but themselves confound; His strength the more is. No lion can him fright, He'll with a giant fight, But he will have a right To be a pilgrim. Hobgoblin nor foul fiend Can daunt his spirit; He knows he at the end Shall life inherit. Then fancies fly away, He'll not fear what men say; He'll labor night and day To be a pilgrim. By this time they were got to the Enchanted Ground, where the air naturally tended to make one drowsy. And that place was all grown over with briars and thorns, excepting here and there, where was an enchanted arbor, upon which if a man sits, or in which if a man sleeps, it is a question, some say, whether ever he shall rise or wake again in this world. Over this forest, therefore, they went, both one and another, and Mr. Great-Heart went before, for that he was the guide; and Mr. Valiant-for-truth came behind, being rear-guard, for fear lest peradventure some fiend, or dragon, or giant, or thief, should fall upon their rear, and so do mischief. They went on here, each man with his sword drawn in his hand; for they knew it was a dangerous place. Also they cheered up one another as well as they could. Feeble-mind, Mr. Great-Heart commanded should come up after him; and Mr. Despondency was under the eye of Mr. Valiant. Now they had not gone far, but a great mist and darkness fell upon them all; so that they could scarce, for a great while, the one see the other. Wherefore they were forced, for some time, to feel one for another by words; for they walked not by sight. But any one must think, that here was but sorry going for the best of them all; but how much worse for the women and children, who both of feet and heart were but tender! Yet so it was, that through the encouraging words of him that led in the front, and of him that brought them up behind, they made a pretty good shift to wag along. The way also here was very wearisome, through dirt and slabbiness. Nor was there, on all this ground, so much as one inn or victualling-house wherein to refresh the feebler sort. Here, therefore, was grunting, and puffing, and sighing, while one tumbleth over a bush, another sticks fast in the dirt, and the children, some of them, lost their shoes in the mire; while one cries out, I am down; and another, Ho, where are you? and a third, The bushes have got such fast hold on me, I think I cannot get away from them. Then they came at an arbor, warm, and promising much refreshing to the pilgrims; for it was finely wrought above-head, beautified with greens, furnished with benches and settles. It also had in it a soft couch, whereon the weary might lean. This, you must think, all things considered, was tempting; for the pilgrims already began to be foiled with the badness of the way: but there was not one of them that made so much as a motion to stop there. Yea, for aught I could perceive, they continually gave so good heed to the advice of their guide, and he did so faithfully tell them of dangers, and of the nature of the dangers when they were at them, that usually, when they were nearest to them, they did most pluck up their spirits, and hearten one another to deny the flesh. This arbor was called The Slothful's Friend, and was made on purpose to allure, if it might be, some of the pilgrims there to take up their rest when weary. I saw them in my dream, that they went on in this their solitary ground, till they came to a place at which a man is apt to lose his way. Now, though when it was light their guide could well enough tell how to miss those ways that led wrong, yet in the dark he was put to a stand. But he had in his pocket a map of all ways leading to or from the Celestial City; wherefore he struck a light (for he never goes without his tinder- box also), and takes a view of his book or map, which bids him to be careful in that place to turn to the right hand. And had he not been careful here to look in his map, they had all, in probability, been smothered in the mud; for just a little before them, and that at the end of the cleanest way too, was a pit, none knows how deep, full of nothing but mud, there made on purpose to destroy the pilgrims in. Then thought I with myself, Who that goeth on pilgrimage but would have one of these maps about him, that he may look, when he is at a stand, which is the way he must take? Then they went on in this Enchanted Ground till they came to where there was another arbor, and it was built by the highway-side. And in that arbor there lay two men, whose names were Heedless and Too-bold. These two went thus far on pilgrimage; but here, being wearied with their journey, they sat down to rest themselves, and so fell fast asleep. When the pilgrims saw them, they stood still, and shook their heads; for they knew that the sleepers were in a pitiful case. Then they consulted what to do, whether to go on and leave them in their sleep, or to step to them and try to awake them; so they concluded to go to them and awake them, that is, if they could; but with this caution, namely, to take heed that they themselves did not sit down nor embrace the offered benefit of that arbor. So they went in, and spake to the men, and called each by his name, for the guide, it seems, did know them; but there was no voice nor answer. Then the guide did shake them, and do what he could to disturb them. Then said one of them, I will pay you when I take my money. At which the guide shook his head. I will fight so long as I can hold my sword in my hand, said the other. At that, one of the children laughed. Then said Christiana, What is the meaning of this? The guide said, They talk in their sleep. If you strike them, beat them, or whatever else you do to them, they will answer you after this fashion; or, as one of them said in old time, when the waves of the sea did beat upon him, and he slept as one upon the mast of a ship, Prov. 23:34,35, When I awake, I will seek it yet again. You know, when men talk in their sleep, they say any thing; but their words are not governed either by faith or reason. There is an incoherency in their words now, as there was before betwixt their going on pilgrimage and sitting down here. This, then, is the mischief of it: when heedless ones go on pilgrimage, 'tis twenty to one but they are served thus. For this Enchanted Ground is one of the last refuges that the enemy to pilgrims has; wherefore it is, as you see, placed almost at the end of the way, and so it standeth against us with the more advantage. For when, thinks the enemy, will these fools be so desirous to sit down as when they are weary? and when so like to be weary as when almost at their journey's end? Therefore it is, I say, that the Enchanted Ground is placed so nigh to the land Beulah, and so near the end of their race. Wherefore let pilgrims look to themselves, lest it happen to them as it has done to these that, as you see, are fallen asleep, and none can awake them. Then the pilgrims desired with trembling to go forward; only they prayed their guide to strike a light, that they might go the rest of their way by the help of the light of a lantern. So he struck a light, and they went by the help of that through the rest of this way, though the darkness was very great. 2 Pet. 1:19. But the children began to be sorely weary, and they cried out unto him that loveth pilgrims, to make their way more comfortable. So by that they had gone a little further, a wind arose that drove away the fog, so the air became more clear. Yet they were not off (by much) of the Enchanted Ground; only now they could see one another better, and the way wherein they should walk. Now when they were almost at the end of this ground, they perceived that a little before them was a solemn noise, as of one that was much concerned. So they went on and looked before them: and behold they saw, as they thought, a man upon his knees, with hands and eyes lifted up, and speaking, as they thought, earnestly to one that was above. They drew nigh, but could not tell what he said; so they went softly till he had done. When he had done, he got up, and began to run towards the Celestial City. Then Mr. Great-Heart called after him, saying, Soho, friend, let us have your company, if you go, as I suppose you do, to the Celestial City. So the man stopped, and they came up to him. But as soon as Mr. Honest saw him, he said, I know this man. Then said Mr. Valiant-for-truth, Prithee, who is it? It is one, said he, that comes from whereabout I dwelt. His name is Standfast; he is certainly a right good pilgrim. So they came up to one another; and presently Standfast said to old Honest, Ho, father Honest, are you there? Aye, said he, that I am, as sure as you are there. Right glad am I, said Mr. Standfast, that I have found you on this road. And as glad am I, said the other, that I espied you on your knees. Then Mr. Standfast blushed, and said, But why, did you see me? Yes, that I did, quoth the other, and with my heart was glad at the sight. Why, what did you think? said Standfast. Think! said old Honest; what could I think? I thought we had an honest man upon the road, and therefore should have his company by and by. If you thought not amiss, said Standfast, how happy am I! But if I be not as I should, 't is I alone must bear it. That is true, said the other; but your fear doth further confirm me that things are right betwixt the Prince of pilgrims and your soul. For he saith, "Blessed is the man that feareth always." Prov. 28:14. VALIANT. Well but, brother, I pray thee tell us what was it that was the cause of thy being upon thy knees even now: was it for that some special mercy laid obligations upon thee, or how? STAND. Why, we are, as you see, upon the Enchanted Ground; and as I was coming along, I was musing with myself of what a dangerous nature the road in this place was, and how many that had come even thus far on pilgrimage, had here been stopped and been destroyed. I thought also of the manner of the death with which this place destroyeth men. Those that die here, die of no violent distemper: the death which such die is not grievous to them. For he that goeth away in a sleep, begins that journey with desire and pleasure. Yea, such acquiesce in the will of that disease. HON. Then Mr. Honest interrupting him, said, Did you see the two men asleep in the arbor? STAND. Aye, aye, I saw Heedless and Too-bold there; and for ought I know, there they will lie till they rot. Prov. 10:7. But let me go on with my tale. As I was thus musing, as I said, there was one in very pleasant attire, but old, who presented herself to me, and offered me three things, to wit, her body, her purse, and her bed. Now the truth is, I was both weary and sleepy. I am also as poor as an owlet, and that perhaps the witch knew. Well, I repulsed her once and again, but she put by my repulses, and smiled. Then I began to be angry; but she mattered that nothing at all. Then she made offers again, and said, if I would be ruled by her, she would make me great and happy; for, said she, I am the mistress of the world, and men are made happy by me. Then I asked her name, and she told me it was Madam Bubble. This set me further from her; but she still followed me with enticements. Then I betook me, as you saw, to my knees, and with hands lifted up, and cries, I prayed to Him that had said he would help. So, just as you came up, the gentlewoman went her way. Then I continued to give thanks for this my great deliverance; for I verily believe she intended no good, but rather sought to make stop of me in my journey. HON. Without doubt her designs were bad. But stay, now you talk of her, methinks I either have seen her, or have read some story of her. STAND. Perhaps you have done both. HON. Madam Bubble! Is she not a tall, comely dame, something of a swarthy complexion? STAND. Right, you hit it: she is just such a one. HON. Doth she not speak very smoothly, and give you a smile at the end of a sentence? STAND. You fall right upon it again, for these are her very actions. HON. Doth she not wear a great purse by her side, and is not her hand often in it, fingering her money, as if that was her heart's delight. STAND. 'Tis just so; had she stood by all this while, you could not more amply have set her forth before me, nor have better described her features. HON. Then he that drew her picture was a good limner, and he that wrote of her said true. GREAT. This woman is a witch, and it is by virtue of her sorceries that this ground is enchanted. Whoever doth lay his head down in her lap, had as good lay it down on that block over which the axe doth hang; and whoever lay their eyes upon her beauty are counted the enemies of God. This is she that maintaineth in their splendor all those that are the enemies of pilgrims. James 4:4. Yea, this is she that has bought off many a man from a pilgrim's life. She is a great gossiper; she is always, both she and her daughters, at one pilgrim's heels or another, now commending, and then preferring the excellences of this life. She is a bold and impudent slut: she will talk with any man. She always laugheth poor pilgrims to scorn, but highly commends the rich. If there be one cunning to get money in a place, she will speak well of him from house to house. She loveth banqueting and feasting mainly well; she is always at one full table or another. She has given it out in some places that she is a goddess, and therefore some do worship her. She has her time, and open places of cheating; and she will say and avow it, that none can show a good comparable to hers. She promiseth to dwell with children's children, if they will but love her and make much of her. She will cast out of her purse gold like dust in some places and to some persons. She loves to be sought after, spoken well of, and to lie in the bosoms of men. She is never weary of commending her commodities, and she loves them most that think best of her. She will promise to some crowns and kingdoms, if they will but take her advice; yet many has she brought to the halter, and ten thousand times more to hell. STAND. Oh, said Standfast, what a mercy is it that I did resist her; for whither might she have drawn me! GREAT. Whither? nay, none but God knows whither. But in general, to be sure, she would have drawn thee into many foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown men in destruction and perdition. 1 Tim. 6:9. 'T was she that set Absalom against his father, and Jeroboam against his master. 'T was she that persuaded Judas to sell his Lord; and that prevailed with Demas to forsake the godly pilgrim's life. None can tell of the mischief that she doth. She makes variance betwixt rulers and subjects, betwixt parents and children, betwixt neighbor and neighbor, betwixt a man and his wife, betwixt a man and himself, betwixt the flesh and the spirit. Wherefore, good Mr. Standfast, be as your name is, and when you have done all, stand. At this discourse there was among the pilgrims a mixture of joy and trembling; but at length they broke out and sang, "What danger is the Pilgrim in! How many are his foes! How many ways there are to sin No living mortal knows. Some in the ditch are spoiled, yea, can Lie tumbling in the mire: Some, though they shun the frying-pan Do leap into the fire." After this, I beheld until they were come into the land of Beulah, where the sun shineth night and day. Here, because they were weary, they betook themselves a while to rest. And because this country was common for pilgrims, and because the orchards and vineyards that were here belonged to the King of the Celestial country, therefore they were licensed to make bold with any of his things. But a little while soon refreshed them here; for the bells did so ring, and the trumpets continually sound so melodiously, that they could not sleep, and yet they received as much refreshing as if they had slept their sleep ever so soundly. Here also all the noise of them that walked the streets was, More pilgrims are come to town! And another would answer, saying, And so many went over the water, and were let in at the golden gates to- day! They would cry again, There is now a legion of shining ones just come to town, by which we know that there are more pilgrims upon the road; for here they come to wait for them, and to comfort them after all their sorrow. Then the pilgrims got up, and walked to and fro. But how were their ears now filled with heavenly noises, and their eyes delighted with celestial visions! In this land they heard nothing, saw nothing, felt nothing, smelt nothing, tasted nothing that was offensive to their stomach or mind; only when they tasted of the water of the river over which they were to go, they thought that it tasted a little bitterish to the palate; but it proved sweeter when it was down. In this place there was a record kept of the names of them that had been pilgrims of old, and a history of all the famous acts that they had done. It was here also much discoursed, how the river to some had had its flowings, and what ebbings it has had while others have gone over. It has been in a manner dry for some, while it has overflowed its banks for others. In this place the children of the town would go into the King's gardens, and gather nosegays for the pilgrims, and bring them to them with much affection. Here also grew camphire, with spikenard and saffron, calamus and cinnamon, with all the trees of frankincense, myrrh, and aloes, with all chief spices. With these the pilgrims' chambers were perfumed while they stayed here; and with these were their bodies anointed, to prepare them to go over the river, when the time appointed was come. Now, while they lay here, and waited for the good hour, there was a noise in the town that there was a post come from the Celestial City, with matter of great importance to one Christiana, the wife of Christian the pilgrim. So inquiry was made for her, and the house was found out where she was. So the post presented her with a letter. The contents were, Hail, good woman; I bring thee tidings that the Master calleth for thee, and expecteth that thou shouldst stand in his presence in clothes of immortality within these ten days. When he had read this letter to her, he gave her therewith a sure token that he was a true messenger, and was come to bid her make haste to be gone. The token was, an arrow with a point sharpened with love, let easily into her heart, which by degrees wrought so effectually with her, that at the time appointed she must be gone. When Christiana saw that her time was come, and that she was the first of this company that was to go over, she called for Mr. Great-Heart her guide, and told him how matters were. So he told her he was heartily glad of the news, and could have been glad had the post come for him. Then she bid him that he should give advice how all things should be prepared for her journey. So he told her, saying, Thus and thus it must be, and we that survive will accompany you to the river-side. Then she called for her children, and gave them her blessing, and told them that she had read with comfort the mark that was set in their foreheads, and was glad to see them with her there, and that they had kept their garments so white. Lastly, she bequeathed to the poor that little she had, and commanded her sons and daughters to be ready against the messenger should come for them. When she had spoken these words to her guide, and to her children, she called for Mr. Valiant-for-truth, and said unto him, Sir, you have in all places showed yourself true-hearted; be faithful unto death, and my King will give you a crown of life. Rev. 2:10. I would also entreat you to have an eye to my children; and if at any time you see them faint, speak comfortably to them. For my daughters, my sons' wives, they have been faithful, and a fulfilling of the promise upon them will be their end. But she gave Mr. Standfast a ring. Then she called for old Mr. Honest, and said of him, "Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile!" John 1:47. Then said he, I wish you a fair day when you set out for Mount Sion, and shall be glad to see that you go over the river dry-shod. But she answered, Come wet, come dry, I long to be gone; for however the weather is in my journey, I shall have time enough when I come there to sit down and rest me and dry me. Then came in that good man Mr. Ready-to-halt, to see her. So she said to him, Thy travel hitherto has been with difficulty; but that will make thy rest the sweeter. Watch, and be ready; for at an hour when you think not, the messenger may come. After him came Mr. Despondency and his daughter Much-afraid, to whom she said, You ought, with thankfulness, forever to remember your deliverance from the hands of Giant Despair, and out of Doubting Castle. The effect of that mercy is, that you are brought with safety hither. Be ye watchful, and cast away fear; be sober, and hope to the end. Then she said to Mr. Feeble-mind, Thou wast delivered from the mouth of Giant Slay-good, that thou mightest live in the light of the living, and see thy King with comfort. Only I advise thee to repent of thine aptness to fear and doubt of his goodness, before he sends for thee; lest thou shouldst, when he comes, be forced to stand before him for that fault with blushing. Now the day drew on that Christiana must be gone. So the road was full of people to see her take her journey. But behold, all the banks beyond the river were full of horses and chariots, which were come down from above to accompany her to the city gate. So she came forth, and entered the river, with a beckon of farewell to those that followed her. The last words that she was heard to say were, I come, Lord, to be with thee and bless thee! So her children and friends returned to their place, for those that waited for Christiana had carried her out of their sight. So she went and called, and entered in at the gate with all the ceremonies of joy that her husband Christian had entered with before her. At her departure, the children wept. But Mr. Great-Heart and Mr. Valiant played upon the welltuned cymbal and harp for joy. So all departed to their respective places. In process of time there came a post to the town again, and his business was with Mr. Ready-to-halt. So he inquired him out, and said, I am come from Him whom thou hast loved and followed, though upon crutches; and my message is to tell thee, that he expects thee at his table to sup with him in his kingdom, the next day after Easter; wherefore prepare thyself for this journey. Then he also gave him a token that he was a true messenger, saying, "I have broken thy golden bowl, and loosed thy silver cord." Eccles. 12:6. After this, Mr. Ready-to-halt called for his fellow-pilgrims, and told them, saying, I am sent for, and God shall surely visit you also. So he desired Mr. Valiant to make his will. And because he had nothing to bequeath to them that should survive him but his crutches, and his good wishes, therefore thus he said, These crutches I bequeath to my son that shall tread in my steps, with a hundred warm wishes that he may prove better than I have been. Then he thanked Mr. Great-Heart for his conduct and kindness, and so addressed himself to his journey. When he came to the brink of the river, he said, Now I shall have no more need of these crutches, since yonder are chariots and horses for me to ride on. The last words he was heard to say were, Welcome life! So he went his way. After this, Mr. Feeble-mind had tidings brought him that the post sounded his horn at his chamber door. Then he came in, and told him, saying, I am come to tell thee that thy Master hath need of thee, and that in a very little time thou must behold his face in brightness. And take this as a token of the truth of my message: "Those that look out at the windows shall be darkened." Eccles. 12:3. Then Mr. Feeble-mind called for his friends, and told them what errand had been brought unto him, and what token he had received of the truth of the message. Then he said, since I have nothing to bequeath to any, to what purpose should I make a will? As for my feeble mind, that I will leave behind me, for that I shall have no need of it in the place whither I go, nor is it worth bestowing upon the poorest pilgrims: wherefore, when I am gone, I desire that you, Mr. Valiant, would bury it in a dunghill. This done, and the day being come on which he was to depart, he entered the river as the rest. His last words were, Hold out, faith and patience! So he went over to the other side. When days had many of them passed away, Mr. Despondency was sent for; for a post was come, and brought this message to him: Trembling man! these are to summon thee to be ready with the King by the next Lord's day, to shout for joy for thy deliverance from all thy doubtings. And, said the messenger, that my message is true, take this for a proof: so he gave him a grasshopper to be a burden unto him. Ecclesiastes 12:5. Now Mr. Despondency's daughter, whose name was Much-afraid, said, when she heard what was done, that she would go with her father. Then Mr. Despondency said to his friends, Myself and my daughter, you know what we have been, and how troublesomely we have behaved ourselves in every company. My will and my daughter's is, that our desponds and slavish fears be by no man ever received, from the day of our departure, forever; for I know that after my death they will offer themselves to others. For, to be plain with you, they are ghosts which we entertained when we first began to be pilgrims, and could never shake them off after; and they will walk about, and seek entertainment of the pilgrims: but for our sakes, shut the doors upon them. When the time was come for them to depart, they went up to the brink of the river. The last words of Mr. Despondency were, Farewell, night; welcome, day! His daughter went through the river singing, but none could understand what she said. Then it came to pass a while after, that there was a post in the town that inquired for Mr. Honest. So he came to the house where he was, and delivered to his hand these lines: Thou art commanded to be ready against this day seven-night, to present thyself before thy Lord at his Father's house. And for a token that my message is true, "All the daughters of music shall be brought low." Eccles. 12:4. Then Mr. Honest called for his friends, and said unto them, I die, but shall make no will. As for my honesty, it shall go with me; let him that comes after be told of this. When the day that he was to be gone was come, he addressed himself to go over the river. Now the river at that time over -flowed its banks in some places; but Mr. Honest, in his lifetime, had spoken to one Good-conscience to meet him there, the which he also did, and lent him his hand, and so helped him over. The last words of Mr. Honest were, Grace reigns! So he left the world. After this it was noised abroad that Mr. Valiant-for-truth was taken with a summons by the same post as the other, and had this for a token that the summons was true, "That his pitcher was broken at the fountain." Eccl. 12:6. When he understood it, he called for his friends, and told them of it. Then said he, I am going to my Father's; and though with great difficulty I have got hither, yet now I do not repent me of all the trouble I have been at to arrive where I am. My sword I give to him that shall succeed me in my pilgrimage, and my courage and skill to him that can get it. My marks and scars I carry with me, to be a witness for me that I have fought His battles who will now be my rewarder. When the day that he must go hence was come, many accompanied him to the river-side, into which as he went, he said, "Death, where is thy sting?" And as he went down deeper, he said, "Grave, where is thy victory?" 1 Cor. 15:55. So he passed over, and all the trumpets sounded for him on the other side. Then there came forth a summons for Mr. Standfast. This Mr. Standfast was he whom the rest of the pilgrims found upon his knees in the Enchanted Ground. And the post brought it him open in his hands: the contents thereof were, that he must prepare for a change of life, for his Master was not willing that he should be so far from him any longer. At this Mr. Standfast was put into a muse. Nay, said the messenger, you need not doubt of the truth of my message; for here is a token of the truth thereof, "Thy wheel is broken at the cistern." Eccles. 12:6. Then he called to him Mr. Great-Heart, who was their guide, and said unto him, Sir, although it was not my hap to be much in your good company during the days of my pilgrimage, yet, since the time I knew you, you have been profitable to me. When I came from home, I left behind me a wife and five small children; let me entreat you, at your return, (for I know that you go and return to your Master's house, in hopes that you may yet be a conductor to more of the holy pilgrims,) that you send to my family, and let them be acquainted with all that hath and shall happen unto me. Tell them moreover of my happy arrival at this place, and of the present and late blessed condition I am in. Tell them also of Christian and Christiana his wife, and how she and her children came after her husband. Tell them also of what a happy end she made, and whither she is gone. I have little or nothing to send to my family, unless it be prayers and tears for them; of which it will suffice that you acquaint them, if peradventure they may prevail. When Mr. Standfast had thus set things in order, and the time being come for him to haste him away, he also went down to the river. Now there was a great calm at that time in the river; wherefore Mr. Standfast, when he was about half-way in, stood a while, and talked with his companions that had waited upon him thither. And he said, This river has been a terror to many; yea, the thoughts of it also have often frightened me; but now methinks I stand easy; my foot is fixed upon that on which the feet of the priests that bare the ark of the covenant stood while Israel went over Jordan. Josh. 3:17. The waters indeed are to the palate bitter, and to the stomach cold; yet the thoughts of what I am going to, and of the convoy that waits for me on the other side, do lie as a glowing coal at my heart. I see myself now at the end of my journey; my toilsome days are ended. I am going to see that head which was crowned with thorns, and that face which was spit upon for me. I have formerly lived by hearsay and faith; but now I go where I shall live by sight, and shall be with him in whose company I delight myself. I have loved to hear my Lord spoken of; and wherever I have seen the print of his shoe in the earth, there I have coveted to set my foot too. His name has been to me as a civet-box; yea, sweeter than all perfumes. His voice to me has been most sweet, and his countenance I have more desired than they that have most desired the light of the sun. His words I did use to gather for my food, and for antidotes against my faintings. He hath held me, and hath kept me from mine iniquities; yea, my steps hath he strengthened in his way. Now, while he was thus in discourse, his countenance changed; his strong man bowed under him: and after he had said, Take me, for I come unto thee, he ceased to be seen of them. But glorious it was to see how the open region was filled with horses and chariots, with trumpeters and pipers, with singers and players upon stringed instruments, to welcome the pilgrims as they went up, and followed one another in at the beautiful gate of the city. As for Christiana's children, the four boys that Christiana brought, with their wives and children, I did not stay where I was till they were gone over. Also, since I came away, I heard one say that they were yet alive, and so would be for the increase of the church, in that place where they were, for a time. Should it be my lot to go that way again, I may give those that desire it an account of what I here am silent about: meantime I bid my reader FAREWELL. THE END. </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 928 2005 2005-04-10T10:41:18Z Josu Lavin 2 ===THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS - LE PELEGRINAGE DE CHRISTIANO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> The Pilgrim's Progress </strong></td><td><strong> [[Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]] </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS FROM THIS WORLD TO THAT WHICH IS TO COME; DELIVERED UNDER THE SIMILTUDE OF A DREAM. BY JOHN BUNYAN. CONTENTS. Author's Apology for his Book PART I. THE FIRST STAGE. - Christian's deplorable condition - Evangelist directs him - Obstinate and Pliable - Slough of Despond - Worldly Wiseman - Mount Sinai - Conversation with Evangelist THE SECOND STAGE. - The Gate - conversation with Good-Will - the Interpreter's House - Christian entertained - the sights there shown him THE THIRD STAGE. - Loses his burden at the Cross - Simple, Sloth, Presumption, Formalist, Hypocrisy - hill Difficulty - the Arbor - misses his roll - the palace Beautiful - the lions - talk with Discretion, Piety, Prudence, and Charity - wonders shown to Christian - he is armed THE FOURTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - conflict with Apollyon - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giants Pope and Pagan THE FIFTH STAGE. - Discourse with Faithful - Talkative and Faithful - Talkative's character THE SIXTH STAGE. - Evangelist overtakes Christian and Faithful - Vanity Fair - the Pilgrims brought to trial - Faithful's martyrdom THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful - By-ends and his companions - plain of Ease - Lucre-hill - Demas - the River of Life - Vain- Confidence - Giant Despair - the Pilgrims beaten - the Dungeon - the Key of Promise THE EIGHTH STAGE. - The Delectable Mountains - entertained by the Shepherds - a by-way to Hell THE NINTH STAGE. - Christian and Hopeful meet Ignorance - Turn-away - Little-Faith - the Flatterer - the net - chastised by a Shining One - Atheist - Enchanted Ground - Hopeful's account of his conversion - discourse of Christian and Ignorance THE TENTH STAGE. - Talk of Christian and Hopeful - Temporary - the backslider - the land of Beulah - Christian and Hopeful pass the River - welcome to the Celestial city Conclusion of Part First PART II. Author's Apology for the Second Part Pilgrimage of Christiana and her children THE FIRST STAGE. - Christiana and Mercy - Slough of Despond - knocking at the gate - the Dog - talk between the Pilgrims THE SECOND STAGE. - The Devil's garden - two ill-favored ones assault them - the Reliever - entertainment at the Interpreter's house - the Significant Rooms - Christiana and Mercy's experience THE THIRD STAGE. - Accompanied by Great-Heart - the Cross - justified by Christ - Sloth and his companions hung - the hill Difficulty - the Arbor THE FOURTH STAGE. - The Lions - Giant Grim slain by Great-Heart - the Pilgrims entertained - the children catechized by Prudence - Mr. Brisk - Matthew sick - the remedy - sights shown the Pilgrims THE FIFTH STAGE. - Valley of Humiliation - Valley of the Shadow of Death - Giant Maul slain THE SIXTH STAGE. - Discourse with Old Honest - character and history of Mr. Fearing - Mr. Self-will and some professors - Gaius' house - conversation - the supper - Old Honest and Great-Heart's riddles and discourse - Giant Slay-good killed - Mr. Feeble-mind's history - Mr. Ready-to-halt - Vanity Fair - Mr. Mnason's house - cheering entertainment and converse - a Monster THE SEVENTH STAGE. - Hill Lucre - River of Life - Giant Despair killed - the Delectable Mountains - entertainment by the Shepherds THE EIGHTH STAGE. - Valiant-for-Truth's-Victory - his talk with Great- Heart - the Enchanted Ground - Heedless and Too-bold - Mr. Stand-fast - Madam Bubble's temptations - the land of Beulah - Christiana summoned - her parting addresses - she passes the River - she is followed by Ready- to-halt, Feeble-mind, Despondency and his daughter, Honest, Valiant, Steadfast Author's Farewell THE AUTHOR'S APOLOGY FOR HIS BOOK. WHEN at the first I took my pen in hand Thus for to write, I did not understand That I at all should make a little book In such a mode: nay, I had undertook To make another; which, when almost done, Before I was aware I this begun. And thus it was: I, writing of the way And race of saints in this our gospel-day, Fell suddenly into an allegory About their journey, and the way to glory, In more than twenty things which I set down This done, I twenty more had in my crown, And they again began to multiply, Like sparks that from the coals of fire do fly. Nay, then, thought I, if that you breed so fast, I'll put you by yourselves, lest you at last Should prove ad infinitum, 1 and eat out The book that I already am about. Well, so I did; but yet I did not think To show to all the world my pen and ink In such a mode; I only thought to make I knew not what: nor did I undertake Thereby to please my neighbor; no, not I; I did it my own self to gratify. Neither did I but vacant seasons spend In this my scribble; nor did I intend But to divert myself, in doing this, From worser thoughts, which make me do amiss. Thus I set pen to paper with delight, And quickly had my thoughts in black and white; For having now my method by the end, Still as I pull'd, it came; and so I penned It down; until it came at last to be, For length and breadth, the bigness which you see. Well, when I had thus put mine ends together I show'd them others, that I might see whether They would condemn them, or them justify: And some said, let them live; some, let them die: Some said, John, print it; others said, Not so: Some said, It might do good; others said, No. Now was I in a strait, and did not see Which was the best thing to be done by me: At last I thought, Since ye are thus divided, I print it will; and so the case decided. For, thought I, some I see would have it done, Though others in that channel do not run: To prove, then, who advised for the best, Thus I thought fit to put it to the test. I further thought, if now I did deny Those that would have it, thus to gratify; I did not know, but hinder them I might Of that which would to them be great delight. For those which were not for its coming forth, I said to them, Offend you, I am loath; Yet since your brethren pleased with it be, Forbear to judge, till you do further see. If that thou wilt not read, let it alone; Some love the meat, some love to pick the bone. Yea, that I might them better palliate, I did too with them thus expostulate: May I not write in such a style as this? In such a method too, and yet not miss My end-thy good? Why may it not be done? Dark clouds bring waters, when the bright bring none. Yea, dark or bright, if they their silver drops Cause to descend, the earth, by yielding crops, Gives praise to both, and carpeth not at either, But treasures up the fruit they yield together; Yea, so commixes both, that in their fruit None can distinguish this from that; they suit Her well when hungry; but if she be full, She spews out both, and makes their blessing null. You see the ways the fisherman doth take To catch the fish; what engines doth he make! Behold how he engageth all his wits; Also his snares, lines, angles, hooks, and nets: Yet fish there be, that neither hook nor line, Nor snare, nor net, nor engine can make thine: They must be groped for, and be tickled too, Or they will not be catch'd, whate'er you do. How does the fowler seek to catch his game By divers means! all which one cannot name. His guns, his nets, his lime-twigs, light and bell: He creeps, he goes, he stands; yea, who can tell Of all his postures? yet there's none of these Will make him master of what fowls he please. Yea, he must pipe and whistle, to catch this; Yet if he does so, that bird he will miss. If that a pearl may in toad's head dwell, And may be found too in an oyster-shell; If things that promise nothing, do contain What better is than gold; who will disdain, That have an inkling 2 of it, there to look, That they may find it. Now my little book, (Though void of all these paintings that may make It with this or the other man to take,) Is not without those things that do excel What do in brave but empty notions dwell. "Well, yet I am not fully satisfied That this your book will stand, when soundly tried." Why, what's the matter? "It is dark." What though? "But it is feigned." What of that? I trow Some men by feigned words, as dark as mine, Make truth to spangle, and its rays to shine. "But they want solidness." Speak, man, thy mind. "They drown the weak; metaphors make us blind." Solidity, indeed, becomes the pen Of him that writeth things divine to men: But must I needs want solidness, because By metaphors I speak? Were not God's laws, His gospel laws, in olden time held forth By types, shadows, and metaphors? Yet loth Will any sober man be to find fault With them, lest he be found for to assault The highest wisdom! No, he rather stoops, And seeks to find out what, by pins and loops, By calves and sheep, by heifers, and by rams, By birds and herbs, and by the blood of lambs, God speaketh to him; and happy is he That finds the light and grace that in them be. But not too forward, therefore, to conclude That I want solidness-that I am rude; All things solid in show, not solid be; All things in parable despise not we, Lest things most hurtful lightly we receive, And things that good are, of our souls bereave. My dark and cloudy words they do but hold The truth, as cabinets inclose the gold. The prophets used much by metaphors To set forth truth: yea, who so considers Christ, his apostles too, shall plainly see, That truths to this day in such mantles be. Am I afraid to say, that holy writ, Which for its style and phrase puts down all wit, Is everywhere so full of all these things, Dark figures, allegories? Yet there springs From that same book, that lustre, and those rays Of light, that turn our darkest nights to days. Come, let my carper to his life now look, And find there darker lines than in my book He findeth any; yea, and let him know, That in his best things there are worse lines too. May we but stand before impartial men, To his poor one I durst adventure ten, That they will take my meaning in these lines Far better than his lies in silver shrines. Come, truth, although in swaddling-clothes, I find Informs the judgment, rectifies the mind; Pleases the understanding, makes the will Submit, the memory too it doth fill With what doth our imagination please; Likewise it tends our troubles to appease. Sound words, I know, Timothy is to use, And old wives' fables he is to refuse; But yet grave Paul him nowhere doth forbid The use of parables, in which lay hid That gold, those pearls, and precious stones that were Worth digging for, and that with greatest care. Let me add one word more. O man of God, Art thou offended? Dost thou wish I had Put forth my matter in another dress? Or that I had in things been more express? Three things let me propound; then I submit To those that are my betters, as is fit. 1. I find not that I am denied the use Of this my method, so I no abuse Put on the words, things, readers, or be rude In handling figure or similitude, In application; but all that I may Seek the advance of truth this or that way. Denied, did I say? Nay, I have leave, (Example too, and that from them that have God better pleased, by their words or ways, Than any man that breatheth now-a-days,) Thus to express my mind, thus to declare Things unto thee that excellentest are. 2. I find that men as high as trees will write Dialogue-wise; yet no man doth them slight For writing so. Indeed, if they abuse Truth, cursed be they, and the craft they use To that intent; but yet let truth be free To make her sallies upon thee and me, Which way it pleases God: for who knows how, Better than he that taught us first to plough, To guide our minds and pens for his designs? And he makes base things usher in divine. 3. I find that holy writ, in many places, Hath semblance with this method, where the cases Do call for one thing to set forth another: Use it I may then, and yet nothing smother Truth's golden beams: nay, by this method may Make it cast forth its rays as light as day. And now, before I do put up my pen, I'll show the profit of my book; and then Commit both thee and it unto that hand That pulls the strong down, and makes weak ones stand. This book it chalketh out before thine eyes The man that seeks the everlasting prize: It shows you whence he comes, whither he goes, What he leaves undone; also what he does: It also shows you how he runs, and runs, Till he unto the gate of glory comes. It shows, too, who set out for life amain, As if the lasting crown they would obtain; Here also you may see the reason why They lose their labor, and like fools do die. This book will make a traveler of thee, If by its counsel thou wilt ruled be; It will direct thee to the Holy Land, If thou wilt its directions understand Yea, it will make the slothful active be; The blind also delightful things to see. Art thou for something rare and profitable? Or would'st thou see a truth within a fable? Art thou forgetful? Wouldest thou remember From New-Year's day to the last of December? Then read my fancies; they will stick like burs, And may be, to the helpless, comforters. This book is writ in such a dialect As may the minds of listless men affect: It seems a novelty, and yet contains Nothing but sound and honest gospel strains. Would'st thou divert thyself from melancholy? Would'st thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly? Would'st thou read riddles, and their explanation? Or else be drowned in thy contemplation? Dost thou love picking meat? Or would'st thou see A man i' the clouds, and hear him speak to thee? Would'st thou be in a dream, and yet not sleep? Or would'st thou in a moment laugh and weep? Would'st thou lose thyself and catch no harm, And find thyself again without a charm? Would'st read thyself, and read thou know'st not what, And yet know whether thou art blest or not, By reading the same lines? O then come hither, And lay my book, thy head, and heart together. JOHN BUNYAN. </p><p></p></td><td><p> TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 929 17 2005-04-10T10:56:51Z Josu Lavin 2 1. Conviction de peccato .1 Durante que io camminava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio. .2 Io soniava, e tosto io videva un homine, vestite de povre vestes lacerate, qui stava in un certe loco, con le facie revolvite de su proprie casa, con un libro in mano, e con un grande fardello super su dorso [Is 44:6; Lc 14:33; Ps 38:5; Hab 2:2]. .3 Io reguardava, e le videva aperir le libro e leger in illo. Durante le lectura ille comenciava lacrimar e tremular, tanto que ille non poteva plus continer se e per un voce lamentose ille critava: "Que debe io facer?” [Act 2:37]. .4 In ille lamentabile condition ille retornava a casa e cercava celar a su sposa e a su filios su proprie suffrentia, ma ille non succedeva facer lo, proque su pena augmentava semper plus. .5 Finalmente ille se effundeva a su sposa e a su filios e diceva: "Mi car sposa, e vos, mi amatissime filios, io es triste e profundemente turbate: le fardello que io porta es tro pesante, .6 in ultra io ha essite informate que in tote certitude, nostre citate essera comburite per un foco que venira del Celo: nos omnes perira miseremente si nos non trova un via pro fugir, un via que io non mesmo cognosce”. .7 In audir iste parolas, su familia esseva multo surprendite, non proque illes habeva credite al parolas que ille diceva, ma proque illes comenciava timer que ille se affollava. Comocunque, nam le nocte se avicinava, illes le exhortava a vader a lecto, in le spero que le somno poterea calmar su cerebro. .8 Le nocte, tamen, esseva pro ille tanto travaliate quanto le jorno e, pro isto, ille lo passava in singultos e in lacrimas. Assi, quando le jorno arrivava, illes voleva informar se como ille stava nunc, ma ille respondeva: "Semper pejo, semper pejo”. .9 Ille desirava pois continuar a parlar a illes, in le spero de convincer les, ma in van, illes comenciava a indurar se; illes etiam probava a facer le revenir al ration per le manieras forte, aliquando per derision, aliquando per reproches e, altere vices, illes simplemente le ignorava: pro isto ille comenciava retirar se in su camera a precar e a compatir les, ma etiam a condoler su proprie miseria. In ultra, ille passava le tempore in camminar solitari per le campos, aliquando in leger, aliquando in precar. .10 Un vice, durante que ille camminava per le campos, io videva que, como il esseva su habitude, ille legeva ille su libro e ille me pareva particularmente inquiete e, durante su lectura, como ille jam habeva facite, ille se effundeva e diceva: "Que debe io facer pro salvar me?” [Act 16:30,31]. 18 2005-04-10T10:58:19Z Josu Lavin 2 ===TITULO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> Conviction de peccato </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> ENGLISH TEXT </p><p></p></td><td><p> .1 Durante que io camminava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio. .2 Io soniava, e tosto io videva un homine, vestite de povre vestes lacerate, qui stava in un certe loco, con le facie revolvite de su proprie casa, con un libro in mano, e con un grande fardello super su dorso [Is 44:6; Lc 14:33; Ps 38:5; Hab 2:2]. .3 Io reguardava, e le videva aperir le libro e leger in illo. Durante le lectura ille comenciava lacrimar e tremular, tanto que ille non poteva plus continer se e per un voce lamentose ille critava: "Que debe io facer?” [Act 2:37]. .4 In ille lamentabile condition ille retornava a casa e cercava celar a su sposa e a su filios su proprie suffrentia, ma ille non succedeva facer lo, proque su pena augmentava semper plus. .5 Finalmente ille se effundeva a su sposa e a su filios e diceva: "Mi car sposa, e vos, mi amatissime filios, io es triste e profundemente turbate: le fardello que io porta es tro pesante, .6 in ultra io ha essite informate que in tote certitude, nostre citate essera comburite per un foco que venira del Celo: nos omnes perira miseremente si nos non trova un via pro fugir, un via que io non mesmo cognosce”. .7 In audir iste parolas, su familia esseva multo surprendite, non proque illes habeva credite al parolas que ille diceva, ma proque illes comenciava timer que ille se affollava. Comocunque, nam le nocte se avicinava, illes le exhortava a vader a lecto, in le spero que le somno poterea calmar su cerebro. .8 Le nocte, tamen, esseva pro ille tanto travaliate quanto le jorno e, pro isto, ille lo passava in singultos e in lacrimas. Assi, quando le jorno arrivava, illes voleva informar se como ille stava nunc, ma ille respondeva: "Semper pejo, semper pejo”. .9 Ille desirava pois continuar a parlar a illes, in le spero de convincer les, ma in van, illes comenciava a indurar se; illes etiam probava a facer le revenir al ration per le manieras forte, aliquando per derision, aliquando per reproches e, altere vices, illes simplemente le ignorava: pro isto ille comenciava retirar se in su camera a precar e a compatir les, ma etiam a condoler su proprie miseria. In ultra, ille passava le tempore in camminar solitari per le campos, aliquando in leger, aliquando in precar. .10 Un vice, durante que ille camminava per le campos, io videva que, como il esseva su habitude, ille legeva ille su libro e ille me pareva particularmente inquiete e, durante su lectura, como ille jam habeva facite, ille se effundeva e diceva: "Que debe io facer pro salvar me?” [Act 16:30,31]. TEXTO INTERLINGUA </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 2006 2005-04-10T11:03:44Z Josu Lavin 2 ===TITULO=== <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> The First Stage </strong></td><td><strong> Conviction de peccato </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, 3 and laid me down in that place to sleep; and as I slept, I dreamed a dream. I dreamed, and behold, I saw a man clothed with rags, standing in a certain place, with his face from his own house, a book in his hand, and a great burden upon his back. Isa 64:6; Luke 14:33; Psalm 38:4. I looked and saw him open the book, and read therein; and as he read, he wept and trembled; and not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying, "What shall I do?" Acts 2:37; 16:30; Habak 1:2,3. In this plight, therefore, he went home, and restrained himself as long as he could, that his wife and children should not perceive his distress; but he could not be silent long, because that his trouble increased. Wherefore at length he brake his mind to his wife and children; and thus he began to talk to them: "O, my dear wife," said he, "and you the children of my bowels, I, your dear friend, am in myself undone by reason of a burden that lieth hard upon me; moreover, I am certainly informed that this our city will be burnt with fire from heaven; in which fearful overthrow, both myself, with thee my wife, and you my sweet babes, shall miserably come to ruin, except (the which yet I see not) some way of escape can be found whereby we may be delivered." At this his relations were sore amazed; not for that they believed that what he had said to them was true, but because they thought that some frenzy distemper had got into his head; therefore, it drawing towards night, and they hoping that sleep might settle his brains, with all haste they got him to bed. But the night was as troublesome to him as the day; wherefore, instead of sleeping, he spent it in sighs and tears. So when the morning was come, they would know how he did. He told them, "Worse and worse:" he also set to talking to them again; but they began to be hardened. They also thought to drive away his distemper by harsh and surly carriage to him; sometimes they would deride, sometimes they would chide, and sometimes they would quite neglect him. Wherefore he began to retire himself to his chamber to pray for and pity them, and also to condole his own misery; he would also walk solitarily in the fields, sometimes reading, and sometimes praying: and thus for some days he spent his time. Now I saw, upon a time, when he was walking in the fields, that he was (as he was wont) reading in his book, and greatly distressed in his mind; and as he read, he burst out, as he had done before, crying, "What shall I do to be saved?" Acts 16:30,31. </p><p></p></td><td><p> .1 Durante que io camminava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio. .2 Io soniava, e tosto io videva un homine, vestite de povre vestes lacerate, qui stava in un certe loco, con le facie revolvite de su proprie casa, con un libro in mano, e con un grande fardello super su dorso [Is 44:6; Lc 14:33; Ps 38:5; Hab 2:2]. .3 Io reguardava, e le videva aperir le libro e leger in illo. Durante le lectura ille comenciava lacrimar e tremular, tanto que ille non poteva plus continer se e per un voce lamentose ille critava: "Que debe io facer?” [Act 2:37]. .4 In ille lamentabile condition ille retornava a casa e cercava celar a su sposa e a su filios su proprie suffrentia, ma ille non succedeva facer lo, proque su pena augmentava semper plus. .5 Finalmente ille se effundeva a su sposa e a su filios e diceva: "Mi car sposa, e vos, mi amatissime filios, io es triste e profundemente turbate: le fardello que io porta es tro pesante, .6 in ultra io ha essite informate que in tote certitude, nostre citate essera comburite per un foco que venira del Celo: nos omnes perira miseremente si nos non trova un via pro fugir, un via que io non mesmo cognosce”. .7 In audir iste parolas, su familia esseva multo surprendite, non proque illes habeva credite al parolas que ille diceva, ma proque illes comenciava timer que ille se affollava. Comocunque, nam le nocte se avicinava, illes le exhortava a vader a lecto, in le spero que le somno poterea calmar su cerebro. .8 Le nocte, tamen, esseva pro ille tanto travaliate quanto le jorno e, pro isto, ille lo passava in singultos e in lacrimas. Assi, quando le jorno arrivava, illes voleva informar se como ille stava nunc, ma ille respondeva: "Semper pejo, semper pejo”. .9 Ille desirava pois continuar a parlar a illes, in le spero de convincer les, ma in van, illes comenciava a indurar se; illes etiam probava a facer le revenir al ration per le manieras forte, aliquando per derision, aliquando per reproches e, altere vices, illes simplemente le ignorava: pro isto ille comenciava retirar se in su camera a precar e a compatir les, ma etiam a condoler su proprie miseria. In ultra, ille passava le tempore in camminar solitari per le campos, aliquando in leger, aliquando in precar. .10 Un vice, durante que ille camminava per le campos, io videva que, como il esseva su habitude, ille legeva ille su libro e ille me pareva particularmente inquiete e, durante su lectura, como ille jam habeva facite, ille se effundeva e diceva: "Que debe io facer pro salvar me?” [Act 16:30,31]. </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 930 2007 2005-04-10T11:21:52Z Josu Lavin 2 ===CONVICTION DE PECCATO=== <b>.1 Durante que io camminava per le deserto de iste mundo, io perveniva a un certe loco, ubi il habeva un cava. Hic io me addormiva e habeva un sonio.</b> As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, and laid me down in that place to sleep; and as I slept, I dreamed a dream. <b>.2 Io soniava, e tosto io videva un homine, vestite de povre vestes lacerate, qui stava in un certe loco, con le facie revolvite de su proprie casa, con un libro in mano, e con un grande fardello super su dorso [Is 44:6; Lc 14:33; Ps 38:5; Hab 2:2].</b> I dreamed, and behold, I saw a man clothed with rags, standing in a certain place, with his face from his own house, a book in his hand, and a great burden upon his back. Isa 64:6; Luke 14:33; Psalm 38:4. <b>.3 Io reguardava, e le videva aperir le libro e leger in illo. Durante le lectura ille comenciava lacrimar e tremular, tanto que ille non poteva plus continer se e per un voce lamentose ille critava: "Que debe io facer?” [Act 2:37].</b> I looked and saw him open the book, and read therein; and as he read, he wept and trembled; and not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying, "What shall I do?" Acts 2:37; 16:30; Habak 1:2,3. <b>.4 In ille lamentabile condition ille retornava a casa e cercava celar a su sposa e a su filios su proprie suffrentia, ma ille non succedeva facer lo, proque su pena augmentava semper plus.</b> In this plight, therefore, he went home, and restrained himself as long as he could, that his wife and children should not perceive his distress; but he could not be silent long, because that his trouble increased. <b>.5 Finalmente ille se effundeva a su sposa e a su filios e diceva: "Mi car sposa, e vos, mi amatissime filios, io es triste e profundemente turbate: le fardello que io porta es tro pesante,</b> Wherefore at length he brake his mind to his wife and children; and thus he began to talk to them: "O, my dear wife," said he, "and you the children of my bowels, I, your dear friend, am in myself undone by reason of a burden that lieth hard upon me; moreover, <b>.6 in ultra io ha essite informate que in tote certitude, nostre citate essera comburite per un foco que venira del Celo: nos omnes perira miseremente si nos non trova un via pro fugir, un via que io non mesmo cognosce”.</b> I am certainly informed that this our city will be burnt with fire from heaven; in which fearful overthrow, both myself, with thee my wife, and you my sweet babes, shall miserably come to ruin, except (the which yet I see not) some way of escape can be found whereby we may be delivered." <b>.7 In audir iste parolas, su familia esseva multo surprendite, non proque illes habeva credite al parolas que ille diceva, ma proque illes comenciava timer que ille se affollava. Comocunque, nam le nocte se avicinava, illes le exhortava a vader a lecto, in le spero que le somno poterea calmar su cerebro.</b> At this his relations were sore amazed; not for that they believed that what he had said to them was true, but because they thought that some frenzy distemper had got into his head; therefore, it drawing towards night, and they hoping that sleep might settle his brains, with all haste they got him to bed. <b>.8 Le nocte, tamen, esseva pro ille tanto travaliate quanto le jorno e, pro isto, ille lo passava in singultos e in lacrimas. Assi, quando le jorno arrivava, illes voleva informar se como ille stava nunc, ma ille respondeva: "Semper pejo, semper pejo”.</b> But the night was as troublesome to him as the day; wherefore, instead of sleeping, he spent it in sighs and tears. So when the morning was come, they would know how he did. He told them, "Worse and worse:" <b>.9 Ille desirava pois continuar a parlar a illes, in le spero de convincer les, ma in van, illes comenciava a indurar se; illes etiam probava a facer le revenir al ration per le manieras forte, aliquando per derision, aliquando per reproches e, altere vices, illes simplemente le ignorava: pro isto ille comenciava retirar se in su camera a precar e a compatir les, ma etiam a condoler su proprie miseria. In ultra, ille passava le tempore in camminar solitari per le campos, aliquando in leger, aliquando in precar.</b> he also set to talking to them again; but they began to be hardened. They also thought to drive away his distemper by harsh and surly carriage to him; sometimes they would deride, sometimes they would chide, and sometimes they would quite neglect him. Wherefore he began to retire himself to his chamber to pray for and pity them, and also to condole his own misery; he would also walk solitarily in the fields, sometimes reading, and sometimes praying: and thus for some days he spent his time. <b>.10 Un vice, durante que ille camminava per le campos, io videva que, como il esseva su habitude, ille legeva ille su libro e ille me pareva particularmente inquiete e, durante su lectura, como ille jam habeva facite, ille se effundeva e diceva: "Que debe io facer pro salvar me?” [Act 16:30,31].</b> Now I saw, upon a time, when he was walking in the fields, that he was (as he was wont) reading in his book, and greatly distressed in his mind; and as he read, he burst out, as he had done before, crying, "What shall I do to be saved?" Acts 16:30,31. 931 2008 2005-04-10T12:41:30Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>1 Le revelation de Jesus Christo, que Deo le ha date pro monstrar a su servos le cosas que debe advenir in breve; e ille los faceva cognoscer per medio de su angelo a su servo Johannes,</b> 1 The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified it by his angel unto his servant John: <b>2 qui attestava le parola de Deo e le testimonio de Jesus Christo, toto lo que ille videva.</b> 2 Who bare record of the word of God, and of the testimony of Jesus Christ, and of all things that he saw. <b>3 Beate qui lege e beate illes qui ascolta le parolas de iste prophetia e conserva le cosas que es scribite in illo, pois que le tempore es proxime!</b> 3 Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear the words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are written therein: for the time is at hand. <b>4 Johannes, al septe ecclesias que sta in Asia: Gratia a vos e pace de Ille qui es, que esseva e que venira, e del septe Spiritos que sta ante su throno,</b> 4 John to the seven churches which are in Asia: Grace be unto you, and peace, from him which is, and which was, and which is to come; and from the seven Spirits which are before his throne; <b>5 e de Jesus Christo, le fidel teste, le primogenite del mortos e le prince del reges del terra. A ille qui nos ama, e nos ha liberate ex nostre peccatos con su sanguine,</b> 5 And from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, and the first begotten of the dead, and the prince of the kings of the earth. Unto him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood, <b>6 e nos faceva devenir un regno e sacerdotes de Deo e Patre sue, a ille sia le gloria e le dominio in le seculos del seculos. Amen.</b> 6 And hath made us kings and priests unto God and his Father; to him be glory and dominion for ever and ever. Amen. <b>7 Ecce, ille veni con le nubes; e omne oculo le videra; etiam le videra illes qui le transfigeva, e tote le tribos del terra lugera pro ille. Sic, Amen.</b> 7 Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every eye shall see him, and they also which pierced him: and all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of him. Even so, Amen. <b>8 Io es le Alpha e le Omega, dice le Senior Deo que es, que esseva e que venira, le Omnipotente.</b> 8 I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty. <b>9 Io, Johannes, vostre fratre e participe con vos del tribulation, del regno e del constantia in Jesus, io stava in le insula appellate Patmos per causa del parola de Deo e del testimonio de Jesus.</b> 9 I John, who also am your brother, and companion in tribulation, and in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ, was in the isle that is called Patmos, for the word of God, and for the testimony of Jesus Christ. <b>10 Io esseva rapite in spirito in le die del Senior, e io audiva detra de me un grande voce, como le sono de un trompa, que diceva:</b> 10 I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day, and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet, <b>11 Lo que tu vide, scribe lo in un libro e invia lo al septe ecclesias: a Epheso, a Smyrna, a Pergamo, a Thyatira, a Sardis, a Philadelphia e a Laodicea.</b> 11 Saying, I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last: and, What thou seest, write in a book, and send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia; unto Ephesus, and unto Smyrna, and unto Pergamos, and unto Thyatira, and unto Sardis, and unto Philadelphia, and unto Laodicea. <b>12 E io me volveva pro vider le voce que me parlava; e como io me volveva, io videva septe candelabros de auro;</b> 12 And I turned to see the voice that spake with me. And being turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks; <b>13 e in medio al candelabros uno simile a un filio de homine, vestite con un veste longe usque al pedes, e cingite con un cinctura de auro al altitude del pectore.</b> 13 And in the midst of the seven candlesticks one like unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt about the paps with a golden girdle. <b>14 E su capite e su capillos esseva blanc como candide lana, como nive; e su oculos esseva como un flamma de foco;</b> 14 His head and his hairs were white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes were as a flame of fire; <b>15 e su pedes esseva simile a fin laton, raffinate in un fornace; e su voce esseva como le rumor de multe aquas.</b> 15 And his feet like unto fine brass, as if they burned in a furnace; and his voice as the sound of many waters. <b>16 E ille teneva in su mano dextre septe stellas; e de su bucca exiva un spada de duple lamina, acutiate, e su visage esseva como le sol in su maxime splendor.</b> 16 And he had in his right hand seven stars: and out of his mouth went a sharp twoedged sword: and his countenance was as the sun shineth in his strength. <b>17 E post haber le vidite io cadeva a su pedes como morto; e ille poneva su mano dextre supra me, e diceva: Non timer;</b> 17 And when I saw him, I fell at his feet as dead. And he laid his right hand upon me, saying unto me, Fear not; I am the first and the last: <b>18 io es le prime e le ultime, e le vivente qui esseva morto, ma ecce, io vive per le seculos del seculos, e io ha le claves del morte e del inferno.</b> 18 I am he that liveth, and was dead; and, behold, I am alive for evermore, Amen; and have the keys of hell and of death. <b>19 Scribe dunque le cosas que tu videva, illos que es e illos que debe ancora evenir,</b> 19 Write the things which thou hast seen, and the things which are, and the things which shall be hereafter; <b>20 le mysterio del septe stellas que tu ha vidite in mi dextra, e del septe candelabros de auro. Le septe stellas es le angelos del septe ecclesias, e le septe candelabros es le septe ecclesias.>/b> 20 The mystery of the seven stars which thou sawest in my right hand, and the seven golden candlesticks. The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches: and the seven candlesticks which thou sawest are the seven churches. ---- [[Apocalypse Capitulo 1|1]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 2|2]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 3|3]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 4|4]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 5|5]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 6|6]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 7|7]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 8|8]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 9|9]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 10|10]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 11|11]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 12|12]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 13|13]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 14|14]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 15|15]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 16|16]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 17|17]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 18|18]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 19|19]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 20|20]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 21|21]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 22|22]] ---- [[Le_Nove_Testamento|Indice]] [[Evangelio secundo Mattheo|Mat]] [[Evangelio secundo Marco|Mar]] [[Evangelio secundo Luca|Luc]] [[Evangelio secundo Johannes|Joh]] [[Actos del Apostolos|Act]] [[Epistola al Romanos|Rom]] [[Epistola I al Corinthios|1Co]] [[Epistola II al Corinthios|2Co]] [[Epistola al Galatas|Gal]] [[Epistola al Ephesios|Eph]] [[Epistola al Philippenses|Php]] [[Epistola al Colossenses|Col]] [[Epistola I al Thessalonicenses|1Th]] [[Epistola II al Thessalonicenses|2Th]] [[Epistola I a Timotheo|1Ti]] [[Epistola II a Timotheo|2Ti]] [[Epistola a Tito|Tit]] [[Epistola a Philemon|Phm]] [[Epistola al Hebreos|Heb]] [[Epistola de Jacobo|Jac]] [[Epistola I de Petro|1Pe]] [[Epistola II de Petro|2Pe]] [[Epistola I de Johannes|1Jo]] [[Epistola II de Johannes|2Jo]] [[Epistola III de Johannes|3Jo]] [[Epistola de Juda|Jud]] [[Apocalypse|Rev]] 932 2009 2005-04-10T12:45:32Z Josu Lavin 2 ===Le Nove Testamento=== ====Evangelios==== *[[Evangelio secundo Mattheo]] *[[Evangelio secundo Marco]] *[[Evangelio secundo Luca]] *[[Evangelio secundo Johannes]] ====Actos del Apostolos==== *[[Actos del Apostolos]] ====Epistolas==== *[[Epistola al Romanos]] *[[Epistola I al Corinthios]] *[[Epistola II al Corinthios]] *[[Epistola al Galatas]] *[[Epistola al Ephesios]] *[[Epistola al Philippenses]] *[[Epistola al Colossenses]] *[[Epistola I al Thessalonicenses]] *[[Epistola II al Thessalonicenses]] *[[Epistola I a Timotheo]] *[[Epistola II a Timotheo]] *[[Epistola a Tito]] *[[Epistola a Philemon]] *[[Epistola al Hebreos]] *[[Epistola de Jacobo]] *[[Epistola I de Petro]] *[[Epistola II de Petro]] *[[Epistola I de Johannes]] *[[Epistola II de Johannes]] *[[Epistola III de Johannes]] *[[Epistola de Juda]] ====Apocalypse o Revelation==== *[[Apocalypse]] 933 19 2005-04-10T13:52:13Z Josu Lavin 2 Materiales in diverse linguas pro le studio de Interlingua, Romanica e altere linguas. Materiales in diversas linguas pro le studio de Interlingua, Romanica et alteras linguas. TEXTOS BILINGUE 2010 2005-04-10T13:54:15Z Josu Lavin 2 Materiales in diverse linguas pro le studio de Interlingua, Romanica e altere linguas. Materiales in diversas linguas pro le studio de Interlingua, Romanica et alteras linguas. [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups] [[Textos bilingue]] 3428 2007-01-13T16:40:19Z 87.52.12.12 Materiales in diverse linguas pro le studio de Interlingua, Romanica e altere linguas. [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups] [[Textos bilingue]] 3430 2007-01-17T20:49:10Z Josu Lavin 2 Materiales in diverse linguas pro le studio de Interlingua, Romanica e altere linguas. Materiales in diversas linguas pro le studio de Interlingua, Romanica et alteras linguas. [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Janua_linguarum Janua Linguarum in yahoogroups] [[Textos bilingue]] 934 20 2005-04-10T14:15:08Z Josu Lavin 2 [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] 24 2005-04-10T14:33:45Z Josu Lavin 2 [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] 30 2005-04-10T14:51:13Z Josu Lavin 2 [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] 31 2005-04-11T13:32:07Z Josu Lavin 2 ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] ===LE NOVE TESTAMENTO=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] 32 2005-04-11T13:32:40Z Josu Lavin 2 ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] ===LE NOVE TESTAMENTO=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] 34 2005-04-11T13:51:46Z Josu Lavin 2 ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] ===LE NOVE TESTAMENTO=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] ===LE LIBRO DE MORMON=== [[Le Libro de Mormon]] 35 2005-04-11T17:10:39Z Josu Lavin 2 ===TEXTOS IN INTERLINGUA E ANGLESE=== ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] ===LE NOVE TESTAMENTO=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] ===LE LIBRO DE MORMON=== [[Le Libro de Mormon]] 36 2005-04-11T17:12:31Z Josu Lavin 2 ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] ===LE NOVE TESTAMENTO=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] ===LE LIBRO DE MORMON=== [[Le Libro de Mormon]] 37 2005-04-11T17:19:05Z Josu Lavin 2 ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] ===TEXTOS RELIGIOSE=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] [[Le Libro de Mormon]] [[Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]] 60 2005-04-12T12:00:46Z Josu Lavin 2 ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] [[Tosto Venetia non essera le sol citate con problemas de inundationes]] ===TEXTOS RELIGIOSE=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] [[Le Libro de Mormon]] [[Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]] 69 2005-04-14T17:13:58Z Josu Lavin 2 ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] [[Tosto Venetia non essera le sol citate con problemas de inundationes]] [[Io ha un sonio]] ===TEXTOS RELIGIOSE=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] [[Le Libro de Mormon]] [[Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]] 71 2005-04-17T08:56:33Z Josu Lavin 2 ===[[IED]]=== ===JANUA LINGUARUM=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] [[Tosto Venetia non essera le sol citate con problemas de inundationes]] [[Io ha un sonio]] ===TEXTOS RELIGIOSE=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] [[Le Libro de Mormon]] [[Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]] 90 2005-04-17T15:32:27Z Josu Lavin 2 ===[[IED]]=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] [[Tosto Venetia non essera le sol citate con problemas de inundationes]] [[Io ha un sonio]] [[Cinque theses a clavar ad le portas de Babel]] [[Un gigante egoistic]] ===TEXTOS RELIGIOSE=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] [[Le Libro de Mormon]] [[Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]] 2011 2005-04-19T20:07:29Z 83.195.187.112 ===[[IED]]=== [[Le population sur nostre planeta nunc es cinque milliardos]] [[Exercitios de expansion syntactic 1]] [[Verbos in anglese e interlingua]] [[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]] [[Tosto Venetia non essera le sol citate con problemas de inundationes]] [[Io ha un sonio]] [[Cinque theses a clavar ad le portas de Babel]] [[Le gigante egoistic]] ===TEXTOS RELIGIOSE=== [[Le Nove Testamento]] [[Le Libro de Mormon]] [[Le Pelegrinage de Christiano]] 935 26 2005-04-10T14:15:32Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Iste es un version in interlingua e anglese de un articulo publicate in 1988. Le information que illo contine es vetule; ma, como un artifacto linguistic, iste articulo etiam nunc es utile pro studios comparative inter interlingua e altere linguas (Recyclare bonum est = Recyclar es bon):</b> This is a version in Interlingua and English of an article published in 1988. The information that it contains is dated; but, as a linguistic artifact, this article even now is useful for comparative studies between Interlingua and other languages (Recyclare bonum est = Recycling is good): <b>LE POPULATION HUMAN SUR NOSTRE PLANETA NUNC ES CINQUE MILLIARDOS>/b> THE HUMAN POPULATION ON OUR PLANET NOW IS (AT) FIVE BILLION <b>Si on contava le population del mundo hodie, on trovarea que il ha cinque milliardos de personas qui vive sur nostre planeta. Iste cifra es impressionante, ma non sin problemas.</b> If world population were counted today, we would find that there are five billion people living on the earth. This number is impressive, but not without problems. <b>Secundo le Nationes Unite probabilemente il esseva un chinese qui dava nascentia al citatano numero cinque milliardo in julio, 1987. Cata quinte habitante del mundo es chinese.</b> According to the United Nations, probably it was a Chinese who gave birth to the five billionth person in July, 1987. Every fifth person in the world is Chinese. <b>Cata minuta nasce 150 nove animas, o 220.000 cata die. Isto significa que le numero de habitantes del mundo cresce con 80 milliones durante un anno.</b> Each minute 150 new people are born, or 220,000 each day. This means that the number of inhabitants of the world is growing by eight million each year. <b>Un total de novanta percento de iste crescimento de nascentia mundial occurre in le paises de disveloppamento; e a causa de iste circumstantia, il es probabile que le citatano mundial numero 5.000.000.000 ha nascite solmente pro haber le experientia de fame, maladias, e altere typos de suffrentia. Le paises del mundo non ha apprendite como satiar le multe nove buccas, mantener le sanitate public, provider inseniamento e education e assecurar un vita decente pro omne su inhabitantes.</b> A total of ninety percent of this growth in the world birth rate occurs in the developing countries; and because of this circumstance, it is probable that the five billionth world citizen has been born only to experience hunger, sickness/illness, and other kinds of suffering. The countries of the world have not learned how to feed their many new people, maintain public health, provide instruction and education, and assure a decent life for all their inhabitants. <b>Iste enorme population es un prova que plus de infantes supervive e que le etate de viver se ha prolongate, ma illo anque es un expression de que nos non ha apprendite como stoppar le explosion de population. Le plus grande problema sembla esser que le populationes povre del mundo exploita troppo le terras que es disponibile a illes e usa lor ressources plus rapidemente que illos pote esser renovate.</b> This enormous population is proof that more children survive and that life expectancy has been lengthened, but it is also means that we have not learned how to stop the population explosion. The biggest/greatest problem seems to be that the poor/impoverished populations of the world exploit too greatly the land that is available to them and use its resources more rapidly than they can be renewed. <b>Secundo UNFPA, le fundation de population sub le Nationes Unite, il ha plus de homines affamate que jammais antea. Isto esserea cata quinte persona in le Tertie Mundo o cata sexte in tote le mundo. Le Banca Mundial presuppone que 730 milliones de personas non obtene assatis de calorias pro un vita active de laborar.</b> According to UNFPA, the United Nations population foundation, there are more hungry people than there ever have been before. This would be every fifth person in the Third World or every sixth one in the entire world. The World Bank estimates that seven hundred thirty million (730,000,000) people are not getting/ingesting enough calories for an active work life. <b>In le anno 2022 on expecta que le population del terra essera octo milliardos. In 1650 nos esseva un medie milliardo; in 1920, duo; in 1960, tres; e in 1974 quatro milliardos. On calcula que nos essera sex in 1999 e septe in 2010. In despecto de iste taxa de crescimento actual, le UNFPA expecta un stabilisation del population mundial a circa 10 milliardos in 2080.</b> In the year 2022 the populaton of the world is expected to be eight billion (8,000,000,000). In 1650 there were a half a billion of us; in 1920, two billion; in 1960, three; and in 1974, four billion. Calculations indicate that we will be six billion in 1999 and seven in 2010. (Despite)/(In spite of) this current growth rate, the UNFPA expects a stabilization of world population at around ten billion (10,000,000,000) in 2080 (twenty eighty). <b>Le fame causa le migration al grande citates per gente cercante travalio. In dece-tres annos dece-octo citates in le paises disveloppante habera plus que dece milliones de inhabitantes, e in vinti annos le population urban mundial se habera duplicate.</b> Hunger causes migration to big/large cities by people looking for work. In thirteen years, eighteen cities in the developing countries will have more than ten million inhabitants, and in twenty years the urban population of the world will have doubled. <b>Multe paises disveloppante ha comenciate restringer le crescimento de lor populationes per inaugurar programmas de planification familial. China, pro exemplo, ha decretate que cata familia solmente pote haber un singule infante. Le pais ha solo un milliardo de habitantes, e on spera que iste restrictiones adjutara con le reduction del population chinese.</b> Many developing countries have started/begun to restrict the growth of their populations by inaugurating family planning programs. China, for example, has decreed that each family can have only one child. The country has only a billion inhabitants, and hopefully these restrictions will help reduce the Chinese population. <b>In le anno 2000 on expecta que le numero de habitantes in le grande citates del mundo essera assi: New York, 15,5 milliones; Mexico (le capital del pais), 26,3 milliones; e Rio de Janeiro, 13,2 milliones.</b> In the year 2000 (two thousand) it is expected that the number of inhabitants in the big/large cities of the world will be 15.5 (fifteen point five) million for New York, 26.3 (twenty-six point three) million for Mexico City, and 13.2 (thirteen point two) for Rio de Janeiro. <b>(Io spera que altere contributores a iste sito producera versiones de iste articulo in lor linguas native, modificante le texto in interlingua, si illes vole, pro illuminar lor traductiones.</b> (I hope that other contributors to this site will produce versions of this article in their native languages, modifying the Interlingua text, if they want, to illuminate their translations. <b>(Si vos vole facer isto, il esserea un bon idea mentionar vostre antecedentes linguistic. Io, pro exemplo, nasceva in 1938 in Los Angeles, California. Io ha vivite in le area de Los Angeles quasi omne mi vita, e mi instruction universitari ha essite in institutiones local. Naturalmente, le varietate del anglese que io ha apprendite reflecte iste antecedentes.)</b> (If you do this, it would be a good idea to mention your language background. I, for example, was born in 1938 in Los Angeles, California. I have lived in the greater Los Angeles area for almost all my life, and my college education has been in local universities. Naturally, the variety of English I have learned reflects this background. --Harleigh Kyson Jr.) ............................ NOTA ISTO: Notation como started/began es un maniera economic de exprimer manieras alternative de expression. Pro exemplo, "Many developing countries have started/begun to restrict the growth of their populations" indica duo possibilitates de expression: (1) "Many developing countries have started to restrict the growth of their populations" e (2) "Many developing countries have begun to restrict the growth of their populations". Ecce un altere examplo de un gruppo de parolas: (Despite)/(In spite of) this current growth rate...". Isto indica iste duo formas de expression: (1) Despite this current growth rate...) e (2) In spite of this current growth rate...". Pro me, omne expressiones indicate de iste maniera es equiprobabile in mi proprie uso del anglese. UN ALTERE COSA: "The human population on our planet is now (at) five billion" indica le possibilitate de ommission ("The human population on our planet is now five billion" o "The human population on our planet is now at five billion") 27 2005-04-10T15:14:07Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Iste es un version in interlingua e anglese de un articulo publicate in 1988. Le information que illo contine es vetule; ma, como un artifacto linguistic, iste articulo etiam nunc es utile pro studios comparative inter interlingua e altere linguas (Recyclare bonum est = Recyclar es bon):</b> This is a version in Interlingua and English of an article published in 1988. The information that it contains is dated; but, as a linguistic artifact, this article even now is useful for comparative studies between Interlingua and other languages (Recyclare bonum est = Recycling is good): <b>LE POPULATION HUMAN SUR NOSTRE PLANETA NUNC ES CINQUE MILLIARDOS>/b> THE HUMAN POPULATION ON OUR PLANET NOW IS (AT) FIVE BILLION <b>Si on contava le population del mundo hodie, on trovarea que il ha cinque milliardos de personas qui vive sur nostre planeta. Iste cifra es impressionante, ma non sin problemas.</b> If world population were counted today, we would find that there are five billion people living on the earth. This number is impressive, but not without problems. <b>Secundo le Nationes Unite probabilemente il esseva un chinese qui dava nascentia al citatano numero cinque milliardo in julio, 1987. Cata quinte habitante del mundo es chinese.</b> According to the United Nations, probably it was a Chinese who gave birth to the five billionth person in July, 1987. Every fifth person in the world is Chinese. <b>Cata minuta nasce 150 nove animas, o 220.000 cata die. Isto significa que le numero de habitantes del mundo cresce con 80 milliones durante un anno.</b> Each minute 150 new people are born, or 220,000 each day. This means that the number of inhabitants of the world is growing by eight million each year. <b>Un total de novanta percento de iste crescimento de nascentia mundial occurre in le paises de disveloppamento; e a causa de iste circumstantia, il es probabile que le citatano mundial numero 5.000.000.000 ha nascite solmente pro haber le experientia de fame, maladias, e altere typos de suffrentia. Le paises del mundo non ha apprendite como satiar le multe nove buccas, mantener le sanitate public, provider inseniamento e education e assecurar un vita decente pro omne su inhabitantes.</b> A total of ninety percent of this growth in the world birth rate occurs in the developing countries; and because of this circumstance, it is probable that the five billionth world citizen has been born only to experience hunger, sickness/illness, and other kinds of suffering. The countries of the world have not learned how to feed their many new people, maintain public health, provide instruction and education, and assure a decent life for all their inhabitants. <b>Iste enorme population es un prova que plus de infantes supervive e que le etate de viver se ha prolongate, ma illo anque es un expression de que nos non ha apprendite como stoppar le explosion de population. Le plus grande problema sembla esser que le populationes povre del mundo exploita troppo le terras que es disponibile a illes e usa lor ressources plus rapidemente que illos pote esser renovate.</b> This enormous population is proof that more children survive and that life expectancy has been lengthened, but it is also means that we have not learned how to stop the population explosion. The biggest/greatest problem seems to be that the poor/impoverished populations of the world exploit too greatly the land that is available to them and use its resources more rapidly than they can be renewed. <b>Secundo UNFPA, le fundation de population sub le Nationes Unite, il ha plus de homines affamate que jammais antea. Isto esserea cata quinte persona in le Tertie Mundo o cata sexte in tote le mundo. Le Banca Mundial presuppone que 730 milliones de personas non obtene assatis de calorias pro un vita active de laborar.</b> According to UNFPA, the United Nations population foundation, there are more hungry people than there ever have been before. This would be every fifth person in the Third World or every sixth one in the entire world. The World Bank estimates that seven hundred thirty million (730,000,000) people are not getting/ingesting enough calories for an active work life. <b>In le anno 2022 on expecta que le population del terra essera octo milliardos. In 1650 nos esseva un medie milliardo; in 1920, duo; in 1960, tres; e in 1974 quatro milliardos. On calcula que nos essera sex in 1999 e septe in 2010. In despecto de iste taxa de crescimento actual, le UNFPA expecta un stabilisation del population mundial a circa 10 milliardos in 2080.</b> In the year 2022 the populaton of the world is expected to be eight billion (8,000,000,000). In 1650 there were a half a billion of us; in 1920, two billion; in 1960, three; and in 1974, four billion. Calculations indicate that we will be six billion in 1999 and seven in 2010. (Despite)/(In spite of) this current growth rate, the UNFPA expects a stabilization of world population at around ten billion (10,000,000,000) in 2080 (twenty eighty). <b>Le fame causa le migration al grande citates per gente cercante travalio. In dece-tres annos dece-octo citates in le paises disveloppante habera plus que dece milliones de inhabitantes, e in vinti annos le population urban mundial se habera duplicate.</b> Hunger causes migration to big/large cities by people looking for work. In thirteen years, eighteen cities in the developing countries will have more than ten million inhabitants, and in twenty years the urban population of the world will have doubled. <b>Multe paises disveloppante ha comenciate restringer le crescimento de lor populationes per inaugurar programmas de planification familial. China, pro exemplo, ha decretate que cata familia solmente pote haber un singule infante. Le pais ha solo un milliardo de habitantes, e on spera que iste restrictiones adjutara con le reduction del population chinese.</b> Many developing countries have started/begun to restrict the growth of their populations by inaugurating family planning programs. China, for example, has decreed that each family can have only one child. The country has only a billion inhabitants, and hopefully these restrictions will help reduce the Chinese population. <b>In le anno 2000 on expecta que le numero de habitantes in le grande citates del mundo essera assi: New York, 15,5 milliones; Mexico (le capital del pais), 26,3 milliones; e Rio de Janeiro, 13,2 milliones.</b> In the year 2000 (two thousand) it is expected that the number of inhabitants in the big/large cities of the world will be 15.5 (fifteen point five) million for New York, 26.3 (twenty-six point three) million for Mexico City, and 13.2 (thirteen point two) for Rio de Janeiro. <b>(Io spera que altere contributores a iste sito producera versiones de iste articulo in lor linguas native, modificante le texto in interlingua, si illes vole, pro illuminar lor traductiones.</b> (I hope that other contributors to this site will produce versions of this article in their native languages, modifying the Interlingua text, if they want, to illuminate their translations. <b>(Si vos vole facer isto, il esserea un bon idea mentionar vostre antecedentes linguistic. Io, pro exemplo, nasceva in 1938 in Los Angeles, California. Io ha vivite in le area de Los Angeles quasi omne mi vita, e mi instruction universitari ha essite in institutiones local. Naturalmente, le varietate del anglese que io ha apprendite reflecte iste antecedentes.)</b> (If you do this, it would be a good idea to mention your language background. I, for example, was born in 1938 in Los Angeles, California. I have lived in the greater Los Angeles area for almost all my life, and my college education has been in local universities. Naturally, the variety of English I have learned reflects this background. --Harleigh Kyson Jr.) ............................ NOTA ISTO: Notation como started/began es un maniera economic de exprimer manieras alternative de expression. Pro exemplo, "Many developing countries have started/begun to restrict the growth of their populations" indica duo possibilitates de expression: (1) "Many developing countries have started to restrict the growth of their populations" e (2) "Many developing countries have begun to restrict the growth of their populations". Ecce un altere examplo de un gruppo de parolas: (Despite)/(In spite of) this current growth rate...". Isto indica iste duo formas de expression: (1) Despite this current growth rate...) e (2) In spite of this current growth rate...". Pro me, omne expressiones indicate de iste maniera es equiprobabile in mi proprie uso del anglese. UN ALTERE COSA: "The human population on our planet is now (at) five billion" indica le possibilitate de ommission ("The human population on our planet is now five billion" o "The human population on our planet is now at five billion") 2012 2005-04-10T15:20:25Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Iste es un version in interlingua e anglese de un articulo publicate in 1988. Le information que illo contine es vetule; ma, como un artifacto linguistic, iste articulo etiam nunc es utile pro studios comparative inter interlingua e altere linguas (Recyclare bonum est = Recyclar es bon):</b> This is a version in Interlingua and English of an article published in 1988. The information that it contains is dated; but, as a linguistic artifact, this article even now is useful for comparative studies between Interlingua and other languages (Recyclare bonum est = Recycling is good): <b>LE POPULATION HUMAN SUR NOSTRE PLANETA NUNC ES CINQUE MILLIARDOS</b> THE HUMAN POPULATION ON OUR PLANET NOW IS (AT) FIVE BILLION <b>Si on contava le population del mundo hodie, on trovarea que il ha cinque milliardos de personas qui vive sur nostre planeta. Iste cifra es impressionante, ma non sin problemas.</b> If world population were counted today, we would find that there are five billion people living on the earth. This number is impressive, but not without problems. <b>Secundo le Nationes Unite probabilemente il esseva un chinese qui dava nascentia al citatano numero cinque milliardo in julio, 1987. Cata quinte habitante del mundo es chinese.</b> According to the United Nations, probably it was a Chinese who gave birth to the five billionth person in July, 1987. Every fifth person in the world is Chinese. <b>Cata minuta nasce 150 nove animas, o 220.000 cata die. Isto significa que le numero de habitantes del mundo cresce con 80 milliones durante un anno.</b> Each minute 150 new people are born, or 220,000 each day. This means that the number of inhabitants of the world is growing by eight million each year. <b>Un total de novanta percento de iste crescimento de nascentia mundial occurre in le paises de disveloppamento; e a causa de iste circumstantia, il es probabile que le citatano mundial numero 5.000.000.000 ha nascite solmente pro haber le experientia de fame, maladias, e altere typos de suffrentia. Le paises del mundo non ha apprendite como satiar le multe nove buccas, mantener le sanitate public, provider inseniamento e education e assecurar un vita decente pro omne su inhabitantes.</b> A total of ninety percent of this growth in the world birth rate occurs in the developing countries; and because of this circumstance, it is probable that the five billionth world citizen has been born only to experience hunger, sickness/illness, and other kinds of suffering. The countries of the world have not learned how to feed their many new people, maintain public health, provide instruction and education, and assure a decent life for all their inhabitants. <b>Iste enorme population es un prova que plus de infantes supervive e que le etate de viver se ha prolongate, ma illo anque es un expression de que nos non ha apprendite como stoppar le explosion de population. Le plus grande problema sembla esser que le populationes povre del mundo exploita troppo le terras que es disponibile a illes e usa lor ressources plus rapidemente que illos pote esser renovate.</b> This enormous population is proof that more children survive and that life expectancy has been lengthened, but it is also means that we have not learned how to stop the population explosion. The biggest/greatest problem seems to be that the poor/impoverished populations of the world exploit too greatly the land that is available to them and use its resources more rapidly than they can be renewed. <b>Secundo UNFPA, le fundation de population sub le Nationes Unite, il ha plus de homines affamate que jammais antea. Isto esserea cata quinte persona in le Tertie Mundo o cata sexte in tote le mundo. Le Banca Mundial presuppone que 730 milliones de personas non obtene assatis de calorias pro un vita active de laborar.</b> According to UNFPA, the United Nations population foundation, there are more hungry people than there ever have been before. This would be every fifth person in the Third World or every sixth one in the entire world. The World Bank estimates that seven hundred thirty million (730,000,000) people are not getting/ingesting enough calories for an active work life. <b>In le anno 2022 on expecta que le population del terra essera octo milliardos. In 1650 nos esseva un medie milliardo; in 1920, duo; in 1960, tres; e in 1974 quatro milliardos. On calcula que nos essera sex in 1999 e septe in 2010. In despecto de iste taxa de crescimento actual, le UNFPA expecta un stabilisation del population mundial a circa 10 milliardos in 2080.</b> In the year 2022 the populaton of the world is expected to be eight billion (8,000,000,000). In 1650 there were a half a billion of us; in 1920, two billion; in 1960, three; and in 1974, four billion. Calculations indicate that we will be six billion in 1999 and seven in 2010. (Despite)/(In spite of) this current growth rate, the UNFPA expects a stabilization of world population at around ten billion (10,000,000,000) in 2080 (twenty eighty). <b>Le fame causa le migration al grande citates per gente cercante travalio. In dece-tres annos dece-octo citates in le paises disveloppante habera plus que dece milliones de inhabitantes, e in vinti annos le population urban mundial se habera duplicate.</b> Hunger causes migration to big/large cities by people looking for work. In thirteen years, eighteen cities in the developing countries will have more than ten million inhabitants, and in twenty years the urban population of the world will have doubled. <b>Multe paises disveloppante ha comenciate restringer le crescimento de lor populationes per inaugurar programmas de planification familial. China, pro exemplo, ha decretate que cata familia solmente pote haber un singule infante. Le pais ha solo un milliardo de habitantes, e on spera que iste restrictiones adjutara con le reduction del population chinese.</b> Many developing countries have started/begun to restrict the growth of their populations by inaugurating family planning programs. China, for example, has decreed that each family can have only one child. The country has only a billion inhabitants, and hopefully these restrictions will help reduce the Chinese population. <b>In le anno 2000 on expecta que le numero de habitantes in le grande citates del mundo essera assi: New York, 15,5 milliones; Mexico (le capital del pais), 26,3 milliones; e Rio de Janeiro, 13,2 milliones.</b> In the year 2000 (two thousand) it is expected that the number of inhabitants in the big/large cities of the world will be 15.5 (fifteen point five) million for New York, 26.3 (twenty-six point three) million for Mexico City, and 13.2 (thirteen point two) for Rio de Janeiro. <b>(Io spera que altere contributores a iste sito producera versiones de iste articulo in lor linguas native, modificante le texto in interlingua, si illes vole, pro illuminar lor traductiones.</b> (I hope that other contributors to this site will produce versions of this article in their native languages, modifying the Interlingua text, if they want, to illuminate their translations. <b>(Si vos vole facer isto, il esserea un bon idea mentionar vostre antecedentes linguistic. Io, pro exemplo, nasceva in 1938 in Los Angeles, California. Io ha vivite in le area de Los Angeles quasi omne mi vita, e mi instruction universitari ha essite in institutiones local. Naturalmente, le varietate del anglese que io ha apprendite reflecte iste antecedentes.)</b> (If you do this, it would be a good idea to mention your language background. I, for example, was born in 1938 in Los Angeles, California. I have lived in the greater Los Angeles area for almost all my life, and my college education has been in local universities. Naturally, the variety of English I have learned reflects this background. --Harleigh Kyson Jr.) ............................ NOTA ISTO: Notation como started/began es un maniera economic de exprimer manieras alternative de expression. Pro exemplo, "Many developing countries have started/begun to restrict the growth of their populations" indica duo possibilitates de expression: (1) "Many developing countries have started to restrict the growth of their populations" e (2) "Many developing countries have begun to restrict the growth of their populations". Ecce un altere examplo de un gruppo de parolas: (Despite)/(In spite of) this current growth rate...". Isto indica iste duo formas de expression: (1) Despite this current growth rate...) e (2) In spite of this current growth rate...". Pro me, omne expressiones indicate de iste maniera es equiprobabile in mi proprie uso del anglese. UN ALTERE COSA: "The human population on our planet is now (at) five billion" indica le possibilitate de ommission ("The human population on our planet is now five billion" o "The human population on our planet is now at five billion") 936 21 2005-04-10T14:34:14Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Exercitios de expansion syntactic pro disvellopar le flexibilitate grammatic que es necesse pro le uso plus efficace de systemas de traduction electronic que nunc es facilemente disponibile (Prime serie) </b> Some exercises in syntactic expansion for developing the grammatical flexibility that is needed for the more effective use of current systems of electronic translation (First Series) <b>A1. Omne linguas es systemas. A2. Le linguas es complicate. A3. Cata lingua individual, como le francese o le germano, es un systema complicate. A4. Omne linguas human se usa pro communicar ideas. A5. Cata lingua individual, como le italiano o le norvegiano, es un systema complicate que le gente usa pro communicar ideas.</b> All languages are systems. Languages are complicated. Each individual language, like French or German, is a complicated system. All human languages are used to communicate ideas. Each individual language, like Italian or Norwegian, is a complicated system that people use to communicate a group of ideas. <b>B1. Le major parte del linguas es membros de familias. B2. Iste familias ha linguas que es multo simile. B3. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que es multo simile. B4. Illos es simile in lor systemas. B5. La major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que es multo simile in lor systemas. B5. Illos es simile in lor grammatica. B6. Illos es simile in lor vocabulario. B7. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que ha systemas multo complicate con grande similaritates in lor grammatica e vocabulario.</b> Most languages are members of families. These families have languages that are very similar. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that are very similar. They are similar in their systems. Most languages of the world are members of families that are very similar in their systems. They are similar in their grammar. They are similar in their vocabulary. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that have very complicated systems with great similarities in their grammar and vocabulary. <b>C1. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita le conversion de multe ideas de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua simile del mesme familia. C2. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un traductor usa vocabulario basic e structura grammatic basic. C3. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un persona usa vocabulario e structura basic in le lingua a esser traducite. C4. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita un conversion facile de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua in le mesme familia si un persona usa vocabulario e structura grammatic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> The similarity of their systems often facilitates the easy conversion of many ideas from one of these languages to another similar language in the same family. This principle is especially valid if a translator uses basic vocabulary and basic grammatical structure. This principle is especially valid if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. The similarity of their systems often facilitates an easy conversion from one of these languages to another language in the same family if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. <b>D1. Tres linguas (le anglese, le hollandese, e le germano) es linguas westgermanic. Unes altere linguas, como le francese, le italiano, le espaniol, e le portugese evolueva ex le latino. D2. Omne iste linguas ha similaritates fundamental. D3. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic de traduction. D4. Iste systemas electronic pote esser multo utile pro traductores. D5. Le gente que iste systemas sovente pote adjuvar vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un secunde lingua simile. D6. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic utile que sovente pote adjuvar linguistas qui vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un altere lingua simile.</b> Three languages (English, Dutch, and German) are Western Germanic languages. Some other languages, like French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved from Latin. All these languages have fundamental similarities. These similarities facilitate the development of electronic systems. These electronic systems can be very useful for translators. The people that they can often help want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. These similarities facilitate the development of useful electronic systems that can often help linguists who want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. <b>E1. Linguistas qui usa systemas electronic pro le traduction debe haber alicun cognoscimento del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce. E2. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua (le lingua de lor traductiones) que es producite per le systema electronic. E3. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua producite per le systema electronic. E4. Con iste cognoscimentos illes pote determinar quando le systema electronic comencia a producer errores in su traductiones. E5. Quando illes trova iste errores, illes pote corriger los. E6. Illes debe haber unes cognoscimentos del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce de maniera que illes pote trovar iste errores e corriger los.</b> Linguists who use electronic systems for translation must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces. They must have some knowledge of the second language (the language of their translations) that is produced by the electronic system. They must have some knowledge of the second language produced by the electronic system. With this knowledge they can determine when the electronic system begins to make some mistakes in its translations. When they find these mistakes, they can correct them. They must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces so that they can find these mistakes and correct them. <b>F1. Illes debe usar grammatica basic. F2. In lor travalios illes debe usar vocabulario basic. F3. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic quando illes travalia. F4. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic in lor travalio. F5. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores. F6. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores que illes debe corriger. F7. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce grandemente le numero de errores que iste traductores debe corriger.</b> They must use basic grammar. In their work they must use basic vocabulary. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar when they work. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar in their work. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors. They must correct these errors. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors that they must correct. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar greatly reduces the number of errors that these translators must correct. 2013 2005-04-10T14:40:49Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Exercitios de expansion syntactic pro disvellopar le flexibilitate grammatic que es necesse pro le uso plus efficace de systemas de traduction electronic que nunc es facilemente disponibile (Prime serie) </b> Some exercises in syntactic expansion for developing the grammatical flexibility that is needed for the more effective use of current systems of electronic translation (First Series) <b>A1. Omne linguas es systemas.</b> <b>A2. Le linguas es complicate.</b> <b>A3. Cata lingua individual, como le francese o le germano, es un systema complicate.</b> <b>A4. Omne linguas human se usa pro communicar ideas.</b> <b>A5. Cata lingua individual, como le italiano o le norvegiano, es un systema complicate que le gente usa pro communicar ideas.</b> All languages are systems. Languages are complicated. Each individual language, like French or German, is a complicated system. All human languages are used to communicate ideas. Each individual language, like Italian or Norwegian, is a complicated system that people use to communicate a group of ideas. <b>B1. Le major parte del linguas es membros de familias.</b> <b>B2. Iste familias ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B3. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B4. Illos es simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. La major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que es multo simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Illos es simile in lor grammatica.</b> <b>B6. Illos es simile in lor vocabulario.</b> <b>B7. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que ha systemas multo complicate con grande similaritates in lor grammatica e vocabulario.</b> Most languages are members of families. These families have languages that are very similar. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that are very similar. They are similar in their systems. Most languages of the world are members of families that are very similar in their systems. They are similar in their grammar. They are similar in their vocabulary. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that have very complicated systems with great similarities in their grammar and vocabulary. <b>C1. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita le conversion de multe ideas de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua simile del mesme familia.</b> <b>C2. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un traductor usa vocabulario basic e structura grammatic basic.</b> <b>C3. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un persona usa vocabulario e structura basic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> <b>C4. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita un conversion facile de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua in le mesme familia si un persona usa vocabulario e structura grammatic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> The similarity of their systems often facilitates the easy conversion of many ideas from one of these languages to another similar language in the same family. This principle is especially valid if a translator uses basic vocabulary and basic grammatical structure. This principle is especially valid if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. The similarity of their systems often facilitates an easy conversion from one of these languages to another language in the same family if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. <b>D1. Tres linguas (le anglese, le hollandese, e le germano) es linguas westgermanic. Unes altere linguas, como le francese, le italiano, le espaniol, e le portugese evolueva ex le latino.</b> <b>D2. Omne iste linguas ha similaritates fundamental.</b> <b>D3. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic de traduction.</b> <b>D4. Iste systemas electronic pote esser multo utile pro traductores.</b> <b>D5. Le gente que iste systemas sovente pote adjuvar vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un secunde lingua simile.</b> <b>D6. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic utile que sovente pote adjuvar linguistas qui vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un altere lingua simile.</b> Three languages (English, Dutch, and German) are Western Germanic languages. Some other languages, like French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved from Latin. All these languages have fundamental similarities. These similarities facilitate the development of electronic systems. These electronic systems can be very useful for translators. The people that they can often help want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. These similarities facilitate the development of useful electronic systems that can often help linguists who want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. <b>E1. Linguistas qui usa systemas electronic pro le traduction debe haber alicun cognoscimento del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce.</b> <b>E2. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua (le lingua de lor traductiones) que es producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E3. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E4. Con iste cognoscimentos illes pote determinar quando le systema electronic comencia a producer errores in su traductiones.</b> <b>E5. Quando illes trova iste errores, illes pote corriger los.</b> <b>E6. Illes debe haber unes cognoscimentos del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce de maniera que illes pote trovar iste errores e corriger los.</b> Linguists who use electronic systems for translation must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces. They must have some knowledge of the second language (the language of their translations) that is produced by the electronic system. They must have some knowledge of the second language produced by the electronic system. With this knowledge they can determine when the electronic system begins to make some mistakes in its translations. When they find these mistakes, they can correct them. They must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces so that they can find these mistakes and correct them. <b>F1. Illes debe usar grammatica basic.</b> <b>F2. In lor travalios illes debe usar vocabulario basic.</b> <b>F3. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic quando illes travalia.</b> <b>F4. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic in lor travalio.</b> <b>F5. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores.</b> <b>F6. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores que illes debe corriger.</b> <b>F7. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce grandemente le numero de errores que iste traductores debe corriger.</b> They must use basic grammar. In their work they must use basic vocabulary. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar when they work. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar in their work. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors. They must correct these errors. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors that they must correct. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar greatly reduces the number of errors that these translators must correct. 2890 2005-12-10T20:45:10Z 84.154.252.251 <b>Exercitios de expansion syntactic pro disvellopar le flexibilitate grammatic que es necesse pro le uso plus efficace de systemas de traduction electronic que nunc es facilemente disponibile (Prime serie) </b> Some exercises in syntactic expansion for developing the grammatical flexibility that is needed for the more effective use of current systems of electronic translation (First Series) <b>A1. Omne linguas es systemas.</b> <b>A2. Le linguas es complicate.</b> <b>A3. Cata lingua individual, como le francese o le germano, es un systema complicate.</b> <b>A4. Omne linguas human se usa pro communicar ideas.</b> <b>A5. Cata lingua individual, como le italiano o le norvegiano, es un systema complicate que le gente usa pro communicar ideas.</b> All languages are systems. Languages are complicated. Each individual language, like French or German, is a complicated system. All human languages are used to communicate ideas. Each individual language, like Italian or Norwegian, is a complicated system that people use to communicate a group of ideas. <b>B1. Le major parte del linguas es membros de familias.</b> <b>B2. Iste familias ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B3. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B4. Illos es simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que es multo simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Illos es simile in lor grammatica.</b> <b>B6. Illos es simile in lor vocabulario.</b> <b>B7. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que ha systemas multo complicate con grande similaritates in lor grammatica e vocabulario.</b> Most languages are members of families. These families have languages that are very similar. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that are very similar. They are similar in their systems. Most languages of the world are members of families that are very similar in their systems. They are similar in their grammar. They are similar in their vocabulary. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that have very complicated systems with great similarities in their grammar and vocabulary. <b>C1. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita le conversion de multe ideas de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua simile del mesme familia.</b> <b>C2. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un traductor usa vocabulario basic e structura grammatic basic.</b> <b>C3. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un persona usa vocabulario e structura basic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> <b>C4. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita un conversion facile de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua in le mesme familia si un persona usa vocabulario e structura grammatic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> The similarity of their systems often facilitates the easy conversion of many ideas from one of these languages to another similar language in the same family. This principle is especially valid if a translator uses basic vocabulary and basic grammatical structure. This principle is especially valid if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. The similarity of their systems often facilitates an easy conversion from one of these languages to another language in the same family if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. <b>D1. Tres linguas (le anglese, le hollandese, e le germano) es linguas westgermanic. Unes altere linguas, como le francese, le italiano, le espaniol, e le portugese evolueva ex le latino.</b> <b>D2. Omne iste linguas ha similaritates fundamental.</b> <b>D3. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic de traduction.</b> <b>D4. Iste systemas electronic pote esser multo utile pro traductores.</b> <b>D5. Le gente que iste systemas sovente pote adjuvar vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un secunde lingua simile.</b> <b>D6. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic utile que sovente pote adjuvar linguistas qui vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un altere lingua simile.</b> Three languages (English, Dutch, and German) are Western Germanic languages. Some other languages, like French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved from Latin. All these languages have fundamental similarities. These similarities facilitate the development of electronic systems. These electronic systems can be very useful for translators. The people that they can often help want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. These similarities facilitate the development of useful electronic systems that can often help linguists who want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. <b>E1. Linguistas qui usa systemas electronic pro le traduction debe haber alicun cognoscimento del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce.</b> <b>E2. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua (le lingua de lor traductiones) que es producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E3. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E4. Con iste cognoscimentos illes pote determinar quando le systema electronic comencia a producer errores in su traductiones.</b> <b>E5. Quando illes trova iste errores, illes pote corriger los.</b> <b>E6. Illes debe haber unes cognoscimentos del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce de maniera que illes pote trovar iste errores e corriger los.</b> Linguists who use electronic systems for translation must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces. They must have some knowledge of the second language (the language of their translations) that is produced by the electronic system. They must have some knowledge of the second language produced by the electronic system. With this knowledge they can determine when the electronic system begins to make some mistakes in its translations. When they find these mistakes, they can correct them. They must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces so that they can find these mistakes and correct them. <b>F1. Illes debe usar grammatica basic.</b> <b>F2. In lor travalios illes debe usar vocabulario basic.</b> <b>F3. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic quando illes travalia.</b> <b>F4. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic in lor travalio.</b> <b>F5. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores.</b> <b>F6. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores que illes debe corriger.</b> <b>F7. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce grandemente le numero de errores que iste traductores debe corriger.</b> They must use basic grammar. In their work they must use basic vocabulary. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar when they work. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar in their work. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors. They must correct these errors. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors that they must correct. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar greatly reduces the number of errors that these translators must correct. 2891 2005-12-10T20:48:46Z 84.154.252.251 <b>Exercitios de expansion syntactic pro disvellopar le flexibilitate grammatic que es necesse pro le uso plus efficace de systemas de traduction electronic que nunc es facilemente disponibile (Prime serie) </b> Some exercises in syntactic expansion for developing the grammatical flexibility that is needed for the more effective use of current systems of electronic translation (First Series) <b>A1. Omne linguas es systemas.</b> <b>A2. Le linguas es complicate.</b> <b>A3. Cata lingua individual, como le francese o le germano, es un systema complicate.</b> <b>A4. Omne linguas human se usa pro communicar ideas.</b> <b>A5. Cata lingua individual, como le italiano o le norvegiano, es un systema complicate que le gente usa pro communicar ideas.</b> All languages are systems. Languages are complicated. Each individual language, like French or German, is a complicated system. All human languages are used to communicate ideas. Each individual language, like Italian or Norwegian, is a complicated system that people use to communicate a group of ideas. <b>B1. Le major parte del linguas es membros de familias.</b> <b>B2. Iste familias ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B3. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B4. Illos es simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que es multo simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Illos es simile in lor grammatica.</b> <b>B6. Illos es simile in lor vocabulario.</b> <b>B7. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que ha systemas multo complicate con grande similaritates in lor grammatica e vocabulario.</b> Most languages are members of families. These families have languages that are very similar. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that are very similar. They are similar in their systems. Most languages of the world are members of families that are very similar in their systems. They are similar in their grammar. They are similar in their vocabulary. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that have very complicated systems with great similarities in their grammar and vocabulary. <b>C1. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita le conversion de multe ideas de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua simile del mesme familia.</b> <b>C2. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un traductor usa vocabulario basic e structura grammatic basic.</b> <b>C3. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un persona usa vocabulario e structura basic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> <b>C4. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita un conversion facile de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua in le mesme familia si un persona usa vocabulario e structura grammatic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> The similarity of their systems often facilitates the easy conversion of many ideas from one of these languages to another similar language in the same family. This principle is especially valid if a translator uses basic vocabulary and basic grammatical structure. This principle is especially valid if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. The similarity of their systems often facilitates an easy conversion from one of these languages to another language in the same family if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. <b>D1. Tres linguas (le anglese, le hollandese, e le germano) es linguas westgermanic. Alcun altere linguas, como le francese, le italiano, le espaniol, e le portugese evolueva ex le latino.</b> <b>D2. Omne iste linguas ha similaritates fundamental.</b> <b>D3. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic de traduction.</b> <b>D4. Iste systemas electronic pote esser multo utile pro traductores.</b> <b>D5. Le gente que iste systemas sovente pote adjuvar vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un secunde lingua simile.</b> <b>D6. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic utile que sovente pote adjuvar linguistas qui vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un altere lingua simile.</b> Three languages (English, Dutch, and German) are Western Germanic languages. Some other languages, like French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved from Latin. All these languages have fundamental similarities. These similarities facilitate the development of electronic systems. These electronic systems can be very useful for translators. The people that they can often help want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. These similarities facilitate the development of useful electronic systems that can often help linguists who want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. <b>E1. Linguistas qui usa systemas electronic pro le traduction debe haber alicun cognoscimento del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce.</b> <b>E2. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua (le lingua de lor traductiones) que es producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E3. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E4. Con iste cognoscimentos illes pote determinar quando le systema electronic comencia a producer errores in su traductiones.</b> <b>E5. Quando illes trova iste errores, illes pote corriger los.</b> <b>E6. Illes debe haber unes cognoscimentos del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce de maniera que illes pote trovar iste errores e corriger los.</b> Linguists who use electronic systems for translation must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces. They must have some knowledge of the second language (the language of their translations) that is produced by the electronic system. They must have some knowledge of the second language produced by the electronic system. With this knowledge they can determine when the electronic system begins to make some mistakes in its translations. When they find these mistakes, they can correct them. They must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces so that they can find these mistakes and correct them. <b>F1. Illes debe usar grammatica basic.</b> <b>F2. In lor travalios illes debe usar vocabulario basic.</b> <b>F3. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic quando illes travalia.</b> <b>F4. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic in lor travalio.</b> <b>F5. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores.</b> <b>F6. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores que illes debe corriger.</b> <b>F7. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce grandemente le numero de errores que iste traductores debe corriger.</b> They must use basic grammar. In their work they must use basic vocabulary. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar when they work. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar in their work. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors. They must correct these errors. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors that they must correct. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar greatly reduces the number of errors that these translators must correct. 2892 2005-12-10T20:50:50Z 84.154.252.251 <b>Exercitios de expansion syntactic pro disvellopar le flexibilitate grammatic que es necesse pro le uso plus efficace de systemas de traduction electronic que nunc es facilemente disponibile (Prime serie) </b> Some exercises in syntactic expansion for developing the grammatical flexibility that is needed for the more effective use of current systems of electronic translation (First Series) <b>A1. Omne linguas es systemas.</b> <b>A2. Le linguas es complicate.</b> <b>A3. Cata lingua individual, como le francese o le germano, es un systema complicate.</b> <b>A4. Omne linguas human se usa pro communicar ideas.</b> <b>A5. Cata lingua individual, como le italiano o le norvegiano, es un systema complicate que le gente usa pro communicar ideas.</b> All languages are systems. Languages are complicated. Each individual language, like French or German, is a complicated system. All human languages are used to communicate ideas. Each individual language, like Italian or Norwegian, is a complicated system that people use to communicate a group of ideas. <b>B1. Le major parte del linguas es membros de familias.</b> <b>B2. Iste familias ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B3. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B4. Illos es simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que es multo simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Illos es simile in lor grammatica.</b> <b>B6. Illos es simile in lor vocabulario.</b> <b>B7. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que ha systemas multo complicate con grande similaritates in lor grammatica e vocabulario.</b> Most languages are members of families. These families have languages that are very similar. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that are very similar. They are similar in their systems. Most languages of the world are members of families that are very similar in their systems. They are similar in their grammar. They are similar in their vocabulary. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that have very complicated systems with great similarities in their grammar and vocabulary. <b>C1. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita le conversion de multe ideas de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua simile del mesme familia.</b> <b>C2. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un traductor usa vocabulario basic e structura grammatic basic.</b> <b>C3. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un persona usa vocabulario e structura basic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> <b>C4. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita un conversion facile de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua in le mesme familia si un persona usa vocabulario e structura grammatic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> The similarity of their systems often facilitates the easy conversion of many ideas from one of these languages to another similar language in the same family. This principle is especially valid if a translator uses basic vocabulary and basic grammatical structure. This principle is especially valid if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. The similarity of their systems often facilitates an easy conversion from one of these languages to another language in the same family if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. <b>D1. Tres linguas (le anglese, le hollandese, e le germano) es linguas westgermanic. Alcun altere linguas, como le francese, le italiano, le espaniol, e le portugese evolueva ex le latino.</b> <b>D2. Omne iste linguas ha similaritates fundamental.</b> <b>D3. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic de traduction.</b> <b>D4. Iste systemas electronic pote esser multo utile pro traductores.</b> <b>D5. Le gente qui iste systemas sovente pote adjuvar vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un secunde lingua simile.</b> <b>D6. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic utile que sovente pote adjuvar linguistas qui vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un altere lingua simile.</b> Three languages (English, Dutch, and German) are Western Germanic languages. Some other languages, like French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved from Latin. All these languages have fundamental similarities. These similarities facilitate the development of electronic systems. These electronic systems can be very useful for translators. The people that they can often help want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. These similarities facilitate the development of useful electronic systems that can often help linguists who want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. <b>E1. Linguistas qui usa systemas electronic pro le traduction debe haber alicun cognoscimento del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce.</b> <b>E2. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua (le lingua de lor traductiones) que es producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E3. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E4. Con iste cognoscimentos illes pote determinar quando le systema electronic comencia a producer errores in su traductiones.</b> <b>E5. Quando illes trova iste errores, illes pote corriger los.</b> <b>E6. Illes debe haber unes cognoscimentos del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce de maniera que illes pote trovar iste errores e corriger los.</b> Linguists who use electronic systems for translation must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces. They must have some knowledge of the second language (the language of their translations) that is produced by the electronic system. They must have some knowledge of the second language produced by the electronic system. With this knowledge they can determine when the electronic system begins to make some mistakes in its translations. When they find these mistakes, they can correct them. They must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces so that they can find these mistakes and correct them. <b>F1. Illes debe usar grammatica basic.</b> <b>F2. In lor travalios illes debe usar vocabulario basic.</b> <b>F3. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic quando illes travalia.</b> <b>F4. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic in lor travalio.</b> <b>F5. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores.</b> <b>F6. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores que illes debe corriger.</b> <b>F7. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce grandemente le numero de errores que iste traductores debe corriger.</b> They must use basic grammar. In their work they must use basic vocabulary. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar when they work. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar in their work. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors. They must correct these errors. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors that they must correct. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar greatly reduces the number of errors that these translators must correct. 2893 2005-12-10T20:51:52Z 84.154.252.251 <b>Exercitios de expansion syntactic pro disvellopar le flexibilitate grammatic que es necesse pro le uso plus efficace de systemas de traduction electronic que nunc es facilemente disponibile (Prime serie) </b> Some exercises in syntactic expansion for developing the grammatical flexibility that is needed for the more effective use of current systems of electronic translation (First Series) <b>A1. Omne linguas es systemas.</b> <b>A2. Le linguas es complicate.</b> <b>A3. Cata lingua individual, como le francese o le germano, es un systema complicate.</b> <b>A4. Omne linguas human se usa pro communicar ideas.</b> <b>A5. Cata lingua individual, como le italiano o le norvegiano, es un systema complicate que le gente usa pro communicar ideas.</b> All languages are systems. Languages are complicated. Each individual language, like French or German, is a complicated system. All human languages are used to communicate ideas. Each individual language, like Italian or Norwegian, is a complicated system that people use to communicate a group of ideas. <b>B1. Le major parte del linguas es membros de familias.</b> <b>B2. Iste familias ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B3. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B4. Illos es simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que es multo simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Illos es simile in lor grammatica.</b> <b>B6. Illos es simile in lor vocabulario.</b> <b>B7. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que ha systemas multo complicate con grande similaritates in lor grammatica e vocabulario.</b> Most languages are members of families. These families have languages that are very similar. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that are very similar. They are similar in their systems. Most languages of the world are members of families that are very similar in their systems. They are similar in their grammar. They are similar in their vocabulary. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that have very complicated systems with great similarities in their grammar and vocabulary. <b>C1. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita le conversion de multe ideas de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua simile del mesme familia.</b> <b>C2. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un traductor usa vocabulario basic e structura grammatic basic.</b> <b>C3. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un persona usa vocabulario e structura basic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> <b>C4. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita un conversion facile de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua in le mesme familia si un persona usa vocabulario e structura grammatic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> The similarity of their systems often facilitates the easy conversion of many ideas from one of these languages to another similar language in the same family. This principle is especially valid if a translator uses basic vocabulary and basic grammatical structure. This principle is especially valid if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. The similarity of their systems often facilitates an easy conversion from one of these languages to another language in the same family if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. <b>D1. Tres linguas (le anglese, le hollandese, e le germano) es linguas westgermanic. Alicun altere linguas, como le francese, le italiano, le espaniol, e le portugese evolueva ex le latino.</b> <b>D2. Omne iste linguas ha similaritates fundamental.</b> <b>D3. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic de traduction.</b> <b>D4. Iste systemas electronic pote esser multo utile pro traductores.</b> <b>D5. Le gente qui iste systemas sovente pote adjuvar vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un secunde lingua simile.</b> <b>D6. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic utile que sovente pote adjuvar linguistas qui vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un altere lingua simile.</b> Three languages (English, Dutch, and German) are Western Germanic languages. Some other languages, like French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved from Latin. All these languages have fundamental similarities. These similarities facilitate the development of electronic systems. These electronic systems can be very useful for translators. The people that they can often help want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. These similarities facilitate the development of useful electronic systems that can often help linguists who want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. <b>E1. Linguistas qui usa systemas electronic pro le traduction debe haber alicun cognoscimento del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce.</b> <b>E2. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua (le lingua de lor traductiones) que es producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E3. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E4. Con iste cognoscimentos illes pote determinar quando le systema electronic comencia a producer errores in su traductiones.</b> <b>E5. Quando illes trova iste errores, illes pote corriger los.</b> <b>E6. Illes debe haber unes cognoscimentos del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce de maniera que illes pote trovar iste errores e corriger los.</b> Linguists who use electronic systems for translation must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces. They must have some knowledge of the second language (the language of their translations) that is produced by the electronic system. They must have some knowledge of the second language produced by the electronic system. With this knowledge they can determine when the electronic system begins to make some mistakes in its translations. When they find these mistakes, they can correct them. They must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces so that they can find these mistakes and correct them. <b>F1. Illes debe usar grammatica basic.</b> <b>F2. In lor travalios illes debe usar vocabulario basic.</b> <b>F3. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic quando illes travalia.</b> <b>F4. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic in lor travalio.</b> <b>F5. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores.</b> <b>F6. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores que illes debe corriger.</b> <b>F7. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce grandemente le numero de errores que iste traductores debe corriger.</b> They must use basic grammar. In their work they must use basic vocabulary. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar when they work. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar in their work. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors. They must correct these errors. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors that they must correct. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar greatly reduces the number of errors that these translators must correct. 2894 2005-12-10T20:56:50Z 84.154.252.251 <b>Exercitios de expansion syntactic pro disvellopar le flexibilitate grammatic que es necesse pro le uso plus efficace de systemas de traduction electronic que nunc es facilemente disponibile (Prime serie) </b> Some exercises in syntactic expansion for developing the grammatical flexibility that is needed for the more effective use of current systems of electronic translation (First Series) <b>A1. Omne linguas es systemas.</b> <b>A2. Le linguas es complicate.</b> <b>A3. Cata lingua individual, como le francese o le germano, es un systema complicate.</b> <b>A4. Omne linguas human se usa pro communicar ideas.</b> <b>A5. Cata lingua individual, como le italiano o le norvegiano, es un systema complicate que le gente usa pro communicar ideas.</b> All languages are systems. Languages are complicated. Each individual language, like French or German, is a complicated system. All human languages are used to communicate ideas. Each individual language, like Italian or Norwegian, is a complicated system that people use to communicate a group of ideas. <b>B1. Le major parte del linguas es membros de familias.</b> <b>B2. Iste familias ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B3. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que es multo simile.</b> <b>B4. Illos es simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que es multo simile in lor systemas.</b> <b>B5. Illos es simile in lor grammatica.</b> <b>B6. Illos es simile in lor vocabulario.</b> <b>B7. Le major parte del linguas del mundo es membros de familias que ha linguas que ha systemas multo complicate con grande similaritates in lor grammatica e vocabulario.</b> Most languages are members of families. These families have languages that are very similar. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that are very similar. They are similar in their systems. Most languages of the world are members of families that are very similar in their systems. They are similar in their grammar. They are similar in their vocabulary. Most languages of the world are members of families that have languages that have very complicated systems with great similarities in their grammar and vocabulary. <b>C1. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita le conversion de multe ideas de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua simile del mesme familia.</b> <b>C2. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un traductor usa vocabulario basic e structura grammatic basic.</b> <b>C3. Iste principio es specialmente valide si un persona usa vocabulario e structura basic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> <b>C4. Le similaritate de lor systemas sovente facilita un conversion facile de un de iste linguas a un altere lingua in le mesme familia si un persona usa vocabulario e structura grammatic in le lingua a esser traducite.</b> The similarity of their systems often facilitates the easy conversion of many ideas from one of these languages to another similar language in the same family. This principle is especially valid if a translator uses basic vocabulary and basic grammatical structure. This principle is especially valid if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. The similarity of their systems often facilitates an easy conversion from one of these languages to another language in the same family if a person uses basic vocabulary and grammatical structure in the language to be translated. <b>D1. Tres linguas (le anglese, le hollandese, e le germano) es linguas westgermanic. Alicun altere linguas, como le francese, le italiano, le espaniol, e le portugese evolueva ex le latino.</b> <b>D2. Omne iste linguas ha similaritates fundamental.</b> <b>D3. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic de traduction.</b> <b>D4. Iste systemas electronic pote esser multo utile pro traductores.</b> <b>D5. Le gente qui iste systemas sovente pote adjuvar vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un secunde lingua simile.</b> <b>D6. Iste similaritates facilita le disveloppamento de systemas electronic utile que sovente pote adjuvar linguistas qui vole facer traductiones de un ex iste linguas a un altere lingua simile.</b> Three languages (English, Dutch, and German) are Western Germanic languages. Some other languages, like French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese evolved from Latin. All these languages have fundamental similarities. These similarities facilitate the development of electronic systems. These electronic systems can be very useful for translators. The people that they can often help want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. These similarities facilitate the development of useful electronic systems that can often help linguists who want to make translations from one of these languages to a second similar language. <b>E1. Linguistas qui usa systemas electronic pro le traduction debe haber alicun cognoscimento del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce.</b> <b>E2. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua (le lingua de lor traductiones) que es producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E3. Illes debe haber un certe cognoscimento del secunde lingua producite per le systema electronic.</b> <b>E4. Con iste cognoscimentos illes pote determinar quando le systema electronic comencia a producer errores in su traductiones.</b> <b>E5. Quando illes trova iste errores, illes pote corriger los.</b> <b>E6. Illes debe haber alicun cognoscimentos del secunde lingua que le systema electronic produce de maniera que illes pote trovar iste errores e corriger los.</b> Linguists who use electronic systems for translation must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces. They must have some knowledge of the second language (the language of their translations) that is produced by the electronic system. They must have some knowledge of the second language produced by the electronic system. With this knowledge they can determine when the electronic system begins to make some mistakes in its translations. When they find these mistakes, they can correct them. They must have some knowledge of the second language that the electronic system produces so that they can find these mistakes and correct them. <b>F1. Illes debe usar grammatica basic.</b> <b>F2. In lor travalios illes debe usar vocabulario basic.</b> <b>F3. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic quando illes travalia.</b> <b>F4. Illes debe usar vocabulario e grammatica basic in lor travalio.</b> <b>F5. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores.</b> <b>F6. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce le numero de errores que illes debe corriger.</b> <b>F7. Le uso de vocabulario e grammatica basic reduce grandemente le numero de errores que iste traductores debe corriger.</b> They must use basic grammar. In their work they must use basic vocabulary. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar when they work. They must use basic vocabulary and grammar in their work. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors. They must correct these errors. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar reduces the number of errors that they must correct. The use of basic vocabulary and grammar greatly reduces the number of errors that these translators must correct. 937 25 2005-04-10T15:06:09Z Josu Lavin 2 VERBOS IN ANGLESE E INTERLINGUA</b> VERBS IN ENGLISH AND INTERLINGUA <b>Ben que le systema verbal del anglese es plus complicate que le systema de interlingua, il ha multe contactos inter iste duo systemas, e studentes assatis nove del anglese pote exprimer se melio in anglese si illes compara le duo systemas.</b> Though (the verb system of English)/(the English verb system) is more complicated than (the interlingua system)/(the system for Interlingua), there are many contacts between these two systems, and rather new students of English can express themselves better in English if they compare the two systems. <b>Que nos compara le duo systemas citante le parve narrationes illustrante le uso del verbos de interlingua in Capitulo 1 de mi curso de interlingua in "Interlingua in interlingua":</b> Let's compare the two systems by quoting the short narrations illustrating the use of Interlingua verbs in Chapter 1 of my Interlingua course in "Interlingua in interlingua" <b>(1) Multe ben, ecce le procedimento de iste parte de nostre studio: Johano parla iste parolas in anglese. Postea le computator los traduce al francese. E finalmente le sujectos de iste experimento audi iste parolas per un altoparlator controlate per le computator.</b> (1) Okay, here's the procedure for this part of our study: Johano speaks these words in English. Afterwards the computer translates them into French. And finally the subjects of this experiment hear these words through a loudspeaker controlled by the computer. <b>(2) Maria e Irma parlava iste parolas in anglese, e le computator los traduceva al italiano. Finalmente omne le studentes los audiva per un altoparlator controlate per le computator.</b> (2) Maria and Irma spoke these words in English, and the computer translated them into Italian. Finally all the students heard them through a loudspeaker controlled by the computer. <b>(3) Gustavo parlara iste gruppo de parolas in espaniol. Le computator los traducera al portugese e al italiano. Postea ille e su amicos los audira per un altoparlator parve que le computator controlara.</b> (3) Gustavo will speak this group of words in Spanish. The computer will translate them into Portuguese and Italian. Afterwards he and his friends will hear them through a small loudspeaker that the computer will control. <b>(4) Sven va parlar iste parolas in svedese. Le computator va traducer los a germano, e postea le assistentes del laboratorio va audir lor formas parlate quando le programma del computator habera finite su processamento del parolas.</b> (4) Sven is going to speak these words in Swedish. The computer will translate them into German, and afterwards the lab/laboratory assistants are going to hear them through a small loudspeaker that the computer will control. <b>(5) Ecce lo que nos iva facer: Sven iva parlar iste parolas in svedese. Le computator iva traducer los a germano, e postea le assistentes del laboratorio iva audir lor formas parlate quando le programma del computator habeva finite su processamento del parolas. Ma nos debeva stoppar iste parte del studio a causa de nove problemas con le logiciel del computator.</b> (5) Here's what we were going to do: Sven was going to speak these words in Swedish. The computer was going to translate them into German, and afterwards the lab/laboratory assistants were going to hear their spoken forms when the computer had finished its processing of the words. But we had to stop this part of the study because of new problems with the computer software. <b>(6) Si Alberto esseva un del voluntarios pro iste experimento, ille parlarea iste parolas in catalano. Tunc le computator los traducerea al francese, al espaniol, e al portugese. Finalmente omnes poterea audir lor formas parlate per un altoparlator con un connexion al computator.</b> (6) If Albert were one of the volunteers for this experiment, he would speak these words in Catalan. Then the computer would translate them to French, Spanish, and Portuguese. Finally, everyone would be able to hear their spoken forms through a loudspeaker with a connection to the computer. <b>(7) Post haber parlate, traducite, e audite iste parolas ex le altoparlator del magnetophono, le studentes va scriber los omnes.</b> (7) After having spoken translated, and listened to these words through the loudspeaker of the tape recorder, the students are going to write (all of them [out])/(them all [out]). <b>(8) Ille ha parlate iste parolas a in un microphono. Post illo le computator los ha analysate e traducite al japonese. Finalmente omne le studentes los ha audite per le altoparlatores del computator.</b> (8) He has spoken these words into a microphone. After that, the computer has analyzed and translated them into Japanese. Finally, all the students have heard them through the loud speakers of the computer. <b>(9) Ante que le experimento finiva, omne le studentes habeva parlate iste parolas de maniera que le computator poteva processar los. Postea le computator los habeva traducite al linguas romanic. Finalmente omne le assistentes del laboratorio los habeva audite, ma il esseva obvie que le systema non functionava multo ben.</b> (9) Before the experiment finished, all the students had spoken these words so that the computer could process them. Afterwards the computer had translated them into the Romance languages. Finally all the lab/laboratory assistants had listened to them, but it was obvious that the system was not working very well. <b>(10) Ante que nos continuara con le experimento, Alberta habera parlate iste parolas in anglese, le computator los habera traducite a in omne le linguas includite in su programma, e al fin de iste classe omnes habera audite le traductiones de iste secunde gruppo de linguas per le altoparlator del computator.</b> (10) Before we will continue with the experiment, Albert will have spoken these words in English, the computer will have translated them into all the languages included in its program, and at the end of this class everyone will have heard the translations of this second group of languages through the loudspeaker of the computer. <b>(11) Secundo nostre plan anterior, Alberto haberea parlate iste parolas in anglese, le computator los haberea traducite a omne le linguas includite in su programma, e al fin de iste classe on haberea audite le traductiones de iste secunde gruppo de linguas per le altoparlator del computator.</b> (11) According to our former plan, Alberto would have spoken these words in English, the computer would have translated them into all the languages included in its program, and at the end of this class everyone would have heard the translations of this second group of languages through the loudspeaker of the computer. <b>(12) Audiente iste parolas per le altoparlator, le studentes trovava que illes poteva comprender los facilemente.</b> (12) Hearing these words through the loudspeaker, the students found that they could understand them easily. <b>(13) Le studentes, audiente iste parolas per le altoparlator, trovava que illes poteva comprender los facilemente.</b> (13) The students, hearing thse groups through the loudspeaker, found that they could understand them easily. <b>(14) Le studentes habente comprendite le prime gruppo de parolas sin errores, le computator tunc processava le secunde gruppo.</b> (14) With the students having understood the first group of words without mistakes, the computer then processed the second group. <b>(15) Habente comprendente le prime gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, le studentes attendeva le secunde gruppo.</b> (15) Having understood the first group of words processed by the computer, the students waited for the second group. <b>(16) Le studentes, habente comprendite le prime gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, attendeva le secunde gruppo.</b> (16) The students, having understood the first group of words processed by the computer, waited for the second group. <b>(17) Gustavo, habente parlate iste gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, attendeva un nove gruppo de parolas.</b> (17) Gustavo, having spoken this group of words processed by the computer, waited for a new group of words. <b>(18) Gustavo, habente parlate iste gruppo de parolas al computator, attendeva usque illo los processava.</b> (18) Gustavo, having spoken this group of words to the computer, waited until it processed them. <b>(19) Having translated these words into Spanish, the computer emitted them in a spoken form through its loudspeaker.</b> (19) Habente traducite iste parolas al espaniol, le computator los emitteva in forma parlate trans su altoparlator. <b>(20) Habente audite iste parolas per le altoparlator, le studentes trovava que illes non poteva comprender los.</b> (20) Having heard these words through the loudspeaker, the students found that they could not understand them. <b>(21) Le studentes habente parlate le prime gruppo de parolas, le computator tunc los processava, pronunciante los trans su altoparlator.</b> (21) With the students having spoken the first group of words, the computer then processed them, pronouncing them through its loudspeaker. <b>(22) Le studentes habeva parlate le prime gruppo de parolas; e le computator, post processar los, anque anque los pronunciava simultaneemente trans su altoparlator.</b> (22) The students had spoken the first group of words; and the computer, after processing them, also pronounced them (at the same time)/(simultaneously) through its loudspeaker. The students had spoken the first group of words; and the computer, after processing them, also pronounced them through its loudspeaker at the same time. <b>Complicationes in le systema verbal del anglese include su tempores progressive e su systema de verbos modal. Ma si vos compara attentemente iste vinti-duo gruppos de parolas, vos trovara que il ha multe cosas que vos potera exprimer plus facile- e exactemente in anglese.</b> Complications in the English verbal system include its progressive tenses and its system of modal verbs. But if you carefully compare these twenty-two groups of words, you will find that there are many things that you will be able to express more easily and exactly in English. <b>Disveloppa vostre cognoscomentos de systemas linguistic trans le ressources de Janua linguarum!</b> Develop your knowledge of linguistic systems through the resources of Janua Linguarum! 2014 2005-04-10T15:08:49Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>VERBOS IN ANGLESE E INTERLINGUA</b> VERBS IN ENGLISH AND INTERLINGUA <b>Ben que le systema verbal del anglese es plus complicate que le systema de interlingua, il ha multe contactos inter iste duo systemas, e studentes assatis nove del anglese pote exprimer se melio in anglese si illes compara le duo systemas.</b> Though (the verb system of English)/(the English verb system) is more complicated than (the interlingua system)/(the system for Interlingua), there are many contacts between these two systems, and rather new students of English can express themselves better in English if they compare the two systems. <b>Que nos compara le duo systemas citante le parve narrationes illustrante le uso del verbos de interlingua in Capitulo 1 de mi curso de interlingua in "Interlingua in interlingua":</b> Let's compare the two systems by quoting the short narrations illustrating the use of Interlingua verbs in Chapter 1 of my Interlingua course in "Interlingua in interlingua" <b>(1) Multe ben, ecce le procedimento de iste parte de nostre studio: Johano parla iste parolas in anglese. Postea le computator los traduce al francese. E finalmente le sujectos de iste experimento audi iste parolas per un altoparlator controlate per le computator.</b> (1) Okay, here's the procedure for this part of our study: Johano speaks these words in English. Afterwards the computer translates them into French. And finally the subjects of this experiment hear these words through a loudspeaker controlled by the computer. <b>(2) Maria e Irma parlava iste parolas in anglese, e le computator los traduceva al italiano. Finalmente omne le studentes los audiva per un altoparlator controlate per le computator.</b> (2) Maria and Irma spoke these words in English, and the computer translated them into Italian. Finally all the students heard them through a loudspeaker controlled by the computer. <b>(3) Gustavo parlara iste gruppo de parolas in espaniol. Le computator los traducera al portugese e al italiano. Postea ille e su amicos los audira per un altoparlator parve que le computator controlara.</b> (3) Gustavo will speak this group of words in Spanish. The computer will translate them into Portuguese and Italian. Afterwards he and his friends will hear them through a small loudspeaker that the computer will control. <b>(4) Sven va parlar iste parolas in svedese. Le computator va traducer los a germano, e postea le assistentes del laboratorio va audir lor formas parlate quando le programma del computator habera finite su processamento del parolas.</b> (4) Sven is going to speak these words in Swedish. The computer will translate them into German, and afterwards the lab/laboratory assistants are going to hear them through a small loudspeaker that the computer will control. <b>(5) Ecce lo que nos iva facer: Sven iva parlar iste parolas in svedese. Le computator iva traducer los a germano, e postea le assistentes del laboratorio iva audir lor formas parlate quando le programma del computator habeva finite su processamento del parolas. Ma nos debeva stoppar iste parte del studio a causa de nove problemas con le logiciel del computator.</b> (5) Here's what we were going to do: Sven was going to speak these words in Swedish. The computer was going to translate them into German, and afterwards the lab/laboratory assistants were going to hear their spoken forms when the computer had finished its processing of the words. But we had to stop this part of the study because of new problems with the computer software. <b>(6) Si Alberto esseva un del voluntarios pro iste experimento, ille parlarea iste parolas in catalano. Tunc le computator los traducerea al francese, al espaniol, e al portugese. Finalmente omnes poterea audir lor formas parlate per un altoparlator con un connexion al computator.</b> (6) If Albert were one of the volunteers for this experiment, he would speak these words in Catalan. Then the computer would translate them to French, Spanish, and Portuguese. Finally, everyone would be able to hear their spoken forms through a loudspeaker with a connection to the computer. <b>(7) Post haber parlate, traducite, e audite iste parolas ex le altoparlator del magnetophono, le studentes va scriber los omnes.</b> (7) After having spoken translated, and listened to these words through the loudspeaker of the tape recorder, the students are going to write (all of them [out])/(them all [out]). <b>(8) Ille ha parlate iste parolas a in un microphono. Post illo le computator los ha analysate e traducite al japonese. Finalmente omne le studentes los ha audite per le altoparlatores del computator.</b> (8) He has spoken these words into a microphone. After that, the computer has analyzed and translated them into Japanese. Finally, all the students have heard them through the loud speakers of the computer. <b>(9) Ante que le experimento finiva, omne le studentes habeva parlate iste parolas de maniera que le computator poteva processar los. Postea le computator los habeva traducite al linguas romanic. Finalmente omne le assistentes del laboratorio los habeva audite, ma il esseva obvie que le systema non functionava multo ben.</b> (9) Before the experiment finished, all the students had spoken these words so that the computer could process them. Afterwards the computer had translated them into the Romance languages. Finally all the lab/laboratory assistants had listened to them, but it was obvious that the system was not working very well. <b>(10) Ante que nos continuara con le experimento, Alberta habera parlate iste parolas in anglese, le computator los habera traducite a in omne le linguas includite in su programma, e al fin de iste classe omnes habera audite le traductiones de iste secunde gruppo de linguas per le altoparlator del computator.</b> (10) Before we will continue with the experiment, Albert will have spoken these words in English, the computer will have translated them into all the languages included in its program, and at the end of this class everyone will have heard the translations of this second group of languages through the loudspeaker of the computer. <b>(11) Secundo nostre plan anterior, Alberto haberea parlate iste parolas in anglese, le computator los haberea traducite a omne le linguas includite in su programma, e al fin de iste classe on haberea audite le traductiones de iste secunde gruppo de linguas per le altoparlator del computator.</b> (11) According to our former plan, Alberto would have spoken these words in English, the computer would have translated them into all the languages included in its program, and at the end of this class everyone would have heard the translations of this second group of languages through the loudspeaker of the computer. <b>(12) Audiente iste parolas per le altoparlator, le studentes trovava que illes poteva comprender los facilemente.</b> (12) Hearing these words through the loudspeaker, the students found that they could understand them easily. <b>(13) Le studentes, audiente iste parolas per le altoparlator, trovava que illes poteva comprender los facilemente.</b> (13) The students, hearing thse groups through the loudspeaker, found that they could understand them easily. <b>(14) Le studentes habente comprendite le prime gruppo de parolas sin errores, le computator tunc processava le secunde gruppo.</b> (14) With the students having understood the first group of words without mistakes, the computer then processed the second group. <b>(15) Habente comprendente le prime gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, le studentes attendeva le secunde gruppo.</b> (15) Having understood the first group of words processed by the computer, the students waited for the second group. <b>(16) Le studentes, habente comprendite le prime gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, attendeva le secunde gruppo.</b> (16) The students, having understood the first group of words processed by the computer, waited for the second group. <b>(17) Gustavo, habente parlate iste gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, attendeva un nove gruppo de parolas.</b> (17) Gustavo, having spoken this group of words processed by the computer, waited for a new group of words. <b>(18) Gustavo, habente parlate iste gruppo de parolas al computator, attendeva usque illo los processava.</b> (18) Gustavo, having spoken this group of words to the computer, waited until it processed them. <b>(19) Having translated these words into Spanish, the computer emitted them in a spoken form through its loudspeaker.</b> (19) Habente traducite iste parolas al espaniol, le computator los emitteva in forma parlate trans su altoparlator. <b>(20) Habente audite iste parolas per le altoparlator, le studentes trovava que illes non poteva comprender los.</b> (20) Having heard these words through the loudspeaker, the students found that they could not understand them. <b>(21) Le studentes habente parlate le prime gruppo de parolas, le computator tunc los processava, pronunciante los trans su altoparlator.</b> (21) With the students having spoken the first group of words, the computer then processed them, pronouncing them through its loudspeaker. <b>(22) Le studentes habeva parlate le prime gruppo de parolas; e le computator, post processar los, anque anque los pronunciava simultaneemente trans su altoparlator.</b> (22) The students had spoken the first group of words; and the computer, after processing them, also pronounced them (at the same time)/(simultaneously) through its loudspeaker. The students had spoken the first group of words; and the computer, after processing them, also pronounced them through its loudspeaker at the same time. <b>Complicationes in le systema verbal del anglese include su tempores progressive e su systema de verbos modal. Ma si vos compara attentemente iste vinti-duo gruppos de parolas, vos trovara que il ha multe cosas que vos potera exprimer plus facile- e exactemente in anglese.</b> Complications in the English verbal system include its progressive tenses and its system of modal verbs. But if you carefully compare these twenty-two groups of words, you will find that there are many things that you will be able to express more easily and exactly in English. <b>Disveloppa vostre cognoscomentos de systemas linguistic trans le ressources de Janua linguarum!</b> Develop your knowledge of linguistic systems through the resources of Janua Linguarum! 3120 2006-06-21T00:52:54Z 66.32.245.136 <b>VERBOS IN ANGLESE E INTERLINGUA</b> VERBS IN ENGLISH AND INTERLINGUA <b>Ben que le systema verbal del anglese es plus complicate que le systema de interlingua, il ha multe contactos inter iste duo systemas, e studentes assatis nove del anglese pote exprimer se melio in anglese si illes compara le duo systemas.</b> Though (the verb system of English)/(the English verb system) is more complicated than (the interlingua system)/(the system for Interlingua), there are many contacts between these two systems, and rather new students of English can express themselves better in English if they compare the two systems. <b>Que nos compara le duo systemas citante le parve narrationes illustrante le uso del verbos de interlingua in Capitulo 1 de mi curso de interlingua in "Interlingua in interlingua":</b> Let's compare the two systems by quoting the short narrations illustrating the use of Interlingua verbs in Chapter 1 of my Interlingua course in "Interlingua in interlingua" <b>(1) Multe ben, ecce le procedimento de iste parte de nostre studio: Johano parla iste parolas in anglese. Postea le computator los traduce al francese. E finalmente le sujectos de iste experimento audi iste parolas per un altoparlator controlate per le computator.</b> (1) Okay, here's the procedure for this part of our study: Johano speaks these words in English. Afterwards the computer translates them into French. And finally the subjects of this experiment hear these words through a loudspeaker controlled by the computer. <b>(2) Maria e Irma parlava iste parolas in anglese, e le computator los traduceva al italiano. Finalmente omne le studentes los audiva per un altoparlator controlate per le computator.</b> (2) Maria and Irma spoke these words in English, and the computer translated them into Italian. Finally all the students heard them through a loudspeaker controlled by the computer. <b>(3) Gustavo parlara iste gruppo de parolas in espaniol. Le computator los traducera al portugese e al italiano. Postea ille e su amicos los audira per un altoparlator parve que le computator controlara.</b> (3) Gustavo will speak this group of words in Spanish. The computer will translate them into Portuguese and Italian. Afterwards he and his friends will hear them through a small loudspeaker that the computer will control. <b>(4) Sven va parlar iste parolas in svedese. Le computator va traducer los a germano, e postea le assistentes del laboratorio va audir lor formas parlate quando le programma del computator habera finite su processamento del parolas.</b> (4) Sven is going to speak these words in Swedish. The computer will translate them into German, and afterwards the lab/laboratory assistants are going to hear them through a small loudspeaker that the computer will control. <b>(5) Ecce lo que nos intendeva facer: Sven intendeva parlar iste parolas in svedese. Le computator esseva programmate traducer los a germano, e postea le assistentes del laboratorio iva pro audir lor formas parlate quando le programma del computator habeva finite su processamento del parolas. Ma nos debeva stoppar iste parte del studio a causa de nove problemas con le logiciel del computator.</b> (5) Here's what we were going to do: Sven was going to speak these words in Swedish. The computer was going to translate them into German, and afterwards the lab/laboratory assistants were going to hear their spoken forms when the computer had finished its processing of the words. But we had to stop this part of the study because of new problems with the computer software. <b>(6) Si Alberto esseva un del voluntarios pro iste experimento, ille parlarea iste parolas in catalano. Tunc le computator los traducerea al francese, al espaniol, e al portugese. Finalmente omnes poterea audir lor formas parlate per un altoparlator con un connexion al computator.</b> (6) If Albert were one of the volunteers for this experiment, he would speak these words in Catalan. Then the computer would translate them to French, Spanish, and Portuguese. Finally, everyone would be able to hear their spoken forms through a loudspeaker with a connection to the computer. <b>(7) Post haber parlate, traducite, e audite iste parolas ex le altoparlator del magnetophono, le studentes va scriber los omnes.</b> (7) After having spoken translated, and listened to these words through the loudspeaker of the tape recorder, the students are going to write (all of them [out])/(them all [out]). <b>(8) Ille ha parlate iste parolas a in un microphono. Post illo le computator los ha analysate e traducite al japonese. Finalmente omne le studentes los ha audite per le altoparlatores del computator.</b> (8) He has spoken these words into a microphone. After that, the computer has analyzed and translated them into Japanese. Finally, all the students have heard them through the loud speakers of the computer. <b>(9) Ante que le experimento finiva, omne le studentes habeva parlate iste parolas de maniera que le computator poteva processar los. Postea le computator los habeva traducite al linguas romanic. Finalmente omne le assistentes del laboratorio los habeva audite, ma il esseva obvie que le systema non functionava multo ben.</b> (9) Before the experiment finished, all the students had spoken these words so that the computer could process them. Afterwards the computer had translated them into the Romance languages. Finally all the lab/laboratory assistants had listened to them, but it was obvious that the system was not working very well. <b>(10) Ante que nos continuara con le experimento, Alberta habera parlate iste parolas in anglese, le computator los habera traducite a in omne le linguas includite in su programma, e al fin de iste classe omnes habera audite le traductiones de iste secunde gruppo de linguas per le altoparlator del computator.</b> (10) Before we will continue with the experiment, Albert will have spoken these words in English, the computer will have translated them into all the languages included in its program, and at the end of this class everyone will have heard the translations of this second group of languages through the loudspeaker of the computer. <b>(11) Secundo nostre plan anterior, Alberto haberea parlate iste parolas in anglese, le computator los haberea traducite a omne le linguas includite in su programma, e al fin de iste classe on haberea audite le traductiones de iste secunde gruppo de linguas per le altoparlator del computator.</b> (11) According to our former plan, Alberto would have spoken these words in English, the computer would have translated them into all the languages included in its program, and at the end of this class everyone would have heard the translations of this second group of languages through the loudspeaker of the computer. <b>(12) Audiente iste parolas per le altoparlator, le studentes trovava que illes poteva comprender los facilemente.</b> (12) Hearing these words through the loudspeaker, the students found that they could understand them easily. <b>(13) Le studentes, audiente iste parolas per le altoparlator, trovava que illes poteva comprender los facilemente.</b> (13) The students, hearing thse groups through the loudspeaker, found that they could understand them easily. <b>(14) Le studentes habente comprendite le prime gruppo de parolas sin errores, le computator tunc processava le secunde gruppo.</b> (14) With the students having understood the first group of words without mistakes, the computer then processed the second group. <b>(15) Habente comprendente le prime gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, le studentes attendeva le secunde gruppo.</b> (15) Having understood the first group of words processed by the computer, the students waited for the second group. <b>(16) Le studentes, habente comprendite le prime gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, attendeva le secunde gruppo.</b> (16) The students, having understood the first group of words processed by the computer, waited for the second group. <b>(17) Gustavo, habente parlate iste gruppo de parolas processate per le computator, attendeva un nove gruppo de parolas.</b> (17) Gustavo, having spoken this group of words processed by the computer, waited for a new group of words. <b>(18) Gustavo, habente parlate iste gruppo de parolas al computator, attendeva usque illo los processava.</b> (18) Gustavo, having spoken this group of words to the computer, waited until it processed them. <b>(19) Having translated these words into Spanish, the computer emitted them in a spoken form through its loudspeaker.</b> (19) Habente traducite iste parolas al espaniol, le computator los emitteva in forma parlate trans su altoparlator. <b>(20) Habente audite iste parolas per le altoparlator, le studentes trovava que illes non poteva comprender los.</b> (20) Having heard these words through the loudspeaker, the students found that they could not understand them. <b>(21) Le studentes habente parlate le prime gruppo de parolas, le computator tunc los processava, pronunciante los trans su altoparlator.</b> (21) With the students having spoken the first group of words, the computer then processed them, pronouncing them through its loudspeaker. <b>(22) Le studentes habeva parlate le prime gruppo de parolas; e le computator, post processar los, anque anque los pronunciava simultaneemente trans su altoparlator.</b> (22) The students had spoken the first group of words; and the computer, after processing them, also pronounced them (at the same time)/(simultaneously) through its loudspeaker. The students had spoken the first group of words; and the computer, after processing them, also pronounced them through its loudspeaker at the same time. <b>Complicationes in le systema verbal del anglese include su tempores progressive e su systema de verbos modal. Ma si vos compara attentemente iste vinti-duo gruppos de parolas, vos trovara que il ha multe cosas que vos potera exprimer plus facile- e exactemente in anglese. Nota que 'iva' non es un auxiliario verbal e non pote esser usate in formar le tempores del futuro.</b> Complications in the English verbal system include its progressive tenses and its system of modal verbs. But if you carefully compare these twenty-two groups of words, you will find that there are many things that you will be able to express more easily and exactly in English. Note that 'iva' is not an auxiliary and cannot be used in forming tenses of the future. <b>Disveloppa vostre cognoscomentos de systemas linguistic trans le ressources de Janua linguarum!</b> Develop your knowledge of linguistic systems through the resources of Janua Linguarum! 938 2015 2005-04-11T13:42:54Z Josu Lavin 2 ''' Introduction ''' <i>Le autor del libro es Johannes le autor del quarte evangelio. Le libro esseva scribite in le Insula de Patmos circa in le anno 96. </i> ''' Capitulos ''' [[Apocalypse Capitulo 1|1]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 2|2]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 3|3]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 4|4]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 5|5]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 6|6]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 7|7]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 8|8]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 9|9]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 10|10]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 11|11]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 12|12]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 13|13]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 14|14]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 15|15]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 16|16]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 17|17]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 18|18]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 19|19]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 20|20]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 21|21]] [[Apocalypse Capitulo 22|22]] ---- ''' Libros ''' [[Le_Nove_Testamento|Indice]] [[Evangelio secundo Mattheo|Mat]] [[Evangelio secundo Marco|Mar]] [[Evangelio secundo Luca|Luc]] [[Evangelio secundo Johannes|Joh]] [[Actos del Apostolos|Act]] [[Epistola al Romanos|Rom]] [[Epistola I al Corinthios|1Co]] [[Epistola II al Corinthios|2Co]] [[Epistola al Galatas|Gal]] [[Epistola al Ephesios|Eph]] [[Epistola al Philippenses|Php]] [[Epistola al Colossenses|Col]] [[Epistola I al Thessalonicenses|1Th]] [[Epistola II al Thessalonicenses|2Th]] [[Epistola I a Timotheo|1Ti]] [[Epistola II a Timotheo|2Ti]] [[Epistola a Tito|Tit]] [[Epistola a Philemon|Phm]] [[Epistola al Hebreos|Heb]] [[Epistola de Jacobo|Jac]] [[Epistola I de Petro|1Pe]] [[Epistola II de Petro|2Pe]] [[Epistola I de Johannes|1Jo]] [[Epistola II de Johannes|2Jo]] [[Epistola III de Johannes|3Jo]] [[Epistola de Juda|Jud]] [[Apocalypse|Rev]] 939 33 2005-04-11T13:54:03Z Josu Lavin 2 <div align="center"> <font size="+1" face="Verdana"> <b>LE LIBRO DE MORMON</b> </font> <font size="+2" face="Verdana"> THE BOOK OF MORMON </font> <font size="+2" face="Verdana"> Un altere Testamento de Jesus Christo </font> <font size="+2" face="Verdana"> Another Testament of Jesus Christ </font> </div> ===<b>Tabula de Contentos</b>=== ===Table of Contents=== *[[Libro de Mormon - Introduction|Introduction]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Prime Libro de Nephi|Prime Libro de Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Secunde Libro de Nephi|Secunde Libro de Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Jacob|Libro de Jacob]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Enos|Libro de Enos]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Jarom|Libro de Jarom]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Omni|Libro de Omni]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Le parolas de Mormon|Parolas de Mormon]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Mosiah|Libro de Mosiah]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Alma|Libro de Alma]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Helaman|Libro de Helaman]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Tertie Nephi|Tertie Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Quarte Nephi|Quarte Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Mormon|Libro de Mormon]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Ether|Libro de Ether]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Moroni|Libro de Moroni]] *[[Book of Mormon, Introduction|Introduction]] *[[Book of Mormon, First Nephi|First Nephi]] *[[Book of Mormon, Second Nephi|Second Nephi]] *[[Book of Mormon, Jacob|Book of Jacob]] *[[Book of Mormon, Enos|Book of Enos]] *[[Book of Mormon, Jarom|Book of Jarom]] *[[Book of Mormon, Omni|Book of Omni]] *[[Book of Mormon, Words of Mormon|Words of Mormon]] *[[Book of Mormon, Mosiah|Book of Mosiah]] *[[Book of Mormon, Alma|Book of Alma]] *[[Book of Mormon, Helaman|Book of Helaman]] *[[Book of Mormon, Third Nephi|Third Nephi]] *[[Book of Mormon, Fourth Nephi|Fourth Nephi]] *[[Book of Mormon, Mormon|Book of Mormon]] *[[Book of Mormon, Ether|Book of Ether]] *[[Book of Mormon, Moroni|Book of Moroni]] <div name="Documentos" style="border: 2px solid #ddddff; background-color: #f3f3ff; width: 60%"> <div name="section title" style="background-color: #ddddff; padding: 5px; font-weight: bold; font-size: larger; text-align: center"> </div> <!--//section padding--> </div> <!--//Documentos--> <hr> <i>NB: Le texto electronic de [[ia:dominio public|dominio public]] del Libro de Mormon in [[ia:lingua_anglese|anglese]], esseva providite per le [[ia:Projecto Gutenberg|Projecto Gutenberg]], disponibile in http://www.gutenberg.net/etext91/mormon13.txt e posteriormente traducite in [[ia:interlingua|interlingua]] con le auxilio del versiones [[ia:lingua_italian|italian]] e [[ia:lingua_portugese|portuguese]] per [[ia:Usator:JoSoares|Jose Soares Da Silva]]. Illo non es un version official. Per favor signala omne error a mailto:jss@aruba.it<br> </i> 2016 2005-04-11T13:59:17Z Josu Lavin 2 <div align="center"> <font size="+2" face="Verdana"> LE LIBRO DE MORMON </font> <font size="+1" face="Verdana"> THE BOOK OF MORMON </font> <font size="+2" face="Verdana"> Un altere Testamento de Jesus Christo </font> <font size="+1" face="Verdana"> Another Testament of Jesus Christ </font> </div> ==Tabula de Contentos - Table of Contents== *[[Libro de Mormon - Introduction|Introduction]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Prime Libro de Nephi|Prime Libro de Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Secunde Libro de Nephi|Secunde Libro de Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Jacob|Libro de Jacob]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Enos|Libro de Enos]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Jarom|Libro de Jarom]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Omni|Libro de Omni]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Le parolas de Mormon|Parolas de Mormon]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Mosiah|Libro de Mosiah]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Alma|Libro de Alma]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Helaman|Libro de Helaman]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Tertie Nephi|Tertie Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Quarte Nephi|Quarte Nephi]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Mormon|Libro de Mormon]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Ether|Libro de Ether]] *[[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Moroni|Libro de Moroni]] <div name="Documentos" style="border: 2px solid #ddddff; background-color: #f3f3ff; width: 60%"> <div name="section title" style="background-color: #ddddff; padding: 5px; font-weight: bold; font-size: larger; text-align: center"> </div> <!--//section padding--> </div> <!--//Documentos--> <hr> <i>NB: Le texto electronic de [[ia:dominio public|dominio public]] del Libro de Mormon in [[ia:lingua_anglese|anglese]], esseva providite per le [[ia:Projecto Gutenberg|Projecto Gutenberg]], disponibile in http://www.gutenberg.net/etext91/mormon13.txt e posteriormente traducite in [[ia:interlingua|interlingua]] con le auxilio del versiones [[ia:lingua_italian|italian]] e [[ia:lingua_portugese|portuguese]] per [[ia:Usator:JoSoares|Jose Soares Da Silva]]. Illo non es un version official. Per favor signala omne error a mailto:jss@aruba.it<br> </i> 940 2017 2005-04-11T14:02:04Z Josu Lavin 2 <center> == [[Le Libro de Mormon|LE LIBRO DE MORMON]] == === UN ALTERE TESTAMENTO DE [[ia:Qui es Jesus Christo? (Secundo le Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies)|JESUS CHRISTO]] === <br> <B>HISTORIA SCRIBITE SUPRA PLATTAS PER MANO DE MORMON EXTRAHITE EX LE PLATTAS DE NEPHI</B> <B>Il se tracta dunque de un compendio del historia del populo de Nephi, e anque del Lamanitas - Scribite al Lamanitas, que es un residuo del casa de Israel, como tamben al Judeos e al Gentiles - Scribite per commandamento, e anque per spirito de prophetia e de revelation - Scribite, sigillate e occultate pro le Senior a fin de non venir destruite - Pro comparer al luce e venir interpretate per dono e poter de Deo - Sigillate per mano de Moroni e occultate pro le Senior, pro comparer al luce al tempore debite per medio del Gentiles - Interpretate per dono de Deo.<br> In ultra un compendio extrahite ex le Libro de Ether, que es le historia del populo de Jared, dispersate quando le Senior confundeva le lingua del populo, dum illes construeva un turre pro arrivar al celo - Que es pro monstrar al resto del casa de Israel qual grande cosas le Senior ha facite pro lor patres, e perque illes pote cognoscer le alliantias del Senior, e que illes non es rejectate pro sempre - E anque pro convincer le Judeos e le Gentiles que JESUS es le CHRISTO, le Eternal Deo, que se manifesta a tote le nationes - e nunc, si il ha errores, il es errores human; vos ergo non condemna le cosas de Deo, a fin que vos potera star sin macula ante le sede del judicio de Christo.</B> <I>Traducite ex plattas original al anglese per [[ia:Joseph Smith|Joseph Smith junior]]<br> Prime edition anglese publicate in Palmyra, New York, USA, in 1830.<br> Publicate per le [[ia:Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies|Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies]]. </I> </center> <center> === INTRODUCTION === </center> [[Le Libro de Mormon]] es un libro de sacre Scripturas comparabile al Biblia. Il es le historia del relationes inter Deo e le antique habitantes del America e contine le plenitude del Evangelio eternal.<br> Le libro esseva scribite per multe antique prophetas per spirito de prophetia e de revelation, lor parolas, scribite supra plattas de auro, esseva citate e summarisate per un propheta-historic de nomine Mormon.<br> Le narration contine le historia de duo grande civilitates. Un veniva de Jerusalem in 600 a.C. e posta illo se divideva in duo nationes, cognoscite como Nephitas e Lamanitas. Le altere veniva multo ante, quando le Senior confundeva le linguas in le Turre de Babel.<br> Iste gruppo esseva cognoscite como Jareditas. Post milles de annos tote illes esseva destruite excepte le Lamanitas, e illes es le principal ancestrales del Indianos american.<br> Le advenimento culminante narrate in le Libro de Mormon es le ministerio personal del Senior Jesus Christo al Nephitas poco post Su resurrection.<br> Illo expone le doctrinas del Evangelio, delinea le plano de salvation e explica al homines lo que illes debe facer pro trovar pace in iste vita e salvation eternal in le vita a venir. Post que Mormon habeva portate a termino su scriptos, ille consignava le narration a su filio Moroni, que addeva alcun parolas sue e occultava le plattas in le Collina de Cumorah.<br> In 21 septembre 1823 le mesme Moroni, como un esser glorificate e resuscitate, appareva al propheta Joseph Smith e le impartiva instructiones sur le antique registros e lor final traduction in lingua anglese.<br> A tempore debite le plattas esseva consignate a Joseph Smith, que los traduceva per dono e poter de Deo. iste historia ha essite publicate in multe linguas como nove e ulterior testimonio que Jesus Christo es le Filio del Deo vivente, e que tote illes qui veni a ille e obedi le leges e le ordinantias del Evangelio pote salvar se.<br> Circa iste narration le propheta Joseph Smith diceva: "Io ha dicite al fratres que le Libro de Mormon es le libro plus juste de tote le libros sur le superficie del terra e le clave de volta de nostre religion, e que un homine se avicina de plus a Deo obediente a su preceptos que a illos de qualcunque altere libro".<br> Ultra a Joseph Smith (vide su [[ia:Testimonial del propheta Joseph Smith|testimonial]]), le Senior provideva que altere dece-un personas videva personalmente le plattas de auro e illes deveniva testes special del veritate e del divinitate del Libro de Mormon.<br> Lor testimonial scribite es ci includite como "le Testimonial de tres Testes" e "le Testimonial de Octo Testes". Nos invita tote le homines de omne loco a leger le Libro de Mormon, a meditar in lor corde le message que illo contine e post demandar a Deo, Patre Eternal, in le nomine de Christo si le libro proveni o non ab Deo. Illes qui lo face e pete con fide, illes obtenera un testimonio de su veritate e divinitate per le poter del Spirito Sancte (vide [[Libro de Mormon - Moroni - Capitulo 10|Moroni 10:3-5]]).<br> Illes qui recipe iste divin testimonio del Sancte Spirito venira anque a cognoscer per medio del mesme poter que Jesus Christo es le Salvator del mundo, que Joseph Smith es Su revelator e propheta in iste ultime dies e que le Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies es le regno del Senior novemente stabilite sur le terra in preparation del secunde venita del Messia. <center> === TESTIMONIAL DE TRES TESTES === </center> NOS NOTIFICA a tote le nationes, tribos, linguas e populos al qual arrivara iste opera: que nos, per gratia de Deo patre e de nostre Senior Jesus Christo, nos vide le plattas que contine iste registros, que es le historia del populo de Nephi e anque del Lamanitas, lor fratres, e anque del populo de Jared, qui veniva del turre ja mentionate. E nos sape tamben que illos esseva traducite per dono e poter de Deo, perque Su voce lo ha declarate a nos; ergo nos sape con certitude que iste opera es ver. Nos attesta tamben que nos ha vidite le scriptos supra le plattas; e illos nos esseva monstrate per le poter de Deo e non del homine. E nos declara con parolas sobrie que un angelo de Deo descendeva del celo portante le plattas e los poneva ante nostre oculos e nos los poteva contemplar e vider le scriptos; e nos sape que es per gratia de Deo patre e de nostre Senior Jesus Christo que nos los videva e nos rende testimonio del veritate de iste cosas. E iste es un prodigio a nostre oculos. Nonobstante le voce del Senior nos ha commandate de dar testimonio; ergo, pro esser obediente al commandamentos de Deo, nos rende testimonio de iste cosas. E nos sape que si nos essera fidel a Christo, nos purificara nostre vestes del sanguine de tote le homines e nos trovara sin macula ante le sede del judicio de Christo, e nos vivera eternemente con ille in celo. Sia gloria e honor al Patre, al Filio e al Spirito Sancte, que es un unic Deo. Amen. '''OLIVER COWDERY'''<BR> '''DAVID WHITMER'''<BR> '''MARTIN HARRIS'''<BR> <center> === TESTIMONIAL DE OCTO TESTES === </center> NOS NOTIFICA a tote le nationes, tribos, linguas e populos al quales arrivara iste opera: que Joseph Smith junior, traductor de iste opera, nos ha monstrate le plattas in question, que illos ha le aspecto de auro; e nos le ha toccate con nostre manos tote le folios que le referite Smith ha traducite; e nos ha vidite le scriptos, e toto iste ha le aspecto de un opera antique, de singular factura. E nos rende testimonio con parolas sobrie que le referite Smith los ha monstrate a nos, e que nos los ha vidite e toccate, e nos sape con securitate que le referite Smith ha recipite le plattas del qual ille nos ha parlate. E nos da nostre nomines al mundo, in testimonio que nos los ha vidite. E nos non mente, Deo es nostre teste. '''CHRISTIAN WHITMER.<BR> HIRAM PAGE.'''<BR> '''JACOB WHITMER.<BR> JOSEPH SMITH, SEN.'''<BR> '''PETER WHITMER, JUN.<BR> HYRUM SMITH.'''<BR> '''JOHN WHITMER.<BR> SAMUEL H. SMITH.'''<BR> <center> === BREVE ANALYSE DEL LIBRO DE MORMON === </center> Le Libro de Mormon es le sacra historia del populos del antique America gravate sur plattas de metallo. in le libro mesme se parla de quatro genere de plattas de metallo: 1. Le plattas de Nephi, que esseva de duo typos: le Parve plattas e le Grande plattas. Le primas esseva plus particularmente dedicate al questiones spiritual e al ministerio e al inseniamentos del prophetas, dum le secundas contineva per le magis parte le historia secular del populos interessate (1 Nephi 9:2-4). totevia, desde le tempore de Mosiah, le Grande plattas includeva anque questiones de grande importantia spiritual. 2. Le plattas de Mormon, que contine un summario facite per Mormon del Grande plattas de Nephi, con multe commentarios. Iste plattas contine anque le continuation del historia de Mormon e le adjuncte de su filio Moroni. 3. Le plattas de Ether, que contine le historia del Jareditas. Iste registros esseva resumite per Moroni, que addeva anque su commentarios personal e addeva iste registros al historia general sub le titulo "Libro de Ether". 4. Le plattas de bronzo, portate per le populo de Lehi ab Jerusalem in 600 a.C. Iste plattas contineva "le cinque libros de Moses... E anque un historia del Judeos, desde le principio usque al initio del regno de Zedekiah, rege de Juda. E anque le prophetias del sancte prophetas" [[Libro de Mormon - 1 Nephi - Capitulo 5|(1 Nephi 5:11-13)]]. Multe partes de iste plattas, que cita Isaia e altere prophetas biblic e non biblic, compare in le Libro de Mormon. Le Libro de Mormon comprende dece-cinque partes o divisiones principal, cognoscite, con un unic exception, como libros, cata un designate con le nomine de su autor principal. Le prime parte (le prime sex libros, usque a [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Omni|Omni]] incluse) es un traduction del Parve plattas de Nephi. Inter le libros de Omni e de Mosiah on trova un insertion appellate [[Libro de Mormon - Le parolas de Mormon|Parolas de Mormon]]. Iste insertion conjunge le historia scribite sur le plattas con le summario facite per Moroni del Grande plattas de Nephi. Le parte plus longe, desde [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Mosiah|Mosiah]] usque al [[Libro de Mormon - Mormon - Capitulo 7|capitulo 7 de Mormon]] inclusive, es un traduction del summario facite per Mormon del Grande plattas de Nephi. Le parte conclusive, desde le [[Libro de Mormon - Mormon - Capitulo 8|capitulo 8 de Mormon]] usque le fin del volumine, esseva scribite per le filio de Mormon, Moroni, que, post haber terminate le narration del vita de su patre, faceva un summario del historia del Jareditas (appellate [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Ether|Libro de Ether]]) e pois addeva le partes cognoscite como Libro de Moroni. Circa le anno 421 d.C. Moroni, le ultime del prophetas-historic nephite, sigillava le sacre registros e los celava pro le Senior, pro venir al luce in le ultime dies, como habeva essite predicite per le voce del Senior per medio de su antique prophetas. In 1823 d.C. iste mesme Moroni, que alora esseva un personage resuscitate, appareva al propheta Joseph Smith e le consignava le plattas gravate. <hr> Libros: [[Le Libro de Mormon|Indice]] [[Libro de Mormon - Introduction|Intro]] [[Libro de Mormon - Prime Libro de Nephi|1Nephi]] [[Libro de Mormon - Secunde Libro de Nephi|2Nephi]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Jacob|Jacob]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Enos|Enos]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Jarom|Jarom]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Omni|Omni]] [[Libro de Mormon - Le parolas de Mormon|Parolas]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Mosiah|Mosiah]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Alma|Alma]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Helaman|Helaman]] [[Libro de Mormon - Tertie Nephi|3Nephi]] [[Libro de Mormon - Quarte Nephi|4Nephi]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Mormon|Mormon]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Ether|Ether]] [[Libro de Mormon - Libro de Moroni|Moroni]] 941 38 2005-04-12T12:01:08Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>TOSTO VENETIA NON ESSERA LE SOL CITATE CON PROBLEMAS DE INUNDATIONES</b> SOON VENICE WILL NOT BE THE ONLY CITY WITH FLOODING PROBLEMS <b>Venetia in Italia tosto non essera le sol citate in le mundo con multe aqua in su stratas. Un cambio del climate que nos expecta in solmente cento annos a causa del accumulation de bioxido de carbono e altere gases que reflecte le calor del sol continuemente al terra assecura que le nivello general del oceano mundial augmentara e inundara multe citates costal in diverse partes del terra. Etiam nunc paises sur insulas parve comencia a disapparer, e paises como Hollanda essera in grande periculo.</b> Venice in Italy soon will not be the only city in the world with a lot of water in its streets. A climate change that we expect in only one hundred years because of the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other gases that continually reflect the heat of the sun back onto the earth assures that average sea level will increase and flood many costal cities around the world. Even now countries on small islands are starting/beginning to disappear, and countries like Holland will be in great danger. <b>Le pollution es le ver causa de iste problema. Le terra vermente jam es un pauco plus calide que antea. Le temperatura medie es expectate a crescer con 1,5-4,5 grados, ma in regiones nord illo cresce 8-10 grados, e pauco a pauco le glacie polar comencia disgelar. Isto significa que le nivello del mar assatis tosto essera un medie metro--forsan usque un metro e medie--plus alte in le proxime cento annos. Scientistas seriose parla de un bomba climatic.</b> Pollution is the true cause of this problem. The earth really is a little hotter than it used to be. The average temperature is expected to grow by 1.5-4.5 (one point five to four point five) degrees, but in northern regions it is growing by eight to ten degrees, and little by little the polar glacier is starting to melt. This means that sea level will be a half a meter--maybe/perhaps even a meter and a half--higher in the next one hundred years. Thoughtful scientists are (speaking of)/(talking about) a climatic bomb. <b>In Stockholm, un coferentia de recercatores del futuro ha producite un reporto importante "Surprising Futures" (Futuros surprendente), le qual specula sur le possibilitate de construer enorme dicas pro stoppar le mares. Le hollandeses es specialmente preoccupate proque grande partes del pais es situate sub le nivello del mar. Un inundation grande occurreva illac in 1953. Le costos de recoperation de iste tragedia esseva dece-duo milliardos de florinos.</b> In Stockholm, a conference of researchers into the future has produced an important report, "Surprising Futures," which speculates on/about the possibility of building/contructing huge dikes to stop the sea. The Dutch are especially worried because large parts of their country are lower than sea level. A great flood took place there in 1953. The recovery costs for this tragedy were twelve billion (12,000,000,000) florins. <b>Cata vice que le mar cresce per un metro, le costa se move retro 150 metros, e le climate del Mediterraneo va diffunder se verso le nord, portante con se problemas de siccitate chronic. Il anque habera problemas con insectos african que va destruer recoltas, menacias contra le sanitate, e enorme migrationes de gente verso le nord como resultato del calor crescente. E in le nord multe typos de plantas e arbores va morir a causa del mesme calor.</b> Each time that sea level (is raised)/(goes up) by a meter, the coast (moves back)/(recedes) by 150 (one hundred fifty) meters, and the climate of the Mediterranean area will start moving toward the north bringing problems of chronic drought. There will also be difficulties with Afircan insects that will destroy crops, (public-health threats)/(threats against public health), and enormous migrations of people toward the north because of the growing heat. And in the north many types/kinds of plants and trees will die because of this (same) heat. <b>Un signo concrete del catastrophe menaciante es le cavo in le strato de ozono supra Antarctica, disciperite al fin del decada inter 1980 e 1990. Su causa principal es le discarga a in le atmosphera de freon, oxydo nitric, e altere gases nocive.</b> A concrete sign of this looming catastrophe is the ozone hole over Antarctica, discovered at the end of the 1980s. Its principal cause is the discharge into the atmosphere of freon, nitric oxide, and other harmful gases. <b>Le Statos Unite e altere paises del Occidente ha prohibite le uso de freon in lattas aerosol. Ma malgrado iste prohibition le discarga de freon a in le atmosphera ha crescite a octo cento mille (800.000) tonnas per anno, un taxa multo plus grande que le capacitate del atmosphera pro neutralisar lo.</b> The United States and other Occidental countries have prohibited the use of freon in aerosol cans. But (despite)/(in spite of) this prohibition the discharge of freon into the atmosphere has increased by eight hundred thousand (800,000) tons per year, a rate much larger than the capacity of the atmosphere to neutralize it. <b>Le effecto de estufa se realisa per le aqua e le bioxido de carbono in nostre atmosphera. Iste gases functiona como le vitro de un estufa. Le radios del sol pote passar, ma su radiation de calor non pote escappar. Omne nostre planeta comencia a esser como un simile vitro de estufa que causa le augmentation del temperatura medie sur omne le superficie de nostre planeta e cambios radical in su ecologia.</b> The greenhouse effect is caused by the water vapor and carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. These gases work like the glass on the roof of a greenhouse. The rays of the son can go through, but its heat radiation cannot escape. All our planet is starting to become a similar greenhouse that is causing an increase in average temperature on the surface of our planet and radical changes in the nature of its ecology. 2018 2005-04-12T12:02:10Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>TOSTO VENETIA NON ESSERA LE SOL CITATE CON PROBLEMAS DE INUNDATIONES</b> SOON VENICE WILL NOT BE THE ONLY CITY WITH FLOODING PROBLEMS <b>Venetia in Italia tosto non essera le sol citate in le mundo con multe aqua in su stratas. Un cambio del climate que nos expecta in solmente cento annos a causa del accumulation de bioxido de carbono e altere gases que reflecte le calor del sol continuemente al terra assecura que le nivello general del oceano mundial augmentara e inundara multe citates costal in diverse partes del terra. Etiam nunc paises sur insulas parve comencia a disapparer, e paises como Hollanda essera in grande periculo.</b> Venice in Italy soon will not be the only city in the world with a lot of water in its streets. A climate change that we expect in only one hundred years because of the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other gases that continually reflect the heat of the sun back onto the earth assures that average sea level will increase and flood many costal cities around the world. Even now countries on small islands are starting/beginning to disappear, and countries like Holland will be in great danger. <b>Le pollution es le ver causa de iste problema. Le terra vermente jam es un pauco plus calide que antea. Le temperatura medie es expectate a crescer con 1,5-4,5 grados, ma in regiones nord illo cresce 8-10 grados, e pauco a pauco le glacie polar comencia disgelar. Isto significa que le nivello del mar assatis tosto essera un medie metro--forsan usque un metro e medie--plus alte in le proxime cento annos. Scientistas seriose parla de un bomba climatic.</b> Pollution is the true cause of this problem. The earth really is a little hotter than it used to be. The average temperature is expected to grow by 1.5-4.5 (one point five to four point five) degrees, but in northern regions it is growing by eight to ten degrees, and little by little the polar glacier is starting to melt. This means that sea level will be a half a meter--maybe/perhaps even a meter and a half--higher in the next one hundred years. Thoughtful scientists are (speaking of)/(talking about) a climatic bomb. <b>In Stockholm, un coferentia de recercatores del futuro ha producite un reporto importante "Surprising Futures" (Futuros surprendente), le qual specula sur le possibilitate de construer enorme dicas pro stoppar le mares. Le hollandeses es specialmente preoccupate proque grande partes del pais es situate sub le nivello del mar. Un inundation grande occurreva illac in 1953. Le costos de recoperation de iste tragedia esseva dece-duo milliardos de florinos.</b> In Stockholm, a conference of researchers into the future has produced an important report, "Surprising Futures," which speculates on/about the possibility of building/contructing huge dikes to stop the sea. The Dutch are especially worried because large parts of their country are lower than sea level. A great flood took place there in 1953. The recovery costs for this tragedy were twelve billion (12,000,000,000) florins. <b>Cata vice que le mar cresce per un metro, le costa se move retro 150 metros, e le climate del Mediterraneo va diffunder se verso le nord, portante con se problemas de siccitate chronic. Il anque habera problemas con insectos african que va destruer recoltas, menacias contra le sanitate, e enorme migrationes de gente verso le nord como resultato del calor crescente. E in le nord multe typos de plantas e arbores va morir a causa del mesme calor.</b> Each time that sea level (is raised)/(goes up) by a meter, the coast (moves back)/(recedes) by 150 (one hundred fifty) meters, and the climate of the Mediterranean area will start moving toward the north bringing problems of chronic drought. There will also be difficulties with Afircan insects that will destroy crops, (public-health threats)/(threats against public health), and enormous migrations of people toward the north because of the growing heat. And in the north many types/kinds of plants and trees will die because of this (same) heat. <b>Un signo concrete del catastrophe menaciante es le cavo in le strato de ozono supra Antarctica, disciperite al fin del decada inter 1980 e 1990. Su causa principal es le discarga a in le atmosphera de freon, oxydo nitric, e altere gases nocive.</b> A concrete sign of this looming catastrophe is the ozone hole over Antarctica, discovered at the end of the 1980s. Its principal cause is the discharge into the atmosphere of freon, nitric oxide, and other harmful gases. <b>Le Statos Unite e altere paises del Occidente ha prohibite le uso de freon in lattas aerosol. Ma malgrado iste prohibition le discarga de freon a in le atmosphera ha crescite a octo cento mille (800.000) tonnas per anno, un taxa multo plus grande que le capacitate del atmosphera pro neutralisar lo.</b> The United States and other Occidental countries have prohibited the use of freon in aerosol cans. But (despite)/(in spite of) this prohibition the discharge of freon into the atmosphere has increased by eight hundred thousand (800,000) tons per year, a rate much larger than the capacity of the atmosphere to neutralize it. <b>Le effecto de estufa se realisa per le aqua e le bioxido de carbono in nostre atmosphera. Iste gases functiona como le vitro de un estufa. Le radios del sol pote passar, ma su radiation de calor non pote escappar. Omne nostre planeta comencia a esser como un simile vitro de estufa que causa le augmentation del temperatura medie sur omne le superficie de nostre planeta e cambios radical in su ecologia.</b> The greenhouse effect is caused by the water vapor and carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. These gases work like the glass on the roof of a greenhouse. The rays of the son can go through, but its heat radiation cannot escape. All our planet is starting to become a similar greenhouse that is causing an increase in average temperature on the surface of our planet and radical changes in the nature of its ecology. 942 39 2005-04-12T17:57:07Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 ALIGN="CENTER"><b>Interlingua-English</b></h1> <p ALIGN="CENTER">a dictionary of the international language<br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="CENTER"><small>Copyright, 1951, by<br> International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> Printed in the United States of America<br> Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-144342<br> ISBN 0-8044-0188-8</small></p> <p ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h3 ALIGN="CENTER">Preface to the Second Edition</h3> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question &#147;Why reprint the book?&#148; needs to be answered as does the question &#147;What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?&#148;</p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <b><hr> <h2 ALIGN="CENTER"><a name="contents">Contents</a></b></h2> <ul> <li><a href="#foreword">FOREWORD</a></li> <li><a href="intro1.html">INTRODUCTION</a><ul> <li><a href="intro1.html#theory">Theory and Principles</a><ul> <li><a href="intro1.html#languages"><i>International Languages</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro1.html#words"><i>International Words</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro1.html#variants"><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro1.html#source"><i>Source or Control Languages</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro1.html#summary"><i>Summary</i></a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="intro2.html#method">Method and Techniques</a><ul> <li><a href="intro2.html#eligibility"><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro2.html#form"><i>Form of International Words</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro2.html#terminations"><i>Terminations</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro2.html#series"><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro2.html#families"><i>Word Families</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro2.html#nonlatin"><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro2.html#summary"><i>Summary of Definitions</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro2.html#meaning"><i>Meaning of International Words</i></a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="intro3.html#vocabulary">The International Vocabulary</a><ul> <li><a href="intro3.html#building"><i>Active Word Building</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro3.html#affixes"><i>List of Active Affixes</i></a></li> <li><a href="intro3.html#free"><i>Free Formation</i></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="spelling.html">SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</a></li> <li><a href="notes.html">EXPLANATORY NOTES</a></li> <li><a href="abbreviations.html">ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</a></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p ALIGN="CENTER">Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> in the establishment<br> of a common language for international communication,<br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language<br> movement with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p ALIGN="CENTER">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> was founded under their leadership.<br> Under their guidance<br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p ALIGN="CENTER">For twenty-five years<br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p ALIGN="CENTER">At all times<br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p ALIGN="CENTER">May this volume,<br> as a foundation for future work<br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p ALIGN="CENTER"><img src="avmorris.jpg" width="321" height="468" alt="avmorris.jpg (57436 bytes)"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874&#150;1950</p> <p ALIGN="CENTER"><img src="dhmorris.jpg" width="324" height="465" alt="dhmorris.jpg (47693 bytes)"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872&#150;1944</p> <hr> <h2 ALIGN="CENTER"><a name="foreword">Foreword</a></h2> <p align="justify">The Interlingua-English Dictionary is the latest product of the long-term research program of the International Auxiliary Language Association.</p> <p align="justify">The purpose of the Dictionary is to furnish a scientifically sound vocabulary for the auxiliary language which is needed in all fields of international communication. The objective methods used in its compilation should make it a reference work of value in the general field of comparative linguistics. Its primary purpose, however, is to meet the needs of all workers in the special field of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p align="justify">Interlinguistics</b>. &#151; The quest for a common international language can be traced back to the beginnings of modern times. The idea of obtaining such a language from the elements common to national tongues appeared in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth Centuries. From these beginnings has come the gradual development of that branch of comparative linguistics which has been given the name of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify">Men of many nationalities have taken part in its coming of age.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The first to work out a complete auxiliary-language system based on the common elements in national languages was a Spaniard, Pirro, whose Universalglot was published in 1868.</p> <p align="justify">Volapük, the work of a German priest, Johann Martin Schleyer, which appeared in 1880, used the idea in a limited way, drawing heavily on English. This system had a decade of extraordinary popularity which justified the establishment of a Volapük Academy.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto, also the creation of one man, Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof of Poland, was published in 1887 and has achieved wide renown. In 1894, Dr. Zamenhof himself proposed a reformed Esperanto in response to demands among his followers for a simplified grammar and a more thoroughly international vocabulary. His proposals were not adopted.</p> <p align="justify">In 1907, three Frenchmen, Louis Leau, Louis Couturat, and Louis de Beaufront, were leaders of a delegation which again proposed certain reforms in Esperanto. The outcome was a schism in the Esperanto movement with the promulgation of another system called Ido.</p> <p align="justify">The original system of Dr. Zamenhof remained the foundation of all official Esperanto publications and organizations, of which there are many throughout the world. Ido has also successfully been used in many publications.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto II, a system proposed by René de Saussure of Switzerland, which aimed to remove certain features of Esperanto while retaining its fundamental structure, has never been used to any great extent.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">Meanwhile an Austrian, Julius Lott, and a Chilean, Alberto Liptay, had further clarified the idea that &#147;the international language does not need to be invented. It exists. One only needs to collect all its words and set them in order.&#148; When Waldemar Rosenberger, a Russian, assumed the leadership of the declining Volapük Academy, he made of it an energetic center of experimentation with Liptay's principle. The results, made public in 1902, became known as Idiom Neutral. A contemporary of Rosenberger, basing his work on the same principles, was Dr. H. Molenaar of Germany. He has continued to advocate his system under the name of Unial.</p> <p align="justify">In 1910, the Idiom Neutral (formerly Volapük) Academy, under the leadership of an Italian mathematician, Giuseppe Peano, became the Academia Pro Interlingua, a society for research in interlinguistics. Most of its publications were in the form of Interlingua known as Latino sine Flexione, but its members were free to experiment with, and advocate, other proposals. One member, Aldo Lavagnini, an Italian living in Mexico, promoted his own system under the name of Mondi Lingua. Mrs. Alice V. Morris, representing the International Auxiliary Language Association, became a member of the Academia. Its headquarters were in Turin, Italy. After the second World War they were reorganized in The Netherlands.</p> <p align="justify">Occidental, subsequently also called Interlingue, was published by an Estonian, Edgar de Wahl, in 1925. De Wahl and his group devoted much attention to the problem of combining great naturalness with great regularity in the derivational patterns of their language. It found many advocates throughout Europe. Various types of periodicals have been regularly issued in that language. The headquarters of the Interlingue-Union are in Switzerland.</p> <p align="justify">In 1925, Joseph Weisbart, also a German, began to promote his Medial. Otto Jespersen, the internationally known linguist of Denmark, produced a system of his own called Novial.</p> <p align="justify">Throughout the past quarter of a century experimentation in interlinguistics has been on the increase. Among the systems recently published are Interglossa by Lancelot Hogben of Great Britain, Internasional by Paul Mitrovitch of Yugoslavia, Mondial by Helge Heimer of Sweden, Neolatino by André Schild of Switzerland, International by Campos Lima of Portugal, and Ling by Anders Olsen of Sweden. Many other one-man products are in manuscript form.</p> <p align="justify">Controversial questions pertaining to vocabulary and grammar have caused so great a variety of auxiliary-language systems. Their multiplicity has fragmented the movement for that one world language to which developments in modern communications point. The positive aspect of the situation must be stressed, however. Underlying all controversial details, the numerous systems have a great deal in common. They may be regarded as variants of the one essential international language which is latent in the living languages. The most urgent practical problem in the field of interlinguistics is to build up a basic stock of language material which all interlinguists can accept as authentic. The Interlingua-English Dictionary offers such authentic material.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p align="justify">International Auxiliary Language Association</b>. &#151; The International Auxiliary Language Association, generally known as IALA, is an organization which grew out of investigations of the auxiliary language problem undertaken after the first World War by committees of the International Research Council, by the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the Advancement of Science, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other groups of specialists.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Frederick Gardner Cottrell of the International Research Council interested Mr. and Mrs. Dave Hennen Morris of New York in the idea of creating a permanent body which would continue the studies begun by the various committees. They had both been long active in organizations concerned with the betterment of conditions of human society, and they saw at once the significance of an international language as one of the means for developing the international community which seemed at the time a possible hope. They brought together in 1923 men and women of wide experience in international affairs, communications, and linguistic scholarship to discuss what might be done to focus attention upon the already well-established movement for an international language.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The group included Dean Earle B. Babcock, New York University; Dr. LeRoy E. Bowman, Columbia University; General John T. Carty, Vice-President, American Telephone &amp; Telegraph Company; Mrs. James S. Cushman, World's Committee, Young Women's Christian Association; Dr. Stephen Duggan, Director, Institute of International Education; Mr. Harry E. Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Dr. John H. Finley, Editor, New York Times; Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, Radio Corporation of America; Dr. Arthur Hamerschlag, President, Research Corporation; Mr. and Mrs. John H. Hammond; General James G. Harbord, President, Radio Corporation of America; Clarence Howard, President, International Chamber of Commerce; Dr. Frederick P. Keppel, President, Carnegie Corporation; Mrs. James Lees Laidlaw, Woman's Council for the League of Nations; Dr. Sidney E. Mezes, President, College of the City of New York; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, President, Antioch College; Dr. Herbert N. Stanton, Columbia University; Mrs. William Jay Schieffelin; Miss Clara B. Spence, Principal, Miss Spence's School; and Mrs. Charles L. Tiffany, New York League of Women Voters.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">The deliberations of these men and women bore fruit. Under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Morris the International Auxiliary Language Association was founded and incorporated in 1924 as a non-profit organization &#147;to promote widespread study, discussion, and publicity of all questions involved in the establishment of an auxiliary language, together with research and experiment that may hasten such establishment in an intelligent manner and on stable foundations.&#148;</p> <p align="justify">Dean Babcock became the first President. In 1936 he was succeeded by Dr. John H. Finley. Dr. Stephen Duggan served as President of IALA from 1940 to the time of his death in 1950.</p> <p align="justify">Mrs. Morris became Honorary Secretary of the Association and later also Chairman of the Research Division, in which roles she carried the task of developing the many-sided research and promotional activities of IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Mr. Morris was IALA's Treasurer from the founding of the Association until his death in 1944. During the years of his ambassadorship to Belgium (1933-1937) he and his wife were successful in bringing European scholars as well as leading men of practical affairs to take a serious interest in IALA's work. Their son, Mr. Lawrence Morris, succeeded him as Treasurer.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p align="justify">Exploratory Work</b>. &#151; The first decade of IALA's research program was of an exploratory nature. Contacts were made with leaders in the various groups supporting different auxiliary-language systems. In order to survey the extent of the successful use of auxiliary languages a special library was collected. It includes books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in different interlinguas, as well as dictionaries and textbooks. A bibliography listing all the material available in European libraries on the subject of international languages was prepared in collaboration with the Universal Esperanto Association.</p> <p align="justify">The anthropological approach to the auxiliary-language problem was directed by Professor Edward Sapir of Yale University. In a series of studies called <i>Foundations of Language</i>, the speech habits typical of different languages were analyzed in connection with specific aspects of grammar. Some of these studies were published by the Linguistic Society of America. Mrs. Morris was the Editor in collaboration with Dr. Sapir, Professor William E. Collinson of the University of Liverpool, and Dr. Morris Swadesh.</p> <p align="justify">As long ago as 1930 IALA planned a meeting in Europe at which for the first time linguists and experts in auxiliary languages sat down together for a period of two weeks to exchange ideas. Convened by Professor Otto Jespersen, the conference gave its approval to the research program proposed by IALA. Since that time four official congresses of linguists have had reports on IALA's work set before them.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p align="justify">Linguistic Research</b>. &#151; Five international language systems, Esperanto, Ido, Esperanto II, Occidental, and Latino sine Flexione, were selected for analytical study by IALA because they all had official organizations promoting them and had been used with success in publications and in spoken communication. Parallel studies of these languages with comparative studies of national languages were carried on by IALA's Research Staff under the direction of scholars in American and European universities.</p> <p align="justify">An intensive study of language difficulties in international conferences was made by Professor Herbert N. Shenton, then of Syracuse University and Executive Secretary of IALA. The extent to which auxiliary languages have been tried out in international conferences was surveyed. The results of this research project were published under the title of <i>Cosmopolitan Conversation</i> by Columbia University Press in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">Various kinds of educational research projects were pursued centering upon the basic idea that an interlingua can be used in a simplified course in comparative linguistics to initiate students into the study of foreign languages. A textbook for a <i>General Language Course</i> was prepared by Helen S. Eaton of IALA's staff. It was used in experimental courses in schools cooperating with IALA's educational program.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Edward L. Thorndike on an initial grant from Carnegie Corporation conducted a series of experiments in the relative ease of learning constructed and natural languages. His findings were published under the title <i>Language Learning</i> by the Bureau of Publications of Teachers College of Columbia University in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">During the second World War, when the necessity for learning foreign languages was emphasized by world events, a pictorial method for the beginner was embodied in a textbook series by two members of IALA's Research Staff, E. Clark Stillman and Alexander Gode. The series included the titles <i>Spanish at Sight</i>, <i>French at Sight</i>, and <i>Portuguese at Sight</i>.</p> <p align="justify">A new contribution to the field of word-frequency studies was made in the form of the <i>Semantic Frequency List</i> by Helen S. Eaton, Linguistic Research Associate of IALA's staff. This work was issued by the Committee on Modern Languages of the American Council on Education and published by the University of Chicago Press in 1940.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p align="justify">Work on the Dictionary</b>. &#151; Preparatory work on the Dictionary included consultation with linguists in the United States and Europe and with experts in the various auxiliary-language systems. It was carried on by means of conferences, correspondence, and questionnaires.</p> <p align="justify">At the University of Liverpool from 1936 to 1939 various methods of compiling international word material were tested under the direction of Professor William E. Collinson. A staff of persons of different language backgrounds was assembled. Mr. E. Clark Stillman succeeded Dr. Collinson as its Director. The outbreak of war forced the transfer of the work to New York, where Mr. Stillman assembled a new international staff and continued to direct it until he joined the State Department in 1942. During the war years, Dr. Alexander Gode kept the research program going by assuming the duties of Acting Director in addition to his regular work as Editor of Reference Books with the T. Y. Crowell Company. In 1946 IALA brought Dr. André Martinet from the Sorbonne to New York and entrusted him with the direction of its interlinguistic research. Upon his joining the faculty of Columbia University in 1948, Dr. Gode assumed full direction of the work. In its final form the Dictionary is his conception and his responsibility. It is the fruit of his and of his staff's exacting scholarship and patient labor.</p> <hr> <h3 ALIGN="CENTER"><a name="acknowledgements">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</a></h3> <p align="justify">The present Directors of IALA are: W. Hallam Tuck, Vice-President, Belgian American Educational Foundation; John V. Irwin; Lawrence Morris; LeRoy E. Bowman; Ben M. Cherrington, University of Denver; Harry Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Alfred N. Goldsmith, Past President, Society of Motion Picture Engineers; Henry Goddard Leach, President, American Scandinavian Foundation; Frederick H. Osborn; Mrs. Harold Peabody; and Thomas J. Watson, President, International Business Machines Corporation. In their names I acknowledge the many kinds of cooperation IALA has received in its researches.</p> <p align="justify">Financial support of IALA's work has come from many sources. Carnegie Corporation gave a grant to Teachers College of Columbia University for preliminary research in language learning. Rockefeller Foundation provided a grant for lexicological work done at the University of Liverpool. Research Corporation made liberal undesignated annual grants over a period of years. To all of these foundations IALA expresses gratitude not only for the funds given but for the recognition of the importance of the work in the whole field of communications.</p> <p align="justify">IALA's faithful membership has helped to underwrite the task of producing the Dictionary and has followed every stage of its work.</p> <p align="justify">The most substantial amount of financial support has come from Mr. and Mrs. Morris and their children. They never failed to comprehend the cost of a research program like IALA's, to respect the points of view of the scholars they enlisted in the work, and to meet the needs of IALA's budget. Year after year they gave money but they also gave themselves unselfishly and enthusiastically to the practical details which might help to make their ideal aim of an international language a reality.</p> <p align="justify">A special debt of thanks is due to IALA's Budget Committee of which James G. Harbord was Chairman and S. Sloan Colt and Samuel McRoberts were members.</p> <p align="justify">Intellectual support of IALA's program has come from men and women in all parts of the world. Specialists in communication, international relations, education, and many of the sciences have participated in discussions of IALA's program.</p> <p align="justify">Offers of collaboration have been received from many authors of auxiliary-language systems, some of whom have placed their own manuscripts at the disposal of IALA. Open-minded interest has been demonstrated by many supporters of different auxiliary languages, while linguists have given the work their serious attention. Business men have shown genuine interest, among them Rotary International, which appointed a committee to follow IALA's activities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has established contact with IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Among those who took part in formal and informal conferences of IALA were: Leslie Adie; Mrs. Yorke Allen; Dr. James R. Angell, President, Yale University; Professor Kan-Ichi Asakawa, Yale University; Siegfried Auerbach, Akademio di Ido; Professor Charles Bally, University of Geneva; Clarence Barnhart; Louis Bastien, Esperanto Society of France; Andre Baudet, Paris Chamber of Commerce; Wilhelm Blaschke; Pierre Bovet, Rousseau Institute, Geneva; Willem de Cock Buning, Rotary International; Mrs. Westwood Carr; Professor Gustave Cohen, École Libre des Hautes Études; Mr. and Mrs. G. Alan Connor, Esperanto Association of North America; Andreo Cseh, Internacia Cseh-Instituto de Esperanto; Mrs. James S. Cushman, Y.W.C.A.; Dr. Malcolm Davis, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Dr. Watson Davis, Science Service; Professor Albert Debrunner, Universities of Berne and Basle; Professor A. W. de Groot, University of Amsterdam; Rollet de l'Isle, Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista; René de Saussure, Esperanto II; Edgar de Wahl, Occidental Union; Professor Henry Gratton Doyle, The George Washington University; Mrs. Laura Dreyfus-Barney; Miss Helen S. Eaton; Gertrude Ely; Professor Robert H. Fife, Columbia University; Professor P. Fouché, Sorbonne; Dr. Frank Fremont-Smith, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation; Professor Otto Funke, University of Berne; Miss Clarissa H. Gordon; Mrs. Ruth M. Griggs; Professor Albert L. Guérard, Stanford University; Mrs. Hamilton Hadley; Dr. Walter D. Head, Rotary International; Professor V. A. C. Henmon, University of Wisconsin; Professor Eduard Hermann, University of Göttingen; Dean Henry W. Holmes, Harvard University; Mr. and Mrs. I. R. G. Isbrucker, Universala Ligo; Professor Roman Jakobson, Columbia University; Professor Otto Jespersen, University of Copenhagen; Dr. Marguerite Jones, Hunter College; Professor Serge Karcevski, University of Geneva; Professor Hayward Keniston, University of Michigan; Dr. Laura H. Kennon, Brooklyn College; Professor Wencil J. Kostir, University of Ohio; Wladyslaw Kozlowski, Lingvo Monde; Dr. John Lansbury; George Winthrop Lee and John L. Lewine, Esperanto Association of North America; Miss Anne Lincoln; Professor Kemp Malone, Johns Hopkins University; Professor Antoine Meillet, Sorbonne; Mrs. Dudley H. Mills; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch College; Dave Hennen Morris, Jr.; Professor Henri F. Muller, Columbia University; Professor C. K. Ogden, Cambridge University; Professor Austin M. Patterson, Antioch College; William Perrenoud, Esperantist; Howard A. Poillon, Research Corporation; Professor Pitman B. Potter, Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales, Geneva; Bronson Price; Edmond Privat, President, Universal Esperanto Association; Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt; Professor Albert Sechehaye, University of Geneva; Dr. James T. Shotwell, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Professor Herbert Schofield, Loughborough College; Mgr. Schrijnen; Professor Alf Sommerfelt, University of Oslo; Pierre Stojan, Esperantist; Dr. Lester Struthers, Rotary International; Mrs. Walter Knight Sturges, Jr.; William Mark Taylor; George L. Trager; Professor Nicolaas Van Wijk, University of Leiden; Professor Joseph Vendryes, Sorbonne; Professor Jean Paul Vinay, University of Montreal; Eugen Wüster, International Standards Organization; Reinhold Zeidler, Novial. &#151; To these and many others IALA is most grateful.</p> <p align="justify">Mary Connell Bray<br> Executive Director, IALA</p> <hr> <p align="center"><font size="2"><font color="#808080">Index</font> </font><font size="2" face="Arial"><strong>·</strong></font><font size="2"> <a href="#contents">Contents</a> </font><font size="2" face="Arial"><strong>·</strong></font><font size="2"> <font color="#808080">Previous</font> </font><font size="2" face="Arial"><strong>·</strong></font><font size="2"> <a href="intro1.html">Next</a></font></p> <hr> </td> </tr> </table> </center></div> </body> </html> 40 2005-04-12T21:46:49Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b></h1> <h1 align="center">Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> <p align="center">a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>Copyright, 1951,<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h3 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b></h3> <h3 align="center">Preface to the Second Edition</h3> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b></h2> <h2 align="center">Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>Methodo e Technicas</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>Eligibilitate de Parolas International</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>Forma del Parolas International</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>Terminationes</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>Formas in Series Derivational</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>Familias de Parolas</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>Exemplos Non-Latin</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>Summario de Definitiones</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>Signification del Parolas International</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>Le Vocabulario International</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>Formation Active de Parolas</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>Lista de Affixos Active</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>Formation Libere</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>NOTAS EXPLICATIVE</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> <p align="center">Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b></p> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> <p align="center">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b></p> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> <p align="center">For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b></p> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> <p align="center">At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b></p> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> <p align="center">May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b></p> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> <h2 align="center">Foreword</h2> <p align="justify">The Interlingua-English Dictionary is the latest product of the long-term research program of the International Auxiliary Language Association.</p> <p align="justify">The purpose of the Dictionary is to furnish a scientifically sound vocabulary for the auxiliary language which is needed in all fields of international communication. The objective methods used in its compilation should make it a reference work of value in the general field of comparative linguistics. Its primary purpose, however, is to meet the needs of all workers in the special field of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Interlinguistics. — The quest for a common international language can be traced back to the beginnings of modern times. The idea of obtaining such a language from the elements common to national tongues appeared in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth Centuries. From these beginnings has come the gradual development of that branch of comparative linguistics which has been given the name of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify">Men of many nationalities have taken part in its coming of age.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The first to work out a complete auxiliary-language system based on the common elements in national languages was a Spaniard, Pirro, whose Universalglot was published in 1868.</p> <p align="justify">Volapük, the work of a German priest, Johann Martin Schleyer, which appeared in 1880, used the idea in a limited way, drawing heavily on English. This system had a decade of extraordinary popularity which justified the establishment of a Volapük Academy.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto, also the creation of one man, Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof of Poland, was published in 1887 and has achieved wide renown. In 1894, Dr. Zamenhof himself proposed a reformed Esperanto in response to demands among his followers for a simplified grammar and a more thoroughly international vocabulary. His proposals were not adopted.</p> <p align="justify">In 1907, three Frenchmen, Louis Leau, Louis Couturat, and Louis de Beaufront, were leaders of a delegation which again proposed certain reforms in Esperanto. The outcome was a schism in the Esperanto movement with the promulgation of another system called Ido.</p> <p align="justify">The original system of Dr. Zamenhof remained the foundation of all official Esperanto publications and organizations, of which there are many throughout the world. Ido has also successfully been used in many publications.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto II, a system proposed by René de Saussure of Switzerland, which aimed to remove certain features of Esperanto while retaining its fundamental structure, has never been used to any great extent.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">Meanwhile an Austrian, Julius Lott, and a Chilean, Alberto Liptay, had further clarified the idea that “the international language does not need to be invented. It exists. One only needs to collect all its words and set them in order.” When Waldemar Rosenberger, a Russian, assumed the leadership of the declining Volapük Academy, he made of it an energetic center of experimentation with Liptay's principle. The results, made public in 1902, became known as Idiom Neutral. A contemporary of Rosenberger, basing his work on the same principles, was Dr. H. Molenaar of Germany. He has continued to advocate his system under the name of Unial.</p> <p align="justify">In 1910, the Idiom Neutral (formerly Volapük) Academy, under the leadership of an Italian mathematician, Giuseppe Peano, became the Academia Pro Interlingua, a society for research in interlinguistics. Most of its publications were in the form of Interlingua known as Latino sine Flexione, but its members were free to experiment with, and advocate, other proposals. One member, Aldo Lavagnini, an Italian living in Mexico, promoted his own system under the name of Mondi Lingua. Mrs. Alice V. Morris, representing the International Auxiliary Language Association, became a member of the Academia. Its headquarters were in Turin, Italy. After the second World War they were reorganized in The Netherlands.</p> <p align="justify">Occidental, subsequently also called Interlingue, was published by an Estonian, Edgar de Wahl, in 1925. De Wahl and his group devoted much attention to the problem of combining great naturalness with great regularity in the derivational patterns of their language. It found many advocates throughout Europe. Various types of periodicals have been regularly issued in that language. The headquarters of the Interlingue-Union are in Switzerland.</p> <p align="justify">In 1925, Joseph Weisbart, also a German, began to promote his Medial. Otto Jespersen, the internationally known linguist of Denmark, produced a system of his own called Novial.</p> <p align="justify">Throughout the past quarter of a century experimentation in interlinguistics has been on the increase. Among the systems recently published are Interglossa by Lancelot Hogben of Great Britain, Internasional by Paul Mitrovitch of Yugoslavia, Mondial by Helge Heimer of Sweden, Neolatino by André Schild of Switzerland, International by Campos Lima of Portugal, and Ling by Anders Olsen of Sweden. Many other one-man products are in manuscript form.</p> <p align="justify">Controversial questions pertaining to vocabulary and grammar have caused so great a variety of auxiliary-language systems. Their multiplicity has fragmented the movement for that one world language to which developments in modern communications point. The positive aspect of the situation must be stressed, however. Underlying all controversial details, the numerous systems have a great deal in common. They may be regarded as variants of the one essential international language which is latent in the living languages. The most urgent practical problem in the field of interlinguistics is to build up a basic stock of language material which all interlinguists can accept as authentic. The Interlingua-English Dictionary offers such authentic material.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">International Auxiliary Language Association. — The International Auxiliary Language Association, generally known as IALA, is an organization which grew out of investigations of the auxiliary language problem undertaken after the first World War by committees of the International Research Council, by the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the Advancement of Science, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other groups of specialists.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Frederick Gardner Cottrell of the International Research Council interested Mr. and Mrs. Dave Hennen Morris of New York in the idea of creating a permanent body which would continue the studies begun by the various committees. They had both been long active in organizations concerned with the betterment of conditions of human society, and they saw at once the significance of an international language as one of the means for developing the international community which seemed at the time a possible hope. They brought together in 1923 men and women of wide experience in international affairs, communications, and linguistic scholarship to discuss what might be done to focus attention upon the already well-established movement for an international language.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The group included Dean Earle B. Babcock, New York University; Dr. LeRoy E. Bowman, Columbia University; General John T. Carty, Vice-President, American Telephone &amp; Telegraph Company; Mrs. James S. Cushman, World's Committee, Young Women's Christian Association; Dr. Stephen Duggan, Director, Institute of International Education; Mr. Harry E. Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Dr. John H. Finley, Editor, New York Times; Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, Radio Corporation of America; Dr. Arthur Hamerschlag, President, Research Corporation; Mr. and Mrs. John H. Hammond; General James G. Harbord, President, Radio Corporation of America; Clarence Howard, President, International Chamber of Commerce; Dr. Frederick P. Keppel, President, Carnegie Corporation; Mrs. James Lees Laidlaw, Woman's Council for the League of Nations; Dr. Sidney E. Mezes, President, College of the City of New York; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, President, Antioch College; Dr. Herbert N. Stanton, Columbia University; Mrs. William Jay Schieffelin; Miss Clara B. Spence, Principal, Miss Spence's School; and Mrs. Charles L. Tiffany, New York League of Women Voters.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">The deliberations of these men and women bore fruit. Under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Morris the International Auxiliary Language Association was founded and incorporated in 1924 as a non-profit organization “to promote widespread study, discussion, and publicity of all questions involved in the establishment of an auxiliary language, together with research and experiment that may hasten such establishment in an intelligent manner and on stable foundations.”</p> <p align="justify">Dean Babcock became the first President. In 1936 he was succeeded by Dr. John H. Finley. Dr. Stephen Duggan served as President of IALA from 1940 to the time of his death in 1950.</p> <p align="justify">Mrs. Morris became Honorary Secretary of the Association and later also Chairman of the Research Division, in which roles she carried the task of developing the many-sided research and promotional activities of IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Mr. Morris was IALA's Treasurer from the founding of the Association until his death in 1944. During the years of his ambassadorship to Belgium (1933-1937) he and his wife were successful in bringing European scholars as well as leading men of practical affairs to take a serious interest in IALA's work. Their son, Mr. Lawrence Morris, succeeded him as Treasurer.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Exploratory Work. — The first decade of IALA's research program was of an exploratory nature. Contacts were made with leaders in the various groups supporting different auxiliary-language systems. In order to survey the extent of the successful use of auxiliary languages a special library was collected. It includes books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in different interlinguas, as well as dictionaries and textbooks. A bibliography listing all the material available in European libraries on the subject of international languages was prepared in collaboration with the Universal Esperanto Association.</p> <p align="justify">The anthropological approach to the auxiliary-language problem was directed by Professor Edward Sapir of Yale University. In a series of studies called <i>Foundations of Language</i>, the speech habits typical of different languages were analyzed in connection with specific aspects of grammar. Some of these studies were published by the Linguistic Society of America. Mrs. Morris was the Editor in collaboration with Dr. Sapir, Professor William E. Collinson of the University of Liverpool, and Dr. Morris Swadesh.</p> <p align="justify">As long ago as 1930 IALA planned a meeting in Europe at which for the first time linguists and experts in auxiliary languages sat down together for a period of two weeks to exchange ideas. Convened by Professor Otto Jespersen, the conference gave its approval to the research program proposed by IALA. Since that time four official congresses of linguists have had reports on IALA's work set before them.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Linguistic Research. — Five international language systems, Esperanto, Ido, Esperanto II, Occidental, and Latino sine Flexione, were selected for analytical study by IALA because they all had official organizations promoting them and had been used with success in publications and in spoken communication. Parallel studies of these languages with comparative studies of national languages were carried on by IALA's Research Staff under the direction of scholars in American and European universities.</p> <p align="justify">An intensive study of language difficulties in international conferences was made by Professor Herbert N. Shenton, then of Syracuse University and Executive Secretary of IALA. The extent to which auxiliary languages have been tried out in international conferences was surveyed. The results of this research project were published under the title of <i>Cosmopolitan Conversation</i> by Columbia University Press in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">Various kinds of educational research projects were pursued centering upon the basic idea that an interlingua can be used in a simplified course in comparative linguistics to initiate students into the study of foreign languages. A textbook for a <i>General Language Course</i> was prepared by Helen S. Eaton of IALA's staff. It was used in experimental courses in schools cooperating with IALA's educational program.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Edward L. Thorndike on an initial grant from Carnegie Corporation conducted a series of experiments in the relative ease of learning constructed and natural languages. His findings were published under the title <i>Language Learning</i> by the Bureau of Publications of Teachers College of Columbia University in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">During the second World War, when the necessity for learning foreign languages was emphasized by world events, a pictorial method for the beginner was embodied in a textbook series by two members of IALA's Research Staff, E. Clark Stillman and Alexander Gode. The series included the titles <i>Spanish at Sight</i>, <i>French at Sight</i>, and <i>Portuguese at Sight</i>.</p> <p align="justify">A new contribution to the field of word-frequency studies was made in the form of the <i>Semantic Frequency List</i> by Helen S. Eaton, Linguistic Research Associate of IALA's staff. This work was issued by the Committee on Modern Languages of the American Council on Education and published by the University of Chicago Press in 1940.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Work on the Dictionary. — Preparatory work on the Dictionary included consultation with linguists in the United States and Europe and with experts in the various auxiliary-language systems. It was carried on by means of conferences, correspondence, and questionnaires.</p> <p align="justify">At the University of Liverpool from 1936 to 1939 various methods of compiling international word material were tested under the direction of Professor William E. Collinson. A staff of persons of different language backgrounds was assembled. Mr. E. Clark Stillman succeeded Dr. Collinson as its Director. The outbreak of war forced the transfer of the work to New York, where Mr. Stillman assembled a new international staff and continued to direct it until he joined the State Department in 1942. During the war years, Dr. Alexander Gode kept the research program going by assuming the duties of Acting Director in addition to his regular work as Editor of Reference Books with the T. Y. Crowell Company. In 1946 IALA brought Dr. André Martinet from the Sorbonne to New York and entrusted him with the direction of its interlinguistic research. Upon his joining the faculty of Columbia University in 1948, Dr. Gode assumed full direction of the work. In its final form the Dictionary is his conception and his responsibility. It is the fruit of his and of his staff's exacting scholarship and patient labor.</p> <hr> <h3 align="center">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</h3> <p align="justify">The present Directors of IALA are: W. Hallam Tuck, Vice-President, Belgian American Educational Foundation; John V. Irwin; Lawrence Morris; LeRoy E. Bowman; Ben M. Cherrington, University of Denver; Harry Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Alfred N. Goldsmith, Past President, Society of Motion Picture Engineers; Henry Goddard Leach, President, American Scandinavian Foundation; Frederick H. Osborn; Mrs. Harold Peabody; and Thomas J. Watson, President, International Business Machines Corporation. In their names I acknowledge the many kinds of cooperation IALA has received in its researches.</p> <p align="justify">Financial support of IALA's work has come from many sources. Carnegie Corporation gave a grant to Teachers College of Columbia University for preliminary research in language learning. Rockefeller Foundation provided a grant for lexicological work done at the University of Liverpool. Research Corporation made liberal undesignated annual grants over a period of years. To all of these foundations IALA expresses gratitude not only for the funds given but for the recognition of the importance of the work in the whole field of communications.</p> <p align="justify">IALA's faithful membership has helped to underwrite the task of producing the Dictionary and has followed every stage of its work.</p> <p align="justify">The most substantial amount of financial support has come from Mr. and Mrs. Morris and their children. They never failed to comprehend the cost of a research program like IALA's, to respect the points of view of the scholars they enlisted in the work, and to meet the needs of IALA's budget. Year after year they gave money but they also gave themselves unselfishly and enthusiastically to the practical details which might help to make their ideal aim of an international language a reality.</p> <p align="justify">A special debt of thanks is due to IALA's Budget Committee of which James G. Harbord was Chairman and S. Sloan Colt and Samuel McRoberts were members.</p> <p align="justify">Intellectual support of IALA's program has come from men and women in all parts of the world. Specialists in communication, international relations, education, and many of the sciences have participated in discussions of IALA's program.</p> <p align="justify">Offers of collaboration have been received from many authors of auxiliary-language systems, some of whom have placed their own manuscripts at the disposal of IALA. Open-minded interest has been demonstrated by many supporters of different auxiliary languages, while linguists have given the work their serious attention. Business men have shown genuine interest, among them Rotary International, which appointed a committee to follow IALA's activities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has established contact with IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Among those who took part in formal and informal conferences of IALA were: Leslie Adie; Mrs. Yorke Allen; Dr. James R. Angell, President, Yale University; Professor Kan-Ichi Asakawa, Yale University; Siegfried Auerbach, Akademio di Ido; Professor Charles Bally, University of Geneva; Clarence Barnhart; Louis Bastien, Esperanto Society of France; Andre Baudet, Paris Chamber of Commerce; Wilhelm Blaschke; Pierre Bovet, Rousseau Institute, Geneva; Willem de Cock Buning, Rotary International; Mrs. Westwood Carr; Professor Gustave Cohen, École Libre des Hautes Études; Mr. and Mrs. G. Alan Connor, Esperanto Association of North America; Andreo Cseh, Internacia Cseh-Instituto de Esperanto; Mrs. James S. Cushman, Y.W.C.A.; Dr. Malcolm Davis, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Dr. Watson Davis, Science Service; Professor Albert Debrunner, Universities of Berne and Basle; Professor A. W. de Groot, University of Amsterdam; Rollet de l'Isle, Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista; René de Saussure, Esperanto II; Edgar de Wahl, Occidental Union; Professor Henry Gratton Doyle, The George Washington University; Mrs. Laura Dreyfus-Barney; Miss Helen S. Eaton; Gertrude Ely; Professor Robert H. Fife, Columbia University; Professor P. Fouché, Sorbonne; Dr. Frank Fremont-Smith, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation; Professor Otto Funke, University of Berne; Miss Clarissa H. Gordon; Mrs. Ruth M. Griggs; Professor Albert L. Guérard, Stanford University; Mrs. Hamilton Hadley; Dr. Walter D. Head, Rotary International; Professor V. A. C. Henmon, University of Wisconsin; Professor Eduard Hermann, University of Göttingen; Dean Henry W. Holmes, Harvard University; Mr. and Mrs. I. R. G. Isbrucker, Universala Ligo; Professor Roman Jakobson, Columbia University; Professor Otto Jespersen, University of Copenhagen; Dr. Marguerite Jones, Hunter College; Professor Serge Karcevski, University of Geneva; Professor Hayward Keniston, University of Michigan; Dr. Laura H. Kennon, Brooklyn College; Professor Wencil J. Kostir, University of Ohio; Wladyslaw Kozlowski, Lingvo Monde; Dr. John Lansbury; George Winthrop Lee and John L. Lewine, Esperanto Association of North America; Miss Anne Lincoln; Professor Kemp Malone, Johns Hopkins University; Professor Antoine Meillet, Sorbonne; Mrs. Dudley H. Mills; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch College; Dave Hennen Morris, Jr.; Professor Henri F. Muller, Columbia University; Professor C. K. Ogden, Cambridge University; Professor Austin M. Patterson, Antioch College; William Perrenoud, Esperantist; Howard A. Poillon, Research Corporation; Professor Pitman B. Potter, Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales, Geneva; Bronson Price; Edmond Privat, President, Universal Esperanto Association; Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt; Professor Albert Sechehaye, University of Geneva; Dr. James T. Shotwell, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Professor Herbert Schofield, Loughborough College; Mgr. Schrijnen; Professor Alf Sommerfelt, University of Oslo; Pierre Stojan, Esperantist; Dr. Lester Struthers, Rotary International; Mrs. Walter Knight Sturges, Jr.; William Mark Taylor; George L. Trager; Professor Nicolaas Van Wijk, University of Leiden; Professor Joseph Vendryes, Sorbonne; Professor Jean Paul Vinay, University of Montreal; Eugen Wüster, International Standards Organization; Reinhold Zeidler, Novial. — To these and many others IALA is most grateful.</p> <p align="justify">Mary Connell Bray<br> Executive Director, IALA</p> <hr><br> </div> 41 2005-04-12T22:05:11Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> <p align="center">a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h3 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h3> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> >br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> <p align="center">Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> <p align="center">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> <p align="center">For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> <p align="center">At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> <p align="center">May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> <h2 align="center">Prologo<br> <br> Foreword</h2> <p align="justify">The Interlingua-English Dictionary is the latest product of the long-term research program of the International Auxiliary Language Association.</p> <p align="justify">The purpose of the Dictionary is to furnish a scientifically sound vocabulary for the auxiliary language which is needed in all fields of international communication. The objective methods used in its compilation should make it a reference work of value in the general field of comparative linguistics. Its primary purpose, however, is to meet the needs of all workers in the special field of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Interlinguistics. — The quest for a common international language can be traced back to the beginnings of modern times. The idea of obtaining such a language from the elements common to national tongues appeared in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth Centuries. From these beginnings has come the gradual development of that branch of comparative linguistics which has been given the name of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify">Men of many nationalities have taken part in its coming of age.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The first to work out a complete auxiliary-language system based on the common elements in national languages was a Spaniard, Pirro, whose Universalglot was published in 1868.</p> <p align="justify">Volapük, the work of a German priest, Johann Martin Schleyer, which appeared in 1880, used the idea in a limited way, drawing heavily on English. This system had a decade of extraordinary popularity which justified the establishment of a Volapük Academy.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto, also the creation of one man, Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof of Poland, was published in 1887 and has achieved wide renown. In 1894, Dr. Zamenhof himself proposed a reformed Esperanto in response to demands among his followers for a simplified grammar and a more thoroughly international vocabulary. His proposals were not adopted.</p> <p align="justify">In 1907, three Frenchmen, Louis Leau, Louis Couturat, and Louis de Beaufront, were leaders of a delegation which again proposed certain reforms in Esperanto. The outcome was a schism in the Esperanto movement with the promulgation of another system called Ido.</p> <p align="justify">The original system of Dr. Zamenhof remained the foundation of all official Esperanto publications and organizations, of which there are many throughout the world. Ido has also successfully been used in many publications.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto II, a system proposed by René de Saussure of Switzerland, which aimed to remove certain features of Esperanto while retaining its fundamental structure, has never been used to any great extent.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">Meanwhile an Austrian, Julius Lott, and a Chilean, Alberto Liptay, had further clarified the idea that “the international language does not need to be invented. It exists. One only needs to collect all its words and set them in order.” When Waldemar Rosenberger, a Russian, assumed the leadership of the declining Volapük Academy, he made of it an energetic center of experimentation with Liptay's principle. The results, made public in 1902, became known as Idiom Neutral. A contemporary of Rosenberger, basing his work on the same principles, was Dr. H. Molenaar of Germany. He has continued to advocate his system under the name of Unial.</p> <p align="justify">In 1910, the Idiom Neutral (formerly Volapük) Academy, under the leadership of an Italian mathematician, Giuseppe Peano, became the Academia Pro Interlingua, a society for research in interlinguistics. Most of its publications were in the form of Interlingua known as Latino sine Flexione, but its members were free to experiment with, and advocate, other proposals. One member, Aldo Lavagnini, an Italian living in Mexico, promoted his own system under the name of Mondi Lingua. Mrs. Alice V. Morris, representing the International Auxiliary Language Association, became a member of the Academia. Its headquarters were in Turin, Italy. After the second World War they were reorganized in The Netherlands.</p> <p align="justify">Occidental, subsequently also called Interlingue, was published by an Estonian, Edgar de Wahl, in 1925. De Wahl and his group devoted much attention to the problem of combining great naturalness with great regularity in the derivational patterns of their language. It found many advocates throughout Europe. Various types of periodicals have been regularly issued in that language. The headquarters of the Interlingue-Union are in Switzerland.</p> <p align="justify">In 1925, Joseph Weisbart, also a German, began to promote his Medial. Otto Jespersen, the internationally known linguist of Denmark, produced a system of his own called Novial.</p> <p align="justify">Throughout the past quarter of a century experimentation in interlinguistics has been on the increase. Among the systems recently published are Interglossa by Lancelot Hogben of Great Britain, Internasional by Paul Mitrovitch of Yugoslavia, Mondial by Helge Heimer of Sweden, Neolatino by André Schild of Switzerland, International by Campos Lima of Portugal, and Ling by Anders Olsen of Sweden. Many other one-man products are in manuscript form.</p> <p align="justify">Controversial questions pertaining to vocabulary and grammar have caused so great a variety of auxiliary-language systems. Their multiplicity has fragmented the movement for that one world language to which developments in modern communications point. The positive aspect of the situation must be stressed, however. Underlying all controversial details, the numerous systems have a great deal in common. They may be regarded as variants of the one essential international language which is latent in the living languages. The most urgent practical problem in the field of interlinguistics is to build up a basic stock of language material which all interlinguists can accept as authentic. The Interlingua-English Dictionary offers such authentic material.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">International Auxiliary Language Association. — The International Auxiliary Language Association, generally known as IALA, is an organization which grew out of investigations of the auxiliary language problem undertaken after the first World War by committees of the International Research Council, by the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the Advancement of Science, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other groups of specialists.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Frederick Gardner Cottrell of the International Research Council interested Mr. and Mrs. Dave Hennen Morris of New York in the idea of creating a permanent body which would continue the studies begun by the various committees. They had both been long active in organizations concerned with the betterment of conditions of human society, and they saw at once the significance of an international language as one of the means for developing the international community which seemed at the time a possible hope. They brought together in 1923 men and women of wide experience in international affairs, communications, and linguistic scholarship to discuss what might be done to focus attention upon the already well-established movement for an international language.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The group included Dean Earle B. Babcock, New York University; Dr. LeRoy E. Bowman, Columbia University; General John T. Carty, Vice-President, American Telephone &amp; Telegraph Company; Mrs. James S. Cushman, World's Committee, Young Women's Christian Association; Dr. Stephen Duggan, Director, Institute of International Education; Mr. Harry E. Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Dr. John H. Finley, Editor, New York Times; Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, Radio Corporation of America; Dr. Arthur Hamerschlag, President, Research Corporation; Mr. and Mrs. John H. Hammond; General James G. Harbord, President, Radio Corporation of America; Clarence Howard, President, International Chamber of Commerce; Dr. Frederick P. Keppel, President, Carnegie Corporation; Mrs. James Lees Laidlaw, Woman's Council for the League of Nations; Dr. Sidney E. Mezes, President, College of the City of New York; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, President, Antioch College; Dr. Herbert N. Stanton, Columbia University; Mrs. William Jay Schieffelin; Miss Clara B. Spence, Principal, Miss Spence's School; and Mrs. Charles L. Tiffany, New York League of Women Voters.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">The deliberations of these men and women bore fruit. Under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Morris the International Auxiliary Language Association was founded and incorporated in 1924 as a non-profit organization “to promote widespread study, discussion, and publicity of all questions involved in the establishment of an auxiliary language, together with research and experiment that may hasten such establishment in an intelligent manner and on stable foundations.”</p> <p align="justify">Dean Babcock became the first President. In 1936 he was succeeded by Dr. John H. Finley. Dr. Stephen Duggan served as President of IALA from 1940 to the time of his death in 1950.</p> <p align="justify">Mrs. Morris became Honorary Secretary of the Association and later also Chairman of the Research Division, in which roles she carried the task of developing the many-sided research and promotional activities of IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Mr. Morris was IALA's Treasurer from the founding of the Association until his death in 1944. During the years of his ambassadorship to Belgium (1933-1937) he and his wife were successful in bringing European scholars as well as leading men of practical affairs to take a serious interest in IALA's work. Their son, Mr. Lawrence Morris, succeeded him as Treasurer.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Exploratory Work. — The first decade of IALA's research program was of an exploratory nature. Contacts were made with leaders in the various groups supporting different auxiliary-language systems. In order to survey the extent of the successful use of auxiliary languages a special library was collected. It includes books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in different interlinguas, as well as dictionaries and textbooks. A bibliography listing all the material available in European libraries on the subject of international languages was prepared in collaboration with the Universal Esperanto Association.</p> <p align="justify">The anthropological approach to the auxiliary-language problem was directed by Professor Edward Sapir of Yale University. In a series of studies called <i>Foundations of Language</i>, the speech habits typical of different languages were analyzed in connection with specific aspects of grammar. Some of these studies were published by the Linguistic Society of America. Mrs. Morris was the Editor in collaboration with Dr. Sapir, Professor William E. Collinson of the University of Liverpool, and Dr. Morris Swadesh.</p> <p align="justify">As long ago as 1930 IALA planned a meeting in Europe at which for the first time linguists and experts in auxiliary languages sat down together for a period of two weeks to exchange ideas. Convened by Professor Otto Jespersen, the conference gave its approval to the research program proposed by IALA. Since that time four official congresses of linguists have had reports on IALA's work set before them.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Linguistic Research. — Five international language systems, Esperanto, Ido, Esperanto II, Occidental, and Latino sine Flexione, were selected for analytical study by IALA because they all had official organizations promoting them and had been used with success in publications and in spoken communication. Parallel studies of these languages with comparative studies of national languages were carried on by IALA's Research Staff under the direction of scholars in American and European universities.</p> <p align="justify">An intensive study of language difficulties in international conferences was made by Professor Herbert N. Shenton, then of Syracuse University and Executive Secretary of IALA. The extent to which auxiliary languages have been tried out in international conferences was surveyed. The results of this research project were published under the title of <i>Cosmopolitan Conversation</i> by Columbia University Press in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">Various kinds of educational research projects were pursued centering upon the basic idea that an interlingua can be used in a simplified course in comparative linguistics to initiate students into the study of foreign languages. A textbook for a <i>General Language Course</i> was prepared by Helen S. Eaton of IALA's staff. It was used in experimental courses in schools cooperating with IALA's educational program.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Edward L. Thorndike on an initial grant from Carnegie Corporation conducted a series of experiments in the relative ease of learning constructed and natural languages. His findings were published under the title <i>Language Learning</i> by the Bureau of Publications of Teachers College of Columbia University in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">During the second World War, when the necessity for learning foreign languages was emphasized by world events, a pictorial method for the beginner was embodied in a textbook series by two members of IALA's Research Staff, E. Clark Stillman and Alexander Gode. The series included the titles <i>Spanish at Sight</i>, <i>French at Sight</i>, and <i>Portuguese at Sight</i>.</p> <p align="justify">A new contribution to the field of word-frequency studies was made in the form of the <i>Semantic Frequency List</i> by Helen S. Eaton, Linguistic Research Associate of IALA's staff. This work was issued by the Committee on Modern Languages of the American Council on Education and published by the University of Chicago Press in 1940.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Work on the Dictionary. — Preparatory work on the Dictionary included consultation with linguists in the United States and Europe and with experts in the various auxiliary-language systems. It was carried on by means of conferences, correspondence, and questionnaires.</p> <p align="justify">At the University of Liverpool from 1936 to 1939 various methods of compiling international word material were tested under the direction of Professor William E. Collinson. A staff of persons of different language backgrounds was assembled. Mr. E. Clark Stillman succeeded Dr. Collinson as its Director. The outbreak of war forced the transfer of the work to New York, where Mr. Stillman assembled a new international staff and continued to direct it until he joined the State Department in 1942. During the war years, Dr. Alexander Gode kept the research program going by assuming the duties of Acting Director in addition to his regular work as Editor of Reference Books with the T. Y. Crowell Company. In 1946 IALA brought Dr. André Martinet from the Sorbonne to New York and entrusted him with the direction of its interlinguistic research. Upon his joining the faculty of Columbia University in 1948, Dr. Gode assumed full direction of the work. In its final form the Dictionary is his conception and his responsibility. It is the fruit of his and of his staff's exacting scholarship and patient labor.</p> <hr> <h3 align="center">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</h3> <p align="justify">The present Directors of IALA are: W. Hallam Tuck, Vice-President, Belgian American Educational Foundation; John V. Irwin; Lawrence Morris; LeRoy E. Bowman; Ben M. Cherrington, University of Denver; Harry Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Alfred N. Goldsmith, Past President, Society of Motion Picture Engineers; Henry Goddard Leach, President, American Scandinavian Foundation; Frederick H. Osborn; Mrs. Harold Peabody; and Thomas J. Watson, President, International Business Machines Corporation. In their names I acknowledge the many kinds of cooperation IALA has received in its researches.</p> <p align="justify">Financial support of IALA's work has come from many sources. Carnegie Corporation gave a grant to Teachers College of Columbia University for preliminary research in language learning. Rockefeller Foundation provided a grant for lexicological work done at the University of Liverpool. Research Corporation made liberal undesignated annual grants over a period of years. To all of these foundations IALA expresses gratitude not only for the funds given but for the recognition of the importance of the work in the whole field of communications.</p> <p align="justify">IALA's faithful membership has helped to underwrite the task of producing the Dictionary and has followed every stage of its work.</p> <p align="justify">The most substantial amount of financial support has come from Mr. and Mrs. Morris and their children. They never failed to comprehend the cost of a research program like IALA's, to respect the points of view of the scholars they enlisted in the work, and to meet the needs of IALA's budget. Year after year they gave money but they also gave themselves unselfishly and enthusiastically to the practical details which might help to make their ideal aim of an international language a reality.</p> <p align="justify">A special debt of thanks is due to IALA's Budget Committee of which James G. Harbord was Chairman and S. Sloan Colt and Samuel McRoberts were members.</p> <p align="justify">Intellectual support of IALA's program has come from men and women in all parts of the world. Specialists in communication, international relations, education, and many of the sciences have participated in discussions of IALA's program.</p> <p align="justify">Offers of collaboration have been received from many authors of auxiliary-language systems, some of whom have placed their own manuscripts at the disposal of IALA. Open-minded interest has been demonstrated by many supporters of different auxiliary languages, while linguists have given the work their serious attention. Business men have shown genuine interest, among them Rotary International, which appointed a committee to follow IALA's activities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has established contact with IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Among those who took part in formal and informal conferences of IALA were: Leslie Adie; Mrs. Yorke Allen; Dr. James R. Angell, President, Yale University; Professor Kan-Ichi Asakawa, Yale University; Siegfried Auerbach, Akademio di Ido; Professor Charles Bally, University of Geneva; Clarence Barnhart; Louis Bastien, Esperanto Society of France; Andre Baudet, Paris Chamber of Commerce; Wilhelm Blaschke; Pierre Bovet, Rousseau Institute, Geneva; Willem de Cock Buning, Rotary International; Mrs. Westwood Carr; Professor Gustave Cohen, École Libre des Hautes Études; Mr. and Mrs. G. Alan Connor, Esperanto Association of North America; Andreo Cseh, Internacia Cseh-Instituto de Esperanto; Mrs. James S. Cushman, Y.W.C.A.; Dr. Malcolm Davis, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Dr. Watson Davis, Science Service; Professor Albert Debrunner, Universities of Berne and Basle; Professor A. W. de Groot, University of Amsterdam; Rollet de l'Isle, Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista; René de Saussure, Esperanto II; Edgar de Wahl, Occidental Union; Professor Henry Gratton Doyle, The George Washington University; Mrs. Laura Dreyfus-Barney; Miss Helen S. Eaton; Gertrude Ely; Professor Robert H. Fife, Columbia University; Professor P. Fouché, Sorbonne; Dr. Frank Fremont-Smith, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation; Professor Otto Funke, University of Berne; Miss Clarissa H. Gordon; Mrs. Ruth M. Griggs; Professor Albert L. Guérard, Stanford University; Mrs. Hamilton Hadley; Dr. Walter D. Head, Rotary International; Professor V. A. C. Henmon, University of Wisconsin; Professor Eduard Hermann, University of Göttingen; Dean Henry W. Holmes, Harvard University; Mr. and Mrs. I. R. G. Isbrucker, Universala Ligo; Professor Roman Jakobson, Columbia University; Professor Otto Jespersen, University of Copenhagen; Dr. Marguerite Jones, Hunter College; Professor Serge Karcevski, University of Geneva; Professor Hayward Keniston, University of Michigan; Dr. Laura H. Kennon, Brooklyn College; Professor Wencil J. Kostir, University of Ohio; Wladyslaw Kozlowski, Lingvo Monde; Dr. John Lansbury; George Winthrop Lee and John L. Lewine, Esperanto Association of North America; Miss Anne Lincoln; Professor Kemp Malone, Johns Hopkins University; Professor Antoine Meillet, Sorbonne; Mrs. Dudley H. Mills; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch College; Dave Hennen Morris, Jr.; Professor Henri F. Muller, Columbia University; Professor C. K. Ogden, Cambridge University; Professor Austin M. Patterson, Antioch College; William Perrenoud, Esperantist; Howard A. Poillon, Research Corporation; Professor Pitman B. Potter, Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales, Geneva; Bronson Price; Edmond Privat, President, Universal Esperanto Association; Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt; Professor Albert Sechehaye, University of Geneva; Dr. James T. Shotwell, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Professor Herbert Schofield, Loughborough College; Mgr. Schrijnen; Professor Alf Sommerfelt, University of Oslo; Pierre Stojan, Esperantist; Dr. Lester Struthers, Rotary International; Mrs. Walter Knight Sturges, Jr.; William Mark Taylor; George L. Trager; Professor Nicolaas Van Wijk, University of Leiden; Professor Joseph Vendryes, Sorbonne; Professor Jean Paul Vinay, University of Montreal; Eugen Wüster, International Standards Organization; Reinhold Zeidler, Novial. — To these and many others IALA is most grateful.</p> <p align="justify">Mary Connell Bray<br> Executive Director, IALA</p> <hr><br> </div> 42 2005-04-12T22:08:51Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> <p align="center">a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> <p align="center">Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> <p align="center">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> <p align="center">For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> <p align="center">At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> <p align="center">May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prologo</b><br> <br> Foreword</h2> <p align="justify">The Interlingua-English Dictionary is the latest product of the long-term research program of the International Auxiliary Language Association.</p> <p align="justify">The purpose of the Dictionary is to furnish a scientifically sound vocabulary for the auxiliary language which is needed in all fields of international communication. The objective methods used in its compilation should make it a reference work of value in the general field of comparative linguistics. Its primary purpose, however, is to meet the needs of all workers in the special field of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Interlinguistics. — The quest for a common international language can be traced back to the beginnings of modern times. The idea of obtaining such a language from the elements common to national tongues appeared in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth Centuries. From these beginnings has come the gradual development of that branch of comparative linguistics which has been given the name of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify">Men of many nationalities have taken part in its coming of age.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The first to work out a complete auxiliary-language system based on the common elements in national languages was a Spaniard, Pirro, whose Universalglot was published in 1868.</p> <p align="justify">Volapük, the work of a German priest, Johann Martin Schleyer, which appeared in 1880, used the idea in a limited way, drawing heavily on English. This system had a decade of extraordinary popularity which justified the establishment of a Volapük Academy.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto, also the creation of one man, Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof of Poland, was published in 1887 and has achieved wide renown. In 1894, Dr. Zamenhof himself proposed a reformed Esperanto in response to demands among his followers for a simplified grammar and a more thoroughly international vocabulary. His proposals were not adopted.</p> <p align="justify">In 1907, three Frenchmen, Louis Leau, Louis Couturat, and Louis de Beaufront, were leaders of a delegation which again proposed certain reforms in Esperanto. The outcome was a schism in the Esperanto movement with the promulgation of another system called Ido.</p> <p align="justify">The original system of Dr. Zamenhof remained the foundation of all official Esperanto publications and organizations, of which there are many throughout the world. Ido has also successfully been used in many publications.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto II, a system proposed by René de Saussure of Switzerland, which aimed to remove certain features of Esperanto while retaining its fundamental structure, has never been used to any great extent.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">Meanwhile an Austrian, Julius Lott, and a Chilean, Alberto Liptay, had further clarified the idea that “the international language does not need to be invented. It exists. One only needs to collect all its words and set them in order.” When Waldemar Rosenberger, a Russian, assumed the leadership of the declining Volapük Academy, he made of it an energetic center of experimentation with Liptay's principle. The results, made public in 1902, became known as Idiom Neutral. A contemporary of Rosenberger, basing his work on the same principles, was Dr. H. Molenaar of Germany. He has continued to advocate his system under the name of Unial.</p> <p align="justify">In 1910, the Idiom Neutral (formerly Volapük) Academy, under the leadership of an Italian mathematician, Giuseppe Peano, became the Academia Pro Interlingua, a society for research in interlinguistics. Most of its publications were in the form of Interlingua known as Latino sine Flexione, but its members were free to experiment with, and advocate, other proposals. One member, Aldo Lavagnini, an Italian living in Mexico, promoted his own system under the name of Mondi Lingua. Mrs. Alice V. Morris, representing the International Auxiliary Language Association, became a member of the Academia. Its headquarters were in Turin, Italy. After the second World War they were reorganized in The Netherlands.</p> <p align="justify">Occidental, subsequently also called Interlingue, was published by an Estonian, Edgar de Wahl, in 1925. De Wahl and his group devoted much attention to the problem of combining great naturalness with great regularity in the derivational patterns of their language. It found many advocates throughout Europe. Various types of periodicals have been regularly issued in that language. The headquarters of the Interlingue-Union are in Switzerland.</p> <p align="justify">In 1925, Joseph Weisbart, also a German, began to promote his Medial. Otto Jespersen, the internationally known linguist of Denmark, produced a system of his own called Novial.</p> <p align="justify">Throughout the past quarter of a century experimentation in interlinguistics has been on the increase. Among the systems recently published are Interglossa by Lancelot Hogben of Great Britain, Internasional by Paul Mitrovitch of Yugoslavia, Mondial by Helge Heimer of Sweden, Neolatino by André Schild of Switzerland, International by Campos Lima of Portugal, and Ling by Anders Olsen of Sweden. Many other one-man products are in manuscript form.</p> <p align="justify">Controversial questions pertaining to vocabulary and grammar have caused so great a variety of auxiliary-language systems. Their multiplicity has fragmented the movement for that one world language to which developments in modern communications point. The positive aspect of the situation must be stressed, however. Underlying all controversial details, the numerous systems have a great deal in common. They may be regarded as variants of the one essential international language which is latent in the living languages. The most urgent practical problem in the field of interlinguistics is to build up a basic stock of language material which all interlinguists can accept as authentic. The Interlingua-English Dictionary offers such authentic material.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">International Auxiliary Language Association. — The International Auxiliary Language Association, generally known as IALA, is an organization which grew out of investigations of the auxiliary language problem undertaken after the first World War by committees of the International Research Council, by the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the Advancement of Science, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other groups of specialists.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Frederick Gardner Cottrell of the International Research Council interested Mr. and Mrs. Dave Hennen Morris of New York in the idea of creating a permanent body which would continue the studies begun by the various committees. They had both been long active in organizations concerned with the betterment of conditions of human society, and they saw at once the significance of an international language as one of the means for developing the international community which seemed at the time a possible hope. They brought together in 1923 men and women of wide experience in international affairs, communications, and linguistic scholarship to discuss what might be done to focus attention upon the already well-established movement for an international language.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The group included Dean Earle B. Babcock, New York University; Dr. LeRoy E. Bowman, Columbia University; General John T. Carty, Vice-President, American Telephone &amp; Telegraph Company; Mrs. James S. Cushman, World's Committee, Young Women's Christian Association; Dr. Stephen Duggan, Director, Institute of International Education; Mr. Harry E. Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Dr. John H. Finley, Editor, New York Times; Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, Radio Corporation of America; Dr. Arthur Hamerschlag, President, Research Corporation; Mr. and Mrs. John H. Hammond; General James G. Harbord, President, Radio Corporation of America; Clarence Howard, President, International Chamber of Commerce; Dr. Frederick P. Keppel, President, Carnegie Corporation; Mrs. James Lees Laidlaw, Woman's Council for the League of Nations; Dr. Sidney E. Mezes, President, College of the City of New York; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, President, Antioch College; Dr. Herbert N. Stanton, Columbia University; Mrs. William Jay Schieffelin; Miss Clara B. Spence, Principal, Miss Spence's School; and Mrs. Charles L. Tiffany, New York League of Women Voters.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">The deliberations of these men and women bore fruit. Under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Morris the International Auxiliary Language Association was founded and incorporated in 1924 as a non-profit organization “to promote widespread study, discussion, and publicity of all questions involved in the establishment of an auxiliary language, together with research and experiment that may hasten such establishment in an intelligent manner and on stable foundations.”</p> <p align="justify">Dean Babcock became the first President. In 1936 he was succeeded by Dr. John H. Finley. Dr. Stephen Duggan served as President of IALA from 1940 to the time of his death in 1950.</p> <p align="justify">Mrs. Morris became Honorary Secretary of the Association and later also Chairman of the Research Division, in which roles she carried the task of developing the many-sided research and promotional activities of IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Mr. Morris was IALA's Treasurer from the founding of the Association until his death in 1944. During the years of his ambassadorship to Belgium (1933-1937) he and his wife were successful in bringing European scholars as well as leading men of practical affairs to take a serious interest in IALA's work. Their son, Mr. Lawrence Morris, succeeded him as Treasurer.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Exploratory Work. — The first decade of IALA's research program was of an exploratory nature. Contacts were made with leaders in the various groups supporting different auxiliary-language systems. In order to survey the extent of the successful use of auxiliary languages a special library was collected. It includes books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in different interlinguas, as well as dictionaries and textbooks. A bibliography listing all the material available in European libraries on the subject of international languages was prepared in collaboration with the Universal Esperanto Association.</p> <p align="justify">The anthropological approach to the auxiliary-language problem was directed by Professor Edward Sapir of Yale University. In a series of studies called <i>Foundations of Language</i>, the speech habits typical of different languages were analyzed in connection with specific aspects of grammar. Some of these studies were published by the Linguistic Society of America. Mrs. Morris was the Editor in collaboration with Dr. Sapir, Professor William E. Collinson of the University of Liverpool, and Dr. Morris Swadesh.</p> <p align="justify">As long ago as 1930 IALA planned a meeting in Europe at which for the first time linguists and experts in auxiliary languages sat down together for a period of two weeks to exchange ideas. Convened by Professor Otto Jespersen, the conference gave its approval to the research program proposed by IALA. Since that time four official congresses of linguists have had reports on IALA's work set before them.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Linguistic Research. — Five international language systems, Esperanto, Ido, Esperanto II, Occidental, and Latino sine Flexione, were selected for analytical study by IALA because they all had official organizations promoting them and had been used with success in publications and in spoken communication. Parallel studies of these languages with comparative studies of national languages were carried on by IALA's Research Staff under the direction of scholars in American and European universities.</p> <p align="justify">An intensive study of language difficulties in international conferences was made by Professor Herbert N. Shenton, then of Syracuse University and Executive Secretary of IALA. The extent to which auxiliary languages have been tried out in international conferences was surveyed. The results of this research project were published under the title of <i>Cosmopolitan Conversation</i> by Columbia University Press in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">Various kinds of educational research projects were pursued centering upon the basic idea that an interlingua can be used in a simplified course in comparative linguistics to initiate students into the study of foreign languages. A textbook for a <i>General Language Course</i> was prepared by Helen S. Eaton of IALA's staff. It was used in experimental courses in schools cooperating with IALA's educational program.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Edward L. Thorndike on an initial grant from Carnegie Corporation conducted a series of experiments in the relative ease of learning constructed and natural languages. His findings were published under the title <i>Language Learning</i> by the Bureau of Publications of Teachers College of Columbia University in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">During the second World War, when the necessity for learning foreign languages was emphasized by world events, a pictorial method for the beginner was embodied in a textbook series by two members of IALA's Research Staff, E. Clark Stillman and Alexander Gode. The series included the titles <i>Spanish at Sight</i>, <i>French at Sight</i>, and <i>Portuguese at Sight</i>.</p> <p align="justify">A new contribution to the field of word-frequency studies was made in the form of the <i>Semantic Frequency List</i> by Helen S. Eaton, Linguistic Research Associate of IALA's staff. This work was issued by the Committee on Modern Languages of the American Council on Education and published by the University of Chicago Press in 1940.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Work on the Dictionary. — Preparatory work on the Dictionary included consultation with linguists in the United States and Europe and with experts in the various auxiliary-language systems. It was carried on by means of conferences, correspondence, and questionnaires.</p> <p align="justify">At the University of Liverpool from 1936 to 1939 various methods of compiling international word material were tested under the direction of Professor William E. Collinson. A staff of persons of different language backgrounds was assembled. Mr. E. Clark Stillman succeeded Dr. Collinson as its Director. The outbreak of war forced the transfer of the work to New York, where Mr. Stillman assembled a new international staff and continued to direct it until he joined the State Department in 1942. During the war years, Dr. Alexander Gode kept the research program going by assuming the duties of Acting Director in addition to his regular work as Editor of Reference Books with the T. Y. Crowell Company. In 1946 IALA brought Dr. André Martinet from the Sorbonne to New York and entrusted him with the direction of its interlinguistic research. Upon his joining the faculty of Columbia University in 1948, Dr. Gode assumed full direction of the work. In its final form the Dictionary is his conception and his responsibility. It is the fruit of his and of his staff's exacting scholarship and patient labor.</p> <hr> <h3 align="center">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</h3> <p align="justify">The present Directors of IALA are: W. Hallam Tuck, Vice-President, Belgian American Educational Foundation; John V. Irwin; Lawrence Morris; LeRoy E. Bowman; Ben M. Cherrington, University of Denver; Harry Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Alfred N. Goldsmith, Past President, Society of Motion Picture Engineers; Henry Goddard Leach, President, American Scandinavian Foundation; Frederick H. Osborn; Mrs. Harold Peabody; and Thomas J. Watson, President, International Business Machines Corporation. In their names I acknowledge the many kinds of cooperation IALA has received in its researches.</p> <p align="justify">Financial support of IALA's work has come from many sources. Carnegie Corporation gave a grant to Teachers College of Columbia University for preliminary research in language learning. Rockefeller Foundation provided a grant for lexicological work done at the University of Liverpool. Research Corporation made liberal undesignated annual grants over a period of years. To all of these foundations IALA expresses gratitude not only for the funds given but for the recognition of the importance of the work in the whole field of communications.</p> <p align="justify">IALA's faithful membership has helped to underwrite the task of producing the Dictionary and has followed every stage of its work.</p> <p align="justify">The most substantial amount of financial support has come from Mr. and Mrs. Morris and their children. They never failed to comprehend the cost of a research program like IALA's, to respect the points of view of the scholars they enlisted in the work, and to meet the needs of IALA's budget. Year after year they gave money but they also gave themselves unselfishly and enthusiastically to the practical details which might help to make their ideal aim of an international language a reality.</p> <p align="justify">A special debt of thanks is due to IALA's Budget Committee of which James G. Harbord was Chairman and S. Sloan Colt and Samuel McRoberts were members.</p> <p align="justify">Intellectual support of IALA's program has come from men and women in all parts of the world. Specialists in communication, international relations, education, and many of the sciences have participated in discussions of IALA's program.</p> <p align="justify">Offers of collaboration have been received from many authors of auxiliary-language systems, some of whom have placed their own manuscripts at the disposal of IALA. Open-minded interest has been demonstrated by many supporters of different auxiliary languages, while linguists have given the work their serious attention. Business men have shown genuine interest, among them Rotary International, which appointed a committee to follow IALA's activities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has established contact with IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Among those who took part in formal and informal conferences of IALA were: Leslie Adie; Mrs. Yorke Allen; Dr. James R. Angell, President, Yale University; Professor Kan-Ichi Asakawa, Yale University; Siegfried Auerbach, Akademio di Ido; Professor Charles Bally, University of Geneva; Clarence Barnhart; Louis Bastien, Esperanto Society of France; Andre Baudet, Paris Chamber of Commerce; Wilhelm Blaschke; Pierre Bovet, Rousseau Institute, Geneva; Willem de Cock Buning, Rotary International; Mrs. Westwood Carr; Professor Gustave Cohen, École Libre des Hautes Études; Mr. and Mrs. G. Alan Connor, Esperanto Association of North America; Andreo Cseh, Internacia Cseh-Instituto de Esperanto; Mrs. James S. Cushman, Y.W.C.A.; Dr. Malcolm Davis, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Dr. Watson Davis, Science Service; Professor Albert Debrunner, Universities of Berne and Basle; Professor A. W. de Groot, University of Amsterdam; Rollet de l'Isle, Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista; René de Saussure, Esperanto II; Edgar de Wahl, Occidental Union; Professor Henry Gratton Doyle, The George Washington University; Mrs. Laura Dreyfus-Barney; Miss Helen S. Eaton; Gertrude Ely; Professor Robert H. Fife, Columbia University; Professor P. Fouché, Sorbonne; Dr. Frank Fremont-Smith, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation; Professor Otto Funke, University of Berne; Miss Clarissa H. Gordon; Mrs. Ruth M. Griggs; Professor Albert L. Guérard, Stanford University; Mrs. Hamilton Hadley; Dr. Walter D. Head, Rotary International; Professor V. A. C. Henmon, University of Wisconsin; Professor Eduard Hermann, University of Göttingen; Dean Henry W. Holmes, Harvard University; Mr. and Mrs. I. R. G. Isbrucker, Universala Ligo; Professor Roman Jakobson, Columbia University; Professor Otto Jespersen, University of Copenhagen; Dr. Marguerite Jones, Hunter College; Professor Serge Karcevski, University of Geneva; Professor Hayward Keniston, University of Michigan; Dr. Laura H. Kennon, Brooklyn College; Professor Wencil J. Kostir, University of Ohio; Wladyslaw Kozlowski, Lingvo Monde; Dr. John Lansbury; George Winthrop Lee and John L. Lewine, Esperanto Association of North America; Miss Anne Lincoln; Professor Kemp Malone, Johns Hopkins University; Professor Antoine Meillet, Sorbonne; Mrs. Dudley H. Mills; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch College; Dave Hennen Morris, Jr.; Professor Henri F. Muller, Columbia University; Professor C. K. Ogden, Cambridge University; Professor Austin M. Patterson, Antioch College; William Perrenoud, Esperantist; Howard A. Poillon, Research Corporation; Professor Pitman B. Potter, Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales, Geneva; Bronson Price; Edmond Privat, President, Universal Esperanto Association; Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt; Professor Albert Sechehaye, University of Geneva; Dr. James T. Shotwell, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Professor Herbert Schofield, Loughborough College; Mgr. Schrijnen; Professor Alf Sommerfelt, University of Oslo; Pierre Stojan, Esperantist; Dr. Lester Struthers, Rotary International; Mrs. Walter Knight Sturges, Jr.; William Mark Taylor; George L. Trager; Professor Nicolaas Van Wijk, University of Leiden; Professor Joseph Vendryes, Sorbonne; Professor Jean Paul Vinay, University of Montreal; Eugen Wüster, International Standards Organization; Reinhold Zeidler, Novial. — To these and many others IALA is most grateful.</p> <p align="justify">Mary Connell Bray<br> Executive Director, IALA</p> <hr><br> </div> 50 2005-04-12T22:37:14Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> <p align="center">a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> <p align="center">Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> <p align="center">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> <p align="center">For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> <p align="center">At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> <p align="center">May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 2019 2005-04-13T13:15:52Z Josu Lavin 2 [[IED]] 943 2020 2005-04-12T18:20:12Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-English</b></h1> <p align="center">a dictionary of the international language<br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>Copyright, 1951, by<br> International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> Printed in the United States of America<br> Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-144342<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h3 align="center">Preface to the Second Edition</h3> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contents</b></h2> <ul> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center">Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> in the establishment<br> of a common language for international communication,<br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language<br> movement with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> was founded under their leadership.<br> Under their guidance<br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center">For twenty-five years<br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center">At all times<br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center">May this volume,<br> as a foundation for future work<br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> <h2 align="center">Foreword</h2> <p align="justify">The Interlingua-English Dictionary is the latest product of the long-term research program of the International Auxiliary Language Association.</p> <p align="justify">The purpose of the Dictionary is to furnish a scientifically sound vocabulary for the auxiliary language which is needed in all fields of international communication. The objective methods used in its compilation should make it a reference work of value in the general field of comparative linguistics. Its primary purpose, however, is to meet the needs of all workers in the special field of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Interlinguistics. — The quest for a common international language can be traced back to the beginnings of modern times. The idea of obtaining such a language from the elements common to national tongues appeared in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth Centuries. From these beginnings has come the gradual development of that branch of comparative linguistics which has been given the name of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify">Men of many nationalities have taken part in its coming of age.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The first to work out a complete auxiliary-language system based on the common elements in national languages was a Spaniard, Pirro, whose Universalglot was published in 1868.</p> <p align="justify">Volapük, the work of a German priest, Johann Martin Schleyer, which appeared in 1880, used the idea in a limited way, drawing heavily on English. This system had a decade of extraordinary popularity which justified the establishment of a Volapük Academy.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto, also the creation of one man, Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof of Poland, was published in 1887 and has achieved wide renown. In 1894, Dr. Zamenhof himself proposed a reformed Esperanto in response to demands among his followers for a simplified grammar and a more thoroughly international vocabulary. His proposals were not adopted.</p> <p align="justify">In 1907, three Frenchmen, Louis Leau, Louis Couturat, and Louis de Beaufront, were leaders of a delegation which again proposed certain reforms in Esperanto. The outcome was a schism in the Esperanto movement with the promulgation of another system called Ido.</p> <p align="justify">The original system of Dr. Zamenhof remained the foundation of all official Esperanto publications and organizations, of which there are many throughout the world. Ido has also successfully been used in many publications.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto II, a system proposed by René de Saussure of Switzerland, which aimed to remove certain features of Esperanto while retaining its fundamental structure, has never been used to any great extent.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">Meanwhile an Austrian, Julius Lott, and a Chilean, Alberto Liptay, had further clarified the idea that “the international language does not need to be invented. It exists. One only needs to collect all its words and set them in order.” When Waldemar Rosenberger, a Russian, assumed the leadership of the declining Volapük Academy, he made of it an energetic center of experimentation with Liptay's principle. The results, made public in 1902, became known as Idiom Neutral. A contemporary of Rosenberger, basing his work on the same principles, was Dr. H. Molenaar of Germany. He has continued to advocate his system under the name of Unial.</p> <p align="justify">In 1910, the Idiom Neutral (formerly Volapük) Academy, under the leadership of an Italian mathematician, Giuseppe Peano, became the Academia Pro Interlingua, a society for research in interlinguistics. Most of its publications were in the form of Interlingua known as Latino sine Flexione, but its members were free to experiment with, and advocate, other proposals. One member, Aldo Lavagnini, an Italian living in Mexico, promoted his own system under the name of Mondi Lingua. Mrs. Alice V. Morris, representing the International Auxiliary Language Association, became a member of the Academia. Its headquarters were in Turin, Italy. After the second World War they were reorganized in The Netherlands.</p> <p align="justify">Occidental, subsequently also called Interlingue, was published by an Estonian, Edgar de Wahl, in 1925. De Wahl and his group devoted much attention to the problem of combining great naturalness with great regularity in the derivational patterns of their language. It found many advocates throughout Europe. Various types of periodicals have been regularly issued in that language. The headquarters of the Interlingue-Union are in Switzerland.</p> <p align="justify">In 1925, Joseph Weisbart, also a German, began to promote his Medial. Otto Jespersen, the internationally known linguist of Denmark, produced a system of his own called Novial.</p> <p align="justify">Throughout the past quarter of a century experimentation in interlinguistics has been on the increase. Among the systems recently published are Interglossa by Lancelot Hogben of Great Britain, Internasional by Paul Mitrovitch of Yugoslavia, Mondial by Helge Heimer of Sweden, Neolatino by André Schild of Switzerland, International by Campos Lima of Portugal, and Ling by Anders Olsen of Sweden. Many other one-man products are in manuscript form.</p> <p align="justify">Controversial questions pertaining to vocabulary and grammar have caused so great a variety of auxiliary-language systems. Their multiplicity has fragmented the movement for that one world language to which developments in modern communications point. The positive aspect of the situation must be stressed, however. Underlying all controversial details, the numerous systems have a great deal in common. They may be regarded as variants of the one essential international language which is latent in the living languages. The most urgent practical problem in the field of interlinguistics is to build up a basic stock of language material which all interlinguists can accept as authentic. The Interlingua-English Dictionary offers such authentic material.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">International Auxiliary Language Association. — The International Auxiliary Language Association, generally known as IALA, is an organization which grew out of investigations of the auxiliary language problem undertaken after the first World War by committees of the International Research Council, by the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the Advancement of Science, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other groups of specialists.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Frederick Gardner Cottrell of the International Research Council interested Mr. and Mrs. Dave Hennen Morris of New York in the idea of creating a permanent body which would continue the studies begun by the various committees. They had both been long active in organizations concerned with the betterment of conditions of human society, and they saw at once the significance of an international language as one of the means for developing the international community which seemed at the time a possible hope. They brought together in 1923 men and women of wide experience in international affairs, communications, and linguistic scholarship to discuss what might be done to focus attention upon the already well-established movement for an international language.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The group included Dean Earle B. Babcock, New York University; Dr. LeRoy E. Bowman, Columbia University; General John T. Carty, Vice-President, American Telephone &amp; Telegraph Company; Mrs. James S. Cushman, World's Committee, Young Women's Christian Association; Dr. Stephen Duggan, Director, Institute of International Education; Mr. Harry E. Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Dr. John H. Finley, Editor, New York Times; Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, Radio Corporation of America; Dr. Arthur Hamerschlag, President, Research Corporation; Mr. and Mrs. John H. Hammond; General James G. Harbord, President, Radio Corporation of America; Clarence Howard, President, International Chamber of Commerce; Dr. Frederick P. Keppel, President, Carnegie Corporation; Mrs. James Lees Laidlaw, Woman's Council for the League of Nations; Dr. Sidney E. Mezes, President, College of the City of New York; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, President, Antioch College; Dr. Herbert N. Stanton, Columbia University; Mrs. William Jay Schieffelin; Miss Clara B. Spence, Principal, Miss Spence's School; and Mrs. Charles L. Tiffany, New York League of Women Voters.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">The deliberations of these men and women bore fruit. Under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Morris the International Auxiliary Language Association was founded and incorporated in 1924 as a non-profit organization “to promote widespread study, discussion, and publicity of all questions involved in the establishment of an auxiliary language, together with research and experiment that may hasten such establishment in an intelligent manner and on stable foundations.”</p> <p align="justify">Dean Babcock became the first President. In 1936 he was succeeded by Dr. John H. Finley. Dr. Stephen Duggan served as President of IALA from 1940 to the time of his death in 1950.</p> <p align="justify">Mrs. Morris became Honorary Secretary of the Association and later also Chairman of the Research Division, in which roles she carried the task of developing the many-sided research and promotional activities of IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Mr. Morris was IALA's Treasurer from the founding of the Association until his death in 1944. During the years of his ambassadorship to Belgium (1933-1937) he and his wife were successful in bringing European scholars as well as leading men of practical affairs to take a serious interest in IALA's work. Their son, Mr. Lawrence Morris, succeeded him as Treasurer.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Exploratory Work. — The first decade of IALA's research program was of an exploratory nature. Contacts were made with leaders in the various groups supporting different auxiliary-language systems. In order to survey the extent of the successful use of auxiliary languages a special library was collected. It includes books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in different interlinguas, as well as dictionaries and textbooks. A bibliography listing all the material available in European libraries on the subject of international languages was prepared in collaboration with the Universal Esperanto Association.</p> <p align="justify">The anthropological approach to the auxiliary-language problem was directed by Professor Edward Sapir of Yale University. In a series of studies called <i>Foundations of Language</i>, the speech habits typical of different languages were analyzed in connection with specific aspects of grammar. Some of these studies were published by the Linguistic Society of America. Mrs. Morris was the Editor in collaboration with Dr. Sapir, Professor William E. Collinson of the University of Liverpool, and Dr. Morris Swadesh.</p> <p align="justify">As long ago as 1930 IALA planned a meeting in Europe at which for the first time linguists and experts in auxiliary languages sat down together for a period of two weeks to exchange ideas. Convened by Professor Otto Jespersen, the conference gave its approval to the research program proposed by IALA. Since that time four official congresses of linguists have had reports on IALA's work set before them.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Linguistic Research. — Five international language systems, Esperanto, Ido, Esperanto II, Occidental, and Latino sine Flexione, were selected for analytical study by IALA because they all had official organizations promoting them and had been used with success in publications and in spoken communication. Parallel studies of these languages with comparative studies of national languages were carried on by IALA's Research Staff under the direction of scholars in American and European universities.</p> <p align="justify">An intensive study of language difficulties in international conferences was made by Professor Herbert N. Shenton, then of Syracuse University and Executive Secretary of IALA. The extent to which auxiliary languages have been tried out in international conferences was surveyed. The results of this research project were published under the title of <i>Cosmopolitan Conversation</i> by Columbia University Press in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">Various kinds of educational research projects were pursued centering upon the basic idea that an interlingua can be used in a simplified course in comparative linguistics to initiate students into the study of foreign languages. A textbook for a <i>General Language Course</i> was prepared by Helen S. Eaton of IALA's staff. It was used in experimental courses in schools cooperating with IALA's educational program.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Edward L. Thorndike on an initial grant from Carnegie Corporation conducted a series of experiments in the relative ease of learning constructed and natural languages. His findings were published under the title <i>Language Learning</i> by the Bureau of Publications of Teachers College of Columbia University in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">During the second World War, when the necessity for learning foreign languages was emphasized by world events, a pictorial method for the beginner was embodied in a textbook series by two members of IALA's Research Staff, E. Clark Stillman and Alexander Gode. The series included the titles <i>Spanish at Sight</i>, <i>French at Sight</i>, and <i>Portuguese at Sight</i>.</p> <p align="justify">A new contribution to the field of word-frequency studies was made in the form of the <i>Semantic Frequency List</i> by Helen S. Eaton, Linguistic Research Associate of IALA's staff. This work was issued by the Committee on Modern Languages of the American Council on Education and published by the University of Chicago Press in 1940.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Work on the Dictionary. — Preparatory work on the Dictionary included consultation with linguists in the United States and Europe and with experts in the various auxiliary-language systems. It was carried on by means of conferences, correspondence, and questionnaires.</p> <p align="justify">At the University of Liverpool from 1936 to 1939 various methods of compiling international word material were tested under the direction of Professor William E. Collinson. A staff of persons of different language backgrounds was assembled. Mr. E. Clark Stillman succeeded Dr. Collinson as its Director. The outbreak of war forced the transfer of the work to New York, where Mr. Stillman assembled a new international staff and continued to direct it until he joined the State Department in 1942. During the war years, Dr. Alexander Gode kept the research program going by assuming the duties of Acting Director in addition to his regular work as Editor of Reference Books with the T. Y. Crowell Company. In 1946 IALA brought Dr. André Martinet from the Sorbonne to New York and entrusted him with the direction of its interlinguistic research. Upon his joining the faculty of Columbia University in 1948, Dr. Gode assumed full direction of the work. In its final form the Dictionary is his conception and his responsibility. It is the fruit of his and of his staff's exacting scholarship and patient labor.</p> <hr> <h3 align="center">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</h3> <p align="justify">The present Directors of IALA are: W. Hallam Tuck, Vice-President, Belgian American Educational Foundation; John V. Irwin; Lawrence Morris; LeRoy E. Bowman; Ben M. Cherrington, University of Denver; Harry Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Alfred N. Goldsmith, Past President, Society of Motion Picture Engineers; Henry Goddard Leach, President, American Scandinavian Foundation; Frederick H. Osborn; Mrs. Harold Peabody; and Thomas J. Watson, President, International Business Machines Corporation. In their names I acknowledge the many kinds of cooperation IALA has received in its researches.</p> <p align="justify">Financial support of IALA's work has come from many sources. Carnegie Corporation gave a grant to Teachers College of Columbia University for preliminary research in language learning. Rockefeller Foundation provided a grant for lexicological work done at the University of Liverpool. Research Corporation made liberal undesignated annual grants over a period of years. To all of these foundations IALA expresses gratitude not only for the funds given but for the recognition of the importance of the work in the whole field of communications.</p> <p align="justify">IALA's faithful membership has helped to underwrite the task of producing the Dictionary and has followed every stage of its work.</p> <p align="justify">The most substantial amount of financial support has come from Mr. and Mrs. Morris and their children. They never failed to comprehend the cost of a research program like IALA's, to respect the points of view of the scholars they enlisted in the work, and to meet the needs of IALA's budget. Year after year they gave money but they also gave themselves unselfishly and enthusiastically to the practical details which might help to make their ideal aim of an international language a reality.</p> <p align="justify">A special debt of thanks is due to IALA's Budget Committee of which James G. Harbord was Chairman and S. Sloan Colt and Samuel McRoberts were members.</p> <p align="justify">Intellectual support of IALA's program has come from men and women in all parts of the world. Specialists in communication, international relations, education, and many of the sciences have participated in discussions of IALA's program.</p> <p align="justify">Offers of collaboration have been received from many authors of auxiliary-language systems, some of whom have placed their own manuscripts at the disposal of IALA. Open-minded interest has been demonstrated by many supporters of different auxiliary languages, while linguists have given the work their serious attention. Business men have shown genuine interest, among them Rotary International, which appointed a committee to follow IALA's activities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has established contact with IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Among those who took part in formal and informal conferences of IALA were: Leslie Adie; Mrs. Yorke Allen; Dr. James R. Angell, President, Yale University; Professor Kan-Ichi Asakawa, Yale University; Siegfried Auerbach, Akademio di Ido; Professor Charles Bally, University of Geneva; Clarence Barnhart; Louis Bastien, Esperanto Society of France; Andre Baudet, Paris Chamber of Commerce; Wilhelm Blaschke; Pierre Bovet, Rousseau Institute, Geneva; Willem de Cock Buning, Rotary International; Mrs. Westwood Carr; Professor Gustave Cohen, École Libre des Hautes Études; Mr. and Mrs. G. Alan Connor, Esperanto Association of North America; Andreo Cseh, Internacia Cseh-Instituto de Esperanto; Mrs. James S. Cushman, Y.W.C.A.; Dr. Malcolm Davis, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Dr. Watson Davis, Science Service; Professor Albert Debrunner, Universities of Berne and Basle; Professor A. W. de Groot, University of Amsterdam; Rollet de l'Isle, Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista; René de Saussure, Esperanto II; Edgar de Wahl, Occidental Union; Professor Henry Gratton Doyle, The George Washington University; Mrs. Laura Dreyfus-Barney; Miss Helen S. Eaton; Gertrude Ely; Professor Robert H. Fife, Columbia University; Professor P. Fouché, Sorbonne; Dr. Frank Fremont-Smith, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation; Professor Otto Funke, University of Berne; Miss Clarissa H. Gordon; Mrs. Ruth M. Griggs; Professor Albert L. Guérard, Stanford University; Mrs. Hamilton Hadley; Dr. Walter D. Head, Rotary International; Professor V. A. C. Henmon, University of Wisconsin; Professor Eduard Hermann, University of Göttingen; Dean Henry W. Holmes, Harvard University; Mr. and Mrs. I. R. G. Isbrucker, Universala Ligo; Professor Roman Jakobson, Columbia University; Professor Otto Jespersen, University of Copenhagen; Dr. Marguerite Jones, Hunter College; Professor Serge Karcevski, University of Geneva; Professor Hayward Keniston, University of Michigan; Dr. Laura H. Kennon, Brooklyn College; Professor Wencil J. Kostir, University of Ohio; Wladyslaw Kozlowski, Lingvo Monde; Dr. John Lansbury; George Winthrop Lee and John L. Lewine, Esperanto Association of North America; Miss Anne Lincoln; Professor Kemp Malone, Johns Hopkins University; Professor Antoine Meillet, Sorbonne; Mrs. Dudley H. Mills; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch College; Dave Hennen Morris, Jr.; Professor Henri F. Muller, Columbia University; Professor C. K. Ogden, Cambridge University; Professor Austin M. Patterson, Antioch College; William Perrenoud, Esperantist; Howard A. Poillon, Research Corporation; Professor Pitman B. Potter, Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales, Geneva; Bronson Price; Edmond Privat, President, Universal Esperanto Association; Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt; Professor Albert Sechehaye, University of Geneva; Dr. James T. Shotwell, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Professor Herbert Schofield, Loughborough College; Mgr. Schrijnen; Professor Alf Sommerfelt, University of Oslo; Pierre Stojan, Esperantist; Dr. Lester Struthers, Rotary International; Mrs. Walter Knight Sturges, Jr.; William Mark Taylor; George L. Trager; Professor Nicolaas Van Wijk, University of Leiden; Professor Joseph Vendryes, Sorbonne; Professor Jean Paul Vinay, University of Montreal; Eugen Wüster, International Standards Organization; Reinhold Zeidler, Novial. — To these and many others IALA is most grateful.</p> <p align="justify">Mary Connell Bray<br> Executive Director, IALA</p> <hr><br> </div> 944 2021 2005-04-12T22:35:55Z Josu Lavin 2 <h2 align="center"><b>Prologo</b><br> <br> Foreword</h2> <p align="justify">The Interlingua-English Dictionary is the latest product of the long-term research program of the International Auxiliary Language Association.</p> <p align="justify">The purpose of the Dictionary is to furnish a scientifically sound vocabulary for the auxiliary language which is needed in all fields of international communication. The objective methods used in its compilation should make it a reference work of value in the general field of comparative linguistics. Its primary purpose, however, is to meet the needs of all workers in the special field of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Interlinguistics. — The quest for a common international language can be traced back to the beginnings of modern times. The idea of obtaining such a language from the elements common to national tongues appeared in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth Centuries. From these beginnings has come the gradual development of that branch of comparative linguistics which has been given the name of interlinguistics.</p> <p align="justify">Men of many nationalities have taken part in its coming of age.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The first to work out a complete auxiliary-language system based on the common elements in national languages was a Spaniard, Pirro, whose Universalglot was published in 1868.</p> <p align="justify">Volapük, the work of a German priest, Johann Martin Schleyer, which appeared in 1880, used the idea in a limited way, drawing heavily on English. This system had a decade of extraordinary popularity which justified the establishment of a Volapük Academy.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto, also the creation of one man, Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof of Poland, was published in 1887 and has achieved wide renown. In 1894, Dr. Zamenhof himself proposed a reformed Esperanto in response to demands among his followers for a simplified grammar and a more thoroughly international vocabulary. His proposals were not adopted.</p> <p align="justify">In 1907, three Frenchmen, Louis Leau, Louis Couturat, and Louis de Beaufront, were leaders of a delegation which again proposed certain reforms in Esperanto. The outcome was a schism in the Esperanto movement with the promulgation of another system called Ido.</p> <p align="justify">The original system of Dr. Zamenhof remained the foundation of all official Esperanto publications and organizations, of which there are many throughout the world. Ido has also successfully been used in many publications.</p> <p align="justify">Esperanto II, a system proposed by René de Saussure of Switzerland, which aimed to remove certain features of Esperanto while retaining its fundamental structure, has never been used to any great extent.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">Meanwhile an Austrian, Julius Lott, and a Chilean, Alberto Liptay, had further clarified the idea that “the international language does not need to be invented. It exists. One only needs to collect all its words and set them in order.” When Waldemar Rosenberger, a Russian, assumed the leadership of the declining Volapük Academy, he made of it an energetic center of experimentation with Liptay's principle. The results, made public in 1902, became known as Idiom Neutral. A contemporary of Rosenberger, basing his work on the same principles, was Dr. H. Molenaar of Germany. He has continued to advocate his system under the name of Unial.</p> <p align="justify">In 1910, the Idiom Neutral (formerly Volapük) Academy, under the leadership of an Italian mathematician, Giuseppe Peano, became the Academia Pro Interlingua, a society for research in interlinguistics. Most of its publications were in the form of Interlingua known as Latino sine Flexione, but its members were free to experiment with, and advocate, other proposals. One member, Aldo Lavagnini, an Italian living in Mexico, promoted his own system under the name of Mondi Lingua. Mrs. Alice V. Morris, representing the International Auxiliary Language Association, became a member of the Academia. Its headquarters were in Turin, Italy. After the second World War they were reorganized in The Netherlands.</p> <p align="justify">Occidental, subsequently also called Interlingue, was published by an Estonian, Edgar de Wahl, in 1925. De Wahl and his group devoted much attention to the problem of combining great naturalness with great regularity in the derivational patterns of their language. It found many advocates throughout Europe. Various types of periodicals have been regularly issued in that language. The headquarters of the Interlingue-Union are in Switzerland.</p> <p align="justify">In 1925, Joseph Weisbart, also a German, began to promote his Medial. Otto Jespersen, the internationally known linguist of Denmark, produced a system of his own called Novial.</p> <p align="justify">Throughout the past quarter of a century experimentation in interlinguistics has been on the increase. Among the systems recently published are Interglossa by Lancelot Hogben of Great Britain, Internasional by Paul Mitrovitch of Yugoslavia, Mondial by Helge Heimer of Sweden, Neolatino by André Schild of Switzerland, International by Campos Lima of Portugal, and Ling by Anders Olsen of Sweden. Many other one-man products are in manuscript form.</p> <p align="justify">Controversial questions pertaining to vocabulary and grammar have caused so great a variety of auxiliary-language systems. Their multiplicity has fragmented the movement for that one world language to which developments in modern communications point. The positive aspect of the situation must be stressed, however. Underlying all controversial details, the numerous systems have a great deal in common. They may be regarded as variants of the one essential international language which is latent in the living languages. The most urgent practical problem in the field of interlinguistics is to build up a basic stock of language material which all interlinguists can accept as authentic. The Interlingua-English Dictionary offers such authentic material.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">International Auxiliary Language Association. — The International Auxiliary Language Association, generally known as IALA, is an organization which grew out of investigations of the auxiliary language problem undertaken after the first World War by committees of the International Research Council, by the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the Advancement of Science, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other groups of specialists.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Frederick Gardner Cottrell of the International Research Council interested Mr. and Mrs. Dave Hennen Morris of New York in the idea of creating a permanent body which would continue the studies begun by the various committees. They had both been long active in organizations concerned with the betterment of conditions of human society, and they saw at once the significance of an international language as one of the means for developing the international community which seemed at the time a possible hope. They brought together in 1923 men and women of wide experience in international affairs, communications, and linguistic scholarship to discuss what might be done to focus attention upon the already well-established movement for an international language.</p> <blockquote> <p align="justify">The group included Dean Earle B. Babcock, New York University; Dr. LeRoy E. Bowman, Columbia University; General John T. Carty, Vice-President, American Telephone &amp; Telegraph Company; Mrs. James S. Cushman, World's Committee, Young Women's Christian Association; Dr. Stephen Duggan, Director, Institute of International Education; Mr. Harry E. Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Dr. John H. Finley, Editor, New York Times; Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, Radio Corporation of America; Dr. Arthur Hamerschlag, President, Research Corporation; Mr. and Mrs. John H. Hammond; General James G. Harbord, President, Radio Corporation of America; Clarence Howard, President, International Chamber of Commerce; Dr. Frederick P. Keppel, President, Carnegie Corporation; Mrs. James Lees Laidlaw, Woman's Council for the League of Nations; Dr. Sidney E. Mezes, President, College of the City of New York; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, President, Antioch College; Dr. Herbert N. Stanton, Columbia University; Mrs. William Jay Schieffelin; Miss Clara B. Spence, Principal, Miss Spence's School; and Mrs. Charles L. Tiffany, New York League of Women Voters.</p> </blockquote> <p align="justify">The deliberations of these men and women bore fruit. Under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Morris the International Auxiliary Language Association was founded and incorporated in 1924 as a non-profit organization “to promote widespread study, discussion, and publicity of all questions involved in the establishment of an auxiliary language, together with research and experiment that may hasten such establishment in an intelligent manner and on stable foundations.”</p> <p align="justify">Dean Babcock became the first President. In 1936 he was succeeded by Dr. John H. Finley. Dr. Stephen Duggan served as President of IALA from 1940 to the time of his death in 1950.</p> <p align="justify">Mrs. Morris became Honorary Secretary of the Association and later also Chairman of the Research Division, in which roles she carried the task of developing the many-sided research and promotional activities of IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Mr. Morris was IALA's Treasurer from the founding of the Association until his death in 1944. During the years of his ambassadorship to Belgium (1933-1937) he and his wife were successful in bringing European scholars as well as leading men of practical affairs to take a serious interest in IALA's work. Their son, Mr. Lawrence Morris, succeeded him as Treasurer.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Exploratory Work. — The first decade of IALA's research program was of an exploratory nature. Contacts were made with leaders in the various groups supporting different auxiliary-language systems. In order to survey the extent of the successful use of auxiliary languages a special library was collected. It includes books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in different interlinguas, as well as dictionaries and textbooks. A bibliography listing all the material available in European libraries on the subject of international languages was prepared in collaboration with the Universal Esperanto Association.</p> <p align="justify">The anthropological approach to the auxiliary-language problem was directed by Professor Edward Sapir of Yale University. In a series of studies called <i>Foundations of Language</i>, the speech habits typical of different languages were analyzed in connection with specific aspects of grammar. Some of these studies were published by the Linguistic Society of America. Mrs. Morris was the Editor in collaboration with Dr. Sapir, Professor William E. Collinson of the University of Liverpool, and Dr. Morris Swadesh.</p> <p align="justify">As long ago as 1930 IALA planned a meeting in Europe at which for the first time linguists and experts in auxiliary languages sat down together for a period of two weeks to exchange ideas. Convened by Professor Otto Jespersen, the conference gave its approval to the research program proposed by IALA. Since that time four official congresses of linguists have had reports on IALA's work set before them.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Linguistic Research. — Five international language systems, Esperanto, Ido, Esperanto II, Occidental, and Latino sine Flexione, were selected for analytical study by IALA because they all had official organizations promoting them and had been used with success in publications and in spoken communication. Parallel studies of these languages with comparative studies of national languages were carried on by IALA's Research Staff under the direction of scholars in American and European universities.</p> <p align="justify">An intensive study of language difficulties in international conferences was made by Professor Herbert N. Shenton, then of Syracuse University and Executive Secretary of IALA. The extent to which auxiliary languages have been tried out in international conferences was surveyed. The results of this research project were published under the title of <i>Cosmopolitan Conversation</i> by Columbia University Press in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">Various kinds of educational research projects were pursued centering upon the basic idea that an interlingua can be used in a simplified course in comparative linguistics to initiate students into the study of foreign languages. A textbook for a <i>General Language Course</i> was prepared by Helen S. Eaton of IALA's staff. It was used in experimental courses in schools cooperating with IALA's educational program.</p> <p align="justify">Dr. Edward L. Thorndike on an initial grant from Carnegie Corporation conducted a series of experiments in the relative ease of learning constructed and natural languages. His findings were published under the title <i>Language Learning</i> by the Bureau of Publications of Teachers College of Columbia University in 1933.</p> <p align="justify">During the second World War, when the necessity for learning foreign languages was emphasized by world events, a pictorial method for the beginner was embodied in a textbook series by two members of IALA's Research Staff, E. Clark Stillman and Alexander Gode. The series included the titles <i>Spanish at Sight</i>, <i>French at Sight</i>, and <i>Portuguese at Sight</i>.</p> <p align="justify">A new contribution to the field of word-frequency studies was made in the form of the <i>Semantic Frequency List</i> by Helen S. Eaton, Linguistic Research Associate of IALA's staff. This work was issued by the Committee on Modern Languages of the American Council on Education and published by the University of Chicago Press in 1940.</p> <p align="justify"><b>&nbsp;</b></p> <p align="justify">Work on the Dictionary. — Preparatory work on the Dictionary included consultation with linguists in the United States and Europe and with experts in the various auxiliary-language systems. It was carried on by means of conferences, correspondence, and questionnaires.</p> <p align="justify">At the University of Liverpool from 1936 to 1939 various methods of compiling international word material were tested under the direction of Professor William E. Collinson. A staff of persons of different language backgrounds was assembled. Mr. E. Clark Stillman succeeded Dr. Collinson as its Director. The outbreak of war forced the transfer of the work to New York, where Mr. Stillman assembled a new international staff and continued to direct it until he joined the State Department in 1942. During the war years, Dr. Alexander Gode kept the research program going by assuming the duties of Acting Director in addition to his regular work as Editor of Reference Books with the T. Y. Crowell Company. In 1946 IALA brought Dr. André Martinet from the Sorbonne to New York and entrusted him with the direction of its interlinguistic research. Upon his joining the faculty of Columbia University in 1948, Dr. Gode assumed full direction of the work. In its final form the Dictionary is his conception and his responsibility. It is the fruit of his and of his staff's exacting scholarship and patient labor.</p> <hr> <h3 align="center">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</h3> <p align="justify">The present Directors of IALA are: W. Hallam Tuck, Vice-President, Belgian American Educational Foundation; John V. Irwin; Lawrence Morris; LeRoy E. Bowman; Ben M. Cherrington, University of Denver; Harry Edmonds, Founder, International House, New York; Alfred N. Goldsmith, Past President, Society of Motion Picture Engineers; Henry Goddard Leach, President, American Scandinavian Foundation; Frederick H. Osborn; Mrs. Harold Peabody; and Thomas J. Watson, President, International Business Machines Corporation. In their names I acknowledge the many kinds of cooperation IALA has received in its researches.</p> <p align="justify">Financial support of IALA's work has come from many sources. Carnegie Corporation gave a grant to Teachers College of Columbia University for preliminary research in language learning. Rockefeller Foundation provided a grant for lexicological work done at the University of Liverpool. Research Corporation made liberal undesignated annual grants over a period of years. To all of these foundations IALA expresses gratitude not only for the funds given but for the recognition of the importance of the work in the whole field of communications.</p> <p align="justify">IALA's faithful membership has helped to underwrite the task of producing the Dictionary and has followed every stage of its work.</p> <p align="justify">The most substantial amount of financial support has come from Mr. and Mrs. Morris and their children. They never failed to comprehend the cost of a research program like IALA's, to respect the points of view of the scholars they enlisted in the work, and to meet the needs of IALA's budget. Year after year they gave money but they also gave themselves unselfishly and enthusiastically to the practical details which might help to make their ideal aim of an international language a reality.</p> <p align="justify">A special debt of thanks is due to IALA's Budget Committee of which James G. Harbord was Chairman and S. Sloan Colt and Samuel McRoberts were members.</p> <p align="justify">Intellectual support of IALA's program has come from men and women in all parts of the world. Specialists in communication, international relations, education, and many of the sciences have participated in discussions of IALA's program.</p> <p align="justify">Offers of collaboration have been received from many authors of auxiliary-language systems, some of whom have placed their own manuscripts at the disposal of IALA. Open-minded interest has been demonstrated by many supporters of different auxiliary languages, while linguists have given the work their serious attention. Business men have shown genuine interest, among them Rotary International, which appointed a committee to follow IALA's activities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has established contact with IALA.</p> <p align="justify">Among those who took part in formal and informal conferences of IALA were: Leslie Adie; Mrs. Yorke Allen; Dr. James R. Angell, President, Yale University; Professor Kan-Ichi Asakawa, Yale University; Siegfried Auerbach, Akademio di Ido; Professor Charles Bally, University of Geneva; Clarence Barnhart; Louis Bastien, Esperanto Society of France; Andre Baudet, Paris Chamber of Commerce; Wilhelm Blaschke; Pierre Bovet, Rousseau Institute, Geneva; Willem de Cock Buning, Rotary International; Mrs. Westwood Carr; Professor Gustave Cohen, École Libre des Hautes Études; Mr. and Mrs. G. Alan Connor, Esperanto Association of North America; Andreo Cseh, Internacia Cseh-Instituto de Esperanto; Mrs. James S. Cushman, Y.W.C.A.; Dr. Malcolm Davis, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Dr. Watson Davis, Science Service; Professor Albert Debrunner, Universities of Berne and Basle; Professor A. W. de Groot, University of Amsterdam; Rollet de l'Isle, Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista; René de Saussure, Esperanto II; Edgar de Wahl, Occidental Union; Professor Henry Gratton Doyle, The George Washington University; Mrs. Laura Dreyfus-Barney; Miss Helen S. Eaton; Gertrude Ely; Professor Robert H. Fife, Columbia University; Professor P. Fouché, Sorbonne; Dr. Frank Fremont-Smith, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation; Professor Otto Funke, University of Berne; Miss Clarissa H. Gordon; Mrs. Ruth M. Griggs; Professor Albert L. Guérard, Stanford University; Mrs. Hamilton Hadley; Dr. Walter D. Head, Rotary International; Professor V. A. C. Henmon, University of Wisconsin; Professor Eduard Hermann, University of Göttingen; Dean Henry W. Holmes, Harvard University; Mr. and Mrs. I. R. G. Isbrucker, Universala Ligo; Professor Roman Jakobson, Columbia University; Professor Otto Jespersen, University of Copenhagen; Dr. Marguerite Jones, Hunter College; Professor Serge Karcevski, University of Geneva; Professor Hayward Keniston, University of Michigan; Dr. Laura H. Kennon, Brooklyn College; Professor Wencil J. Kostir, University of Ohio; Wladyslaw Kozlowski, Lingvo Monde; Dr. John Lansbury; George Winthrop Lee and John L. Lewine, Esperanto Association of North America; Miss Anne Lincoln; Professor Kemp Malone, Johns Hopkins University; Professor Antoine Meillet, Sorbonne; Mrs. Dudley H. Mills; Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch College; Dave Hennen Morris, Jr.; Professor Henri F. Muller, Columbia University; Professor C. K. Ogden, Cambridge University; Professor Austin M. Patterson, Antioch College; William Perrenoud, Esperantist; Howard A. Poillon, Research Corporation; Professor Pitman B. Potter, Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales, Geneva; Bronson Price; Edmond Privat, President, Universal Esperanto Association; Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt; Professor Albert Sechehaye, University of Geneva; Dr. James T. Shotwell, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Professor Herbert Schofield, Loughborough College; Mgr. Schrijnen; Professor Alf Sommerfelt, University of Oslo; Pierre Stojan, Esperantist; Dr. Lester Struthers, Rotary International; Mrs. Walter Knight Sturges, Jr.; William Mark Taylor; George L. Trager; Professor Nicolaas Van Wijk, University of Leiden; Professor Joseph Vendryes, Sorbonne; Professor Jean Paul Vinay, University of Montreal; Eugen Wüster, International Standards Organization; Reinhold Zeidler, Novial. — To these and many others IALA is most grateful.</p> <p align="justify">Mary Connell Bray<br> Executive Director, IALA</p> <hr><br> </div> 945 2022 2005-04-12T22:41:35Z Josu Lavin 2 <h2 ALIGN="center">Introduction</a></h2> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the history of the International Auxiliary Language Association &#151; and of the auxiliary-language movement as a whole &#151; the publication of the Interlingua-English Dictionary marks an important step ahead. We do not present it to the world as an inspired new departure, a cure-all, if it were generally accepted, for every ill resulting from the confusion of tongues. We merely claim to have &quot;summarized the past&quot; by producing for the first time a dictionary of the international language, based on a rigorously consistent and scientifically exact application of the one fundamental idea adhered to by most interlinguists of the past three quarters of a century. We share with our predecessors the view that the world need not wait for the creator of an ideal universal tongue because it is a fact that the international language exists potentially in the common elements of the speech forms of huge segments of civilized mankind. On this fact we have based the principles and rules and the devices which have governed the making of the Interlingua-English Dictionary.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our efforts are so clearly connected with those of our predecessors that it is both impossible and superfluous to acknowledge in detail our indebtedness to them. We do not present a new work detached and distinguished from theirs but rather the common answer to our quest and theirs for a standard presentation of the international vocabulary. If we have been successful in this, the lasting significance of our work is assured. The practical interlinguist will be struck by the fact that this volume contains no proposal for a grammatical system to operate the international vocabulary nor a section which supplements the Interlingua-English Dictionary by leading into the international vocabulary from English. The demand for these and similar additional tool publications is legitimate, but it can only be fulfilled on the basis of a systematic recording of the international vocabulary. To furnish such a basis, to represent such a systematic recording, is the purpose and aim of this Dictionary. In it the international vocabulary, which numerous interlinguistic systems have used, are using, and will use in various ways and to various degrees of consistency, appears now at last in a methodical assembly ready to serve interlinguists of all schools in their various needs and likewise to form the standard and norm of future complementary and specialized publications&#151;grammars, dictionaries, and handbooks in various languages concerned with various forms of the interlingua.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a summary account of the whence and wherefore of the Dictionary, the following material is organized under several heads. The first section, &quot;Theory and Principles,&quot; discusses the objective data which have determined our approach. It is a restatement of the considerations and conclusions which have guided most interlinguists since the time of Dr. Zamenhof's original conception of Esperanto.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second section, &quot;Method and Techniques,&quot; constitutes a practical laboratory manual and offers a description of the procedure followed in gathering and arranging the material included in the Dictionary.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international vocabulary is as much subject to further growth as are the vocabularies of all national languages, but its future problems must not be left to depend on subjective decisions. Their solution must result from the application of a specific technique to whatever the international linguistic facts may be. Thus the methodological section is to serve simultaneously the normative functions which in similar cases under different conditions are vested in linguistic academies.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concluding sections represent a user's guide and show the machinery of the Dictionary in operation.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <hr> <h3 ALIGN="CENTER"><a name="theory">THEORY AND PRINCIPLES</a></h3> <p><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="languages">International Languages</b>.</a> &#151; In modern times protagonists of the idea of a neutral auxiliary language have come to rely less and less on arbitrary devices. They have been restricting their endeavors more and more consciously to the arrangement and processing of words and rules of grammar which they have culled from existing natural languages. These words and rules &#151; so the argument seems to run &#151; need not be introduced from scratch; they are and have been in practical use. No one can doubt their qualifications to serve efficiently and well.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This trend no doubt has played into the hands of those who advocate the adoption of one of the major existing languages as the most promising choice for a universal auxiliary language. To a certain extent their proposals might seem to agree with the lessons of the history of interlinguistics and auxiliary languages in general. However, that history tells us also that no national language has ever been used for auxiliary purposes unless its native speakers had established themselves as a people in a position of political or cultural hegemony. A national language used as a secondary world language implies on the part of its speakers a claim to universal superiority, and no people is in a position to make such a claim and force all parties concerned to agree.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secondary or auxiliary languages are a very old and very common phenomenon. Late Greek served as one. As such it was particularly important since the New Testament was written and propagated in it. The case of medieval Latin is very similar and so, albeit in different fields and on different levels, are the examples of contemporary Pidgin English, of Swahili or Kiswahili in East Africa, of Hindustani, Mandarin Chinese, and of literally dozens of other so-called lingua francas. None of these, however, was a man-made auxiliary language, and no man-made auxiliary language has ever equaled the least of them in practical everyday importance.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extranational languages have never attained their range as the result of man's desire to understand his neighbors across the border and to avoid or overcome friction, war, and hatred, which are often regarded as unavoidable results of our numerous language borders. Actually languages of more than nationally restricted use have always been established in their role as secondary or auxiliary languages in foreign parts by potent needs either of a purely utilitarian or of a generally cultural kind.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In one way or another these languages were connected or actually identified with an &quot;expansive movement&quot; which promoted them as in turn they served and promoted it.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medieval Latin, to mention but one example, owed its wide range to the missionary &quot;dynamism&quot; of the Church, while the Church, in turn, could not have accomplished its task without the universality of its language.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These data may justify the generalization that no secondary auxiliary language of major or minor scope has ever been accepted and used if in back of it there was not a specific force which promoted it because it needed it as a practical tool.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applied to the problem of a modern auxiliary world language, this means that either the modern world can claim to have initiated an expansive movement of the kind alluded to in which case the modern world must already have a language of its own that cannot and need not be superseded by a product of man's making &#151; or there is no such movement &#151; in which case all our efforts to establish a universal auxiliary language are a clear waste of time and energy because none can exist.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first of these alternatives is right. The modern world is pervaded in all its parts and phases by a powerful influence which has reduced the vastness of the globe to a matter of hours and has diffused things and ideas and problems to every corner of every continent. If one simple label is wanted to designate the force responsible for all the good and all the evil that distinguishes our contemporary world from that of centuries past, we may call it the power of science and technology. But if we go on to ask, has not this world-wide sweep of science and technology carried with it to all corners of the world a language of its own, somewhat in the manner of the medieval Church of Rome which took its Latin language with it wherever it brought its expansive influence to bear, the answer is a peculiarly hesitant one. Yes, in a way there is such a language. We often speak of the language of science and technology. But if this is to lead to the conclusion that that language should then be regarded as the one and only possible auxiliary world language of modern times, we suddenly realize that the language of science and technology is no language in the full sense of the word but at best a vast body of international terms and phrases which appear in our various languages under a corresponding number of slightly varying forms.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately we must not analyze further the fascinating suggestion that it is perhaps quite natural that science and technology should be incapable of going beyond the world-wide diffusion of a vast number of specifically technical terms and of evolving from them a full-fledged language, because this inability may very well be correlated with the fact that the world of science and technology is one of discrete ideas which do not fall into a complete and coherent pattern, or in other words, that the &quot;language&quot; of science and technology is not really a language because the thought of science and technology is not really a philosophy.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In interlinguistic terms all this means that even though the &quot;language&quot; of science and technology is not a full-fledged language, even though it can supply us only with a vast number of words and phrases of international validity in various peculiarly national but easily recognizable forms, it does represent a nucleus of a complete language. It does represent fragments of the only international language we have. And the task of the practical interlinguist turns out to be the selection and arrangement of international words and subsequently their expansion into a fully developed language - a language, of course, which, though it may have its base and its <i>raison d'être</i> in the vast domain of technological data, will draw on and cover the arts and all other human endeavors down to the most humble concerns of our daily lives.</p> <p><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="words">International Words</b>.</a> &#151; In the widest sense, an international word is a word which occurs in more than one national language. The German words <i>Haus</i> and <i>Automobil</i>, for example, are identical with the English words <i>house</i> and <i>automobile</i> despite slight differences in spelling and pronunciation. Their meanings are of course essential parts of them. If they were semantically distinct, as are English <i>also</i> and German <i>also</i> for example, they could not be viewed as identical words.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two types of international words. German and English <i>Haus</i> and <i>house </i>represent a type which owes its international range to the common descent of two or more languages; words of this type are international by cognateship in the restricted sense of the term. On the other hand, the internationalism of German and English <i>Automobil</i> and <i>automobile</i> is due to the transition of words from one language to another; words of this type, though sometimes loosely called cognates, should be distinguished as international by loan and diffusion.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its most comprehensive sense, the term &quot;international word&quot; would take in a huge number of words which occur in but a very few languages of minor significance. International words differ strikingly in their range. From a practical point of view only those international words need be considered which have a fairly wide range of occurrence throughout the regions of the world inhabited by peoples who participate in international intercourse and are consequently apt to take an interest in its simplification.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If international words differ as to their range, they may likewise be grouped as to their language of origin or &quot;center of radiation.&quot; There are important and unimportant centers of radiation, and words of wide international range spring from either.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The word <i>igloo</i> for instance has a very respectable range. It occurs in Eskimo, English, French, Russian, and in many other languages. But Eskimo, from which the word stems, is not therefore a significant center of radiation.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such minor &quot;centers of radiation&quot; can be disregarded without a resulting loss of important items in the international vocabulary provided it be ascertained that the possible contributions of every disregarded center come into consideration elsewhere. Neglecting the Eskimo center of radiation will not imply the loss of the international word <i>igloo, </i>if English, Russian, French, or any of the other languages which know the word, are kept under observation.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The restriction of the number of languages examined with regard to their stock of international words does not imply the exclusion of international words of all sorts of remote origins from the resulting list.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For practical reasons the sphere in which &quot;international words&quot; are to be collected must be restricted, but the purpose of getting together the most generally international vocabulary possible can best be served if the restricted sphere fulfills two requirements: first, it must be a powerful center of radiation of international words, one that has contributed largely to the stock of international words throughout the rest of the world; secondly, it must have a high degree of receptivity with regard to the material radiating from other languages.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the second of these requirements, English represents a well-nigh ideal fulfillment of it. Hardly another language can compete with English in its &quot;receptive power.&quot; Indeed, a list of words of wide international range outside the orbit of English would include few important groups with the possible exception of a fairly substantial vocabulary &quot;radiated&quot; from the Islamic world to Spain, Eastern Europe, and parts of Asia but not to the English-speaking world.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first requirement, concerned with the power of radiation of international words, is a more complex matter. There is no one language that stands as far above all others in regard to the bulk of its contributions to the international vocabulary as does English in regard to its ability to assimilate foreign words.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important group of international words is doubtless the body of technical terms in science and technology. In the large majority of cases the international technical</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">terminology is built up of Latin and Greek or Greco-Latin elements. It is not on the whole the contribution of any one language, not even of Greek and Latin taken together, for it includes a considerable number of terms which, though consisting of classical elements, were completely unknown to the native speakers of both the classical languages. Socrates spoke Greek all through his life but he never used the telephone and did not know that the word for it comes from his mother tongue.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Words of this type may be grouped under the head of their common origin in a kind of theoretical Neo-Latin which is not spoken anywhere but appears unfolded in the several contemporary Romance languages. Taken as a group and viewed as joint executors of the Latin heritage and hence as representing most fully the Neo-Latin source of most of the international technical vocabulary, the Romance languages are the most potent center of radiation of international words.</p> <p><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="variants">Variants and Their Prototypes</b>.</a> &#151; The determination of what words are to be regarded as part of the international vocabulary is one thing; the determination of the forms under which they are to be listed is another. The language of origin of a given international word cannot help solve this problem. For instance, the German word Statistik and the English word penicillin (they are German and English in origin) would, if spelled Statistik and penicillin as items in a list of words of wide international range, still be German and English and not &quot;international.&quot; Their forms must be &quot;internationalized,&quot; that is, be normalized or standardized on the basis of the variants under which they occur in the national languages. The resulting prototypes are neither English nor German, not Latin or Greek, neither this language nor that, but in them the variants occurring in this language as well as in that can immediately be recognized. Neither German Statistik nor of course English statistics or French statistique can qualify as an international form. In the international vocabulary the word must be represented by a form of which Statistik and statistics as well as statistique are variants determined by idiosyncratic peculiarities characteristic of German, English, and French respectively.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The process of viewing together the variant forms of international words in order to arrive at normalized, or standardized, prototypes cannot comply with a verifiable methodology applicable to ever new cases, unless the variants themselves, and hence the languages to which they belong, have a common basis in which the principles of normalization or standardization may be rooted.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Romance languages do have such a common basis in Latin. They represent furthermore the most potent center of radiation of international words and are thus on two important counts a research sphere in which the garnering of international words appears to be most promising.</p> <p><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="source">Source or Control Languages</b>.</a> &#151; English answers most fully the requirement of receptive power in regard to international words of foreign origin. The Romance languages comply best with the requirement of productive radiation of international words. The best restricted sphere of languages in which to carry out a systematic collection of international words is consequently a combination of English and the Romance languages. We refer to these languages variously as source or control languages.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The inclusion of English does not interfere with the desideratum that the languages to be scrutinized for the compilation of the international vocabulary should be possessed of a common basis. English does share the basis which holds the Romance languages together. Its vocabulary is so strongly romanic that in this respect - whatever the situation may be in other respects - it is a Romance language.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Anglo-Romance group of languages can boast an aggregate of close to half a billion speakers. This quarter of mankind includes no considerable ethnic group uninvolved or uninterested in international concerns. Nor, to be sure, does it include all the populations of the globe that are involved and interested in international concerns but certainly most of them.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few examples may serve to show that the Anglo-Romance group of languages does constitute a sphere of source languages in which international words of the most varied origins can be gathered. The Hebrew word for &quot;hell,&quot; <i>G Hinnm</i>, is widely international, but to get it into the international vocabulary, Hebrew need not be investigated for the word appears in English as <i>Gehenna</i>, in Spanish as <i>gehena</i>, in Italian as <i>geenna</i>. The Arabic word which appears in English as <i>alcove</i> can likewise be garnered in the restricted sphere, for it appears in Italian and Portuguese as <i>alcova</i>, in Spanish as <i>alcoba</i>, and in French as <i>alcove</i>. An example of an international word of Russian origin is that appearing in English as <i>mammoth</i>, in French as <i>mammouth</i>, in Spanish as <i>mamat</i>, and in Italian as <i>mammut</i>. A German example is English <i>feldspar</i>, French <i>feldspath</i>, Italian <i>feldispato</i>, Spanish <i>feldespato</i>.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reasoning in favor of a restricted sphere of assemblage of international words does not preclude the possibility of shifting its boundaries in the interest of a richer haul. In lieu of one or two of the languages of the Anglo-Romance group one or two other languages of at least equal significance in the international field may be included, provided, of course, that the items examined are still held together by a common basis, which means, that their center of gravity remains in the Anglo-Romance sphere. In the compilation of this Dictionary the sphere of research has been permitted to shift only so as to include German or Russian or both. The decision not to use the same procedure for other languages was reached after ample tests had demonstrated that the consequent complication of our methodology would not have affected the results in any appreciable way.</p> <p><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="summary">Summary</b>.</a> &#151; Of all languages that ever attained more than national usefulness it can be said that they were carried beyond their original confines by an expansive cultural or utilitarian dynamism. They functioned as indispensable cultural or utilitarian tools. Modern internationalism is largely conditioned by science and technology in the most comprehensive sense. The language of science and technology is the modern international language or interlingua. It is not, strictly speaking, a complete language but is rather a very comprehensive body of international terms which constitute the nucleus of an interlingua. The international vocabulary has absorbed materials of the most varied origins but its center of gravity lies in the sphere of the Greco-Latin tradition. It can be collected within the confines of a homogeneous group of source or control languages which not only represent the Greco-Latin tradition in our time but have likewise absorbed all significant international words radiated from other centers. This group is the Anglo-Romance group of languages with German and Russian as potential contributors.</p> <hr> 946 2023 2005-04-12T22:45:16Z Josu Lavin 2 <h3 ALIGN="CENTER"><aMETHOD AND TECHNIQUES</a></h3> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="eligibility"><b>Eligibility of International Words</b>.</a> &#151; Words are eligible in the international vocabulary if they have currency throughout the Anglo-Romance sphere of languages. The language units to be examined individually are Italian, French, English, and Spanish and Portuguese combined. The combination of the two Iberian languages is indicated not because their separate importance could be doubted but because their significance in the pattern of the Romance languages is similar. The absence of a word from the vocabulary of one of the units listed is often a coincidence which cannot suffice to bar it from the international vocabulary. German or Russian may take the place of any of the Anglo-Romance source units. In sum, a preliminary formulation of the criterion of internationality runs as follows: A word is to be accepted as international when its presence is attested - in corresponding forms and with corresponding meanings - in at least three of the language units, Italian, Spanish and/or Portuguese, French and English, with German and Russian as possible substitutes.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The practical application of this rule encounters a number of specific problems.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. &#151; The decision as to whether a word exists in a given language is not always a clear and simple matter. It is neither possible to limit oneself to the listings found in a set of chosen dictionaries nor to consider every obscure entry in the most exhaustive compilations. Technical terms should be looked for in technical dictionaries while everyday expressions should be traced in average dictionaries of the everyday language. Furthermore, the investigation cannot in all instances be limited to the current modern vocabulary. For instance, while the modern French word <i>tuer</i> &#145;to kill&#146; shows no relationship to the Italian word <i>uccidere</i> of the same meaning, there are traces in French of the older <i>occire</i>, and even in Spanish, whose normal word for &#145;to kill&#146; is <i>matar</i>, an old verb corresponding with Italian <i>uccidere</i> and French <i>occire</i> has survived at least in the participial form <i>occiso</i>. In this case &#151; and similarly in similar ones &#151; one may reason that hidden behind, and represented by, <i>tuer</i> and <i>matar</i> there are older forms corresponding with Italian <i>uccidere</i>, so that the requirements of internationality are fulfilled in regard to a word for &#145;to kill&#146; which corresponds directly to Latin <i>occidere</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carried to its extreme conclusions this procedure justifies the inclusion in the international vocabulary of words corresponding with all Latin terms provided their concepts appear in one form or another in the modern languages. At first glance so broad an interpretation of the rule of modern internationality of words might seem arbitrary. Upon closer examination, however, one is struck by the fact that the languages of the Western World are all in the habit of having recourse to classical and predominantly Latin word material whenever new expressions are to be coined, as well in cases where new ideas, facts, and things are to be named as also when a synonym for a traditionally available term is needed.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.- The principle of correspondence of word forms in the various contributing languages needs to be allowed a certain latitude. The English words <i>automobile</i> and <i>fidelity</i> correspond completely with French <i>automobile</i> and <i>fidélité</i> or Spanish <i>automóvil </i>and <i>fidelidad. </i>The second is everywhere a direct descendent from Latin <i>fidelitas, fidelitat-</i> and consists everywhere of an adjective made into a noun by the addition of one and the same suffix in various etymologically identical forms. The first is everywhere a modern compound consisting again in all instances of etymologically identical elements. However, in an example like Italian <i>amaritudine</i>, it will be found that neither its Spanish nor its French equivalents are in full etymological correspondence. French <i>amertume</i> and Spanish <i>amargor</i> as also the Italian synonyms <i>amarore</i> and <i>amarezza</i> have substituted deviating suffixes for the original Latin one. Such suffix substitutions, which are not occasioned by expressive needs, must not be allowed to deny a particular word its full international standing, for with them the deviation in form does not imply a deviation in meaning.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Numerous examples of this point are supplied by English adjectives which often differ from the corresponding words in other languages by an excrescent meaningless suffix. The suffix <i>-al</i> in <i>fanatical</i> is meaningless; it does not cause the word to differ in any sense from its synonym <i>fanatic </i>and justifies no discrimination between it and French <i>fanatique</i>, Italian <i>fanatico</i>, etc. The same holds true for the English type <i>voracious</i> which has a &quot;superfluous,&quot; that is, a distinctively English and meaningless suffix <i>-ious</i>. The corresponding French word is <i>vorace</i>, Spanish <i>voraz, </i>etc.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. - There are numerous words which, paradoxically, do not occur in a particular</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">language but are potentially present in it. In English, for instance, the derivational types of <i>versatile-versatility, visible-visibility</i>, etc. are so normal that the exceptional occurrence of an isolated <i>proximity</i> without a corresponding adjective strikes the student as a peculiarly English &quot;accident.&quot; There ought to be an adjective <i>*proxim </i>or possibly <i>*proximous. </i>The frequency and clear-cut character of the English affix <i>-ity</i> permits the assertion that behind the noun <i>proximity</i> there exists &#151; potentially if not in fact &#151; an adjective which can join the actually existing Italian <i>prossimo</i> and thus contribute to the international standing of the simple adjective behind its derived noun. This same reasoning could not apply if the adjective in back of <i>proximity</i> did not exist anywhere. On the other hand it does apply in cases where the situation is reversed, that is, where the simple word is fully international while it is the derivative which is merely &quot;potentially&quot; available.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The affixes which, when occurring in formations of limited range, carry them nevertheless into the international vocabulary, must be both frequent and clear. All those found to qualify under this head are represented by special entries in the body of the Dictionary. A complete list appears below on pp. xlvif. </p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What has been said about affix formations of limited range applies likewise to compounds. The Italian word for &#145;match, lucifer&#146; is <i>fiammifero</i>. It is a compound of</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">elements which are completely international and quite unambiguous. The word as such occurs in but one language, but the representation of its elements in all the contributing languages justifies the claim that the word is potentially international. In a considerable number of cases where ideas of full international range happen to be represented by numerous and etymologically quite unrelated terms, adequate renderings in the international vocabulary can be found by examining all the monolingual renderings in regard to their potential representation in the source languages as a whole.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="form">Form of International Words.</a> &#151; The forms under which the international words are listed must be neither Italian nor French, Spanish, Portuguese, English, German, or Russian; they must be international. This implies that everything is to be eliminated from them that is a characteristic feature of but one particular language. If the Spanish word for &#145;earth&#146; is <i>tierra</i>, the international form of it must not contain the diphthong <i>-ie-</i> which is a typically Spanish development. The international form corresponding to French <i>aimer </i>must not end in <i>-er </i>which is a typically French development. Or again, if the word <i>voracious</i> is qualified to enter the international vocabulary, it cannot appear there with the final syllable <i>-ious</i> because that is a peculiarly English excrescence.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, the international form of a word must be such that every idiosyncratic feature of its representation in one particular language must be explicable as a monolingual transformation of it. It must be the prototype of which all contributing forms are specialized variations. For example, the prototype of French <i>terre</i>, Spanish <i>tierra</i>, Portuguese and Italian <i>terra</i> is <i>terra</i>. The French final <i>-e</i> and the Spanish diphthong are specifically French and Spanish developments from the original neutral final <i>-a</i> and the original neutral monophthong <i>-e-</i> respectively. The resulting international form <i>terra</i> may look like the Italian, Portuguese, and Latin forms, but it is &quot;international&quot; and not Italian, not Portuguese, and not Latin. In a great many instances the prototype and hence the international form of a word does coincide with its etymological origin, that is, in the case of words derived from Latin, the Latin ancestor form. But this is not necessarily so. If the diphthong of <i>tierra</i> were not a Spanish peculiarity but occurred in Italian and French as well, the prototype and hence the international form would not be <i>terra</i> but <i>*tierra</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A more typical (and more complex) instance is that of Latin <i>causa</i> which appears in the modern languages as two distinct words, one represented by Italian, Spanish, Portuguese <i>causa</i> and French, English <i>cause</i>; the other by Italian, Spanish <i>cosa</i>, Portuguese <i>cousa</i>, and French <i>chose</i>. The prototype of the former is <i>causa</i>, that of the latter <i>cosa</i>, from which the French initial <i>ch-</i> and final <i>-e </i>as well as the Portuguese diphthong <i>-ou</i> are peculiarly French and Portuguese deviations, explicable in terms of specifically French and Portuguese sound laws. The transformation of Latin <i>-au</i> into <i>-o-</i> is a development characteristically international.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In keeping with the general goal of evolving non-specialized international forms, the prototypes must not be determined by a trait occurring in but one language. A monolingual trait is to be disregarded provided such a procedure does not reduce the international range of the result below the stipulated minimum. To refer again to the example of Latin <i>causa</i>, in the branch yielding the prototype <i>cosa</i>, all contributing forms with the exception of Portuguese show the vowel <i>-o-</i>. If the Portuguese <i>-ou-</i> were not a specifically Portuguese diphthongization of an earlier <i>-o-</i> but rather a survival of the Latin diphthong <i>-au-</i> the resulting form should still show no diphthong since three languages &#151; Spanish, French, Italian &#151; exhibit a simple <i>-o-</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="terminations">Terminations</b>.</a> &#151; Like all other formative elements, suffixes too appear in fixed prototype forms which do not vary erratically from one case to another. If it is an historical fact that the suffix in English <i>agile</i> and that in <i>fossil</i> are the same, and if furthermore the other contributing languages show them to be alike (as they actually do), then the English difference between this particular <i>-ile</i> and this particular <i>-il</i> must leave no trace in the international forms.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The common form from which the suffix represented by English <i>-al</i> has evolved in the various languages is a form technically known as the crude form of the Latin oblique cases of <i>-alis</i>, that is to say <i>-ale</i>. This <i>-ale</i> is the ancestor of all the contributing variants but its full spelling is maintained only by Italian. All the other control languages omit the final <i>-e</i>. Therefore the prototype serving as the international form of the suffix omits it likewise and appears as<i> -al</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somewhat more complex is the case of the parallel suffix evolved from Latin <i>-ilis</i>. It, too, appears in Italian with a final<i> -e</i> in all cases, but the alignment of a pair of illustrations like English <i>civil, agile</i>, Spanish <i>civil, agil</i>, Italian <i>civile, agile, </i>and French <i>civil, agile </i>leads to the introduction of two prototype forms, the one, <i>-il</i>, bearing the stress and omitting the final <i>-e</i>; the other, <i>-ile</i>, equipped with a final <i>-e </i>and occurring after a stressed syllable.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These data can be looked at inversely so that &#151; as a general rule applying to the forms entered in this dictionary &#151; a final <i>-e </i>after <i>-l </i>(and likewise after <i>-n-</i> and <i>-r-</i>) turns out to be an indication that the stress must fall on the third last syllable, as in <i>agile</i> (as against <i>civil</i>), in <i>automobile</i> (as against <i>infantil</i>), as in <i>ordine </i>(as against <i>asinin</i>), as in <i>arbore</i> (as against <i>professor</i>), etc. &#151; See also under &quot;Pronunciation,&quot; p. liii below.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="infinitives">Termination of Infinitives</b>.</a> &#151; The prototype procedure outlined above would yield infinitives in <i>-are, -ere, </i>and <i>-ire. </i>As in the case of <i>-al </i>and <i>-il, </i>it is again only Italian that retains he final <i>-e</i> systematically. Since, however, English absorbs Romance verbs as a rule without the Romance infinitive termination, it cannot assist French and the Iberian languages to overrule the conservation of the final <i>-e</i>. If this English &quot;abstention&quot; is not to allow Italian to settle the question in favor of its own unique usage, there remains only the possibility to let the prototype forms of the infinitive follow the model of comparable cases, as for instance that of the suffixes <i>-al</i> and <i>-il</i>. Thus the prototype forms of the infinitive terminations appear as <i>-ar, -er</i>, and <i>-ir</i>.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the subdivision of Latin <i>-ere</i> verbs in two groups with the stress on the penult and antepenult respectively is clearly traceable within the sphere of the modern Romance languages, the prototype of the infinitive termination might be determined for each of the two cases separately. The resulting distinction of verbs in <i>-er</i> with the stress on the last syllable and a smaller group of verbs in <i>-ere </i>with the stress on the antepenult would largely correspond to two types of derivation. The verbs in <i>-er</i> would show &quot;weak&quot; derivatives in <i>-it-</i> plus <i>-ion, -ire, -ura</i>, etc., while the verbs in <i>-ere </i>would build such derivatives by adding <i>-ion, -are, -ura</i>, etc. to a &quot;strong&quot; or modified stem. In this Dictionary no such distinction has been made.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="adjectives">Termination of Adjectives</b>.</a> &#151; A special problem is posed by the class of adjectives which maintain in all Romance languages a difference between masculine and feminine forms. Here the prototype procedure collides with a point of grammar which must be discussed at this time although grammatical questions in general have no place in a purely lexical discussion. The prototype of English, French <i>grand</i>, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese <i>grande</i> emerges smoothly as <i>grande</i>. However, in cases like that of the international word corresponding to English <i>saint</i>, the outcome is undecided because here the original inflectional system of Latin survives in all the Romance languages not only with a distinct form for the plural but also with distinct masculine and feminine forms. The adjectival prototype of English, French <i>saint</i>, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian <i>santo</i> would be <i>*sancto</i>, but that of English <i>saint</i>, French <i>sainte</i>, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian <i>santa</i> would be <i>*sancta</i>. When used as nouns to represent a male or female saint, the forms <i>sancto</i> and <i>sancta</i> are satisfactory. But with adjectival functions they would be usable only if the grammar of the international language were to keep up a corresponding gender distinction.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is possible to envisage the international vocabulary in operation with a grammatical system which does maintain a gender distinction. Attempts in this direction are on record, but they form a decided minority. The procedure adopted in this Dictionary is the one favored by most users of the international vocabulary. All adjectives are treated as though Latin and the Romance languages knew only the one type of adjective in which there is no distinction between masculine and feminine. The resulting dictionary entries exhibit no difference in termination between the types <i>grande</i> and <i>sancte</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="series">Forms of International Words in Derivational Series</b>.</a> &#151; The prototype, as discussed so far, may be defined as the nearest common documented or hypothetical ancestor from which all contributing variants can be developed in accordance with the individual laws and motives operating in the various languages considered. This implies that in the case of Latin-derived nouns and adjectives the prototype is normally neither coincident with nor based upon the original nominative (i.e., the form conventionally entered in dictionaries) but rather that it will have the appearance of the crude (i.e., truncated) form of the Latin oblique cases. This is so because the Romance languages, when &#151; in the course of their development from Latin &#151; they abolished the declensional system of nouns and adjectives, did not normally preserve one case at the expense of all the others; they normally preserved a composite of the various oblique cases. French <i>pied</i>, Spanish <i>pie</i>, etc. did not develop from Latin <i>pes</i> but from Latin <i>pede </i>which may be called a combination of <i>pedem, pedis</i>, etc. Now it happens to be the stems of the Latin oblique cases (i.e., the stem at the base of the international prototype) which appears again in the derivatives from nouns and adjectives. A word like <i>temporal </i>(whether it is considered in its English or any other variant) does not come from the stem of Latin <i>tempus</i> but from that of <i>temporis, tempore</i>, etc. A word like <i>pontifical</i> is not based on the stem of Latin <i>pontifex</i> but on that of <i>pontificem</i>, etc.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The prototype of English <i>pontiff</i> and the corresponding Romance variants which establish the internationality of the word, is <i>pontifice</i>. That of <i>pontifical</i> and its Romance equivalents is <i>pontifical</i>. The continuity of form in the prototype pair <i>pontifice-pontifical</i> (in contrast to English <i>pontiff-pontifical</i> or German <i>Pontifex-pontifikal</i>) is an important feature of the international vocabulary. It permits the interpretation of <i>pontifical</i>, as it were, as a special form for special uses of <i>pontifice</i> just as, let us say, <i>brotherly</i> in English might be called a special, that is, the adjectival form of <i>brother</i>. If this feature is to be generally characteristic of the international language, derivatives must always be made to have a bearing on the prototype forms that constitute its vocabulary. For instance, the prototype of Italian <i>tempo</i>, Spanish <i>tiempo</i>, Portuguese <i>tempo</i>, French <i>temps</i>, must, in view of the derivatives, become <i>tempore</i>, despite the fact that the nearest common ancestor form of those variants is <i>tempus </i>&#151; or at least, if French is disregarded, <i>tempo</i>. Italian <i>cuore, </i>Spanish <i>corazón</i>, Portuguese <i>coraçao</i>,<i> cor</i>, French <i>coeur</i> do not appear as <i>core</i>, which would reflect the Vulgar Latin declension <i>cor, coris</i> (instead of classical <i>cor, cordis</i>) but are standardized as <i>corde</i>, in view of the derivative <i>cordial</i>, a Medieval Latin formation with the suffix <i>-ial</i> on the stem <i>corde</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="families">Word Families</b>.</a> &#151; The bearing which, in the prototype procedure, derivatives have on their base, establishes in the standardized international vocabulary clear continuities in derivational series. Such series, often clustered in more or less extensive word families, exist in all the control languages. In many cases, however, they have become blurred by peculiar trends or historical &quot;accidents,&quot; and it becomes one of the most important functions of the prototype technique to give back to them their due scope. Blurred series like English <i>letter-literal</i> or <i>publish-publication</i> emerge in the international vocabulary in clear continuities as <i>littera-litteral, publicar-publication.</i> This is of the utmost importance for the free formation of autonomous derivatives in an auxiliary language.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principle which governs the limitation of derivational series or word families in the international vocabulary is that of a parallel between formal and semantic continuities. Since the idea of <i>causal </i>is a derivative from that of <i>cause, </i>the corresponding standardized words appear in a formally continuous series as <i>causa-causal</i>. Since, on the other hand, the idea of <i>causal </i>is in no way a derivative from <i>thing</i> (although French <i>chose</i>, Spanish <i>cosa, </i>etc. are historical developments from Latin <i>causa</i>), the standardized international word corresponding to <i>thing</i> does not appear in the same series but emerges as <i>cosa</i>. The prototypes <i>cosa</i> and <i>causa</i> belong, in terms of the standardized international vocabulary, to two different families, although the corresponding words in the Romance control languages are all members of the one etymological family of Latin <i>causa</i>.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These and related aspects of the prototype technique and its results are particularly significant in the case of certain verbs and their derivatives. A more detailed analysis of some verb families may prove useful at this point.</p> <i><p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tener</i> is the prototype of Italian <i>tenere</i>, Spanish <i>tener</i>, Portuguese <i>ter</i>, French <i>tenir</i>. The Latin ancestor word is <i>tenere</i>, which is the head of a large family of derivatives and compounds. Among the derivatives that are international and appear also in English, are <i>tenace, tenacitate, tenor</i>, &#145;tenacious, tenacity, tenor,&#146; etc. In Latin the compounds of tenere appear with a characteristic vowel shift as <i>abstinere, continere, obtinere</i>, etc. (with derivatives of both the types<i> abstinentia </i>and <i>retentio</i>). The modern languages did not maintain this and similar vowel shifts in the compound infinitives but adapted them to the form of the simple verb, e.g., Spanish <i>tener-abstener</i>, French<i> tenir-contenir</i>, etc. However, the international derivatives from some of these compounds (<i>abstinente, continente</i>, etc.) force them back into the Latin pattern and the infinitives appear in the international vocabulary as <i>abstiner, confiner, pertiner</i>, but <i>detener, intertener, mantener, obtener, retener, sustener</i>.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the case of this verb family, the different branches are interlinked by a comparatively clear continuity in meaning. The idea of &#145;to hold&#146; is everywhere preserved: <i>confiner</i> is &quot;to hold as contents&quot; or &quot;to hold back&quot;; <i>mantener</i> is &quot;to uphold&quot;; <i>detener</i> &quot;to hold in custody&quot;; etc. A case where one branch of an etymological verb family has become completely detached, both in form and meaning, both in the control languages and hence in the international vocabulary, is that of Latin <i>pendere </i>&#145;to suspend&#146; and &#145;to weigh&#146; with the derivative <i>pensum </i>&#145;something weighted, a weight.&#146; Its frequentative <i>pensare </i>&#145;to weigh&#146; and figuratively &#145;to ponder, consider&#146; gave rise in the Romance languages to two distinct derivational series. The words for &#145;to weigh&#146; are Italian <i>pesare</i>, Spanish and Portuguese <i>pesar</i>, French <i>peser</i> (cf. also English <i>to poise</i>). They are completely detached, in form as well as in meaning, from the Romance words for &#145;to think&#146;: Italian <i>pensare</i>, Spanish and Portuguese <i>pensar</i>, French <i>penser</i>, whose standardized form is <i>pensar</i> and whose derivatives appear as <i>pensative </i>&#145;pensive&#146; and <i>pensator </i>&#145;thinker,&#146; etc. In the modern languages none of these words reveals itself either formally or semantically as a derivative from &#145;to weigh.&#146; Hence the international word for &#145;to weigh&#146; is not influenced by them and appears as<i> pesar</i>, which may be taken as a derivative from <i>peso </i>&#145;weight&#146; (the prototype of Italian, Spanish, Portuguese <i>peso</i>, French <i>poids</i>, also English <i>poise</i>, from the abovementioned Latin <i>pensum</i>); and <i>peso</i>-<i>pesar</i> constitute a new family independent from <i>pensar</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A slightly different case occurs in the family of Latin<i> prehendere, prendere </i>&#145;to seize.&#146; The derivative <i>prehensio, prensio </i>&#145;act of seizing&#146; is represented in the control languages by Italian <i>prensione</i>, Spanish<i> prensión</i>, Portuguese <i>preensão</i>, French <i>préhension</i>, English <i>prehension</i>, which yield the prototypes <i>prehension</i> and <i>prension</i>. The Latin contracted form <i>prensio</i> has produced another series entirely detached from the first. This series is represented by Italian <i>prigione</i>, Spanish<i> prisión</i>, Portuguese <i>prisão</i>, French, English<i> prison</i>. Phonetically all these national variants have in common the loss of the Latin <i>n</i> before<i> s </i>and the change of the <i>e</i> in the stem into <i>i</i>. Semantically, too, no connection is felt between &#145;prison&#146; and &#145;act of seizing.&#146; Furthermore, the derivatives built on prison &#151; e.g., <i>prisoner, to imprison</i>, and their Romance equivalents &#151; stand in close relation only to their immediate base and not at all to the original Latin family of <i>prehendere</i>. Thus there results a detached family <i>prision, prisionero, imprisionar</i>, etc.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="nonlatin">Non-Latin Examples</b>.</a> &#151;The illustrations of the prototype technique presented so far are all concerned with words either derived from Latin or built of Latin material. Additional illustrations are required for the following groups: 1) Words of Greek origin, including classical formations &#151; borrowed directly or transmitted by Latin &#151; as well as neologisms built of Greek word-material. 2) Words of Germanic origin which penetrated into the Romance languages in post-classical times and have become fully assimilated. 3) Foreign words which were taken over at various times from various sources outside the Romance-English language group and which have become assimilated to a higher or lesser degree.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. &#151; In the case of words of Greek origin it happens quite often that formations which have the semantic value of derivatives are formally detached from what might be taken as their base. In the standardized vocabulary they exert consequently no influence on the latter's form. Thus the international form of <i>therapeutic </i>has no bearing on that of <i>therapy</i>, for although one is clearly the adjective pertaining to the other, there is no direct derivational relationship between them. Both are ultimately derived from an identical third, the Greek verb <i>therapeuein</i>. &#145;Therapy&#146; appears in the international vocabulary as <i>therapia</i> and &#145;therapeutic&#146; as <i>therapeutic</i>. The semantic interdependence of the two is formally as little accounted for in the international vocabulary as in the vocabularies of all the control languages. They appear in the Dictionary as two unrelated entries.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other instances the formal relationship by derivation which did exist in Greek has been totally severed in the modern languages which treat these words exactly like those of the type <i>therapia-therapeutic</i>. This severance is often due to the fact that members of a given derivational series in Greek were taken over by Latin or the modern languages as individual words whose connection with other Greek words of the same family (separately taken over by the same languages) was not made apparent in their forms. Greek <i>phlegmatikos</i> was actually a derivative from <i>phlegma</i> on the inflectional stem <i>phlegmat-</i>, yet this latter word appears in no modern language and certainly in none of the members of the Anglo-Romance control group in a form corresponding to the old inflectional or deriving stem. It is represented everywhere by the Greco-Latin nominative and appears correspondingly in the international vocabulary as <i>phlegma</i>, uninfluenced by its companion adjective <i>phlegmatic</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most words of Greek origin, however, the formal continuity of derivational series emerges in the international vocabulary as clearly as it does in the case of words of Latin origin.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. &#151; Next to Greek, the most important non-Romance contributors to the international vocabulary are doubtless the Germanic languages and dialects. Their role in the international vocabulary gives rise to two special observations.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a good many instances of English words of Germanic origin which are related to words in the other control languages by Indo-European cognateship. Examples are <i>beech</i> and Spanish <i>haya</i>; <i>father </i>and Italian <i>padre</i>; <i>brother</i> and French <i>frère</i>; etc. In all such instances the Germanic form (provided of course there is perfect formal and semantic correspondence) can be considered a contributing variant that adds to the international range of the word in question. As for the prototype technique, words of this category must be standardized exclusively on the basis of their Romance variants. Here the inclusion of Germanic cognate forms would produce prototypes on an Indo-European basis which is much too narrow to support an international vocabulary. Thus French <i>frère</i> Italian <i>fratello</i> (with a suffix that may be disregarded), and English <i>brother</i> establish the internationality of a word which is represented by the standardized form <i>fratre</i>, determined without reference to the Germanic variant.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A related and considerably more important problem is that of words of Germanic origin represented by borrowed variants in the Romance control languages, whether or not they are supported by an inherited form in English. Most words of this category were taken over by the Romance languages during the early Middle Ages when Germanic supremacy, especially in the fields of law and warfare, made itself felt in all parts of western Europe. If the English form of such words is available (and generally it is), it can again be considered a variant of the Romance forms, fit to add to the international range of the word in question but not suitable to enter into the determination of its prototype. French <i>hareng</i>, Italian <i>aringa</i>, Spanish, Portuguese <i>arenque</i> are all Romance variants of West Germanic <i>haring</i> and thus identical by Germanic cognateship with English <i>herring</i> and German <i>Hering</i>. The meaning of the word raises no new problems. It has full international range throughout the control languages. For the determination of its prototype the inclusion of the English and German variants would produce a result on a Germanic basis. The exclusion of English and German produces the prototype <i>haringo</i> which is the form by which this word is represented in the standardized international vocabulary.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. &#151; As for the standardization of foreign words that were borrowed at a more recent date from different sources outside the Romance-English group, a distinction must be made between those which have become fully assimilated in all the languages of adoption and those which, having retained their original form, are always felt to be &quot;foreign.&quot; In the first category there are a great many words of extra-European origin which were introduced into the European tongues by way of Spanish or Portuguese. In many instances the Iberian languages show a closer similarity to the phonetic structure of the original than the second-hand borrowers. For instance, the equivalents of English <i>carafe</i> in the other control languages are Italian <i>caraffa</i>, French <i>carafe</i>, and Spanish/Portuguese <i>garrafa</i>. The last named, which comes closest to the original Arabic <i>gharrâf</i>, would determine the prototype of all the modern variants as *<i>garrafa</i> if the initial <i>g-</i> as a trait limited to one control or source unit could not be overruled by the initial <i>c-</i> found everywhere else. The resulting international form is <i>carrafa</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Derivatives from these relatively recent loan words are not very frequent. Where they do occur, they influence the prototype in exactly the same way as in all other cases. An example is the international word for &#145;tea&#146;. Italian<i> tè</i>, Spanish <i>te</i>, French <i>thé</i>, English <i>tea</i> correspond to the name of this plant and beverage in the Amoy dialect of China; Portuguese <i>cha</i> and Italian <i>cia</i> (a special word for &#145;teaplant&#146;) reflect the Mandarin variant. The combination of these two branches might prove quite problematic if it were not for the existence of the international derivative <i>theina</i> which serves to determine the prototype of the base word as <i>the</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finallv, foreign words which have been introduced into the control languages in comparatively recent times and have retained their foreign character, do so also in the standardized international vocabulary. Examples are: <i>allegro, aria, imbroglio</i> from Italian;<i> cargo, matador, rancho</i> from Spanish; <i>bouquet, bureau, chassis </i>from French;<i> budget, interview, reporter, standard</i> from English;<i> hinterland, kirschwasser, landwehr </i>from German. In some cases the modern languages have built on these foreign loans independent derivatives of which only the endings have to be standardized. Thus we have <i>interviewar</i> on <i>interview</i>, <i>standardisar</i> on <i>standard</i>, etc. In the Dictionary such &quot;foreign&quot; words are entered without accent marks and diacritical signs except when such a procedure would suggest an absurd pronunciation. Thus we have French <i>defaite</i> instead of<i> défaite</i> but German <i>kümmel</i>. English words reveal at times by their spelling whether they were internationalized on a British or American basis.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="summary">Summary of Definitions.</a></b> &#151; The following formulations are not intended to be self-explanatory. They are summaries of the foregoing analyses which serve to elucidate them and provide pertinent illustrations for them.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Eligibility. &#151; <i>A word is eligible in the international vocabulary if it occurs &#151; with corresponding meanings and in forms deviating from etymological identity by nothing more than a meaningless affix &#151; in the current or historical vocabulary of at least three of the source units, Italian, Spanish/Portuguese, French and English and also German and Russian; it carries with it all formations differing from it in both form and meaning by the addition or omission of a &quot;normal&quot; affix, provided such formations occur in at least one of the units listed.</i></p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Form. &#151; <i>The form under which a duly admitted word enters the international vocabulary is the prototype or nearest documented or theoretical ancestor form common to all its variants as well as to the stems of their derivatives in the contributing languages; it is determined in such a way that its variants in the source languages and the stems of their derivatives deviate from it only in accordance with the characteristic behavior of the languages they represent &#151; with the proviso that the resultant form must never be conditioned by a trait restricted to one single contributing variant.</i><b></p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b><a name="meaning">Meaning of International Words.</a> </b>&#151; The criteria which determine what shall or shall not appear in the standardized international vocabulary are all concerned with words considered simultaneously as <i>forms </i>and expressions of <i>meanings</i>. Both the form and the meaning of a given word must have the required international range to assure the word of representation in the standardized vocabulary. Yet, while the problems arising in this connection are smoothly covered by a set of rules in so far as they are concerned with matters of <i>form</i>, the implications of the internationality of meaning are often delicate.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Negatively speaking, a word which is represented in the required number of control languages by &quot;identical forms&quot; with different meanings, must be excluded from the standardized vocabulary. The point may be illustrated by reference to the standardized form <i>planger </i>which corresponds to Italian <i>piangere</i>, Spanish <i>plañir</i>, French <i>plaindre</i>, and (archaic and dialectal) English <i>to plain</i>. The Latin ancestor form <i>plangere</i> signified &#145;to beat (with a noise); to beat one's breast (in grief); to lament aloud.&#146; The Italian variant means &#145;to weep, sob, or wail&#146;; the Spanish form signifies &#145;to groan, lament&#146;; the French one, &#145;to pity&#146;; in English the word formerly had the meaning of &#145;to complain.&#146; The different languages went different ways in developing the meaning of their variants, and the word would not be represented at all in the international vocabulary if it were not for the phrase <i>planger se de </i>&#145;to complain of or about,&#146; for which the Romance variants supply the required three-language agreement.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now, the various meanings of the simple verb <i>planger</i> in the ethnic languages might still be recognized as vaguely related, and it might be argued that the discrepancy in the meanings of Italian <i>piangere</i> and French <i>plaindre </i>differs only in degree from the discrepancy in the meanings of for instance French <i>liberté</i> and English <i>liberty</i> which are not quite alike either.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, in the case of <i>liberté-liberty</i> the divergencies are concerned with overtones and connotations due to specific associations and traditional usage. On the other hand, it is the very concept of French <i>plaindre</i>, not a peculiar set of connotations, that differs from that of Italian <i>piangere</i>, and if for the two a common conceptual basis were to be found, it would have to be traced back to Latin and could not be said to be available in either one of the modern variants.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If a concept in this sense is defined as a nucleus of thought crystallized in a word form as its adequate expression, it follows that <i>liberté</i> and <i>liberty</i> represent the same concept; <i>plaindre</i> and <i>piangere</i> represent different concepts. The connotational divergencies in the first example do not affect its representation in the international vocabulary; the conceptual differences of the second exclude it as such from the international vocabulary. That it does occur in it as part of the reflexive <i>planger se</i> is a different matter.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meaning to be established for a given international word is the nuclear concept which its ethnic-language variants have in common. This does not signify that an international word cannot be modulated by connotations, emotional overtones, and the like. All these things, precisely as in each one of the ethnic languages, are matters of style. If, let us say, the international word <i>perla</i> has been established as the form representing the concept &#145;the shelly concretion of nacre found in the pearl oyster and used as a gem,&#146; there is obviously no reason why it should not be used with reference to an efficient houseworker. In doing so the basic definition is not abandoned, just as the use of the English word <i>pearl </i>in such a context does not imply that the word stands for the concept &#145;efficient houseworker&#146; but merely that it is to be suggested that the efficient houseworker is as valuable as the shelly concretion in the pearl oyster. Here the semantic continuity between the conceptual core and the metaphor is not broken. If it were broken, the meaning &quot;efficient worker&quot; would be a second concept represented by the same word form. An illustration of this latter type is the English word <i>star</i> which can be used for a luminary of the stage or screen without the implication that he or she may be compared to a celestial body. This particular development by the way is not international. The German or French words for &#145;a celestial body&#146; can of course also be used with reference to a superior actor or actress but not without the clearly metaphorical implication that the person in question is to be called a celestial body in the firmament of the Thespian art. In both the languages mentioned the detached meaning of English <i>star</i> (the concept &#145;a superior actor or actress&#146;) is often represented by just that word borrowed in its English form.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cases where the semantic break between a conceptual core and a mere metaphoric extension is sufficiently international or occurred at an early time in the language of origin of a given word, the result is that the international form stands for two or more conceptual cores. Thus, from the Latin point of view there was a perfect continuity in the semantic development of the verb <i>intendere: </i>from &#145;to stretch out or towards something&#146; by way of &#145;to attend, direct one's attention to&#146; to &#145;to intend, purpose.&#146; From the extension &#145;to direct one's attention to,&#146; Medieval Latin developed the new core meaning or concept &#145;to understand&#146; which survives in the Romance languages. The current meaning of French entendre &#145;'to hear,&#146; is a further development of &#145;to understand&#146; and remains monolingual. Internationally, &#145;to intend, purpose&#146; and &#145;to understand,&#146; although they both are offsprings of the same semantic ancestor (&#145;to direct one's attention to&#146;), appear as two distinct concepts. They constitute the two basic meanings of the international word <i>intender</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts in the sense here envisaged are naturally not always international. The nucleus of thought, &#145;with one's hands on one's hips,&#146; expressed by the word &#145;akimbo,&#146; is clearly monolingual. Other languages can circumscribe it with the help of a phrase, e.g., French <i>les mains sur les hanches</i>, but from the French point of view this is as little a concept as <i>les mains sur les épaules</i> &#145;with one's hands on one's shoulders.&#146;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">English is particularly rich in terms of this sort. Most of them are represented by words belonging to the Germanic stock of the vocabulary, as <i>bleak, to befriend, brittle</i>, etc.; but there are also a good many English words of Romance origin which the language uses to express peculiarly English concepts, as <i>casual, eventual, domineer</i>, etc.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These and similar monolingual concepts are not represented as such in the international vocabulary. They are units of thought or ideas which have crystallized as clear nuclei in definite word forms only in one language. The other languages express them by various noncrystallized phrases, and so does the international vocabulary which must follow international usage.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <hr> 947 2024 2005-04-12T22:48:38Z Josu Lavin 2 <h3 ALIGN="CENTER"></font><a THE INTERNATIONAL VOCABULARY</b></h3> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This Dictionary comprises some 27,000 entries. It is not a complete compilation of the international vocabulary and could not be intended to be complete.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A bold guess as to the number of international words which the methods outlined above would yield if exploited to the last might run into several hundred thousands. The large majority of the items included in such a &quot;complete&quot; body of international words would be highly specialized terms. Being predominantly technological and scientific or generally learned, their weight contributes greatly to the argument that the international language exists potentially in the ethnic languages and merely waits to be extracted from them. However, many terms in this category are so completely international that after we have found them in one language we feel justified in using them in any other, including the international language, without first consulting the corresponding dictionaries.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we find the English word <i>cyclonoscope</i>, we need hardly know what it means, let alone consult a dictionary, to conclude that the German equivalent is <i>Zyklonoskop</i>, the French form <i>cyclonoscope</i>, the variant in Italian <i>ciclonoscopio, </i>etc. For the fact of the matter is precisely that words of this kind are not just English, French, German, etc. but international. The international version of <i>cyclonoscope </i>is <i>cyclonoscopio</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But we may go farther. Not only are there innumerable technical terms in international use, but an additional infinite number which are not to be found anywhere exist potentially in all the languages within the orbit of the international vocabulary and hence in the international language itself. When, for example, the philosopher Lovejoy, for his own purposes, introduced the term <i>retrotensive</i> in one of his works, his readers were of course given an explanation of what the new coinage was meant to express, yet translators could consult no dictionary on how to render the term in any other language. Still, they had no difficulty in determining that the Spanish, Italian, Portuguese forms must be <i>retrotensivo</i>, the German form <i>retrotensif</i>, the French form <i>rétrotensif</i> etc. Or another example: If an inventor came along with a new gadget designed to expel cigarette butts from the holder the moment a certain degree of nicotine concentration were reached and if this inventor wanted to call his gadget an <i>autoejector</i>, there could be little doubt about the foreign names for the instrument upon its arrival on distant shores in the wake of the spread of civilization. The Germans would call it <i>Autoejektor</i>, the French <i>autoéjecteur</i>, the Italians <i>autoeiettore</i>, etc.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The point to be borne in mind is that the translator from English into any other language within the orbit of the international vocabulary is immediately able to render words like <i>retrotensive</i> and <i>autoejector</i> not because he understands what they mean but because he is aware of their structure. If such an awareness of structural patterns on the translator's part enables him to state what such and such an English word of obvious internationality must be in French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, German, Russian, and numerous other languages as well, a similar ease of rebuilding such terms in the international language can be attained on the basis of a corresponding awareness of the structural patterns prevailing in the international language. The Dictionary had therefore to be made to include ample illustrative material of all manner and kind of formations from all branches of man's scientific and technological endeavor.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The account of how the Dictionary was made to fulfill this requirement may be merged with the account of how the body of words included in it was selected.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A dictionary of the international language poses problems sharply distinct from those confronting the makers of dictionaries of fully established languages with a verifiable tradition of usage. If, let us say, a 27,000-word dictionary of English &#151; monolingual or with translations into any other language &#151; were envisaged, the initial task to be dealt with by the lexicographer would be to select from the total body of English words those 27,000 items which his prospective readers could be expected to inquire about most frequently. On the whole the 27,000 most frequent words of the English language would be included.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 27,000 most frequent words of the international language, however, cannot be thus identified. Neither can we know whether a particular international word is frequent or infrequent, nor can we base the selection of items to be included in the Dictionary on the criterion of their importance in any one of the source languages.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the distinctive features of our approach to the question of the international vocabulary is the fact that the starting point must never be the question, &quot;How do you say in the international language &#145;desk, doughnut, dumbbell,&#146; or whatever else happens to come to mind?&quot; When the parallel question is asked, &quot;How do you say &#145;desk, doughnut, dumbbell&#146; in French, German, or Arabic?&quot; the answer, &quot;A desk is this, a dumbbell that, and a doughnut does not exist,&quot; is possible because the body of words of those languages is fully established and ready for perusal.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first job to be tackled had to be the compilation of at least large portions of the international vocabulary without any sort of reference to starting points in English or any other individual language. Furthermore, if secondarily the question about the international equivalent of such and such a word from any particular language is admitted, it should be explicitly preceded by an inquiry as to whether or not the thing, fact, or idea in question is international. For if no one can be expected to give the French, Russian or German word for doughnut if he can prove that the thing itself is unknown to the speakers of those languages, the same privilege should be enjoyed by a person speaking or writing the international language.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inversely the international vocabulary, to qualify as the vocabulary of a full-fledged language, must be able to produce an equivalent for every concept which is truly international. It does not follow that non-international concepts cannot be expressed in the international language. A Russian, German, or Frenchman can very well refer to a doughnut in his own language by using various circumlocutions even though he may find that there is no crystallized term for the thing. Exactly the same &#151; but nothing more &#151; may be expected of the international language.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the preparation of this Dictionary the technique of checking the internationality of concepts represented in individual languages and of subsequently ascertaining their being covered by the international vocabulary, has been applied after the assembly of an initial stock of international words was completed.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basis from which the initial compilation took off consisted of complete assemblies of all words in the major source languages belonging to a particular etymological word family. The selection of the etymological families to be so treated was naturally guided in a general way by the knowledge that it would be technically impossible to treat the total vocabulary of the source languages in the manner indicated and that a family like that evolved from Latin <i>corpus </i>&#145;body&#146; or Greek <i>lithos</i> &#145;stone&#146; should have priority over an item like Latin <i>jurgare </i>&#145;to quarrel&#146; (from which we have such obscure words as English <i>objurgation</i>) or Greek <i>limos </i>&#145;hunger&#146; (which produces the English term <i>bulimy </i>&#145;a morbid form of hunger occurring in idiots&#146; also known as &#145;canine hunger&#146;).</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One result achieved by the method of etymological family alignments is that it permits the student to see at a glance what etymologically corresponding words there are in the various languages under observation. For example, the English word <i>necessitous </i>has the Italian correspondence <i>necessitoso</i>, it appears in French as <i>necessiteux</i>, but nothing like it existed in Latin or exists now in Spanish and Portuguese. The word <i>necessity</i>, on the other hand, has etymological correspondences practically every where. English <i>necessitude </i>existed in Latin and older Italian but is nowhere really alive.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More important is the fact that the assemblies of complete etymological families bring out the derivational patterns, which are often obscured or disrupted in individual languages, with such clarity that the result may be termed the underlying prototype or international schema of derivation. English <i>paucity</i>, for instance, looks certainly like a derivative with the suffix <i>-ity</i>, but from the English point of view it is not possible to state from what other word it is derived. The Iberian languages and Italian clarify the question. The base word is represented in them by <i>poco </i>and the archaic Italian form <i>pauco</i> which serve to explain the English <i>paucity</i>. Or again the French word crétacé &#145;cretacious&#146; shows at best a vague or &quot;learned&quot; dependence on <i>craie </i>&#145;chalk.&#146; But when this <i>craie</i> appears in alignment with Italian <i>creta</i>, the clear Italian pattern <i>creta-cretaceo</i> brings out the obscured but latent French continuity <i>craie-crétacé</i>.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="building">Active Word Building</b>.</a> &#151; The clearer the derivational patterns in a given language, the freer will be the permissible use of new or nonce formations. If no English nouns in <i>-ity</i> existed without a base adjective preceding it (that is, if <i>paucity</i> were impossible without <i>*paucous</i>), inversely formations like <i>strangity</i> and <i>sacrity</i> would seem less impossible.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the international vocabulary the clarity of its derivational patterns is of such essential importance that it was decided to stress it in this Dictionary by an almost unqualified adherence to the principle that no word is listed without simultaneously admitting all its clear compounds, derivatives, and formations preceding it in a derivational series. If the adjective <i>marin </i>&#145;marine&#146; is listed, it is allowed to take with it the compound <i>submarin </i>&#145;submarine,&#146; the derivative <i>marinero </i>&#145;mariner,&#146; and the form <i>mar </i>&#145;sea&#146; which precedes it. Of course no word is allowed to carry with it dependents not clearly recognizable as such. If the adjective <i>marin</i> has a substantival derivative <i>marina </i>&#145;navy,&#146; this word does not appear in the Dictionary as a dependent of <i>marin</i> because no one will recognize the signification of <i>marina</i> on the basis of his acquaintance with the adjective <i>marin</i> plus the termination <i>-a</i>. The word <i>marina</i> is in the vocabulary by its own rights. It is international in the required sense all by itself.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to establish a rule that every word that enters the international vocabulary can carry with it all related formations differing from it by an element of distinct and logical value, a list of standard affixes with standardized forms and standardized meanings must be provided. The selection of these affixes was made possible by a study of the complete assemblies of etymological families previously mentioned.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the purposes of this Dictionary all the affixes here listed have been considered active or autonomous. That is to say, any word &#151; even though it occur in only one of the contributing languages &#151; is listed in the Dictionary if it is built by means of one of them on a base in full international standing. Every active affix is represented in the Dictionary by a separate entry which includes a full analysis of its meaning or meanings. Inversely, every affix represented by a separate entry in the Dictionary is thereby identified as an active one.<b></p> <hr> <h3 ALIGN="CENTER"><a name="affixes">List of Active Affixes</a></b></h3> <div align="center"><center> <table BORDER="0" CELLSPACING="1" BORDERCOLOR="#000000" CELLPADDING="2" WIDTH="600"> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">a-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-amento</td> <td WIDTH="20%">ante-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ata</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ator</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-abile</td> <td WIDTH="20%">amphi-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">anti-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ate</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-atori</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">ad-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">an-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-antia</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-astra</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-atoria</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-ada</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-an</td> <td WIDTH="20%">apo-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-astro</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-atorio</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-age</td> <td WIDTH="20%">ana-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ar</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ation</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-atura</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-al</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ano</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ari</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ative</td> <td WIDTH="20%">auto-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-alia</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ante</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ario</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ato</td> <td WIDTH="20%">cata-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">circum-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ette</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ific</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ition</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-osis</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">co-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-etto</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ificar</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itis</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-otis</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">con-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">ex-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-imento</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itive</td> <td WIDTH="20%">para-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">contra-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">extra-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">in-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itor</td> <td WIDTH="20%">per-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">dia-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">hyper-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-in</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itori</td> <td WIDTH="20%">peri-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">dis-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">hypo-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ina</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itoria</td> <td WIDTH="20%">post-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">dys-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ia</td> <td WIDTH="20%">inter-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itorio</td> <td WIDTH="20%">pre-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">en-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ian</td> <td WIDTH="20%">intra-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itude</td> <td WIDTH="20%">pro-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-ente</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-iano</td> <td WIDTH="20%">intro-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itura</td> <td WIDTH="20%">re-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-entia</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ibile</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ion</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ive</td> <td WIDTH="20%">retro-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">epi-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ic</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-isar</td> <td WIDTH="20%">meta-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">sub-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-eria</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ica</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ismo</td> <td WIDTH="20%">mis-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">super-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-ero</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ico</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-issime</td> <td WIDTH="20%">non-</td> <td WIDTH="20%">syn-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-esc</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-iente</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-issimo</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-oide</td> <td WIDTH="20%">trans-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-ese</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ientia</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ista</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-or</td> <td WIDTH="20%">ultra-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-essa</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-iera</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ita</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ori</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ura</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-eto</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-iero</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-itate</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-orio</td> <td WIDTH="20%">vice-</td> </tr> <tr> <td WIDTH="20%">-etta</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ifere</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ite</td> <td WIDTH="20%">-ose</td> <td WIDTH="20%"></td> </tr> </table> </center></div> <hr> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for compounds, every formation is considered active (or autonomous) if both elements constituting the compound occur in other compounds of full internationality which thus serve as models. The international words <i>telegraphia </i>and <i>microscopio</i> can carry a formation like <i>micrographia </i>into the international vocabulary as a logical, self-explanatory compound provided it is found represented in at least one of the contributing languages.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The compounds thus given active standing include the type <i>portamoneta </i>&#145;purse&#146; which consists of a verb form (conveniently described as the infinitive deprived of its final <i>-r</i>) plus a noun. The meaning of the compound follows the pattern, &quot;a thing or person that is to perform the action expressed by the first element in regard to an object represented by the second element.&quot; The second element may be singular or plural in form depending on the logic of the situation. If, as in <i>guardacostas </i>&#145;coastguard,&#146; the second element is given in the plural, the pluralization of the compound produces no distinct form. &#145;Coastguards&#146; is still <i>guardacostas</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The inclusion of all types of compounds in the Dictionary has not been carried as far as in the case of affix formations.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, within the limits noted, a consistent effort was made to exhaust derivational series and incorporate all their links in the Dictionary, the families in which the words of the international vocabulary are presented do not of necessity constitute etymological families in the broad sense of the term. The international vocabulary is based on the vocabulary of a series of contributing languages but is not identical with them. In this sense English is based on Western Germanic (as is German) without being identical with it. And as, for instance, the English word <i>dollar </i>is not, in English terns, a derivative from the word <i>dale </i>although in terms of West Germanic such an etymological interrelation is a fact, so there are word groups in the international language which may very well be etymologically interrelated in terms of the Romance languages or Latin or Greek without therefore being interrelated within the framework of the international vocabulary. An instance of this sort is the international word <i>prision</i> which constitutes a word family by itself despite the fact that it is-ultimately &#151; by way of the Romance languages and Latin &#151;related to the international word <i>prender</i>.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="free">Free Formation</b>.</a> &#151; Among the word families in the Dictionary there are naturally not a few which consist of one single word. They are in a sense potential families. Although the present Dictionary does not include words totally devoid of support in the contributing source languages, there is no reason why the user should not operate freely with the derivational and compounding devices placed at his disposal. He may thus expand single-word families to fuller representation in exactly the manner in which he may add newer formations to any of the larger groups. He may, for example, take the word <i>jada </i>&#145;jade&#146; and derive from it the verb <i>jadificar </i>&#145;to transform into, make look like, jade,&#146; just as he may use the word <i>pluralista </i>&#145;pluralist&#146; to form the adjective <i>pluralistic</i>. Nothing can prevent him from making such words except the worry that he would not know what to do with them. He may go farther and form such monsters as <i>jadification</i> and <i>jadificational</i> or <i>pluralisticitate</i>. To be sure, there are psycho-linguistic blocks (rooted in Romance tradition and usage) which will prevent the majority of users from forming such words as well as others of the theoretically altogether possible type of <i>jadal</i> or <i>pluralistal</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dictionary includes a fair number of doublets which cannot be kept out of the international vocabulary because they happen to be international. Most of them owe their occurrence to the principle of complete derivational series. There is for instance the international word <i>vindication</i> which carries with it the infinitive <i>vindicar</i> supported both by English &#145;to vindicate&#146; and international derivatives and compounds of the type <i>vindication, revindicar</i>, etc. These forms having been established and included in the international vocabulary, the contributing languages present the additional correspondence French, English <i>vengeance</i>, Spanish <i>venganza</i>, which justifies the adoption of a doublet verb <i>vengiar</i>. Since the Dictionary is not meant to legislate within the frame of what has been described as the international vocabulary, it must refrain from expressing a preference in favor of one of two equally international forms of the same word. The user may take his choice. Similar consequences result from the principle that the deriving stem of a particular series of words determines the form of the base word. Both <i>iridescentia </i>and <i>irisation</i> are fully supported international words. The former carries with it the base form <i>iride </i>&#145;iris&#146; (supported by Italian); the latter would justify the inclusion of <i>iris</i> even if it were not international in itself. Hence the doublet <i>iris-iride</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The endeavor to make this a comprehensive dictionary of the international vocabulary implied an open-minded attitude toward previous auxiliary language proposals. The most important effects of this attitude fall in the domain of grammar rather than of lexicography. However, the two domains meet in their common interest in certain types of words with predominantly grammatical functions. Several older auxiliary-language systems operate with forms, especially of conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, and non-derived adverbs, which do not appear to be incompatible with the principles of assemblage adopted for this Dictionary. All such forms have been included. They are given in brackets; the interlinguistic systems from which they were taken have not been identified.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><b>&nbsp;</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><a name="acknowledgments">Acknowledgments</b>.</a> &#151; The completion of this Dictionary brings to a close a major phase in the history of the International Auxiliary Language Association. It is hard to say when precisely the project was started, for many of the ideas used in its execution and also a number of independent studies from which some valuable raw material could be derived reach back by a decade or more and were not necessarily conceived in anticipation of the use we have made of them. To their authors and compilers we wish to express our sense of obligation and gratitude.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the present director of IALA's interlinguistic research I am happy to express my appreciation of the efforts of my predecessors. Very essential portions of the groundwork on which we have built were laid out by Mr. E. Clark Stillman whom I feel privileged to have as a friend and whom I am eager to acknowledge as a teacher in the field of interlinguistics. The Dictionary is likewise indebted to a number of fundamental ideas originally formulated by Dr. André Martinet.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the authors of various projects furthered or undertaken by IALA in the past, it is especially Miss Helen S. Eaton whose indirect contributions to the present work could be observed and were appreciated by every staff worker at all times during the actual preparation of the final printer's manuscript. This is not merely a reference to Miss Eaton's published <i>Semantic Frequency List </i>but also to various manuscript studies which are being preserved under her name in the IALA archives.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has often been remarked that the outline of a new auxiliary-language system is little more than a lengthy weekend job. The compilation of a dictionary is a bird of a different feather. It exceeds the productive capacity of a weekend and possibly that of a lifetime. This Dictionary, at any rate, cannot be imagined as the work of a single author. It represents staff work and staff collaboration. As I list the names of the members of IALA's past and present Research Staff in so far as they have been connected with the various stages through which this work had to pass, each one will know for himself in what respect his efforts were especially important and hence especially valued. Not thanks but warm appreciation to Dr. Dora Berger, Mr. Erich Berger, Mrs. Chassia Topaze Heldt, Mr. Francis H. Heldt, Dr. Christine Meyer, Mr. Nikolai Rabeneck, Dr. Leonie Sachs, Mr. Louis Sibuet, and Dr. Bernhard Valentini.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The manuscript of this Dictionary was going through the last stages of its editorial revision when Mrs. Alice V. Morris died on August 15, 1950. For years Mrs. Morris' interest in the progress of the work of the Association had found expression in a most active participation in all our efforts. She was the Chairman of IALA's Research Division but this position did not prevent her from working simultaneously as the most devoted and tireless member of the Association's Research Staff. Before her last illness circumscribed the extent of Mrs. Morris' linguistic investigations, most of her work was performed in close collaboration with her studious and widely-informed assistant, Mr. Hugh E. Blair, who subsequently joined IALA's general Research Staff. This project has profited greatly by Mr. Blair's unrelenting labor and ever-pertinent criticism.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs. Mary Bray, Executive Director of IALA, has never shunned the extra work entailed by our calling on her for editorial advice and practical help far beyond the limits of her administrative duties. Her spirit of joyful collaboration has ironed out many a technical and non-technical difficulty. Specifically she has organized for us a clerical staff of untiring devotion whose high morale survived undaunted through many a dreary hour. May our clerical workers &#151; Miss Louise Engelke, Mrs. Patricia Walsh Galvin, Miss Ethel Hanson, and Mrs. Margaret Timm &#151; look upon this Dictionary as their work which in a very important sense it is.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We cannot release this work to the public without inviting the constructive criticism of practical and theoretical interlinguists in all parts of the world. This applies not only to technical flaws and errors which seem unavoidable in a work of this scope and which we shall be glad to correct in future editions. It is meant particularly to refer to questions of methodology and technique of presentation and also to guiding ideas which have a bearing on the results obtained. Let us broaden this appeal for critical collaboration and address it likewise to the student of comparative and general linguistics. Linguistic research supplied the interlinguistic methodology which produced this Dictionary. As the linguist discovers its uses, may he also discover that interlinguistics is that branch of his science where abstract scholarship and practical idealism merge.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALEXANDER GODE<b></p> </b> <hr> 949 162 2005-04-12T22:50:45Z Josu Lavin 2 <p ALIGN="CENTER">Spelling and Pronunciation</b></font><font SIZE="3"></p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spelling is written form; pronunciation is voiced form. In the international vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation &#151; like forms &#151; represent the consensus of the source languages. Both are governed by prototype rules evolved from the contributing variants. The resulting system of orthography makes use of the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet without special diacritical signs or accent marks. The norm of pronunciation is, generally speaking, &quot;continental.&quot; Its values are elastic within type limits, or technically expressed, it permits phonemic variations of sounds not only under the influence of neighboring sounds but also as an effect of the native speech habits of individuals of various language backgrounds. </p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The English speaker should guard against his native tendency to merge all unstressed vowels in the neutral sound of <i>a</i> in Chin<i>a</i>. His normal native pronunciation of <i>b, d, f, k, l, m, p, ph. qu, v, w</i>, and <i>z</i> agrees with the international norm. All other symbols and sounds are tabulated below. </p> <ul> <li><i>a </i>like <i>a </i>in &#145;f<em>a</em>ther&#146;;</li> <li><i>c </i>before <i>e, i, y </i>like <i>ts </i>in &#145;ha<em>ts</em>&#146; (or, optionally, like <i>c </i>in &#145;<em>c</em>ity&#146;); otherwise like <i>c </i>in &#145;<em>c</em>ats&#146;; <i>ch </i>like <i>ch </i>in &#145;e<em>ch</em>o, <em>ch</em>rome&#146;;</li> <li><i>e </i>like <i>e </i>in &#145;m<em>e</em>t&#146;;</li> <li><i>g </i>like <i>g </i>in &#145;<em>g</em>ood&#146;;</li> <li><i>h </i>as in English (or, optionally, silent); after <i>r </i>and <i>t, </i>silent;</li> <li><i>i </i>like <i>i </i>in &#145;mach<em>i</em>ne&#146;; when unstressed before a vowel, like <i>i </i>in &#145;on<em>i</em>on&#146; or in &#145;phob<em>i</em>a&#146;); e.g. <i>bile, biliose, varie;</i></li> <li><i>j </i>like <i>z </i>in &#145;a<em>z</em>ure&#146; (or, optionally, like <i>g </i>in &#145;<em>g</em>em&#146; or like <i>y </i>in &#145;<em>y</em>es&#146;);</li> <li><i>o </i>like <i>o </i>in &#145;<em>o</em>bey&#146;;</li> <li><i>r </i>like <i>rr </i>in &#145;me<i>rr</i>y&#146; or, better, like <i>r </i>in Spanish &#145;ca<i>r</i>e&#146;;</li> <li><i>s </i>like <i>s </i>in &#145;<i>s</i>tay&#146;; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like <i>s </i>in &#145;the<i>s</i>e'); e.g. <i>sparse, abstruse, accusativo;</i></li> <li><i>t </i>as in English; <i>ti </i>before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by <i>s, </i>like <i>tsy </i>in &#145;he ge<i>ts y</i>ou&#146; (or, optionally, like <i>sy </i>in &#145;we pa<i>ss y</i>ou&#146; or like <i>ty </i>in &#145;we le<i>t y</i>ou&#146;); e.g. <i>actor, action, garantia, question;</i></li> <li><i>u </i>like <i>u </i>in &#145;pl<i>u</i>ral&#146;; when unstressed before a vowel, like <i>u </i>in &#145;pers<i>u</i>ade&#146; or in &#145;superfl<i>u</i>ous&#146;; e.g. <i>plural, persuader, superflue;</i></li> <li><i>x </i>like <i>x </i>in fo<i>x</i>; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like <i>x </i>in e<i>x</i>act);</li> <li><i>y </i>unstressed before vowels like <i>y </i>in &#145;<i>y</i>es&#146;; otherwise like <i>i </i>in &#145;mach<i>i</i>ne&#146;; e.g. <i>Yugoslavia, typo.</i></li> </ul> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Dictionary by a simple system of respelling. In it the normal sound values of the interlingua are to be assumed. The digraph <i>ch</i> stands frequently for the sound of <i>sh</i> in English and has been respelled as <i>sh</i>; e.g. <i>choc (sh-)</i>. The combination <i>gi</i> often represents the sound of <i>z</i> in a<i>z</i>ure. It has been respelled <i>j</i>; e.g. <i>avantagiose (-ajo-)</i>. Simple <i>g</i> has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix <i>-age</i>; e.g. <i>avantage (-aje)</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The diphthong <i>eu</i> stands for a combination of the normal interlingua sounds of <i>e</i> and <i>u</i>. Similarly, <i>ai</i> stands for <i>a</i> plus <i>i</i> as in <i>kaiser</i>; <i>au</i> for <i>a</i> plus <i>u</i> as in kraut. &#151; Double consonants need not be distinguished in pronunciation from simple consonants. &#151; The double consonant <i>ss</i>, however, is always voiceless like <i>ss</i> in &#145;miss.&#146; The sounds of <i>g</i> and <i>k</i> assimilate a preceding <i>n</i> as in English.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unassimilated guest words, that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the languages which have borrowed such words dispense with them too. They do so when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. <i>defaite</i> for French <i>défaite</i>, but <i>kümmel</i> as in German.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main stress is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. Words ending in <i>-le. -ne, -re </i>preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. <i>fragile, ordine, tempore</i>. In words formed with the suffixes <i>-ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula</i>, and <i>-ulo</i>, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes <i>-ific, -ifico</i> are stressed on the first <i>i</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deviations from this system are covered in the Dictionary by respelling with stress marks; e.g. <i>abbatia (-ía), formica (-íca), thermometro (-ó-)</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While syllabification may be handled according to derivation, usage in the source languages suggests that preference be given to syllabification according to pronunciation. This means that single consonants belong with the following syllable except for <i>x</i> which stays with the preceding syllable; e.g. <i>ex-a-mi-na-tor</i>. Consonant groups are divided with the important restriction that <i>l</i> and <i>r</i> cannot be separated from preceding <i>b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph. t, th</i>, and <i>v</i>; e.g. <i>al-le-gre</i>. The combinations <i>qu, gu,</i> and <i>su</i> are likewise indivisible.</p> </font> <hr> 2025 2005-04-12T22:51:52Z Josu Lavin 2 <p ALIGN="CENTER">Spelling and Pronunciation</b></font><font SIZE="3"></p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spelling is written form; pronunciation is voiced form. In the international vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation &#151; like forms &#151; represent the consensus of the source languages. Both are governed by prototype rules evolved from the contributing variants. The resulting system of orthography makes use of the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet without special diacritical signs or accent marks. The norm of pronunciation is, generally speaking, &quot;continental.&quot; Its values are elastic within type limits, or technically expressed, it permits phonemic variations of sounds not only under the influence of neighboring sounds but also as an effect of the native speech habits of individuals of various language backgrounds. </p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The English speaker should guard against his native tendency to merge all unstressed vowels in the neutral sound of <i>a</i> in Chin<i>a</i>. His normal native pronunciation of <i>b, d, f, k, l, m, p, ph. qu, v, w</i>, and <i>z</i> agrees with the international norm. All other symbols and sounds are tabulated below. </p> <ul> <li><i>a </i>like <i>a </i>in &#145;f<em>a</em>ther&#146;;</li> <li><i>c </i>before <i>e, i, y </i>like <i>ts </i>in &#145;ha<em>ts</em>&#146; (or, optionally, like <i>c </i>in &#145;<em>c</em>ity&#146;); otherwise like <i>c </i>in &#145;<em>c</em>ats&#146;; <i>ch </i>like <i>ch </i>in &#145;e<em>ch</em>o, <em>ch</em>rome&#146;;</li> <li><i>e </i>like <i>e </i>in &#145;m<em>e</em>t&#146;;</li> <li><i>g </i>like <i>g </i>in &#145;<em>g</em>ood&#146;;</li> <li><i>h </i>as in English (or, optionally, silent); after <i>r </i>and <i>t, </i>silent;</li> <li><i>i </i>like <i>i </i>in &#145;mach<em>i</em>ne&#146;; when unstressed before a vowel, like <i>i </i>in &#145;on<em>i</em>on&#146; or in &#145;phob<em>i</em>a&#146;); e.g. <i>bile, biliose, varie;</i></li> <li><i>j </i>like <i>z </i>in &#145;a<em>z</em>ure&#146; (or, optionally, like <i>g </i>in &#145;<em>g</em>em&#146; or like <i>y </i>in &#145;<em>y</em>es&#146;);</li> <li><i>o </i>like <i>o </i>in &#145;<em>o</em>bey&#146;;</li> <li><i>r </i>like <i>rr </i>in &#145;me<i>rr</i>y&#146; or, better, like <i>r </i>in Spanish &#145;ca<i>r</i>e&#146;;</li> <li><i>s </i>like <i>s </i>in &#145;<i>s</i>tay&#146;; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like <i>s </i>in &#145;the<i>s</i>e'); e.g. <i>sparse, abstruse, accusativo;</i></li> <li><i>t </i>as in English; <i>ti </i>before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by <i>s, </i>like <i>tsy </i>in &#145;he ge<i>ts y</i>ou&#146; (or, optionally, like <i>sy </i>in &#145;we pa<i>ss y</i>ou&#146; or like <i>ty </i>in &#145;we le<i>t y</i>ou&#146;); e.g. <i>actor, action, garantia, question;</i></li> <li><i>u </i>like <i>u </i>in &#145;pl<i>u</i>ral&#146;; when unstressed before a vowel, like <i>u </i>in &#145;pers<i>u</i>ade&#146; or in &#145;superfl<i>u</i>ous&#146;; e.g. <i>plural, persuader, superflue;</i></li> <li><i>x </i>like <i>x </i>in fo<i>x</i>; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like <i>x </i>in e<i>x</i>act);</li> <li><i>y </i>unstressed before vowels like <i>y </i>in &#145;<i>y</i>es&#146;; otherwise like <i>i </i>in &#145;mach<i>i</i>ne&#146;; e.g. <i>Yugoslavia, typo.</i></li> </ul> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Dictionary by a simple system of respelling. In it the normal sound values of the interlingua are to be assumed. The digraph <i>ch</i> stands frequently for the sound of <i>sh</i> in English and has been respelled as <i>sh</i>; e.g. <i>choc (sh-)</i>. The combination <i>gi</i> often represents the sound of <i>z</i> in a<i>z</i>ure. It has been respelled <i>j</i>; e.g. <i>avantagiose (-ajo-)</i>. Simple <i>g</i> has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix <i>-age</i>; e.g. <i>avantage (-aje)</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The diphthong <i>eu</i> stands for a combination of the normal interlingua sounds of <i>e</i> and <i>u</i>. Similarly, <i>ai</i> stands for <i>a</i> plus <i>i</i> as in <i>kaiser</i>; <i>au</i> for <i>a</i> plus <i>u</i> as in kraut. &#151; Double consonants need not be distinguished in pronunciation from simple consonants. &#151; The double consonant <i>ss</i>, however, is always voiceless like <i>ss</i> in &#145;miss.&#146; The sounds of <i>g</i> and <i>k</i> assimilate a preceding <i>n</i> as in English.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unassimilated guest words, that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the languages which have borrowed such words dispense with them too. They do so when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. <i>defaite</i> for French <i>défaite</i>, but <i>kümmel</i> as in German.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main stress is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. Words ending in <i>-le. -ne, -re </i>preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. <i>fragile, ordine, tempore</i>. In words formed with the suffixes <i>-ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula</i>, and <i>-ulo</i>, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes <i>-ific, -ifico</i> are stressed on the first <i>i</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deviations from this system are covered in the Dictionary by respelling with stress marks; e.g. <i>abbatia (-ía), formica (-íca), thermometro (-ó-)</i>.</p> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While syllabification may be handled according to derivation, usage in the source languages suggests that preference be given to syllabification according to pronunciation. This means that single consonants belong with the following syllable except for <i>x</i> which stays with the preceding syllable; e.g. <i>ex-a-mi-na-tor</i>. Consonant groups are divided with the important restriction that <i>l</i> and <i>r</i> cannot be separated from preceding <i>b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph. t, th</i>, and <i>v</i>; e.g. <i>al-le-gre</i>. The combinations <i>qu, gu,</i> and <i>su</i> are likewise indivisible.</p> </font> <hr> 950 2026 2005-04-12T22:58:21Z Josu Lavin 2 <div align="center"><center> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="600"> <tr> <td width="100%"><h2 align="center">Abbreviations Used in the Dictionary</h2> <p ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As far as possible the devices used in the Dictionary are conventional or self-explanatory. Abbreviations have only been employed for grammatical and lexical labels of very frequent occurrence. Those which occur mostly attached to international entries are abbreviations of international, not of English, words. A complete list, with explanations in English, follows:</p> <blockquote> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tr> <td valign="top">[A]</td> <td valign="top">English</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Acad.]</td> <td valign="top">Academy, academic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">acc.</td> <td valign="top">accusative</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Acous.]</td> <td valign="top">Acoustics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">adj</td> <td valign="top">adjective</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[admin.]</td> <td valign="top">Administration</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">adv</td> <td valign="top">adverb</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Aeronaut.]</td> <td valign="top">Aeronautics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Agr.]</td> <td valign="top">Agriculture</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Alchem.]</td> <td valign="top">Alchemy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Alg.]</td> <td valign="top">Algebra</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Amh.]</td> <td valign="top">Amharic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Anat.]</td> <td valign="top">Anatomy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Anc.]</td> <td valign="top">Ancient</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Anthropol.]</td> <td valign="top">Anthropology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Antiq.]</td> <td valign="top">Antiquity</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ar.]</td> <td valign="top">Arabic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Arch.]</td> <td valign="top">Architecture</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Archaeol.]</td> <td valign="top">Archaeology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Arith.]</td> <td valign="top">Arithmetic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">art</td> <td valign="top">article</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Artil.]</td> <td valign="top">Artillery</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Astrol]</td> <td valign="top">Astrology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Astron.]</td> <td valign="top">Astronomy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">attrib</td> <td valign="top">attributive</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Bacteriol.]</td> <td valign="top">Bacteriology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Bank.]</td> <td valign="top">Banking</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Bib.]</td> <td valign="top">Biblical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Bibliog.]</td> <td valign="top">Bibliography</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Biochem.]</td> <td valign="top">Biochemistry</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Biol.]</td> <td valign="top">Biology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Bot.]</td> <td valign="top">Botany</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Carp.]</td> <td valign="top">Carpentry</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ch.]</td> <td valign="top">Church</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Chem.]</td> <td valign="top">Chemistry, chemical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Chronol.]</td> <td valign="top">Chronology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Civ</td> <td valign="top">Civil</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Class</td> <td valign="top">Classical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Com.]</td> <td valign="top">Commerce, commercial</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">cond</td> <td valign="top">conditional</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">conj</td> <td valign="top">conjunction</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Constr.]</td> <td valign="top">Construction</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Cryst.]</td> <td valign="top">Crystallography</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Cz.]</td> <td valign="top">Czech</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">def</td> <td valign="top">definite</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">dem</td> <td valign="top">demonstrative</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Dent.]</td> <td valign="top">Dentistry</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Dipl.]</td> <td valign="top">Diplomacy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Eccl.]</td> <td valign="top">Ecclesiastic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Econ.]</td> <td valign="top">Economics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Egypt</td> <td valign="top">Egyptian</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Egyptol.]</td> <td valign="top">Egyptology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Elec]</td> <td valign="top">Electricity, electrical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Embryol]</td> <td valign="top">Embryology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Engin.]</td> <td valign="top">Engineering</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Engl</td> <td valign="top">English</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Entom.]</td> <td valign="top">Entomology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Equit.]</td> <td valign="top">Equitation</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Esp.]</td> <td valign="top">Esperanto</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">esp</td> <td valign="top">especially</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">etc.</td> <td valign="top">etcetera; as a contional symbol in lists of derived formations: &#147;and other compounds of the same pattern.&#148;</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Eur</td> <td valign="top">European</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ethnol.]</td> <td valign="top">Ethnology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[F]</td> <td valign="top">French</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">fem</td> <td valign="top">feminine</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Fin.]</td> <td valign="top">Finance</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Flem.]</td> <td valign="top">Flemish</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Fortif.]</td> <td valign="top">Fortification</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[F]</td> <td valign="top">French</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">fut</td> <td valign="top">future</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[G]</td> <td valign="top">German</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Geog.]</td> <td valign="top">Geography</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Geol.]</td> <td valign="top">Geology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Geom.]</td> <td valign="top">Geometry</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Germ</td> <td valign="top">German</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Gov.]</td> <td valign="top">Government</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Gr.]</td> <td valign="top">Greek</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Gram.]</td> <td valign="top">Grammar</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Gr.Orth.Ch.]</td> <td valign="top">Greek Orthodox Church</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Gun.]</td> <td valign="top">Gunnery</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[H]</td> <td valign="top">Spanish</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Heb.]</td> <td valign="top">Hebrew</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Her.]</td> <td valign="top">Heraldry</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Hind.]</td> <td valign="top">Hindustani</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Hist.]</td> <td valign="top">History, historical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Hort.]</td> <td valign="top">Horticulture</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Hu.]</td> <td valign="top">Hungarian</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Hypnot.]</td> <td valign="top">Hypnotism</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[I]</td> <td valign="top">Italian</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Icel.]</td> <td valign="top">Icelandic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ichthyol.]</td> <td valign="top">Ichthyology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">impers</td> <td valign="top">impersonal</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[I.N.]</td> <td valign="top">Idiom Neutral</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">indef</td> <td valign="top">indefinite</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">inf</td> <td valign="top">infinitive</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ins.]</td> <td valign="top">Insurance</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">interj</td> <td valign="top">interjection</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Interling.]</td> <td valign="top">Interlingua, interlinguistic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Internat</td> <td valign="top">International</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">interr</td> <td valign="top">interrogative</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ir.]</td> <td valign="top">Irish</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Ital</td> <td valign="top">Italian</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[J]</td> <td valign="top">Japanese</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Journ.]</td> <td valign="top">Journalism</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[L]</td> <td valign="top">Latin</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Lit.]</td> <td valign="top">Literature</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[LsF]</td> <td valign="top">Latino sine Flexione</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Mach.]</td> <td valign="top">Machinery</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Magnet.]</td> <td valign="top">Magnetism</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Mal.]</td> <td valign="top">Malay</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Man.]</td> <td valign="top">Manège</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Manuf</td> <td valign="top">Manufacture</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">masc</td> <td valign="top">masculine</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Math.]</td> <td valign="top">Mathematics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Meas.]</td> <td valign="top">Measures</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Mech.]</td> <td valign="top">Mechanics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Med.]</td> <td valign="top">Medicine</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Metal.]</td> <td valign="top">Metallurgy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Metaph.]</td> <td valign="top">Metaphysics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Meteorol.]</td> <td valign="top">Meteorology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Mil.]</td> <td valign="top">Military</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Mineral.]</td> <td valign="top">Mineralogy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Moham.]</td> <td valign="top">Mohammedan</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Monet.]</td> <td valign="top">Monetary</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Mus.]</td> <td valign="top">Music</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Mythol.]</td> <td valign="top">Mythology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">n</td> <td valign="top">noun, substantive</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Nat</td> <td valign="top">Nature, natural</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Naut.]</td> <td valign="top">Nautical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Nav.]</td> <td valign="top">Navigation</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nf</td> <td valign="top">feminine noun</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[NL]</td> <td valign="top">Neo-Latin</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nm</td> <td valign="top">masculine noun</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Nor.]</td> <td valign="top">Norwegian</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Nov.]</td> <td valign="top">Novial</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">npl</td> <td valign="top">plural noun</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">npr</td> <td valign="top">proper noun</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nprf</td> <td valign="top">feminine proper name</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nprm</td> <td valign="top">masculine proper name</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nprpl</td> <td valign="top">plural proper name</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Numis.]</td> <td valign="top">Numismatics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Opt.]</td> <td valign="top">Optics, optical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ordn.]</td> <td valign="top">Ordnance</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Ornith.]</td> <td valign="top">Ornithology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[P]</td> <td valign="top">Portuguese</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Paint.]</td> <td valign="top">Painting</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Paleog.]</td> <td valign="top">Paleography</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Paleontol.]</td> <td valign="top">Paleontology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Parl.]</td> <td valign="top">Parliament, parliamentary</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">part</td> <td valign="top">particle</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">pass</td> <td valign="top">past</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Pathol.]</td> <td valign="top">Pathology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">pers</td> <td valign="top">person, personal</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Pharm.]</td> <td valign="top">Pharmacy, Pharmacology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Philol.]</td> <td valign="top">Philology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Philos.]</td> <td valign="top">Philosophy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Phonet.]</td> <td valign="top">Phonetics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Photog.]</td> <td valign="top">Photography</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Phys.]</td> <td valign="top">Physics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Physiol.]</td> <td valign="top">Physiology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">pl</td> <td valign="top">plural</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Poet.]</td> <td valign="top">Poetry, poetic</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Pol.]</td> <td valign="top">Politics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">poss</td> <td valign="top">possessive</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">pp</td> <td valign="top">past participle</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ppr</td> <td valign="top">present participle</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">pr</td> <td valign="top">present</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">prep</td> <td valign="top">preposition</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Print]</td> <td valign="top">Printing</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">pron</td> <td valign="top">pronoun</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Pros.]</td> <td valign="top">Prosody</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Prot</td> <td valign="top">Protestant</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Psychol.]</td> <td valign="top">Psychology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Psychopathol.]</td> <td valign="top">Psychopathology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[R]</td> <td valign="top">Russian</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[R.C.Ch.]</td> <td valign="top">Roman Catholic Church</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">refl</td> <td valign="top">reflexive</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Relig.]</td> <td valign="top">Religion</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">rel</td> <td valign="top">relative</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Rhet.]</td> <td valign="top">Rhetoric</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">Rom</td> <td valign="top">Roman</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[R.R.]</td> <td valign="top">Railroads</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Sci.]</td> <td valign="top">Science</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Sculp.]</td> <td valign="top">Sculpture</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Skr.]</td> <td valign="top">Sanskrit</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Sociol.]</td> <td valign="top">Sociology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">specif</td> <td valign="top">specifically</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">subj</td> <td valign="top">subjunctive</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Surg.]</td> <td valign="top">Surgery</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Surv.]</td> <td valign="top">Surveying</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Tail.]</td> <td valign="top">Tailoring</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Technol.]</td> <td valign="top">Technology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Teleg.]</td> <td valign="top">Telegraphy</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Teleph.]</td> <td valign="top">Telephony</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Theat.]</td> <td valign="top">Theater, theatrical</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Theol.]</td> <td valign="top">Theology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Topog.]</td> <td valign="top">Topography</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Trig.]</td> <td valign="top">Trigonometry</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Tu.]</td> <td valign="top">Turkish</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Typog.]</td> <td valign="top">Typography</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Univ.]</td> <td valign="top">University, Universities</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[U.S.S.R.]</td> <td valign="top">Union of Socialist Soviet Republics</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">v</td> <td valign="top">verb</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Veter.]</td> <td valign="top">Veterinary</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Vol.]</td> <td valign="top">Volapuk</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[Zool.]</td> <td valign="top">Zoology</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">&amp;</td> <td valign="top">and; as a conventional symbol in lists of derived formations: &#147;and further derivatives listed as an independent group under the keyword cited.&#148;</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">1me</td> <td valign="top">first</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">...</td> <td valign="top">as a conventional symbol in lists of derived formations: &#147;and further derivatives intentionally omitted from this Dictionary.&#148;</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">[ ]</td> <td valign="top">as a conventional symbol enclosing entry words: &#147;not incompatible with the vocabulary of this Dictionary but taken from another auxiliary-language system.&#148;</td> </tr> </table> </blockquote> <hr> 951 2027 2005-04-12T23:06:17Z Josu Lavin 2 <H2 ALIGN="CENTER">Explanatory Notes</H2> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Parts of Speech</B>. — Every entry word — distinguished by boldface type — is followed by a part-of-speech label, normally abbreviated, with the exception of certain items for which this device would have proved confusing. Phrases, including noun and adjective phrases, which occur within the body of certain entries, are not so marked.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>abandon<I>amento</I></B><I> n</I> abandonment<BR> <B>abandon<I>ar</I></B><I> v</I> to abandon; <B>abandonar se a</B> to indulge in<BR> <B>abatt<I>ite</I></B> 1. <I>pp</I> of <B>abatter</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> downcast, dejected<BR> <B>Abel</B> <I>nprm</I> Abel<BR> <B>-abile</B><I> suffixo adjective</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -able (=that can be .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.ed; that is worthy to be .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.ed)<BR> <B>ab ovo</B> [L] <I>ab ovo</I>, from the beginning<BR> <B>acet<I>ic</I></B> <I>adj</I> acetic</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Pronunciation</B>. — When the correct pronunciation or stress is not covered by the rules presented on pp. lii ff., the deviating features are respelled in italics immediately following the entry word. In phrases within the body of an entry, deviating pronunciations are not indicated again.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>acaju</B> (<I>-&uacute;</I>) <I>n</I> 1. cashew; 2. mahogany; <B>nuce de acaju</B> cashew nut<BR> <B>agio<I>tage</I></B> (<I>ajotaje</I>) <I>n</I> agiotage, exchange business, stockbroking<BR> <B>allo<FONT FACE="arial">&middot;</FONT>pathe</B> (<I>-&oacute;</I>) <EM>n</EM> allopath<BR> <B>approchar</B> (<I>-sh</I>)<I> v</I> to approach (=to come or go near to)<BR> <B>coragi<I>ose</I></B> (<I>-jo-</I>) <I>adj</I> courageous</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Origin</B>. — The language of origin of entry words which play the role of foreign words in the international vocabulary is indicated by a language label appearing in brackets immediately preceding the part-of-speech label.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>addendum</B> (<I>pl</I> <B>addenda</B>) [NL] <I>n</I> addendum<BR> <B>adieu</B> [F] <I>n</I> farewell, adieu<BR> <B>baby</B> [A] <I>n</I> baby<BR> <B>bar</B> [A] <I>n</I> bar (=place where liquor is served)<BR> <B>bull-dog</B> [A] <I>n</I> bulldog</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Supplementary Notes</B>. — Explanatory notes on the use of affixes, the occurrence of compounding elements and derivational bases, etc., are given in brackets.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>a-</B> <I>prefixo </I>[<B>an-</B> before <B>-h-</B> and vowels; used with nouns and adjectives] a-, an- (=not ; without, lacking . . . )<BR> <B>adelpho-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] adelpho-, adelph- (1. brother; 2. twin)</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Deriving Stems</B>. — Entry words which have derivatives on a distinct stem are accompanied by an indication of both stems in boldface type. For nouns of the type <I>drama</I>, the indication [<I>-ma/-mat-</I>] signifies that all derivatives are built like <I>dramatic</I>. For verbs of the type <I>abstraher</I>, the indication [<I>-trah-/tract-</I>] signifies that the first stem occurs with most suffixes, including the possible autonomous use of the suffixes <I>-ition, -itive, -itor, -itori, -itoria, -itorio, -itura</I>, while the second stem is the one occurring with the suffixes just listed in their special forms <I>-ion, -ive, -or, -ori, -oria, -orio, ura</I>. For verbs of the type <I>ager</I>, the indication [<I>ag-/act-; -ig-/-act-</I>] signifies that the first stem pair occurs in the simple verb, the second in prefix formations; the occurrence of the first and second stems obeys in either case the rule formulated for the type <I>abstraher</I>.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B><I>abs</I>traher</B> [<B>-trah-/-tract-</B>] <I>v</I> [Logic] to abstract<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">abstraction, abstracte</FONT></B></P> <P><B>ager</B> [<B>ag-/act</B>-; <B>-ig-/-act-</B>] <I>v</I> to act (=to be doing)<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">agenda; agente-agentia; agitar &amp; agibile; action-actionero, actionista, actionar-actionabile, inaction; active-activitate, activar-activation, activo, inactive-inactivitate, radioactive </FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2">etc</FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">.: actor; actrice; acto-actuario-actuariato, actuarial, actual-actualitate, actualisar-actualisation; actuar-actuation, interacto; coager &amp;; reager </FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2">&amp;;</FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2"> retroager-retroaction, retroactive-retroactivitate; transiger </FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2">&amp;; </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">litigar </FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2">etc</FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">.</FONT></B></P> <P><B>drama</B> [<B>-ma/-mat-</B>] <I>n</I> drama<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">dramatic; dramatisar; drarnaturgo</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2"> etc.; </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">melodrama</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2"> etc.</FONT></P> <P><B><I>trans</I>iger</B> [<B>-ig-/-act-</B>] <I>v</I> 1. to compromise (=to effect a compromise), 2. to transact<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">transigente-intransigente-intransigentia; transaction-transactional; transactar</FONT></B></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>English Renderings</B>. — In the English renderings of international words a consistent attempt has been made to give translations rather than explanations. A rendering such as “spectator occupying standing room in the pit” would not be tolerated; instead the simple translation “standee” would appear. In rare instances of international words for which there is no English equivalent, the principle of “translation rather than explanation” had to be abandoned.</P> <P>The temptation to explain the meaning of English words has, on the whole, been resisted. The Dictionary is intended for people who know English; encyclopedic information has been excluded. However, in some instances common sense seemed to dictate that even perfectly unambiguous terms should be further identified for the average user.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>abatt<I>itor</I></B> <I>n</I> one who knocks down<BR> <B>abbord<I>age</I></B> (<I>-&aacute;je</I>) <I>n</I> [Naut. ] (act of) boarding (a ship)<BR> <B>acet<FONT FACE="arial">&middot;</FONT>amido</B> (<I>-&aacute;mido</I>) <I>n</I> [Chem.] acetamide<BR> <B>acet<I>ona</I></B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] acetone<BR> <B>allo<FONT FACE="arial">&middot;</FONT>trope</B> (<I>&oacute;trope</I>) <I>adj</I> 1. [Chem.] allotropic; 2. [Zool.] allotropous<BR> <B>ambi<I>ente</I></B> <I>n</I> environment (=all of the surrounding conditions and influences)</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Arrangement of Meanings</B>. — The English translations of international words are organized conceptually wherever more than one English concept corresponds to the international range of meaning envisaged. The distinction of several English concepts is carried through even in cases where all of them are covered by one English word which has no additional signification.</P> <P>The translations are given according to this pattern: “The international word given means in English I. so and so (1. in the first sense; 2. in the second sense; 3. in the third sense); II. such and such (1. in one sense; 2. in another sense; 3. in still another sense)”. When no subdivisions are indicated, this simpler pattern results: “The international word given means in English 1. so and so; 2. such and such.”</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>abandono</B> <I>n</I> I. abandonment (1. action of abandoning; 2. state of being abandoned); II. abandon<BR> <B>abbat<I>ia</I></B> (<I>-&iacute;a</I>) <I>n</I> 1. abbacy; 2. abbey<BR> <B>access<I>ion</I></B> <I>n</I> 1. accession (“accession to a dignity, a throne, etc.”); 2. adherence (“adherence to a treaty, a party, etc.”)<BR> <B>acquisition</B> <I>n</I> acquisition (1. act of acquiring; 2. thing acquired)</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Types of Definition</B>. — To clarify or circumscribe a particular English concept, various devices have been employed. Often the meaning of a word is restricted by the addition of a synonym. In other cases it is circumscribed by an example introduced by the phrase “as in.” Thirdly an explicit definition is given, preceded by a numeral or an equal sign. Finally, in the case of specifically technical words, the meaning intended is often identified by a subject label, as “mathematics” or “medicine.”</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>abbord<I>abile</I></B> <I>adj </I>approachable, accessible<BR> <B>abbrevi<I>atura</I></B> <I>n</I> abbreviation (=shortened form of a word)<BR> <B><I>ab</I>ducer </B>[<B>-duc-/-duct-</B>] <I>v</I> to lead away, abduce; 2. [Physiol.] to abduct<BR> <B>acquesto</B> <I>n</I> acquisition (=thing acquired)<BR> <B>adresse</B> [F] <I>n</I> address (1. formal communication; 2. as in “address of a letter, package, etc.”)<BR> <B>ambi<I>ente</I></B> <I>adj</I> ambient, surrounding<BR> <B>ambi<I>to</I></B> (<I>&aacute;m-</I>) n ambit, circuit, circuitous route</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Supplementary Synonyms</B>. — No attempt has been made to list all possible English synonyms. In a considerable number of instances, however, a fully satisfactory rendering of an international meaning would neglect the fact that in practice its most frequent rendering is a somewhat specialized synonym of the initial translation. In such cases the English translation has been supplemented by synonyms and quasi-synonyms, also by subject labels, introduced by phrases like <I>also, specifically, specially</I>.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>abatt<I>itor</I></B> <I>n</I> one who knocks down; <I>also:</I> feller, wood-cutter, slaughterer, etc.<BR> <B><I>a</I>morphe </B><I>adj </I>amorphous; <I>specif.:</I> [Chem.; Geol.; Biol.; etc.]</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Base Words</B>. — Words printed entirely in roman characters are “base words,” that is, non-derivatives regardless of whether or not they in turn permit the formation of derivatives of their own. Some such words are base words only from the point of view of the international language while it is perfectly possible to pursue their formation in other languages to simpler elements.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>acere</B> <I>n</I> maple, maple tree<BR> <B>anathema </B>[<B>-ma/-mat-</B>] (<I>-&aacute;tema</I>) <I>n</I> [Eccl.] anathema<BR> <B>corage</B> (<I>-&aacute;je</I>) <I>n</I> courage</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Derivatives</B>. — Every base word that does have derivatives is followed by a complete list of them identified by smaller print and the initial indication, <I>Hence:</I> .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</P> <P>The “hence-series” are organized in such a way that the pattern or “tree” of the entire derivational family can be easily visualized. Continuous series are marked by hyphens between all links. A second or subsequent branch starting again from the base word is separated from its equals by semicolons. Side branches taking off from a link in the preceding series are separated by commas.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B><I>ac</I>quirer </B>[<B>-quir-/-quest-/-quisit-</B>] <I>v</I> to acquire<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">acquiribile; acquesto; acquisition; acquisitor; acquiritor</FONT></B></P> <P><B>alien </B><I>adj</I> alien (=differing in nature)<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">alienism; alienista; alienar-alienabile-alienabilitate, inalienabile-inalienabilitate, alienation, alienator, alienate-alienataro</FONT></B></P> <P><B>an<I>ulo</I></B> <I>n</I> ring (=circle of metal or other material); <I>also:</I> ringlike object; <B>anulo piscatori</B> fisherman's ring<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">anuletto; anular; anulose</FONT></B></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Compounds</B>. — Compounds are represented in the hence-series by one illustration for every distinct type. The fact that a sample compound represents several or many actual or possible others of the same type is indicated by a following “etc.”</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>a</B> <I>prep</I> 1. to (a point in space or time, a goal, etc.); 2. at (a point in space or time, a stage of development, etc.);<B> a </B>(+<I>inf</I>) to; <I>also:</I> for (+<I>gerund</I>); <B>sala a attender</B> waiting room<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2">[</FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">apena</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2">] etc.</FONT></P> <P><B>aceto</B> <I>n</I> vinegar<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">acetato, acetabulo; acetone; acetic; acetose; acetificar-acetification; acetamido </FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2">etc.</FONT></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Secondary Base Words</B>. — Often a portion of one derivational family can be considered a sub-family of more or less independent standing. This holds true particularly when the original family is very large or when its branches extend into fairly specialized spheres of meaning. The initial words of such sub-families are derivatives. They figure consequently in “hence-series” but are followed by the conventional symbol “&amp;” which is to indicate that in its proper alphabetical place the word is listed as a secondary base word with a “hence-series” of its own.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B><I>amb</I>ir</B> <I>v</I> 1. to go round (something), surround, 2. to go round after, solicit<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">ambiente; ambition</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2"> &amp;; </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">ambito</FONT></B></P> <P><B>ambi<I>tion</I></B> <I>n</I> ambition<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">ambitiose</FONT></B></P> <P><B>ambiti<I>ose</I></B> <I>adj</I> ambitious</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Word Structure</B>. — All derived formations listed in “hence-series” are listed as entry words in their proper alphabetical place. In so far as they are affix formations that portion of them which represents the base word is printed in roman, the rest in italic characters. In so far as they are compounds their elements are separated by a raised dot. All compounds, whether or not they appear in a hence-series, are treated as heads of actual or possible sub-families. All non-base words can be traced back to their base or — in the case of compounds — to their constituent elements by observing the dots and italic characters appearing in their printed form.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B><I>ab</I>breviar </B><I>v</I> to abridge, abbreviate<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">abbreviamento-abbreviation-abbreviative-abbreviator; abbreviatura</FONT></B></P> <P><B>abbrevi<I>ator </I></B><I>n</I> 1. abridger, abbreviator; 2. [R. C. Ch.] abbreviator</P> <P><B>aero<FONT FACE="arial">&middot;</FONT>dynamic </B><I>adj</I> aerodynamic<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">aerodynamica</FONT></B></P> <P><B>aerodynamica</B> <I>n</I> aerodynamics</P> <P><B>breve</B> <I>adj</I> brief, short<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">breviario; brevitate; abbreviar</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2"> &amp;; </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">breve-breveto</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2"> &amp;; </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">semibreve</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2"> etc.</FONT></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Derivative Entries and Base Word Entries</B>. — In tracing a derivative to its base or a compound to its elements, one must bear in mind that the form in which a word appears in its derivatives or in compounds may differ slightly from its independent original form. In the latter it may have a desinence which does not appear in the derived formation. When looking for the base entry of a word encountered in a derived formation, one has to consider that full verbs have added to their stems one of the endings <I>-ar, -er</I>, or <I>-ir</I>; while in the case of nouns the termination may be <I>-a</I>, <I>-o</I> or <I>-e</I>; also, more rarely, <I>-um, us, -on</I>, etc.; in the case of adjectives the addition is <I>-e</I>.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>abbate</B><I> n</I> abbot<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">abbatessa; abbatia-abbatial</FONT></B></P> <P><B>abbat<I>ial</I> </B><I>adj</I> abbatial</P> <P><B>abdomin<I>al </I></B><I>adj</I> abdominal</P> <P><B>abdomine </B><I>n</I> abdomen<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">abdominal</FONT></B></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Hyphenated Entries</B>. — When the base has no independent existence but occurs merely in derivatives or compounds, it is listed in hyphenated form with full indication of its function in other formations.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>all-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in compounds] allo-, all- (=other)<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">allotrope</FONT></B><FONT SIZE="2"> etc.</FONT></P> <P><B><I>dis</I>quir- </B>[<B>-quir-/-quisit-</B>] <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives]<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence: </FONT></I><B><FONT SIZE="2">disquisition</FONT></B></P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Reference Entries</B>. — Derivatives in which the base word appears in a form deviating by more than the absence of a termination are connected with the base by a reference entry.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><B>abduct-</B> see <B>abducer</B></P> <P><B>acquest- </B>see <B>acquirer</B></P> <P><B>acquisit- </B>see <B>acquirer</B></P> <P><B>act- </B>see <B>ager</B></P> <P><B>albricoc </B><I>n</I> apricot<BR> <I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> </FONT><B><FONT SIZE="2">albricochiero</FONT></B></P> <P><B>albricoch-</B> see <B>albricoc</B></P> <P><B>albricoch<I>iero</I> </B><I>n </I>apricot tree</P> <P><B>anathemat- </B>see <B>anathema</B></P> <P><B>anathemat<I>isar </I></B><I>v</I> [Eccl.] to anathematize</P> <P><B>disquisit-</B> see <B>disquir</B></P> <P><B>disquisit<I>ion </I></B><I>n</I> disquisition</P> </BLOCKQUOTE> <P>&nbsp;</P> <P><B>Bracketed Entries</B>. — Bracketed entries are words used in one of the major traditional auxiliary languages. They are included in this Dictionary as being neither incompatible with its principles nor a necessary product of them.</P> <BLOCKQUOTE> <P>[<B>ad</B>] prep 1. to; 2. at (=a)</P> <P>[<B>alc<FONT FACE="arial">&middot;</FONT>un</B>] <I>adj</I> some, any; <I>also: </I>a few (=alicun)</P> <P>[<B>alia</B>] [L] <I>npl</I> other things; <B>inter alia</B> <I>inter alia</I>, among other things</P> <P>[<B>alora</B>] <I>adv</I> then (1. at that time; 2. in that case, consequently)</P> <P>[<B>apena</B>] <I>adv</I> hardly, scarcely (=<B>a pena</B>)</P> 952 44 2005-04-12T23:37:27Z Josu Lavin 2 <UL> <LI> <P><B>a</B> <I>prep</I> 1. to (a point in space or time, a goal, etc.); 2. at (a point in space or time, a stage of development, etc.); <BR> <B>a (+inf)</B> to; <I>also:</I> for (+gerund); <BR> <B>sala a attender</B> waiting room <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> [apena] etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[a-]</B> <I>prefixo verbal</I> [used with verbs and, in combination with verbal suffixes, with nouns and adjectives] to, toward, into (expressing motion to, change into, increase of intensity, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abatter etc.; abassar etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>a-</B> <I>prefixo</I> [<B>an-</B> before <B>-h-</B> and vowels; used with nouns and adjectives] a-, an- (= not ...; without, lacking ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agnostic etc.; amnesia etc.; analphabete etc.; anarchia etc.; anesthesia etc.; anesthetic etc.; anhydre etc.; athee etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Aachen [G]</B> <I>npr</I> Aachen, Aix-la-Chapelle</P> <LI> <P><B>ab</B> <I>prep</I> since, from</P> <LI> <P><B>abandonamento</B> <I>n</I> abandonment</P> <LI> <P><B>abandonar</B> <I>v</I> to abandon; <BR> <B>abandonar se a</B> to indulge in</P> <LI> <P><B>abandono</B> <I>n</I> I. abandonment (1. action of abandoning; 2. state of being abandoned); II. abandon <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abandonar-abandonamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abassamento</B> <I>n</I> lowering; <I>also:</I> abasement; <BR> <B>abassamento de un equation</B> [Math.] reduction of an equation</P> <LI> <P><B>abassar</B> <I>v</I> to lower; <I>also:</I> to abase; <BR> <B>abassar un perpendicular</B> [Geom.] to drop a perpendicular</P> <LI> <P><B>abatter</B> <I>v</I> to knock or cast down <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abattimento; abattitor; abattitorio; abattite</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abattimento</B> <I>n</I> despondency, dejection</P> <LI> <P><B>abattite</B> 1. pp of <B>abatter</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> downcast, dejected</P> <LI> <P><B>abattitor</B> <I>n</I> one who knocks down; <I>also:</I> feller, wood-cutter, slaughterer, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>abattitorio</B> <I>n</I> slaughterhouse, abattoir</P> <LI> <P><B>abbate</B> <I>n</I> abbot <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abbatessa; abbatia-abbatial</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abbatessa</B> <I>n</I> abbess</P> <LI> <P><B>abbatia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> 1. abbacy; 2. abbey</P> <LI> <P><B>abbatial</B> <I>adj</I> abbatial</P> <LI> <P><B>abbordabile</B> <I>adj</I> approachable, accessible</P> <LI> <P><B>abbordage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> [Naut.] (act of) boarding (a ship)</P> <LI> <P><B>abbordar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to land (= to go ashore from a ship or boat); 2. [Navy] to board (= to come alongside in order to attack); 3. to accost, address <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abbordo; abbordage; abbordabile</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abbordo</B> <I>n</I> 1. [Naut.] (act of) landing; 2. [Navy] (act of) boarding (a ship)</P> <LI> <P><B>abbreviamento</B> <I>n</I> abridgement, abbreviation</P> <LI> <P><B>abbreviar</B> <I>v</I> to abridge, abbreviate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abbreviamento; abbreviation; abbreviative; abbreviator; abbreviatura</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abbreviation</B> <I>n</I> abbreviation, abridgment</P> <LI> <P><B>abbreviative</B> <I>adj</I> abridging, abbreviatory</P> <LI> <P><B>abbreviator</B> <I>n</I> 1. abridger, abbreviator; 2. [R.C.Ch.] abbreviator</P> <LI> <P><B>abbreviatura</B> <I>n</I> abbreviation (= shortened form of a word)</P> <LI> <P><B>abdicar</B> <I>v</I> to abdicate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abdication; abdicative</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abdication</B> <I>n</I> abdication</P> <LI> <P><B>abdicative</B> <I>adj</I> abdicative</P> <LI> <P><B>abdominal</B> <I>adj</I> abdominal</P> <LI> <P><B>abdomine</B> <I>n</I> abdomen <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abdominal</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abducer [-duc-/-duct-]</B> <I>v</I> to lead away, abduce; 2. [Physiol.] to abduct <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abduction; abductor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abduct-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abducer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abduction</B> <I>n</I> [Physiol.] abduction</P> <LI> <P><B>abductor</B> <I>n</I> [Physiol.] abductor</P> <LI> <P><B>Abel</B> <I>nprm</I> Abel</P> <LI> <P><B>aberrante</B> <I>adj</I> aberrant (= deviating from the normal type)</P> <LI> <P><B>aberrar</B> <I>v</I> to deviate, aberrate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aberrante; aberration</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aberration</B> <I>n</I> aberration</P> <LI> <P><B>abhorrer</B> <I>v</I> to abhor <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abhorrimento; abhorribile</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abhorribile</B> <I>adj</I> abominable, hateful</P> <LI> <P><B>abhorrimento</B> <I>n</I> abhorrence</P> <LI> <P><B>abiberar</B> <I>v</I> to water (1. to supply with drink; 2. to irrigate)</P> <LI> <P><B>abiberatorio</B> <I>n</I> watering-place, water-hole</P> <LI> <P><B>abiete</B> <I>n</I> fir (1. fir-tree; 2. fir wood); <BR> <B>abiete de Canada</B> hemlock (spruce)</P> <LI> <P><B>-abile</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -able (= that can be ...ed; that is worthy to be ...ed) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> observabile etc.; admirabile etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abiogenese (-g&eacute;nese)</B> <I>n</I> abiogenesis, spontaneous generation</P> <LI> <P><B>abiogenesis (-g&eacute;nesis)</B> <I>n</I> abiogenesis, spontaneous generation</P> <LI> <P><B>abiogenetic</B> <I>adj</I> abiogenetic</P> <LI> <P><B>abject-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abjic-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abjecte</B> <I>adj</I> abject, mean</P> <LI> <P><B>abjection</B> <I>n</I> abjection, abjectness</P> <LI> <P><B>abjic- [-jic-/-ject-]</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abjection; abjecte</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abjurar</B> <I>v</I> to abjure (1. to forswear; 2. to recant, repudiate) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abjuration</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abjuration</B> <I>n</I> abjuration</P> <LI> <P><B>ablandar</B> <I>v</I> to soften; <I>also:</I> to mollify, mitigate, assuage, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>ablativo</B> <I>n</I> ablative; <BR> <B>ablativo absolute</B> ablative absolute</P> <LI> <P><B>abluer [-lu-/-lut-]</B> <I>v</I> to wash, cleanse <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ablution</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ablut-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abluer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>ablution</B> <I>n</I> ablution, washing</P> <LI> <P><B>abnegar</B> <I>v</I> to deny oneself, abnegate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abnegation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abnegation</B> <I>n</I> abnegation, self-denial</P> <LI> <P><B>abolimento</B> <I>n</I> abolishment, abolition</P> <LI> <P><B>abolir</B> <I>v</I> to abolish <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abolimento; abolition-abolitionismo, abolitionista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abolition</B> <I>n</I> abolition, abolishment</P> <LI> <P><B>abolitionismo</B> <I>n</I> abolitionism</P> <LI> <P><B>abolitionista</B> <I>n</I> abolitionist</P> <LI> <P><B>abominabile</B> <I>adj</I> abominable</P> <LI> <P><B>abominar</B> <I>v</I> to abominate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abominabile; abomination</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abomination</B> <I>n</I> abomination (1. loathing; 2. loathsome object)</P> <LI> <P><B>abonamento</B> <I>n</I> subscription (to a periodical, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>abonar&sup1;</B> <I>v</I> to enter the subscription (to a periodical, etc.) of (a person); <BR> <B>abonar se</B> to subscribe (to a periodical, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abonamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abonar&sup2;</B> <I>v</I> to improve (= to make better)</P> <LI> <P><B>abor- [-bor-/-bort-]</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abortive; aborto-abortar-abortamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aborigines (-&iacute;gines)</B> <I>npl</I> aborigines</P> <LI> <P><B>abort-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abor-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abortamento</B> <I>n</I> miscarriage, abortion</P> <LI> <P><B>abortar</B> <I>v</I> I. to miscarry (1. to have a miscarriage; 2. to come to nought); II. [Biol.] to abort (= to remain undeveloped or shrink away)</P> <LI> <P><B>abortive</B> <I>adj</I> abortive</P> <LI> <P><B>aborto</B> <I>n</I> abortion</P> <LI> <P><B>ab ovo [L]</B> ab ovo, from the beginning</P> <LI> <P><B>abrader [-rad-/-ras-]</B> <I>v</I> to abrade <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abrasion; abrasive</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abras-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abrader</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abrasion</B> <I>n</I> abrasion</P> <LI> <P><B>abrasive</B> <I>adj</I> abrasive</P> <LI> <P><B>abrogabile</B> <I>adj</I> abrogable</P> <LI> <P><B>abrogar</B> <I>v</I> to abrogate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abrogabile; abrogation; abrogative; abrogator; abrogatori</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abrogation</B> <I>n</I> repeal, abrogation</P> <LI> <P><B>abrogative</B> <I>adj</I> abrogative</P> <LI> <P><B>abrogator</B> <I>n</I> abrogator</P> <LI> <P><B>abrogatori</B> <I>adj</I> rescinding, abrogating</P> <LI> <P><B>abrumper [-rump-/-rupt-]</B> <I>v</I> to break off, rend <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abrupte</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abrupt-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abrumper</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abrupte</B> <I>adj</I> abrupt (= very steep)</P> <LI> <P><B>Abruzzi [I]</B> <I>nprpl</I> Abruzzi</P> <LI> <P><B>Absalom</B> <I>nprm</I> Absalom</P> <LI> <P><B>absceder [-ced-/-cess-]</B> <I>v</I> to form (turn into) an abscess <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abscesso</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abscess-</B> <I>see</I> <B>absceder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abscesso</B> <I>n</I> abscess</P> <LI> <P><B>abscinder [-scind-/-sciss-]</B> <I>v</I> to cut off, abscind <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abscissa</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>absciss-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abscinder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abscissa</B> <I>n</I> [Math.] abscissa</P> <LI> <P><B>absentar</B> <I>v</I> -; <BR> <B>absentar se</B> to absent oneself</P> <LI> <P><B>absente</B> <I>adj</I> absent <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> absentia; absentismo; absentista; absentar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>absentia</B> <I>n</I> absence; <BR> <B>brillar per su absentia</B> to be conspicuous by one's absence</P> <LI> <P><B>absentismo</B> <I>n</I> absenteeism</P> <LI> <P><B>absentista</B> <I>n</I> absentee (owner)</P> <LI> <P><B>absinthic</B> <I>adj</I> absinthial, absinthic</P> <LI> <P><B>absinthina</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] absinthin</P> <LI> <P><B>absinthio</B> <I>n</I> absinthe (1. [Bot.] Absinthium; 2. &quot;alcoholic liquor absinthe&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> absinthismo; absinthic; absinthina</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>absinthismo</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] absinthism</P> <LI> <P><B>absolut-</B> <I>see</I> <B>absolver</B></P> <LI> <P><B>absolute</B> <I>adj</I> absolute; <BR> <B>temperatura absolute</B> absolute temperature; <BR> <B>ablativo absolute</B> ablative absolute</P> <LI> <P><B>absolution</B> <I>n</I> absolution, remission; <I>also:</I> acquittal</P> <LI> <P><B>absolutismo</B> <I>n</I> absolutism</P> <LI> <P><B>absolutista</B> <I>n</I> absolutist</P> <LI> <P><B>absolutor</B> <I>n</I> absolver</P> <LI> <P><B>absolutori</B> <I>adj</I> absolutory, absolving</P> <LI> <P><B>absolver [-solv-/-solut-]</B> <I>v</I> to absolve, acquit <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> absolution; absolutor; absolutori; absolute-absolutismo, absolutista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>absorbente</B> <I>adj</I> absorbent</P> <LI> <P><B>absorbente</B> <I>n</I> absorbent (= absorbing substance)</P> <LI> <P><B>absorbentia</B> <I>n</I> absorbency</P> <LI> <P><B>absorber [-sorb-/-sorpt-]</B> <I>v</I> to absorb; <BR> <B>absorbite in</B> absorbed in <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> absorbente-absorbentia; absorbibile; absorbtion; reabsorber-reabsorption</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>absorbibile</B> <I>adj</I> absorbable</P> <LI> <P><B>absorpt-</B> <I>see</I> <B>absorber</B></P> <LI> <P><B>absorption</B> <I>n</I> absorption</P> <LI> <P><B>abstent-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abstiner</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abstention</B> <I>n</I> abstention</P> <LI> <P><B>abstentionista</B> <I>n</I> abstentionist</P> <LI> <P><B>abstinente</B> <I>adj</I> abstemious</P> <LI> <P><B>abstinentia</B> <I>n</I> abstinence</P> <LI> <P><B>abstiner [-tin-/-tent-]</B> <I>v</I> -; <BR> <B>abstiner se de</B> to abstain from <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abstinente-abstinentia; abstention-abstentionista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abstract-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abstraher</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abstracte</B> <I>adj</I> abstract</P> <LI> <P><B>abstraction</B> <I>n</I> abstraction (1. [Logic]; 2. state of being lost in thought); <B>facer abstraction de</B> to disregard, leave out of consideration</P> <LI> <P><B>abstraher [-trah-/-tract-]</B> <I>v</I> [Logic] to abstract <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abstraction; abstracte</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abstruder [-trud-/-trus-]</B> <I>v</I> 1. to thrust away; 2. to conceal <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abstruse</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abstrus-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abstruder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abstruse</B> <I>adj</I> abstruse</P> <LI> <P><B>absurde</B> <I>adj</I> absurd <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> absurditate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>absurditate</B> <I>n</I> absurdity</P> <LI> <P><B>abuccamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (action of) seizing, snatching up (with the mouth); 2. (action of) interconnecting (two openings); 3. interview, conference</P> <LI> <P><B>abuccar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to seize, snatch up (with the mouth); 2. to interconnect (two openings); <BR> <B>abuccar se</B> to come or get together (for an interview, a conference, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abuccamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abundante</B> <I>adj</I> abundant</P> <LI> <P><B>abundantia</B> <I>n</I> abundance; <BR> <B>corno del abundantia</B> cornucopia, horn of abundance or plenty</P> <LI> <P><B>abundar</B> <I>v</I> to abound, be plentiful; <B>abundar in</B> to abound in or with <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abundante-abundantia; superabundar-superabundante-superabundantia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abus-</B> <I>see</I> <B>abut-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>abusar</B> <I>v</I> -; <BR> <B>abusar de</B> to abuse, make bad use of</P> <LI> <P><B>abusator</B> <I>n</I> abuser, misuser</P> <LI> <P><B>abusive</B> <I>adj</I> abusive (= of improper or wrong use)</P> <LI> <P><B>abuso</B> <I>n</I> abuse (= improper or wrong use)</P> <LI> <P><B>abut- [-ut-/-us-]</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abusive; abuso-abusar-abusator, disabusar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abysmal</B> <I>adj</I> abysmal</P> <LI> <P><B>abysmo</B> <I>n</I> abysm <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abysmal</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>abyssal</B> <I>adj</I> abyssal</P> <LI> <P><B>abyssin</B> <I>adj</I> Abyssinian <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Abyssinia; abyssino</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Abyssinia</B> <I>npr</I> Abyssinia</P> <LI> <P><B>abyssino</B> <I>n</I> Abyssinian</P> <LI> <P><B>abysso</B> <I>n</I> abyss <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> abyssal</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acacia</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] acacia</P> <LI> <P><B>academia</B> <I>n</I> academy <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> academic, academico</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>academic</B> <I>adj</I> academic, academical</P> <LI> <P><B>academico</B> <I>n</I> academician</P> <LI> <P><B>Academo</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Academus <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> academia &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acaju [-j&uacute;]</B> <I>n</I> 1. cashew; 2. mahogany; <BR> <B>nuce de acaju</B> cashew nut</P> <LI> <P><B>acantha</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] prickle, thorn <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acanthophore etc.; tragacantha etc.; notacanthe etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acanthaceas</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] Acanthaceae</P> <LI> <P><B>acanthacee</B> <I>adj</I> [Bot.] acanthaceous</P> <LI> <P><B>acantho</B> <I>n</I> acanthus (1. [Bot.]; 2. [Arch.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acanthacee-acanthaceas</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acantho&middot;phore [-&oacute;phore]</B> <I>adj</I> spine-bearing, acanthophorous</P> <LI> <P><B>acceder [-ced-/-cess-]</B> <I>v</I> 1. to approach; 2. to accede (= to assent) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accessibile-accessibilitate, inaccessibile-inaccessibilitate; accession; accessori-accessorio; accesso</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accelerando [I]</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] accelerando</P> <LI> <P><B>accelerar</B> <I>v</I> to accelerate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acceleration; accelerator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acceleration</B> <I>n</I> acceleration</P> <LI> <P><B>accelerator</B> <I>n</I> accelerator (1. anything which increases speed of motion; 2. contrivance for producing greater speed in a machine)</P> <LI> <P><B>accendalia</B> <I>n</I> kindling (= wood, shavings etc. used to kindle a fire)</P> <LI> <P><B>accender [-cend-/-cens-]</B> <I>v</I> to light, kindle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accendalia; accendimento; accendibile; accensibile-accensibilitate; accenditor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accendibile</B> <I>adj</I> inflammable, combustible</P> <LI> <P><B>accendimento</B> <I>n</I> lighting, kindling</P> <LI> <P><B>accenditor</B> <I>n</I> lighter (= device for lighting cigarettes, gas, candles, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>accens-</B> <I>see</I> <B>accender</B></P> <LI> <P><B>accensibile</B> <I>adj</I> inflammable, combustible, accensible</P> <LI> <P><B>accensibilitate</B> <I>n</I> inflammability, combustibility, accensibility</P> <LI> <P><B>accento</B> <I>n</I> 1. accent, stress; 2. accent mark <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accentuar-accentuation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accentu-</B> <I>see</I> <B>accento</B></P> <LI> <P><B>accentuar</B> <I>v</I> to accentuate, accent</P> <LI> <P><B>accentuation</B> <I>n</I> accentuation</P> <LI> <P><B>accept-</B> <I>see</I> <B>accip-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>acceptabile</B> <I>adj</I> acceptable</P> <LI> <P><B>acceptabilitate</B> <I>n</I> acceptability</P> <LI> <P><B>acceptar</B> <I>v</I> to accept</P> <LI> <P><B>acceptation</B> <I>n</I> acceptance</P> <LI> <P><B>acception</B> <I>n</I> acceptation (= standard meaning)</P> <LI> <P><B>access-</B> <I>see</I> <B>acceder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>accessibile</B> <I>adj</I> accessible</P> <LI> <P><B>accessibilitate</B> <I>n</I> accessibility</P> <LI> <P><B>accession</B> <I>n</I> 1. accession (&quot;accession to a dignity, a throne, etc.&quot;); 2. adherence (&quot;adherence to a treaty, a party, etc.&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>accesso</B> <I>n</I> access (1. &quot;access to a place&quot;; 2. fit)</P> <LI> <P><B>accessori</B> <I>adj</I> accessory (= adjunct)</P> <LI> <P><B>accessorio</B> <I>n</I> accessory</P> <LI> <P><B>accidental</B> <I>adj</I> accidental (1. nonessential; 2. happening by chance)</P> <LI> <P><B>accidente</B> <I>n</I> I. accident (1. nonessential quality; 2. contingency; 3. mishap); II. [Gram.] accidence</P> <LI> <P><B>accider</B> <I>v</I> to happen, befall <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accidente-accidental</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accip- [-cip-/-cept-]</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acception; acceptar-acceptabile-acceptabilitate, inacceptabile; acceptation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accisia</B> <I>n</I> excise</P> <LI> <P><B>acclamar</B> <I>v</I> to acclaim (= to applaud) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acclamation; acclamator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acclamation</B> <I>n</I> acclaim, acclamation; <BR> <B>per acclamation</B> by acclamation</P> <LI> <P><B>acclamator</B> <I>n</I> acclaimer</P> <LI> <P><B>acclimatar</B> <I>v</I> to acclimatize, acclimate</P> <LI> <P><B>acclimatation</B> <I>n</I> acclimatization, acclimation</P> <LI> <P><B>accollada</B> <I>n</I> accolade (= ceremonious salutation and embrace)</P> <LI> <P><B>accollar</B> <I>v</I> to embrace, salute with an accolade <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accollada</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accommodabile</B> <I>adj</I> 1. adaptable; 2. adjustable (as in &quot;adjustable quarrel&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>accommodamento</B> <I>n</I> settlement (of disputes, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>accommodar</B> <I>v</I> to accommodate (1. to adapt; 2. to settle (disputes, etc.)) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accommodamento; accommodabile; accommodator; accommodation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accommodation</B> <I>n</I> adaptation, accommodation</P> <LI> <P><B>accommodator</B> <I>n</I> accommodator</P> <LI> <P><B>accompaniamento</B> <I>n</I> I. (action of) accompanying; II. retinue, attendance; III. accompaniment (1. concomitant; 2. [Mus.])</P> <LI> <P><B>accompaniar</B> <I>v</I> to accompany <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accompaniamento; accompanitor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accompaniator</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] accompanist</P> <LI> <P><B>accopulamento</B> <I>n</I> coupling (1. act of coupling; 2. [Techn.]); <I>specif.:</I> [R.R.]</P> <LI> <P><B>accopular</B> <I>v</I> 1. to couple (= to unite, bring together in pairs); 2. to mate (= to bring together for breeding)</P> <LI> <P><B>accordabile</B> <I>adj</I> 1. reconcilable; 2. tunable; 3. grantable</P> <LI> <P><B>accordante</B> I. ppr of accordar; II. <I>adj</I> accordant (1. conformable; 2. [Mus.] harmonious)</P> <LI> <P><B>accordar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to harmonize (= to cause to agree); 2. to tune; 3. to grant, accord <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accordo; accordante; accordabile; accordator; accordatura; disaccordar-disaccordo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accordator</B> <I>n</I> tuner (of pianos, etc.); <BR> <B>clave accordator</B> tuning key</P> <LI> <P><B>accordatura</B> <I>n</I> 1. tuning; 2. pitch (as in &quot;concert pitch&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>accordion</B> <I>n</I> accordion <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accordionista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accordionista</B> <I>n</I> accordionist</P> <LI> <P><B>accordo</B> <I>n</I> 1. accord, agreement; 2. [Mus.] chord; <BR> <B>de accordo</B> in accord; <BR> <B>esser de accordo</B> to be in accord, agree; <BR> <B>poner se de accordo</B> to come to an agreement; <BR> <B>de commun accordo</B> by common consent</P> <LI> <P><B>accostabile</B> <I>adj</I> approachable, accostable</P> <LI> <P><B>accostamento</B> <I>n</I> approach (as in &quot;new lines of approach&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>accostar</B> <I>v</I> to accost <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acostamento; accostabile</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accostumar</B> <I>v</I> to accustom <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accostumate-inaccostumate; disaccostumar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accostumate</B> 1. pp of <B>accostumar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> accustomed, usual</P> <LI> <P><B>accreditar</B> <I>v</I> to accredit (= to send with credentials)</P> <LI> <P><B>accrescer</B> <I>v</I> to increase (= to cause to increase) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accrescimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accrescimento</B> <I>n</I> increase (= growth in size, amount, or degree)</P> <LI> <P><B>accular</B> <I>v</I> to back up (a horse, cart, etc. against a wall, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>accumulamento</B> <I>n</I> heaping or piling up, accumulation</P> <LI> <P><B>accumular</B> <I>v</I> to accumulate, heap up <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accumulamento; accumulation; accumulator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accumulation</B> <I>n</I> accumulation</P> <LI> <P><B>accumulator</B> <I>n</I> accumulator (1. one who accumulates; 2. storage battery)</P> <LI> <P><B>accurrer</B> <I>v</I> to come running, rush up</P> <LI> <P><B>accurtamento</B> <I>n</I> shortening (= act of making shorter)</P> <LI> <P><B>accurtar</B> <I>v</I> to shorten, make shorter <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accurtamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accusabile</B> <I>adj</I> blameworthy, liable to be accused; accusable</P> <LI> <P><B>accusabilitate</B> <I>n</I> blameworthiness</P> <LI> <P><B>accusamento</B> <I>n</I> accusing, accusation</P> <LI> <P><B>accusar</B> <I>v</I> to accuse; <BR> <B>accusar reception de</B> to acknowledge receipt of <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accusamento; accusabile-accusabilitate; accusation; accusativo; accusator; accusatori; accusato-coaccusato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>accusation</B> <I>n</I> accusation</P> <LI> <P><B>accusativo</B> <I>n</I> [Gram.] accusative</P> <LI> <P><B>accusato</B> <I>n</I> accused, defendant</P> <LI> <P><B>accusator</B> <I>n</I> accuser</P> <LI> <P><B>accusatori</B> <I>adj</I> accusing, accusatory; <I>also:</I> accusatorial</P> <LI> <P><B>acerbar</B> <I>v</I> to acerbate</P> <LI> <P><B>acerbe</B> <I>adj</I> acerb; <I>also:</I> sour, bitter, harsh <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acerbitate; acerbar-exacerbar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acerbitate</B> <I>n</I> acerbity</P> <LI> <P><B>acere</B> <I>n</I> maple, maple tree</P> <LI> <P><B>acetabulo</B> <I>n</I> [Rom. Antiq.] acetabulum; <I>also:</I> [Anat.]</P> <LI> <P><B>acet&middot;amido (-&aacute;mido)</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] acetamide</P> <LI> <P><B>acetato</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] acetate</P> <LI> <P><B>acetic</B> <I>adj</I> acetic</P> <LI> <P><B>acetificar</B> <I>v</I> to acetify</P> <LI> <P><B>acetification</B> <I>n</I> acetification</P> <LI> <P><B>aceto</B> <I>n</I> vinegar <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acetato; acetabulo; acetona; acetic; acetose; acetificar-acetification; acetamido etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acetona</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] acetone</P> <LI> <P><B>acetose</B> <I>adj</I> acetous, acetose</P> <LI> <P><B>acetylen</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] acetylene</P> <LI> <P><B>Acheronte</B> <I>npr</I> Acheron</P> <LI> <P><B>achillea (-&eacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] Achillea</P> <LI> <P><B>Achilles (-&iacute;lles)</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Achilles; <BR> <B>calce de Achilles</B> Achilles' heel; <BR> <B>tendon de Achilles</B> Achilles' tendon <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> achillea</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>achromate</B> <I>adj</I> achromatous, colorless</P> <LI> <P><B>achromatic</B> <I>adj</I> [Opt.] achromatic</P> <LI> <P><B>achromatisar</B> <I>v</I> [Opt.] to achromatize</P> <LI> <P><B>achromatisation</B> <I>n</I> [Opt.] achromatization</P> <LI> <P><B>achromatismo</B> <I>n</I> [Opt.] achromatism</P> <LI> <P><B>achromat&middot;opsia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> achromatopsy (= complete color blindness)</P> <LI> <P><B>acicula</B> <I>n</I> [Bot., etc.] acicula (= needle, prickle etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acicular</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acicular</B> <I>adj</I> acicular</P> <LI> <P><B>acide (&aacute;cide)</B> <I>adj</I> acid <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aciditate; acidule-acidular; acidificar-acidificabile, acidification; acido-amino-acido etc.; bydracido etc.; acidimetro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acidificabile</B> <I>adj</I> acidifiable</P> <LI> <P><B>acidficar</B> <I>v</I> to acidify (= to make acid, convert into an acid)</P> <LI> <P><B>acidification</B> <I>n</I> acidification</P> <LI> <P><B>acidi&middot;metro (-&iacute;metro)</B> <I>n</I> acidimeter</P> <LI> <P><B>aciditate</B> <I>n</I> acidity</P> <LI> <P><B>acido (&aacute;cido)</B> <I>n</I> acid; <BR> <B>acido carbonic</B> 1. carbonic acid; 2. carbon dioxide, carbonic acid gas; <BR> <B>acido chlorhydric</B> hydrochloric acid</P> <LI> <P><B>acidular</B> <I>v</I> to acidulate, flavor with an acid</P> <LI> <P><B>acidule</B> <I>adj</I> acidulous</P> <LI> <P><B>acierage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> steel plating, acierage</P> <LI> <P><B>acierar</B> <I>v</I> to steel (1. to overlay, point, plate, etc., with steel; 2. to convert into or cause to resemble steel)</P> <LI> <P><B>acieration</B> <I>n</I> acieration (= conversion into stee])</P> <LI> <P><B>acieria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> steelworks, steel mill</P> <LI> <P><B>aciero</B> <I>n</I> steel <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acieria; acierar-acierage, aciration</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aco</B> <I>n</I> needle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acicula &amp;; acupunctura etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aco-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] aco-, -ac- (= remedy) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acologia etc.; vanac- etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aco&middot;logia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] acology <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acologic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acologic</B> <I>adj</I> [Med.] acologic</P> <LI> <P><B>acordonar</B> <I>v</I> to lace (= to fasten or tighten with a lace)</P> <LI> <P><B>acquest-</B> <I>see</I> <B>acquirer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>acquesto</B> <I>n</I> acquisition (= thing acquired)</P> <LI> <P><B>acquiescente</B> 1. ppr of <B>acquiescer</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> acquiescent</P> <LI> <P><B>acquiescentia</B> <I>n</I> acquiescence</P> <LI> <P><B>acquiescer</B> <I>v</I> to acquiesce <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acquiescente-acquiescentia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acquirer [-quir-/-quest-/-quisit-]</B> <I>v</I> to acquire <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acquiribile; acquesto; acquisition; acquisitor; acquiritor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acquiribile</B> <I>adj</I> acquirable</P> <LI> <P><B>acquiritor</B> <I>n</I> acquirer</P> <LI> <P><B>acquisit-</B> <I>see</I> <B>acquirer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>acquisition</B> <I>n</I> acquisition (1. act of acquiring; 2. thing acquired)</P> <LI> <P><B>acquisitor</B> <I>n</I> acquirer</P> <LI> <P><B>acr-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in compounds] acro- (= terminal, topmost) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acropole etc.; acrostichio etc. ...</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acre&sup1; [A]</B> <I>n</I> acre</P> <LI> <P><B>acre&sup2;</B> <I>adj</I> acrid <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acritate; acrimonia &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acrimonia</B> <I>n</I> acrimony <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acrimoniose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acrimoniose</B> <I>adj</I> acrimonious</P> <LI> <P><B>acritate</B> <I>n</I> acridness</P> <LI> <P><B>acrobata (-&oacute;bata)</B> <I>n</I> acrobat <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acrobatia; acrobatismo; acrobatic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acrobatia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> acrobatics</P> <LI> <P><B>acrobatic</B> <I>adj</I> acrobatic</P> <LI> <P><B>acrobatismo</B> <I>n</I> acrobatism</P> <LI> <P><B>acro&middot;pole</B> <I>n</I> acropolis</P> <LI> <P><B>acro&middot;stichio</B> <I>n</I> [Pros.] acrostic</P> <LI> <P><B>act-</B> <I>see</I> <B>ager</B></P> <LI> <P><B>action</B> <I>n</I> I. action (1. act, acting; 2. lawsuit); II. [Fin.] share; <BR> <B>homine de action</B> man of action; <BR> <B>action civil</B> civil action</P> <LI> <P><B>actionabile</B> <I>adj</I> actionable</P> <LI> <P><B>actionar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to actuate (= to set in action or motion); 2. [Law] to sue</P> <LI> <P><B>actionero</B> <I>n</I> shareholder, stockholder</P> <LI> <P><B>actionista</B> <I>n</I> shareholder, stockholder</P> <LI> <P><B>activar</B> <I>v</I> to activate; <I>also:</I> to stir up, rouse</P> <LI> <P><B>activation</B> <I>n</I> activation</P> <LI> <P><B>active</B> <I>adj</I> active; <B>le voce active</B> the active voice</P> <LI> <P><B>activitate</B> <I>n</I> activity</P> <LI> <P><B>activo</B> <I>n</I> [Com.] assets</P> <LI> <P><B>acto</B> <I>n</I> I. act (1. action, deed; 2. &quot;act of a play&quot;); II. [Law] instrument, deed, record, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>actor</B> <I>n</I> actor</P> <LI> <P><B>actrice</B> <I>n</I> actress</P> <LI> <P><B>actual</B> <I>adj</I> 1. actual, real; 2. current, present</P> <LI> <P><B>actualisar</B> <I>v</I> to actualize</P> <LI> <P><B>actualisation</B> <I>n</I> actualization</P> <LI> <P><B>actualitate</B> <I>n</I> 1. actuality (= actual existence); 2. character of what is current or present, thing or event that is current or present; <BR> <B>actualitates</B> current events, news (as in &quot;news report, newsreel, news film, etc.&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>actualmente</B> <I>adv</I> 1. at present, (just) now; 2. actually</P> <LI> <P><B>actuar</B> <I>v</I> to actuate (= to put into action)</P> <LI> <P><B>actuarial</B> <I>adj</I> actuarial</P> <LI> <P><B>actuariato</B> <I>n</I> actuary's office (or profession)</P> <LI> <P><B>actuario</B> <I>n</I> actuary</P> <LI> <P><B>actuation</B> <I>n</I> actuation</P> <LI> <P><B>aculeate</B> <I>adj</I> [Zool., Bot.] aculeate</P> <LI> <P><B>aculei&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> aculeiform</P> <LI> <P><B>aculeo</B> <I>n</I> 1. [Zool.] sting; 2. [Bot.] thorn <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aculeate; aculeiforme etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acuminar</B> <I>v</I> to sharpen, acuminate</P> <LI> <P><B>acuminate</B> 1. pp of <B>acuminar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> pointed, acuminate</P> <LI> <P><B>acumine</B> <I>n</I> 1. [Bot.] a tapering point; 2. acumen <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acuminar-acuminate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acu&middot;punctura</B> <I>n</I> acupuncture <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acupuncturar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acupuncturar</B> <I>v</I> to acupuncture</P> <LI> <P><B>acustic</B> <I>adj</I> acoustic; <BR> <B>tubo acustic</B> speaking tube; <BR> <B>corno acustic</B> ear trumpet <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acustica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acustica</B> <I>n</I> acoustics</P> <LI> <P><B>acut&middot;angule</B> <I>adj</I> [Geom.] acute-angled, acutangular</P> <LI> <P><B>acute</B> <I>adj</I> acute (1. sharp-pointed; 2. shrewd, penetrating, keen; 3. acting keenly on the senses); <BR> <B>angulo acute</B> [Geom.] acute angle; <BR> <B>morbo acute</B> acute disease; <BR> <B>nota acute</B> high-pitched sound; <BR> <B>voce acute</B> shrill voice; <BR> <B>dolor acute</B> acute or sharp pain; <BR> <B>accento acute</B> [Gram.] acute accent, &acute; <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> acutessa; acutiar-acutiamento, acutiator; acutangule etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>acutessa</B> <I>n</I> sharpness, acuteness</P> <LI> <P><B>acutiamento</B> <I>n</I> sharpening</P> <LI> <P><B>acutiar</B> <I>v</I> to sharpen (= to make sharp)</P> <LI> <P><B>acutiator</B> <I>n</I> sharpener (= one who sharpens)</P> <LI> <P><B>[ad]</B> <I>prep</I> 1. to; 2. at (= <B>a</B>)</P> <LI> <P><B>ad-</B> <I>prefixo verbal</I> [subject to assimilation before single consonant; used with verbs and, in combination with verbal suffixes, with nouns and adjectives] ad- (= to, toward, into [expressing motion to, change into, increase of intensity, etc.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> accurrer etc.; approximar, etc.; adjudicar, etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ada</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with nouns and verbs] -ade I. [used with nouns] (1. product made from ...; 2. series of ...); II. [used with verbs] (= action of ...ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> limonada etc.; columnada etc.; cavalcada etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adagio</B> <I>n</I> adage</P> <LI> <P><B>adagio [I]</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] adagio</P> <LI> <P><B>adagio [I]</B> <I>adv</I> [Mus.] adagio</P> <LI> <P><B>Adam</B> <I>npr</I> Adam; <BR> <B>pomo de Adam</B> Adam's apple <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adamitas; adamic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adamic</B> <I>adj</I> Adamic</P> <LI> <P><B>adamitas</B> <I>npl</I> [Eccl. Hist.] Adamites</P> <LI> <P><B>adaptabile</B> <I>adj</I> adaptable</P> <LI> <P><B>adaptabilitate</B> <I>n</I> adaptability</P> <LI> <P><B>adaptar</B> <I>v</I> to adapt; <BR> <B>adaptar a</B> to adapt to <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adaptabile-adaptabilitate, inadaptabile; adaptation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adaptation</B> <I>n</I> adaptation; <BR> <B>facultate de adaptation</B> adaptability, ability to adapt oneself</P> <LI> <P><B>addendum (pl addenda) [NL]</B> <I>n</I> addendum</P> <LI> <P><B>adder</B> <I>v</I> to add (&quot;to add one thing to another&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> addition-additional, additionar; additive</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>addition</B> <I>n</I> addition (1. action of adding; 2. thing added)</P> <LI> <P><B>additional</B> <I>adj</I> additional</P> <LI> <P><B>additionar</B> <I>v</I> [Math.] to add up</P> <LI> <P><B>additive</B> <I>adj</I> additive</P> <LI> <P><B>addormir</B> <I>v</I> to put to sleep; <BR> <B>addormir se</B> to fall asleep</P> <LI> <P><B>addormite</B> 1. pp of <B>addormir</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> asleep</P> <LI> <P><B>adducer [-duc-/-duct-]</B> <I>v</I> to adduce <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adduction; adductor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adduct-</B> <I>see</I> <B>adducer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>adduction</B> <I>n</I> adduction (1. act of adducing; 2. [Physiol.])</P> <LI> <P><B>adductor</B> <I>n</I> 1. adducer; 2. [Physiol.] adductor</P> <LI> <P><B>adelpho-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] adelpho-, adelph- (1. brother; 2. twin) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> monadelphe etc.; Philadelphia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aden [Gr.]</B> <I>n</I> [Physiol.] gland <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adenitis; adenoma; adenoide; adenose; adenographia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adenitis (-&iacute;tis)</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] adenitis</P> <LI> <P><B>adeno&middot;graphia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> adenography</P> <LI> <P><B>adenoide</B> <I>adj</I> adenoid, adenoidal</P> <LI> <P><B>adenoides</B> <I>npl</I> adenoids</P> <LI> <P><B>adenoma</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] adenoma</P> <LI> <P><B>adenose</B> <I>adj</I> glandulous, adenose</P> <LI> <P><B>adeo (-&eacute;o)</B> <I>interj</I> farewell, good-by(e)</P> <LI> <P><B>adepto</B> <I>n</I> adept</P> <LI> <P><B>adequar</B> <I>v</I> to equalize <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adequation; adequate-inadequate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adequate</B> 1. pp of <B>adequar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> adequate</P> <LI> <P><B>adequation</B> <I>n</I> adequation</P> <LI> <P><B>adherente</B> <I>n</I> adherent, follower</P> <LI> <P><B>adherentia</B> <I>n</I> adherence, attachment</P> <LI> <P><B>adherer [-her-/-hes-]</B> <I>v</I> to adhere (1. to stick fast; 2. as in &quot;to adhere to an opinion, party, etc.&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adherente-adherentia; adhesion; adhesive</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adhes-</B> <I>see</I> <B>adherer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>adhesion</B> <I>n</I> adhesion (1. sticking; 2. assent)</P> <LI> <P><B>adhesive</B> <I>adj</I> adhesive, sticking</P> <LI> <P><B>ad hoc [L]</B> ad hoc (= for the sake of this particular case, well-suited for this matter)</P> <LI> <P><B>ad hominem [L]</B> ad hominem; <BR> <B>argumento ad hominem</B> argumentum ad hominem</P> <LI> <P><B>[adhuc]</B> <I>adv</I> to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still</P> <LI> <P><B>adieu [F]</B> <I>n</I> farewell, adieu</P> <LI> <P><B>adipe (&aacute;dipe)</B> <I>n</I> animal fat, body fat; <I>also:</I> adeps <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adiposis; adipose-adipositate; adipocera etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adipo&middot;cera</B> <I>n</I> adipocere</P> <LI> <P><B>adipose</B> <I>adj</I> adipose, fat</P> <LI> <P><B>adiposis (-&oacute;sis)</B> <I>n</I> adiposis, fatty degeneration</P> <LI> <P><B>adipositate</B> <I>n</I> adiposity, fatness</P> <LI> <P><B>adir</B> <I>v</I> 1. to approach; go to; 2. to attain, enter upon; <I>also:</I> [Law] to enter on (an inheritance, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adition; adito</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adition</B> <I>n</I> [Law] entering upon (an inheritance)</P> <LI> <P><B>adito (&aacute;dito)</B> <I>n</I> adit, entrance (1. door, passage, etc. through which one enters; 2. access)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjacente</B> <I>adj</I> adjacent; <BR> <B>angulos adjacente</B> adjacent angles</P> <LI> <P><B>adjacentia</B> <I>n</I> adjacency (= state of being adjacent)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjacer</B> <I>v</I> -; <BR> <B>adjacer a</B> to lie near or close to, border upon <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjacente-adjacentia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adject-</B> <I>see</I> <B>adjic-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>adjectival</B> <I>adj</I> [Gram.] adjectival, adjective</P> <LI> <P><B>adjective</B> <I>adj</I> [Gram.] adjective, adjectival <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjectivo-adjectival</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adjectivo</B> <I>n</I> [Gram.] adjective</P> <LI> <P><B>adjic- [-jic-/-ject-]</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjective &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adjudicar</B> <I>v</I> to adjudge (= to award judicially, as a prize, etc.); <BR> <B>adjudicar a</B> to knock down to (at an auction) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjudication; adjudicative; adjudicator; adjudicatario</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adjudicatario</B> <I>n</I> highest bidder, purchaser (at an auction)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjudication</B> <I>n</I> 1. adjudgment, award; 2. knocking down (at an auction)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjudicative</B> <I>adj</I> adjudging, awarding</P> <LI> <P><B>adjudicator</B> <I>n</I> adjudger, awarder</P> <LI> <P><B>adjunct-</B> <I>see</I> <B>adjunger</B></P> <LI> <P><B>adjunction</B> <I>n</I> adjunction (= the act of joining or adding)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjunctive</B> <I>adj</I> adjunctive</P> <LI> <P><B>adjuncto</B> <I>n</I> 1. assistant, deputy; 2. [Gram.] adjunct</P> <LI> <P><B>adjunger [-jung-/junct-]</B> <I>v</I> to join, unite (one thing to another) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjunction; adjunctive; adjuncto</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adjurar</B> <I>v</I> to adjure <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjuration</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adjuration</B> <I>n</I> adjuration</P> <LI> <P><B>adjustabile</B> <I>adj</I> adjustable</P> <LI> <P><B>adjustage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> [Mach.] assembly (of the parts of a machine)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjustamento</B> <I>n</I> adjustment (= action of adjusting)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjustar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to adjust; 2. [Mach.] to fit together, set up <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjustage; adjustamento; adjustabile; adjustator; readjustar-readjustamento, readjustator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adjustator</B> <I>n</I> adjuster; [Mach.] fitter, setter, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>adjut-</B> <I>see</I> <B>adjuvar</B></P> <LI> <P><B>adjuta</B> <I>n</I> 1. aid, help; 2. aide (= assistant)</P> <LI> <P><B>adjutante</B> <I>n</I> 1. helper, assistant; 2. [Mil.] adjutant</P> <LI> <P><B>adjutar</B> <I>v</I> to aid, help; <BR> <B>adjutar se de</B> to use, make use of <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjuta; adjutante</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adjutor</B> <I>n</I> help, helper</P> <LI> <P><B>adjuvante</B> 1. ppr of <B>adjuvar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> helpful, adjuvant</P> <LI> <P><B>adjuvar [-juv-/-jut-]</B> <I>v</I> to aid, help <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adjuvante; adjutor; adjutar &amp;; coadjuvar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ad libitum, ad lib. [L]</B> ad libitum, ad lib.</P> <LI> <P><B>administrabile</B> <I>adj</I> administrable</P> <LI> <P><B>administrar</B> <I>v</I> to administer (1. to direct, manage; 2. to furnish or apply) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> administrabile; administration; administrative; administrator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>administration</B> <I>n</I> administration (1. action of furnishing or applying; 2. management of public affairs, an institution, business, etc.; 3. the persons collectively managing public affairs, an institution, business, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>administrative</B> <I>adj</I> administrative</P> <LI> <P><B>administrator</B> <I>n</I> administrator, manager</P> <LI> <P><B>admirabile</B> <I>adj</I> admirable</P> <LI> <P><B>admiral</B> <I>n</I> admiral <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> admiralato; admiralitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>admiralato</B> <I>n</I> admiralship, admiralty</P> <LI> <P><B>admiralitate</B> <I>n</I> admiralty (1. &quot;law or court of the admiralty&quot;; 2. government department in charge of naval affairs)</P> <LI> <P><B>admirar</B> <I>v</I> to admire <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> admirabile; admiration; admirative; admirator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>admiration</B> <I>n</I> admiration</P> <LI> <P><B>admirative</B> <I>adj</I> admiring</P> <LI> <P><B>admirator</B> <I>n</I> admirer</P> <LI> <P><B>admiscer [-misc-/-mixt-]</B> <I>v</I> to admix <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> admixtion</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>admiss-</B> <I>see</I> <B>admitter</B></P> <LI> <P><B>admissibile</B> <I>adj</I> admissible</P> <LI> <P><B>admissibilitate</B> <I>n</I> admissibility</P> <LI> <P><B>admission</B> <I>n</I> admission (1. act of allowing entrance or access; 2. act of conceding the validity or truth of)</P> <LI> <P><B>admitter [-mitt-/-miss-]</B> <I>v</I> to admit (1. to allow to enter; 2. to acknowledge as valid or true) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> admissibile-admissibilitate, inadmissibile-inadmissibilitate; admission-inadmission; readmitter-readmission</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>admixt-</B> <I>see</I> <B>admiscer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>admixtion</B> <I>n</I> admixture, admixtion</P> <LI> <P><B>admoner</B> <I>v</I> to admonish <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> admonition; admonitor; admonitori</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>admonestar</B> <I>v</I> to admonish <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> admonestation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>admonestation</B> <I>n</I> admonition, admonishment</P> <LI> <P><B>admonition</B> <I>n</I> admonition</P> <LI> <P><B>admonitor</B> <I>n</I> admonitor, admonisher</P> <LI> <P><B>admonitori</B> <I>adj</I> admonitory</P> <LI> <P><B>adoculamento</B> <I>n</I> (action of) fixing one's eyes upon</P> <LI> <P><B>adocular</B> <I>v</I> to fix one's eyes upon, glue one's eyes to</P> <LI> <P><B>adolescente</B> <I>adj</I> adolescent</P> <LI> <P><B>adolescente</B> <I>n</I> adolescent</P> <LI> <P><B>adolescentia</B> <I>n</I> adolescence</P> <LI> <P><B>adolescer</B> <I>v</I> to grow up, to become adolescent <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adolescente-adolescentia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adonic</B> <I>adj</I> Adonic, Adonian</P> <LI> <P><B>adonico</B> <I>n</I> [Pros.] Adonic</P> <LI> <P><B>adonie</B> <I>adj</I> Adonian, Adonic</P> <LI> <P><B>adonio</B> <I>n</I> [Pros.] Adonic</P> <LI> <P><B>Adonis (-d&oacute;-)</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Adonis; adonis 1. [Bot.] Adonis, pheasant's eye; 2. fop, dandy <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adonic-adonico; adonie-adonio</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adoptabile</B> <I>adj</I> adoptable</P> <LI> <P><B>adoptabilitate</B> <I>n</I> adoptability</P> <LI> <P><B>adoptar</B> <I>v</I> to adopt <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adoptabile-adoptabilitate, inadoptabile; adoptator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adoptator</B> <I>n</I> adopter</P> <LI> <P><B>adoption</B> <I>n</I> adoption</P> <LI> <P><B>adoptive</B> <I>adj</I> adoptive</P> <LI> <P><B>adorabile</B> <I>adj</I> adorable</P> <LI> <P><B>adorabilitate</B> <I>n</I> adorability</P> <LI> <P><B>adorar</B> <I>v</I> to adore, worship <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adorabile-adorabilitate; adoration</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adoration</B> <I>n</I> adoration, worship</P> <LI> <P><B>adornamento</B> <I>n</I> adornment (= action of adorning)</P> <LI> <P><B>adornar</B> <I>v</I> to adorn; <BR> <B>adornar de</B> to adorn with <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adornamento; adornator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adornator</B> <I>n</I> adorner</P> <LI> <P><B>adorsar</B> <I>v</I> -; <BR> <B>adorsar (un cosa) a</B> to place (something) with its back against</P> <LI> <P><B>ad rem [L]</B> ad rem, to the point</P> <LI> <P><B>adrenal</B> <I>adj</I> [Anat.] adrenal; <BR> <B>glandulas adrenal</B> adrenal glands</P> <LI> <P><B>adrenalina</B> <I>n</I> adrenalin</P> <LI> <P><B>adressar</B> <I>v</I> to address (1. to write the address on, direct; 2. as in &quot;to address a prayer to&quot;); <BR> <B>adressar se</B> to address oneself (to)</P> <LI> <P><B>adresse [F]</B> <I>n</I> address (1. formal communication; 2. as in &quot;address of a letter, package, etc.&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adressar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Adria</B> <I>npr</I> (city of) Adria <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adriatic-Adriatico</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Adriano</B> <I>nprm</I> Adrian <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Adrianopolis etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Adriano&middot;polis (-&oacute;polis)</B> <I>npr</I> Adrianople</P> <LI> <P><B>adriatic</B> <I>adj</I> Adriatic (1. pertaining to the city of Adria; 2. pertaining to the Adriatic); <BR> <B>Mar Adriatic</B> Adriatic</P> <LI> <P><B>Adriatico</B> <I>n</I> Adriatic</P> <LI> <P><B>adular</B> <I>v</I> to adulate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adulation; adulator; adulatori</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adulation</B> <I>n</I> adulation</P> <LI> <P><B>adulator</B> <I>n</I> adulator</P> <LI> <P><B>adulatori</B> <I>adj</I> adulatory</P> <LI> <P><B>adulciamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (act of) sweetening; 2. (act of) softening, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>adulciar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to sweeten (= to make sweet); 2. to soften, to make milder or more pleasing, etc.; 3. to render ductile or malleable</P> <LI> <P><B>adulte</B> <I>adj</I> adult, grown-up <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adulto</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adultera (-&uacute;ltera)</B> <I>n</I> adulteress</P> <LI> <P><B>adulterar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to adulterate; 2. to commit adultery <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adultero-adulterin, adulterose, adultera; adulterio; adulteration; adulterator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adulteration</B> <I>n</I> adulteration (= action of adulterating)</P> <LI> <P><B>adulterator</B> <I>n</I> 1. adulterator; 2. adulterer</P> <LI> <P><B>adulterin</B> <I>adj</I> adulterine</P> <LI> <P><B>adulterio</B> <I>n</I> adultery; <BR> <B>committer adulterio</B> to commit adultery</P> <LI> <P><B>adultero (-&uacute;ltero)</B> <I>n</I> adulterer</P> <LI> <P><B>adulterose</B> <I>adj</I> adulterous</P> <LI> <P><B>adulto</B> <I>n</I> adult</P> <LI> <P><B>adumbrar</B> <I>v</I> to overshadow, adumbrate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adumbration</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adumbration</B> <I>n</I> adumbration, overshadowing</P> <LI> <P><B>adurer [-ur-/-ust-]</B> <I>v</I> 1. to burn, scorch; 2. [Med.] to cauterize <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aduste; adustion</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adust-</B> <I>see</I> <B>adurer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aduste</B> <I>adj</I> burnt, scorched, adust</P> <LI> <P><B>adustion</B> <I>n</I> 1. (act of) burning, scorching; 2. [Med.] cauterization</P> <LI> <P><B>ad valorem [L]</B> [Com.] ad valorem</P> <LI> <P><B>advenimento</B> <I>n</I> advent (= arrival)</P> <LI> <P><B>advenir [-ven-/-vent-]</B> <I>v</I> to happen, come to pass <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> advenimento; advento-adventicie</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>advent-</B> <I>see</I> <B>advenir</B></P> <LI> <P><B>adventicie</B> <I>adj</I> adventitious</P> <LI> <P><B>Advento</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl.] Advent</P> <LI> <P><B>adverbial</B> <I>adj</I> adverbial</P> <LI> <P><B>adverbio</B> <I>n</I> adverb <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adverbial</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>advers-</B> <I>see</I> <B>adverter</B></P> <LI> <P><B>adversar</B> <I>v</I> to oppose</P> <LI> <P><B>adversario</B> <I>n</I> adversary</P> <LI> <P><B>adversative</B> <I>adj</I> [Gram.] adversative</P> <LI> <P><B>adverse</B> <I>adj</I> 1. adverse (= contrary, unfavorable); 2. opposite (= placed opposite)</P> <LI> <P><B>adversitate</B> <I>n</I> adversity</P> <LI> <P><B>[adverso]</B> <I>adv/prep</I> 1. towards; 2. against; 3. opposite</P> <LI> <P>advertente 1. ppr of adverter; 2. <I>adj</I> advertent, attentive</P> <LI> <P><B>advertentia</B> <I>n</I> advertence, advertency</P> <LI> <P><B>adverter [-vert-/-vers-]</B> <I>v</I> to advert, have reference (to) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> advertente-advertentia, inadvertente-inadvertentia; adverse-adversario, adversitate; adversar-adversative; animadverter etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>advertimento</B> <I>n</I> notice, warning</P> <LI> <P><B>advertir</B> <I>v</I> to advise, give notice <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> advertimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>advocar</B> <I>v</I> to call, summon; to call to one's aid <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> advocato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>advocato</B> <I>n</I> advocate (1. [Law; 2. champion, supporter)</P> <LI> <P><B>adyname (-&iacute;name)</B> <I>adj</I> weak, without strength <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> adynamia-adynamic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>adynamia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] adynamia</P> <LI> <P><B>adynamic</B> <I>adj</I> [Med.] adynamic</P> <LI> <P><B>aer</B> <I>n</I> air (1. &quot;atmospheric air&quot;; 2. appearance; 3. melody); <BR> <B>esser in le aer</B> to be up in the air; <BR> <B>facer castellos in le aer</B> to build castles in the air; <BR> <B>prender le aer</B> to take an airing; <BR> <B>dar se aeres</B> to give oneself airs; <BR> <B>parlar in le aer</B> to talk at random; <BR> <B>haber le aer de (facer un cosa)</B> to appear to be (doing something); <BR> <B>haber le aer (triste)</B> to look (sad); <BR> <B>aere libre</B> open air <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aeree-antiaeree; aerifere; aerar-aerage, aeration; aerificar-aerification; aerodromo etc.; aerologia etc.; aeroplano etc.; aerobie etc.; aeriforme etc.; aerodynamic etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aerage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> aeration, airing</P> <LI> <P><B>aerar</B> <I>v</I> to air (= to expose to the open air)</P> <LI> <P><B>aeration</B> <I>n</I> aeration, airing; <I>also:</I> [Chem.]</P> <LI> <P><B>aeree</B> <I>adj</I> air (= airy, aerial); <BR> <B>via aeree</B> [Aeronaut.] airway; <BR> <B>posta aeree</B> air mail; <BR> <B>vias aeree</B> [Anat.] air-passages</P> <LI> <P><B>aerifere</B> <I>adj</I> aeriferous</P> <LI> <P><B>aerificar</B> <I>v</I> to aerify (= to change to an aeriform state)</P> <LI> <P><B>aerification</B> <I>n</I> aerification</P> <LI> <P><B>aeri&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> aeriform</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;bie</B> <I>adj</I> [Biol.] aerobic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anaerobie-anaerobio; aerobio</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aerobio</B> <I>n</I> [Biol.] aerobe</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;dromo (&oacute;dromo)</B> <I>n</I> aerodrome; <I>also:</I> airfield</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;dynamic</B> <I>adj</I> aerodynamic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aerodynamica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aerodynamica</B> <I>n</I> aerodynamics</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;graphia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> aerography</P> <LI> <P><B>aerolitic</B> <I>adj</I> aerolitic</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;litho (-&oacute;lito)</B> <I>n</I> aerolite <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aerolithic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aero&middot;logia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> aerology</P> <LI> <P><B>aerometria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> aerometry</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;metro (-&oacute;metro)</B> <I>n</I> aerometer <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aerometria</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aero&middot;nauta</B> <I>n</I> aeronaut, airman <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aeronautic; aeronautica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aeronautic</B> <I>adj</I> aeronautic(al)</P> <LI> <P><B>aeronautica</B> <I>n</I> aeronautics</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;nave</B> <I>n</I> airship; <BR> <B>aeronaves</B> aircraft</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;plano</B> <I>n</I> airplane <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> hydroaeroplano etc.; portaaeroplanos etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aero&middot;porto</B> <I>n</I> airport</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;static</B> <I>adj</I> aerostatic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aerostatica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aerostatica</B> <I>n</I> aerostatics</P> <LI> <P><B>aerostation</B> <I>n</I> aerostation</P> <LI> <P><B>aero&middot;stato (-&oacute;stato)</B> <I>n</I> [Aeronaut.] aerostat <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aerostation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affabile</B> <I>adj</I> affable <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affabilitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affabilitate</B> <I>n</I> affability</P> <LI> <P><B>affaire [F]</B> <I>n</I> affair (1. concern; 2. event); <BR> <B>affaires</B> affairs, business</P> <LI> <P><B>affamar</B> <I>v</I> to starve, famish (= to cause to starve or famish) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affamator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affamator</B> <I>n</I> starver (as in &quot;starver of the people&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>affect-</B> <I>see</I> <B>afficer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>affectabile</B> <I>adj</I> impressionable</P> <LI> <P><B>affectar&sup1;</B> <I>v</I> to affect (= to have an affection for)</P> <LI> <P><B>affectar&sup2;</B> <I>v</I> to affect (to pretend, feign) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affectation; affectate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affectate</B> <I>adj</I> affected (= full of affectation)</P> <LI> <P><B>affectation</B> <I>n</I> affectation (= artificiality of manner)</P> <LI> <P><B>affectibile</B> <I>adj</I> impressionable</P> <LI> <P><B>affectibilitate</B> <I>n</I> impressionability</P> <LI> <P><B>affection</B> <I>n</I> affection (1. the fact or state of being affected or acted upon); 2. fondness; 3. [Pathol.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affectionar-affectionate; disaffection-disaffectionar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affectionar</B> <I>v</I> to be fond of</P> <LI> <P><B>affectionate</B> 1. pp of <B>affectionar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> affectionate</P> <LI> <P><B>affective</B> <I>adj</I> affective, emotional</P> <LI> <P><B>affecto</B> <I>n</I> affection, fondness</P> <LI> <P><B>affectuose</B> <I>adj</I> loving, affectionate</P> <LI> <P><B>afficer [-fic-/-fect-]</B> <I>v</I> to affect (= to have an effect on) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affectibile-affectibilitate; affection &amp;; affective; affecto-affectuose, affectar&sup1;-affectabile; affectar&sup2; &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affidavit (-&aacute;vit)</B> <I>n</I> affidavit (= written statement made on oath)</P> <LI> <P><B>affiger [-fig-/-fix-]</B> <I>v</I> to affix, fasten <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affixo-affixar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affilar</B> <I>v</I> to whet, sharpen <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affilatoria</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affilatoria</B> <I>n</I> sharpener, sharpening machine</P> <LI> <P><B>affiliar</B> <I>v</I> to affiliate (= to receive or connect as member, branch, etc.); <BR> <B>affiliar se con</B> to affiliate with, join <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affiliation; affiliate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affiliate</B> 1. pp of <B>affiliar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> affiliate, affiliated</P> <LI> <P><B>affiliation</B> <I>n</I> affiliation (with a society, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>affin</B> <I>adj</I> 1. resembling, like; 2. related by marriage; <BR> <B>(patre, matre, etc.) affin</B> (father-, mother-, etc.) in-law <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affinitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affinamento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) refining, improving; <I>also:</I> [Metal.]</P> <LI> <P><B>affinar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to refine, improve; <I>also:</I> [Metal.] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affinamento; affinator; raffinar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affinator</B> <I>n</I> refiner (of metals)</P> <LI> <P><B>affinitate</B> <I>n</I> affinity (1. relationship by marriage; 2. resemblance, likeness; 3. attraction)</P> <LI> <P><B>affirmabile</B> <I>adj</I> affirmable</P> <LI> <P><B>affirmar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to strengthen, make firm; 2. to affirm, assert <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affirmabile; affirmation; affirmative-affirmativa; affirmator; reaffirmar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affirmation</B> <I>n</I> affirmation (1. assertion; 2. affirmative proposition)</P> <LI> <P><B>affirmativa</B> <I>n</I> affirmative (= affirmative statement, reply, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>affirmative</B> <I>adj</I> affirmative; <BR> <B>responder affirmativemente</B> to answer in the affirmative</P> <LI> <P><B>affirmator</B> <I>n</I> affirmer</P> <LI> <P><B>affix-</B> <I>see</I> <B>affiger</B></P> <LI> <P><B>affixar</B> <I>v</I> to affix, fasten</P> <LI> <P><B>affixo</B> <I>n</I> [Gram.] affix</P> <LI> <P><B>afflict-</B> <I>see</I> <B>affliger</B></P> <LI> <P><B>affliction</B> <I>n</I> affliction, distress</P> <LI> <P><B>afflictive</B> <I>adj</I> giving pain, distressing; <BR> <B>pena afflictive</B> corporal punishment</P> <LI> <P><B>affliger [-flig-/-flict-]</B> <I>v</I> to afflict; <BR> <B>affliger se</B> to be grieved <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affliction; afflictive</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affloramento</B> <I>n</I> [Geol.] outcrop</P> <LI> <P><B>afflorar</B> <I>v</I> [Geol.] to outcrop <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affloramento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affluente</B> I. ppr of <B>affluer</B>; II. <I>adj</I> 1. tributary (as in &quot;tributary stream&quot;); 2. affluent, opulent</P> <LI> <P><B>affluente</B> <I>n</I> tributary (stream), affluent</P> <LI> <P><B>affluentia</B> <I>n</I> affluence (1. concourse, flowing towards; 2. as in &quot;affluence of people&quot;; 3. profusion, opulence)</P> <LI> <P><B>affluer [-flu-/-flux-]</B> <I>v</I> 1. to flow (into); 2. to crowd, flock, throng (to a place) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affluente-affluentia; affluxo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>afflux-</B> <I>see</I> <B>affluer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>affluxo</B> <I>n</I> afflux</P> <LI> <P><B>affollamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. madness; 2. panic, terror</P> <LI> <P><B>affollar</B> <I>v</I> to madden, drive mad; <BR> <B>affollar se</B> to go mad; <I>also:</I> to lose control of oneself, grow panicky <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affollamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affrontamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (act of) affronting, insulting; 2. open defiance</P> <LI> <P><B>affrontar</B> <I>v</I> to affront (1. to insult to the face; 2. to face in defiance) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> affronto; affrontamento; affrontator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>affrontator</B> <I>n</I> affronter, insulter</P> <LI> <P><B>affronto</B> <I>n</I> affront</P> <LI> <P><B>affusar</B> <I>v</I> to spindle, give a spindle shape to (as in &quot;to spindle a column, etc.&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>Africa (&aacute;-)</B> <I>npr</I> Africa <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> african-africano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>african</B> <I>adj</I> African</P> <LI> <P><B>africano</B> <I>n</I> African</P> <LI> <P><B>agar-agar [Mal.]</B> <I>n</I> agar-agar</P> <LI> <P><B>agata (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> agate (= the stone agate) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agatifere; agatin; agatiforme etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agatifere</B> <I>adj</I> agatiferous</P> <LI> <P><B>agati&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> agatiform</P> <LI> <P><B>agatin</B> <I>adj</I> agate, agatine</P> <LI> <P><B>-age (-aje)</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with nouns and verbs; <B>-agi-</B> before <B>-a-</B> and <B>-o-</B> of additional suffix] -age (1. collection of ...; 2. action or process of -ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> foliage etc.; acierage etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agenda</B> <I>n</I> agenda (= memorandum book)</P> <LI> <P><B>agente</B> <I>n</I> agent (1. active power; 2. one who acts for another); <BR> <B>agente (de cambio)</B> (stock)broker</P> <LI> <P><B>agentia</B> <I>n</I> agency (as in &quot;news agency, real estate agency, etc.&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>ager [ag-/act-; -ig-/-act-]</B> <I>v</I> to act (= to be doing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agenda: agente-agentia; agitar &amp;: agibile; action-actionero, actionista, actionar-actionabile, inaction; active-activate, activar-activation, activo, inactive-inactivitate, radioactive etc.; actor; actrice; acto-actuario-actuariato, actuarial, actual-actualitate, actualisar-actualisation, actuar-actuation, interacto; coager &amp;; reager &amp;; retroager-retroaction, retroactive-retroactivitate; transiger &amp;; ligitar etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agglomerar</B> <I>v</I> to agglomerate (= to gather or heap together) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agglomeration; aglomerato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agglomeration</B> <I>n</I> agglomeration</P> <LI> <P><B>agglomerato</B> <I>n</I> agglomerate</P> <LI> <P><B>agglutinante</B> 1. ppr of <B>agglutinar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> agglutinant, agglutinative; <BR> <B>linguas agglutinante</B> agglutinative languages</P> <LI> <P><B>agglutinar</B> <I>v</I> to stick or glue together, agglutinate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aglutinante; agglutination; agglutinative</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agglutination</B> <I>n</I> agglutination</P> <LI> <P><B>agglutinative</B> <I>adj</I> agglutinative, agglutinating</P> <LI> <P><B>aggrandimento</B> <I>n</I> 1. enlargement; 2. aggrandizement</P> <LI> <P><B>aggrandir</B> <I>v</I> 1. to make greater, enlarge; <I>also:</I> to magnify; 2. to aggrandize (= to increase the power, wealth, or rank, of) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aggrandimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aggravamento</B> <I>n</I> aggravation</P> <LI> <P><B>aggravar</B> <I>v</I> to aggravate (= to make worse); aggravar se to grow worse or more serious <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aggravamento; aggravation; aggravator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aggravation</B> <I>n</I> aggravation (= act of aggravating, or state of being aggravated)</P> <LI> <P><B>aggravator</B> <I>n</I> aggravator</P> <LI> <P><B>aggreder [-gred-/-gress-]</B> <I>v</I> to assail, attack <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aggression; aggressive; aggressor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aggregar</B> <I>v</I> to aggregate (= to collect or unite into a mass or sum) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aggregation; aggregative; aggregato; disaggregar-disaggregation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aggregation</B> <I>n</I> aggregation</P> <LI> <P><B>aggregative</B> <I>adj</I> aggregative</P> <LI> <P><B>aggregato</B> <I>n</I> aggregate</P> <LI> <P><B>aggress-</B> <I>see</I> <B>aggreder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aggression</B> <I>n</I> aggression</P> <LI> <P><B>aggressive</B> <I>adj</I> aggressive</P> <LI> <P><B>aggressor</B> <I>n</I> aggressor</P> <LI> <P><B>aggruppamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (act of) grouping; 2. group</P> <LI> <P><B>aggruppar</B> <I>v</I> to group</P> <LI> <P><B>-agi-</B> <I>see</I> <B>-age</B></P> <LI> <P><B>agibile</B> <I>adj</I> 1. feasible; 2. manageable</P> <LI> <P><B>agile</B> <I>adj</I> agile; nimble <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agilitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agilitate</B> <I>n</I> agility; nimbleness</P> <LI> <P><B>agio (ajo)</B> <I>n</I> [Com.] agio, exchange premium <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agiotar-agiotage, agiotator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agiotage (ajotaje)</B> <I>n</I> agiotage, exchange business, stockbroking</P> <LI> <P><B>agiotar (aj-)</B> <I>v</I> to speculate (on the stock exchange)</P> <LI> <P><B>agiotator (aj-)</B> <I>n</I> speculator (on the stock exchange)</P> <LI> <P><B>agitar</B> <I>v</I> I. to agitate (1. to move or shake violently; to stir; 2. to perturb, excite); II. to debate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agitation; agitator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agitation</B> <I>n</I> agitation (1. violent moving or shaking; 2. disturbance, excitement)</P> <LI> <P><B>agitator</B> <I>n</I> agitator (1. [Pol.]; 2. apparatus for shaking or mixing; <I>also:</I> stirring rod, mixer)</P> <LI> <P><B>agno</B> <I>n</I> lamb</P> <LI> <P><B>agnostic</B> <I>adj</I> agnostic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agnosticismo; agnostico</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agnosticismo</B> <I>n</I> agnosticism</P> <LI> <P><B>agnostico</B> <I>n</I> agnostic</P> <LI> <P><B>-agog-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in compounds] -agogue (1. ]eading; 2. drawing forth) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> sialagoge etc.; hypnagogic etc.; demagogo etc.; pedagogo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agon</B> <I>n</I> [Gr. Antiq.] agon <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agonia; agonisar-agonista-protagonista etc., agonistic, agonisante, antagonisar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agonia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> agony (1. death struggle; 2. extreme pain of mind)</P> <LI> <P><B>agonisante</B> 1. ppr of <B>agonisar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> on the point of death</P> <LI> <P><B>agonisar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to be on the point of death; 2. to agonize, suffer mental anguish</P> <LI> <P><B>agonista</B> <I>n</I> [Gr. Antiq.] agonist</P> <LI> <P><B>agonistic</B> <I>adj</I> [Gr. Antiq.] agonistic</P> <LI> <P><B>agora (&aacute;gora)</B> <I>n</I> [Gr. Hist.] agora <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agoraphobe etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agora&middot;phobe (-&aacute;phobe)</B> <I>adj</I> agoraphobic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agoraphobia; agoraphobo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agoraphobia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Psychopathol.] agoraphobia</P> <LI> <P><B>agoraphobo (-&aacute;phobo)</B> <I>n</I> [Pychopathol.] agoraphobe</P> <LI> <P><B>-agra</B> [occurring in compounds] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> podagra etc. ...</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agradabile</B> <I>adj</I> agreeable, pleasing</P> <LI> <P><B>agradamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. pleasure; 2. agreeableness, pleasantness</P> <LI> <P><B>agradar</B> <I>v</I> -; <BR> <B>agradar a</B> to please</P> <LI> <P><B>agrari</B> <I>adj</I> agrarian; <I>also:</I> farm, field (as in &quot;farm or field laborer&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>agreste</B> <I>adj</I> rustic (1. rural; 2. awkward, uncouth)</P> <LI> <P><B>agri&middot;cola (-&iacute;cola)</B> <I>n</I> agriculturalist</P> <LI> <P><B>agri&middot;cole</B> <I>adj</I> agricultural</P> <LI> <P><B>agri&middot;cultor</B> <I>n</I> agriculturist; <I>also:</I> farmer, husbandman, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>agri&middot;cultura</B> <I>n</I> agriculture, farming</P> <LI> <P><B>agri&middot;mensor</B> <I>n</I> surveyor (= one who surveys lands, highways, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>agri&middot;mensura</B> <I>n</I> 1. surveying; 2. [Topog.] survey</P> <LI> <P><B>agro</B> <I>n</I> field (= arable land) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agrari; agreste; agricola etc.: agricole etc.; agricultura etc.; agronomo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agronomia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> agronomy, agronomics</P> <LI> <P><B>agronomic</B> <I>adj</I> agronomic, agricultural</P> <LI> <P><B>agro&middot;nomo (-r&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> agronomist <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agronomia, agronomic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aguerrimento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) inuring to war</P> <LI> <P><B>aguerrir</B> <I>v</I> to inure to war <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aguerrimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>agulia</B> <I>n</I> needle; <I>also:</I> gramophone needle; <BR> <B>agulia magnetic</B> magnetic needle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aguliata; agulietta</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aguliata</B> <I>n</I> needleful (of thread, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>agulietta</B> <I>n</I> aglet, aiguillette</P> <LI> <P><B>aigrette [F]</B> <I>n</I> aigrette</P> <LI> <P><B>aira</B> <I>n</I> threshing floor</P> <LI> <P><B>ajornamento</B> <I>n</I> adjournment, postponement</P> <LI> <P><B>ajornar</B> <I>v</I> to adjourn, postpone <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ajornamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-al</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with nouns] -al (= pertaining to ..., characteristic of ..., etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> natural etc.; conversational etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>al-</B> <I>see</I> <B>alcohol</B>, <B>aldehydo</B>, or <B>aluminium</B></P> <LI> <P><B>al-</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alimento &amp;; alibile &amp;; coal- &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-al-</B> [occurring in compounds] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> nyctalopia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ala</B> <I>n</I> wing (1. &quot;wing of a bird, airplane etc.&quot;; 2. part of a building) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aletta; alate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>&agrave; la [F]</B> &agrave; la (as in &quot;&agrave; la Newburgh&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>alabastrin</B> <I>adj</I> alabastrine, alabaster</P> <LI> <P><B>alabastrite</B> <I>n</I> alabaster (= Oriental alabaster)</P> <LI> <P><B>alabastro</B> <I>n</I> alabaster (as in &quot;gypseous alabaster&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alabastrite; alabastrin</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>&agrave; la carte [F]</B> &agrave; la carte</P> <LI> <P><B>alacre (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>adj</I> eager, brisk, alacritous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alacritate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alacritate</B> <I>n</I> eagerness, briskness, alacrity</P> <LI> <P><B>alarma</B> <I>n</I> alarm (1. call to arms; 2. fright) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alarmista; alarmar-alarmante</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alarmante</B> 1. ppr of <B>alarmar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> alarming</P> <LI> <P><B>alarmar</B> <I>v</I> to alarm (1. to call to arms; 2. to startle)</P> <LI> <P><B>alarmista</B> <I>n</I> alarmist</P> <LI> <P><B>alate</B> <I>adj</I> winged</P> <LI> <P><B>alauda</B> <I>see</I> <B>aloda</B></P> <LI> <P><B>alba</B> <I>n</I> 1. dawn, break of day; 2. [Eccl.] alb</P> <LI> <P><B>alban-</B> <I>see</I> <B>Albania</B></P> <LI> <P><B>albanese</B> <I>adj/n</I> Albanian</P> <LI> <P><B>Albania</B> <I>npr</I> Albania <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> albanese</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>albatros</B> <I>n</I> [Ornith.] albatross</P> <LI> <P><B>albe</B> <I>adj</I> white (= of the color white) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> albin &amp;; albumine &amp;; albiflor etc.; alba</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>albergar</B> <I>v</I> to shelter, lodge</P> <LI> <P><B>albergero</B> <I>n</I> innkeeper</P> <LI> <P><B>albergo</B> <I>n</I> 1. shelter, lodging; 2. inn; <BR> <B>albergo de juventute</B> youth hostel <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> albergero; albergar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>albi&middot;flor</B> <I>adj</I> white-flowered, albiflorous</P> <LI> <P><B>albin</B> <I>adj</I> albino <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> albinismo; albino</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>albinismo</B> <I>n</I> albinism</P> <LI> <P><B>albino</B> <I>n</I> albino</P> <LI> <P><B>albricoc</B> <I>n</I> apricot <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> albricochiero</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>albricoch-</B> <I>see</I> <B>albricoc</B></P> <LI> <P><B>albricochiero</B> <I>n</I> apricot tree</P> <LI> <P><B>album (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>n</I> album</P> <LI> <P><B>albumina (-&uacute;mina)</B> <I>n</I> [Biochem.] albumin</P> <LI> <P><B>albumine</B> <I>n</I> albumen (1. white of an egg 2. [Bot.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> albuminoide; albuminose; albuminuria etc.; albumina</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>albuminoide</B> <I>adj</I> albuminoid, albuminoidal</P> <LI> <P><B>albuminoide</B> <I>n</I> [Biochem.] albuminoid</P> <LI> <P><B>albuminose</B> <I>adj</I> albuminous, albuminose</P> <LI> <P><B>albumin&middot;uria</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] albuminuria</P> <LI> <P><B>[al(c)-]</B> [occurring in compounds] some-, any- (= <B>ali(c)-</B>) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alco; alcun etc.; alcuno etc.; alquando etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alca</B> <I>n</I> [Ornith.] auk</P> <LI> <P><B>alcal-</B> <I>see</I> <B>alcali</B></P> <LI> <P><B>alcalde [H]</B> <I>n</I> alcalde (= mayor of a Spanish town, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>alcali (&aacute;l-)</B> [Chem.] alkali; <BR> <B>alcali volatile</B> ammonia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alcalin-alcalinitate, alcalino; alcaloide; alcalisar-alcalisation; alcalimetro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alcali&middot;metro (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> alkalimeter</P> <LI> <P><B>alcalin</B> <I>adj</I> alkaline</P> <LI> <P><B>alcalinitate</B> <I>n</I> alkalinity</P> <LI> <P><B>alcalino</B> <I>n</I> alkaline</P> <LI> <P><B>alcalisar</B> <I>v</I> to alkalize</P> <LI> <P><B>alcalisation</B> <I>n</I> alkalization</P> <LI> <P><B>alcaloide</B> <I>n</I> alkaloid</P> <LI> <P><B>alce</B> <I>n</I> [Zool.] elk</P> <LI> <P><B>alchimia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> alchemy Hencc: alchimista; alchimic</P> <LI> <P><B>alchimic</B> <I>adj</I> alchemical</P> <LI> <P><B>alchimista</B> <I>n</I> alchemist</P> <LI> <P><B>[alco]</B> <I>pron</I> something, anything; adv somewhat (= alique)</P> <LI> <P><B>alcohol [NL]</B> <I>n</I> alcohol <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alcoholismo; alcoholic-alcoholico; alcoholisar-alcoholisation; chloral etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alcoholic</B> <I>adj</I> alcoholic</P> <LI> <P><B>alcoholico</B> <I>n</I> alcoholic</P> <LI> <P><B>alcoholisar</B> <I>v</I> to alcoholize</P> <LI> <P><B>alcoholisation</B> <I>n</I> alcoholization</P> <LI> <P><B>alcoholismo</B> <I>n</I> alcoholism</P> <LI> <P><B>alcova</B> <I>n</I> alcove (= recessed portion of a room)</P> <LI> <P><B>[alc&middot;un]</B> <I>adj</I> some, any; <I>also:</I> a few (= alicun)</P> <LI> <P><B>[alc&middot;uno]</B> <I>indef pron</I> someone, anyone (= alicuno)</P> <LI> <P><B>ale [A]</B> <I>n</I> ale</P> <LI> <P><B>alerta</B> <I>n</I> [Mil.] alert <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alerte</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alerte</B> <I>adj</I> alert (= vigilant)</P> <LI> <P><B>aletta</B> <I>n</I> 1. small wing, winglet; 2. (small) wingshaped appendage (= flange, rib, fin, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>aleut</B> <I>n</I> Aleut <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aleutic; Aleutas</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Aleutas</B> <I>nprpl</I> Aleutians</P> <LI> <P><B>aleutic</B> <I>adj</I> Aleutian; <BR> <B>Insulas Aleutic</B> Aleutian Islands</P> <LI> <P><B>Alexandra</B> <I>nprf</I> Alexandra</P> <LI> <P><B>Alecandria</B> <I>npr</I> Alexandria</P> <LI> <P><B>alexandrian</B> <I>adj</I> Alexandrian (= of Alexandria)</P> <LI> <P><B>alexandrin</B> <I>adj</I> I. Alexandrian (1. of Alexandria; 2. of Alexander the Great); II. [Pros.] Alexandrine</P> <LI> <P><B>alexandrino</B> <I>n</I> [Pros.] Alexandrine</P> <LI> <P><B>Alexandro</B> <I>nprm</I> Alexander <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Alexandria-alexandrian, alexandrin-alexandrino; Alexandra</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alga</B> <I>n</I> alga</P> <LI> <P><B>algebra (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>n</I> algebra <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> algebrista; algebric</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>algebric</B> <I>adj</I> algebraic, algebraical</P> <LI> <P><B>algebrista</B> <I>n</I> algebrist</P> <LI> <P><B>Alger</B> <I>npr</I> 1. Alger; 2. Algiers <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Algeria-algerian-algeriano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Algeria</B> <I>npr</I> Algeria</P> <LI> <P><B>algerian</B> <I>adj</I> Algerian, Algerine</P> <LI> <P><B>algeriano</B> <I>n</I> Algerian</P> <LI> <P><B>algesia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] algesia (= sensitivity to pain) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> analgesia-analgesic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-algia (-&iacute;a)</B> [occurring in compounds] -algia (= pain)</P> <LI> <P><B>algo</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] algo-, alg- (= pain) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> algia-analgia-analgic, neuralgia etc.; nostalgia etc.; algometro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>algometria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Psychol.] algometry (= measurement of sensitivity to pain)</P> <LI> <P><B>algometric</B> <I>adj</I> [Psychol.] algometric</P> <LI> <P><B>algo&middot;metro (-&oacute;netro)</B> <I>n</I> [Psychol.] algometer <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alometria; algometric</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[alia] [L]</B> <I>npl</I> other things; <BR> <B>inter alia</B> inter alia, among other things</P> <LI> <P><B>-alia</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with nouns] (= worthless collection of ...s) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ferralia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alias (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>adv</I> 1. otherwise (= in another manner); 2. alias; 3. at another time</P> <LI> <P><B>alibi (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>adv</I> elsewhere</P> <LI> <P><B>alibi (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>n</I> alibi</P> <LI> <P><B>alibile</B> <I>adj</I> nutritive, nourishing, alible <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alibilitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alibilitate</B> <I>n</I> alibility</P> <LI> <P><B>ali(c)-</B> [occurring in compounds] any-, some- <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alique etc.; aliquando etc.; alicubi etc.; alicun etc.; [aliquid] etc.; [aliqua] etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alic&middot;ubi (-&iacute;cubi)</B> <I>adv</I> 1. somewhere; 2. anywhere as in (&quot;did you see him anywhere?&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>alic&middot;un</B> <I>adj</I> some, any; <I>also:</I> a few; <BR> <B>alicun cosa</B> something, anything <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alicuno</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alicuno</B> <I>indef pron</I> someone, somebody; anyone, anybody</P> <LI> <P><B>[alie]</B> <I>adj</I> other</P> <LI> <P><B>alien</B> <I>adj</I> alien (= differing in nature) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alienismo; alienista; alienar-alienabile-alienabilitate, inalienabile-inalienabilitate, alienation, alienator, alienate-alienatario</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alienabile</B> <I>adj</I> alienable</P> <LI> <P><B>alienabilitate</B> <I>n</I> alienability</P> <LI> <P><B>alienar</B> <I>v</I> to alienate (1. to transfer ownership of; 2. to estrange)</P> <LI> <P><B>alienatario</B> <I>n</I> alienee</P> <LI> <P><B>alienate</B> 1. pp of <B>alienar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> insane</P> <LI> <P><B>alienation</B> <I>n</I> alienation (1. transfer of ownership to another; 2. estrangement; 3. insanity)</P> <LI> <P><B>alienator</B> <I>n</I> alienator</P> <LI> <P><B>alienismo</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] alienism</P> <LI> <P><B>alienista</B> <I>n</I> alienist</P> <LI> <P><B>alimentar</B> <I>v</I> to feed</P> <LI> <P><B>alimentari</B> <I>adj</I> alimentary</P> <LI> <P><B>alimentation</B> <I>n</I> nourishment, alimentation</P> <LI> <P><B>alimentator</B> <I>n</I> feeder, alimenter</P> <LI> <P><B>alimento</B> <I>n</I> food; <BR> <B>alimentos</B> allowance; specif.: alimony <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alimentari; alimentose; alimentar-alimentation, alimentator, subalimentar-subalimentation, superalimentar-superalimentation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alimentose</B> <I>adj</I> nutritious</P> <LI> <P><B>alineamento</B> <I>n</I> alignment (= action of aligning)</P> <LI> <P><B>alinear</B> <I>v</I> to align (= to range or place in a line) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alineamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[ali&middot;qua] (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>adv</I> 1. somewhere; 2. somehow</P> <LI> <P><B>ali&middot;quando</B> <I>adv</I> at some time or other,;at any time; sometime; in future time</P> <LI> <P><B>ali&middot;quanto</B> <I>adv</I> somewhat, to some degree</P> <LI> <P><B>ali&middot;que (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>pron</I> something, anything; <I>adv</I> somewhat</P> <LI> <P><B>[ali&middot;quid] (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>pron</I> something</P> <LI> <P><B>[aliquot] (&aacute;l-)</B> <I>adj/indef pron</I> some, several, a few</P> <LI> <P><B>alizari</B> <I>n</I> madder root <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alizarina</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alizarina</B> <I>n</I> alizarin, madder root</P> <LI> <P><B>all-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in compounds] allo-, all- (= other) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allotrope etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allactamento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) suckling, nursing</P> <LI> <P><B>allactar</B> <I>v</I> to suckle, nurse <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allactamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allargamento</B> <I>n</I> widening, broadening</P> <LI> <P><B>allargar</B> <I>v</I> to widen (= to make broad(er))</P> <LI> <P><B>allectar</B> <I>v</I> to lay up (through illness) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allectate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allectate</B> 1. pp of <B>allectar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> bedridden</P> <LI> <P><B>all&eacute;e [F]</B> <I>n</I> avenue, walk, alley</P> <LI> <P><B>allegar</B> <I>v</I> to allege (= to bring forward as an argument or excuse) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allegation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allegation</B> <I>n</I> [Law] allegation</P> <LI> <P><B>allegoria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> allegory <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allegorista; allegoric; allegorisar-allegorisation, allegorisator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allegoric</B> <I>adj</I> allegoric, allegorical</P> <LI> <P><B>allegorisar</B> <I>v</I> to allegorize</P> <LI> <P><B>allegorisaion</B> <I>n</I> allegorization</P> <LI> <P><B>allegorisator</B> <I>n</I> allegorizer</P> <LI> <P><B>allegorista</B> <I>n</I> allegorist</P> <LI> <P><B>allegrar</B> <I>v</I> to cheer up, brighten up (= to make gay or cheerful); <BR> <B>allegrar se</B> to rejoice</P> <LI> <P><B>allegre</B> <I>adj</I> gay, sprightly; merry; cheerful <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allegressa; allegrar; allegro-allegretto</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allegressa</B> <I>n</I> gayness, sprightliness; merriness; cheerfulness</P> <LI> <P><B>allegretto</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] allegretto</P> <LI> <P><B>allegro</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] allegro</P> <LI> <P><B>alleluia (-&uacute;ya)</B> alleluia, hallelujah</P> <LI> <P><B>allergia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] allergy <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allergic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allergic</B> <I>adj</I> [Pathol.] allergic</P> <LI> <P><B>allerta</B> <I>n</I> alert, alarm</P> <LI> <P><B>allertar</B> <I>v</I> to give the alarm to, alarm</P> <LI> <P><B>allerte</B> <I>adj</I> alert, watchful <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allerta-allertar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alleviar</B> <I>v</I> to lighten (= to make less heavy); <I>also:</I> to alleviate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alleviation; alleviator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alleviation</B> <I>n</I> lightening (= making less heavy); <I>also:</I> alleviation</P> <LI> <P><B>alleviator</B> <I>n</I> lightener; <I>also:</I> alleviator</P> <LI> <P><B>alliantia</B> <I>n</I> alliance; <BR> <B>le arca del alliantia</B> the Ark of the Covenant</P> <LI> <P><B>alliar</B> <I>v</I> to ally; <BR> <B>alliar se</B> to form an alliance <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alliantia; alliato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alliato</B> <I>n</I> ally</P> <LI> <P><B>alligar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to bind, attach (to); 2. to alloy (as in &quot;to alloy silver with copper&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alligato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alligato</B> <I>n</I> alloy</P> <LI> <P><B>alligator [A]</B> <I>n</I> alligator</P> <LI> <P><B>allio</B> <I>n</I> garlic</P> <LI> <P><B>alliterar</B> <I>v</I> to alliterate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alliteration</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alliteration</B> <I>n</I> alliteration</P> <LI> <P><B>allitter-</B> <I>see</I> <B>alliter-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>allocut-</B> <I>see</I> <B>alloquer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>allocution</B> <I>n</I> allocution</P> <LI> <P><B>allongamento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) lengthening</P> <LI> <P><B>allongar</B> <I>v</I> to lengthen (= to make longer); <BR> <B>allongar (le bracio)</B> to stretch out (one's arm) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><FONT SIZE="2">Hence; allongamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allo&middot;pathe (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> allopath</P> <LI> <P><B>allo&middot;pathia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> allopathy</P> <LI> <P><B>alloquer [-loqu-/-locut-]</B> <I>v</I> to pronounce an allocution <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allocution</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allo&middot;trope (-&oacute;trope)</B> <I>adj</I> 1. [Chem.] allotropic; 2. [Zoo.] allotropous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allotropia; allotropic; allotropo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allotropia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] allotropy</P> <LI> <P><B>allotropic</B> <I>adj</I> [Chem.] allotropic</P> <LI> <P><B>allotropo (-&oacute;tropo)</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] allotrope</P> <LI> <P><B>all right [A]</B> all right</P> <LI> <P><B>allu-</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alluvion; alluvial</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alluder [-lud-/-lus-]</B> <I>v</I> to allude <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> allusion; allusive</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>allus-</B> <I>see</I> <B>alluder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>allusion</B> <I>n</I> allusion; <BR> <B>facer allusion a</B> to allude to</P> <LI> <P><B>allusive</B> <I>adj</I> allusive; alluding</P> <LI> <P><B>alluv-</B> <I>see</I> <B>allu-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>alluvial</B> <I>adj</I> alluvial</P> <LI> <P><B>alluvion</B> <I>n</I> 1. inundation; alluvion; 2. alluvium</P> <LI> <P><B>alma mater [L]</B> alma mater</P> <LI> <P><B>almanac</B> <I>n</I> almanac</P> <LI> <P><B>almosna</B> <I>n</I> alms; <BR> <B>facer almosna</B> to give alms <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> almosnero; almosneria; almosniera</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>almosneria (-&iacute;a]</B> <I>n</I> almonry</P> <LI> <P><B>almosnero</B> <I>n</I> almoner; almsgiver</P> <LI> <P><B>almosniera</B> <I>n</I> alms purse, alms bag</P> <LI> <P><B>aloda(?)</B> <I>n</I> lark (= singing bird of the family Alaudidae)</P> <LI> <P><B>[alora]</B> <I>adv</I> then (1. at that time; 2. in that case, consequently)</P> <LI> <P><B>Alpes</B> <I>nprpl</I> Alps <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alpestre; alpin-alpinismo, alpinista, cisalpin, transalpin-transalpino</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alpestre</B> <I>adj</I> Alpine, Alpestrine</P> <LI> <P><B>alpha</B> <I>n</I> alpha (= the first letter of the Greek alphabet); <BR> <B>alpha e omega</B> alpha and omega; <BR> <B>particula alpha</B> alpha particle; <BR> <B>radio alpha</B> alpha ray <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alphabeto etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alphabetic</B> <I>adj</I> alphabetical</P> <LI> <P><B>alphabetisar</B> <I>v</I> to alphabetize</P> <LI> <P><B>alphabetisation</B> <I>n</I> alphabetization</P> <LI> <P><B>alpha&middot;beto</B> <I>n</I> alphabet <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alphabetic; alphabetisar-alphabetisation; analphabete-analphabetismo, analphabeto-analphabetic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alpin</B> <I>adj</I> Alpine, alpine; <I>also:</I> [Ethnol.]</P> <LI> <P><B>alpinismo</B> <I>n</I> Alpinism; mountaineering</P> <LI> <P><B>alpinista</B> <I>n</I> Alpinist; Alpine climber</P> <LI> <P><B>[al&middot;quando]</B> <I>adv</I> at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time (= aliquando)</P> <LI> <P><B>[al&middot;quanto]</B> <I>adv</I> somewhat, to some degree (= aliquanto)</P> <LI> <P><B>Alsatia</B> <I>npr</I> Alsace <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alsatian-alsatiano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alsatian</B> <I>adj</I> Alsatian</P> <LI> <P><B>alsatiano</B> <I>n</I> Alsatian</P> <LI> <P><B>[alsi] (-&iacute;)</B> <I>adv</I> 1. also, too; 2. likewise, moreover, furthermore</P> <LI> <P><B>Altai (-&aacute;i)</B> <I>npr</I> Altai (1. Altai mountains; 2. Altai region) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> altaic-uraloaltaic etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>altaic (-&aacute;ic)</B> <I>adj</I> Altaic</P> <LI> <P><B>altar</B> <I>n</I> altar</P> <LI> <P><B>alte</B> <I>adj</I> 1. high; 2. loud; <BR> <B>in alte voce</B> aloud (1. not in a whisper; 2. loudly) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> altessa; altitude; exaltar &amp;; altiar &amp;; altimetro etc.; altisone etc.; altisonante etc.; altoparlator etc.; alto-contralto</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alterabile</B> <I>adj</I> alterable</P> <LI> <P><B>alterar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to alter (= to make different); 2. to adulterate; <BR> <B>su voce se alterava (con emotion)</B> his voice broke (with emotion)</P> <LI> <P><B>alteration</B> <I>n</I> 1. alteration; 2. adulteration (= action of adulterating)</P> <LI> <P><B>altercar</B> <I>v</I> to quarrel, wrangle, altercate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> altercation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>altercation</B> <I>n</I> altercation</P> <LI> <P><B>altere</B> <I>adj</I> other (1. additional; 2. different); <BR> <B>un altere</B> another; <BR> <B>le un le altere, le unes le alteres</B> one another, each other; <BR> <B>altere vice</B> a second time, once again, once more <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alterne &amp;; alterar-alterabile-inalterabile-inalterabilitate, alteration; altruismo; altruista; [alterubi] etc.; [unaltere] etc.; sesquialtere etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alternar</B> <I>v</I> to alternate (1. to do by turns; 2. to occur by turns)</P> <LI> <P><B>alternate</B> <I>adj</I> alternate, alternating</P> <LI> <P><B>alternation</B> <I>n</I> alternation</P> <LI> <P><B>alternativa</B> <I>n</I> 1. alternation; 2. alternative (= choice between two possible things or lines of action)</P> <LI> <P><B>alternative</B> <I>adj</I> 1. alternate, alternating; 2. alternative; <BR> <B>currente alternative</B> alternating current</P> <LI> <P><B>alterne</B> <I>adj</I> [Math., Bot.] alternate; <BR> <B>angulos alterne</B> alternate angles <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alternar-alternation, alternative-alternativa, alternate; subalterne</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[alter&middot;ubi] (-&eacute;rubi)</B> <I>adv</I> elsewhere</P> <LI> <P><B>altessa</B> <I>n</I> Highness</P> <LI> <P><B>altiamento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) raising or lifting</P> <LI> <P><B>altiar</B> <I>v</I> to raise (1. to make higher; 2. to raise the position or level of); <BR> <B>altiar le voce</B> to raise one's voice <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> altiamento; realtiar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alti&middot;metro (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> altimeter</P> <LI> <P><B>alti&middot;sonante</B> <I>adj</I> altisonant, high-sounding</P> <LI> <P><B>alti&middot;sone</B> <I>adj</I> altisonant, high-sounding</P> <LI> <P><B>altitude</B> <I>n</I> 1. altitude; 2. height; <BR> <B>al altitude del (situation, etc.)</B> equal to (the situation, etc.); <BR> <B>al altitude de (un capo, un insula, etc.)</B> off (a cape, an island, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>alto</B> <I>n</I> I. top, upper part; II. [Mus.] alto (1. contralto voice; 2. tenor violin); <BR> <B>le altos e (le) bassos</B> the ups and downs; <BR> <B>in alto</B> 1. upward(s), up; <I>also:</I> upstairs; 2. (up) on top; <I>also:</I> upstairs; <BR> <B>de alto a basso</B> 1. from the top to the bottom; 2. from top to bottom, from top to toe</P> <LI> <P><B>alto-parlator</B> <I>n</I> loud-speaker</P> <LI> <P><B>altru-</B> <I>see</I> <B>altere</B></P> <LI> <P><B>altruismo</B> <I>n</I> altruism</P> <LI> <P><B>altruista</B> <I>n</I> altruist</P> <LI> <P><B>aluminium (-&iacute;nium)</B> <I>n</I> aluminum, aluminium</P> <LI> <P><B>alveo</B> <I>n</I> trough, tub; <I>also:</I> bathtub <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> alveolo-alveolari, alveolate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>alveolari</B> <I>adj</I> 1. cell-like; honeycomb (as in &quot;honeycomb pattern&quot;); 2. [Anat.] alveolar</P> <LI> <P><B>alveolate</B> <I>adj</I> honeycombed, pitted, alveolate</P> <LI> <P><B>alveolo (-&eacute;olo)</B> <I>n</I> 1. cell (of a honeycomb); 2. socket (of a tooth)</P> <LI> <P><B>am-</B> <I>see</I> <B>ammoniaco</B></P> <LI> <P><B>amabile</B> <I>adj</I> lovable, amiable</P> <LI> <P><B>amabilitate</B> <I>n</I> amiability</P> <LI> <P><B>amalgama (-m l-)</B> <I>n</I> amalgam <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amalgamar-amalgamation, amalgamator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amalgamar</B> <I>v</I> to amalgamate (1. [Metal.]; 2. to combine, consolidate)</P> <LI> <P><B>amalgamation</B> <I>n</I> amalgamation (1. union, consolidation; 2. [Metal.])</P> <LI> <P><B>amalgamator</B> <I>n</I> amalgamator</P> <LI> <P><B>amandola (-&aacute;ndola)</B> <I>n</I> almond <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amandoliero</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amandoliero</B> <I>n</I> almond-tree</P> <LI> <P><B>amante</B> <I>n</I> lover, paramour</P> <LI> <P><B>amar&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> bitter <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amaritude; amarisar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amar&sup2;</B> <I>v</I> to love; <I>also:</I> to like, be fond of, etc. <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amante; amabile-amabilitate; amator; amatori; amate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amarage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> [Aeronaut.] action of alighting on water</P> <LI> <P><B>amarar</B> <I>v</I> [Aeronaut.] to alight on water <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amarage</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amarisar</B> <I>v</I> to make bitter; to embitter</P> <LI> <P><B>amaritude</B> <I>n</I> bitterness</P> <LI> <P><B>amassamento</B> <I>n</I> amassment</P> <LI> <P><B>amassar</B> <I>v</I> to amass <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amassamento; amassator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amassator</B> <I>n</I> amasser</P> <LI> <P><B>amate</B> 1. pp of <B>amar&sup2;</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> beloved</P> <LI> <P><B>amateur [F]</B> <I>n</I> amateur</P> <LI> <P><B>amator</B> <I>v</I> lover (= one who has a strong liking for something)</P> <LI> <P><B>amatori</B> <I>adj</I> amatory</P> <LI> <P><B>Amazon</B> <I>npr</I> Amazon (1. Gr. Mythol.]; 2. [Geog.]); <BR> <B>amazon</B> amazon, horsewoman; <I>also:</I> virago <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amazonie</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amazonie</B> <I>adj</I> Amazonian (1. pertaining to the Amazons; 2. pertaining to the Amazon river)</P> <LI> <P><B>ambass-</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambassada; ambassator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambassada</B> <I>n</I> embassy</P> <LI> <P><B>ambassator</B> <I>n</I> ambassador</P> <LI> <P><B>ambe</B> <I>adj</I> both; ambes pron. both</P> <LI> <P><B>ambidextere, ambidextre</B> <I>adj</I> ambidextrous</P> <LI> <P><B>ambiente</B> <I>adj</I> ambient, surrounding ambiente <I>n</I> environment (= all of the surrounding conditions and influences)</P> <LI> <P><B>ambigue</B> <I>adj</I> ambiguous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambiguitate; inambigue-inambiguitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambiguitate</B> <I>n</I> ambiguity (1. double or dubious meaning; 2. ambiguous expression)</P> <LI> <P><B>ambir</B> <I>v</I> 1. to go round (something), surround; 2. to go round after, solicit <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambiente; ambition &amp;; ambito</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambition</B> <I>n</I> ambition <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambitiose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambitiose</B> <I>adj</I> ambitious</P> <LI> <P><B>ambito (&aacute;m-)</B> <I>n</I> ambit, circuit, circuitous route</P> <LI> <P><B>ambivert-</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambivertito</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambivertito</B> <I>n</I> [Psychol.] ambivert</P> <LI> <P><B>ambly-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in compounds] ambly- (= dull; dim; blunt; obtuse, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amblyopia etc. ...</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambly&middot;opia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] amblyopia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amblyopic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amblyopic</B> <I>adj</I> amblyopic</P> <LI> <P><B>ambra</B> <I>n</I> 1. amber; 2. ambergris; <BR> <B>ambra grise</B> ambergris <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambrar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambrar</B> <I>v</I> to perfume with ambergris</P> <LI> <P><B>ambrosia</B> <I>n</I> ambrosia (1. food intended or fit for the gods; 2. [Bot.] wormseed)</P> <LI> <P><B>ambrosial</B> <I>adj</I> ambrosial</P> <LI> <P><B>ambrosian</B> <I>adj</I> Ambrosian; <BR> <B>canto ambrosian</B> Ambrosian chant; <BR> <B>rito ambrosian</B> Ambrosian rite</P> <LI> <P><B>ambrosie</B> <I>adj</I> ambrosial <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambrosia-ambrosial</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Ambrosio</B> <I>nprm</I> Ambrose; <BR> <B>Sancte Ambrosio</B> Saint Ambrose <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambrosian</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambulante</B> 1. ppr of <B>ambular</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> ambulant</P> <LI> <P><B>ambulantia</B> <I>n</I> ambulance (1. field hospital; 2. &quot;hospital ambulance&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>ambular</B> <I>v</I> to walk (= to go on foot) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ambulante-ambulantia; ambulatori; ambulatura; deambular-deambulation, deambulatori; preambular-preambulo; funambulo etc.; noctambule etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ambulatura</B> <I>n</I> gait, walk</P> <LI> <P><B>ameba</B> <I>n</I> [Zool.] amoeba <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amebic; ameboide; amebiforme etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amebic</B> <I>adj</I> amoebic</P> <LI> <P><B>amebi&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> amoebiform</P> <LI> <P><B>ameboide</B> <I>adj</I> amoeboid; <BR> <B>movimentos ameboide</B> [Zool., Physiol.] amoeboid movements</P> <LI> <P><B>amen [L]</B> <I>interj</I> amen</P> <LI> <P><B>-amento</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -ament, -ement, -ment (= action or result of ...ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arrangiamento etc.; commandamento etc; discoragiamento etc.; governamento etc.; ornamento etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>America</B> <I>npr</I> America; <BR> <B>America del nord</B> North America; <BR> <B>America del sud</B> South America; <BR> <B>America latin</B> Latin America <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> american-americanismo, americanisar, angloamerican etc., panamerican etc., americano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>american</B> <I>adj</I> American (1. belonging to North or South America; 2. belonging to the United States)</P> <LI> <P><B>americanisar</B> <I>v</I> to Americanize</P> <LI> <P><B>americanismo</B> <I>n</I> Americanism (1. American custom or characteristic; 2. word or phrase peculiar to American English)</P> <LI> <P><B>americano</B> <I>n</I> American (1. an inhabitant of North or South America; 2. an inhabitant of the United States)</P> <LI> <P><B>amethysto</B> <I>n</I> amethyst</P> <LI> <P><B>amic (-&iacute;c)</B> <I>adj</I> friendly (= not enemy); <BR> <B>(nation) amic</B> friendly (nation) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amicitate; amicar-amicabile-amicabilitate; inimic &amp;; amico-amical-inamical; amica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amica (-&iacute;ca)</B> <I>n</I> friend (fem.)</P> <LI> <P><B>amicabile</B> <I>adj</I> amicable, friendly</P> <LI> <P><B>amicabilitate</B> <I>n</I> friendliness, amicability</P> <LI> <P><B>amical</B> <I>adj</I> friendly; <BR> <B>(reguardo) amical</B> friendly (look)</P> <LI> <P><B>amicar</B> <I>v</I> to make friends of; <BR> <B>amicar se</B> to make friends (with)</P> <LI> <P><B>amicitate</B> <I>n</I> friendship</P> <LI> <P><B>amico (-&iacute;co)</B> <I>n</I> friend (masc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>amido (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] amide <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amidogeno etc.; acetamido etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amido&middot;geno (-&oacute;geno)</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] amidogen</P> <LI> <P><B>amino</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] amine <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aminophenol etc.; amino-acido etc.; methylamino etc.; vitamina etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amino-acido (-&aacute;cido)</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] amino acid</P> <LI> <P><B>amino&middot;phenol</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] aminophenol</P> <LI> <P><B>amita (&aacute;m-)</B> <I>n</I> aunt <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> granamita</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Ammon</B> <I>npr</I> Ammon (1. [Egypt. Relig.]; 2. [Gr., Rom. Relig.]); <BR> <B>corno de Ammon</B> horn of Ammon <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ammonite; ammoniac-ammoniaco &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ammon-</B> <I>see</I> <B>ammoniaco</B> or <B>ammonium</B></P> <LI> <P><B>ammon&middot;al</B> <I>n</I> [Technol.] ammonal</P> <LI> <P><B>ammoniac</B> <I>adj</I> ammoniac; <BR> <B>gumma ammoniac</B> gum ammoniac; <BR> <B>aqua ammoniac</B> ammonia (water)</P> <LI> <P><B>ammoniacal</B> <I>adj</I> ammoniacal</P> <LI> <P><B>ammoniaco</B> <I>n</I> 1. ammonia (= [Chem.] NH3); 2. ammoniac, gum ammoniac; <BR> <B>ammoniaco (liquide)</B> (liquid) ammonia, ammonia (water) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ammoniacal; ammonium-ammonal etc.; ammonic; ammonifiar-ammonification; amido &amp;; amino &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ammonic</B> <I>adj</I> ammonic, ammoniacal</P> <LI> <P><B>ammonificar</B> <I>v</I> to ammonify</P> <LI> <P><B>ammonification</B> <I>n</I> ammonification (1. impregnation with ammonia; 2. decomposition with production of ammonia)</P> <LI> <P><B>ammonite</B> <I>n</I> [Paleontol.] ammonite</P> <LI> <P><B>ammonium (-&oacute;nium)</B> <I>n</I> ammonium</P> <LI> <P><B>amnesia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> amnesia, loss of memory <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> cryptomnesia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amnestia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> amnesty <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amnestic; amnestiar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amnestiar</B> <I>v</I> to amnesty, give or proclaim amnesty (to)</P> <LI> <P><B>amnestic</B> <I>adj</I> amnesty, amnestic</P> <LI> <P><B>amollimento</B> <I>n</I> softening, making soft</P> <LI> <P><B>amollir</B> <I>v</I> to soften (= to make soft) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amollimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amonta</B> <I>n</I> amount</P> <LI> <P><B>amontar</B> <I>v</I> to amount <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amonta</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amor</B> <I>n</I> love (= passionate affection); <BR> <B>amor proprie</B> self-esteem; <BR> <B>amores</B> amours, love-affairs <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amoretto; amorose-amorositate; inamorar-inamorate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amoral</B> <I>adj</I> amoral, nonmoral <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amoralismo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amoralismo</B> <I>n</I> amoralism</P> <LI> <P><B>amoretto</B> <I>n</I> love affair, flirtation</P> <LI> <P><B>amorose</B> <I>adj</I> amorous (1. loving; 2. pertaining to love)</P> <LI> <P><B>amorositate</B> <I>n</I> amorousness</P> <LI> <P><B>amorphe</B> <I>adj</I> amorphous; <I>specif.:</I> [Chem.; Geol.; Biol.; etc.]</P> <LI> <P><B>amorphia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> amorphism</P> <LI> <P><B>amorphismo</B> <I>n</I> amorphism</P> <LI> <P><B>amortimento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) deadening, subduing</P> <LI> <P><B>amortir</B> <I>v</I> to deaden (feelings, taste, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amortimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amortisar</B> <I>v</I> to amortize (= to extinguish a debt by means of a sinking fund) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amortisation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amortisation</B> <I>n</I> amortization</P> <LI> <P><B>amover</B> <I>v</I> to amove, remove (from office, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amovibile-amovibilitate, inamovibile</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amovibile</B> <I>adj</I> amovable, removable (= subject to removal)</P> <LI> <P><B>amovibilitate</B> <I>n</I> amovability, removability</P> <LI> <P><B>amperage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> amperage</P> <LI> <P><B>Amp&egrave;re, Andr&eacute; Marie</B> <I>npr</I> [1775-1836; physicist after whom the &quot;ampere&quot; is named]; <BR> <B>lege de Amp&egrave;re</B> Amp&egrave;re's law <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ampere-amperage, amperometro etc., ampere-hora etc., ampere-torno etc., voltampere etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ampere (amp&eacute;r)</B> <I>n</I> ampere</P> <LI> <P><B>ampere-hora (amper-h&oacute;ra)</B> <I>n</I> ampere-hour</P> <LI> <P><B>ampere-torno (amper-t&oacute;rno)</B> <I>n</I> ampere turn</P> <LI> <P><B>ampero&middot;metro (-&oacute;metro)</B> <I>n</I> amperometer, ammeter</P> <LI> <P><B>amphi-</B> <I>prefixo</I> [used chiefly to form technical terms] amphi- (1. both; 2. around, about) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amphibie etc.; amphitheatro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amphibie</B> <I>adj</I> amphibious <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amphibio-amphibiologia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amphibio</B> <I>n</I> amphibian (1. [Zool.]; 2. amphibian airplane)</P> <LI> <P><B>amphibio&middot;logia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> amphibiology</P> <LI> <P><B>amphitheatral</B> <I>adj</I> amphitheatric, amphitheatrical</P> <LI> <P><B>anphitheatro</B> <I>n</I> amphitheater <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amphitheatral</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amphora (&aacute;m-)</B> <I>n</I> amphora</P> <LI> <P><B>ample</B> <I>adj</I> ample (1. spacious, extensive; 2. copious) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amplitude; ampliar-ampliation; amplificar-amplification, amplificative, amplificator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ampliar</B> <I>v</I> to enlarge (= to make larger)</P> <LI> <P><B>ampliation</B> <I>n</I> enlargement, enlarging</P> <LI> <P><B>amplificar</B> <I>v</I> to amplify (1. as in &quot;to amphfy a story, etc.&quot;; 2. [Elec.]; 3. to exaggerate)</P> <LI> <P><B>amplification</B> <I>n</I> amplification</P> <LI> <P><B>amplificative</B> <I>adj</I> amplifying, magnifying</P> <LI> <P><B>amplificator</B> <I>n</I> amplifier; <I>also:</I> [Photog.] enlarger</P> <LI> <P><B>amplitude</B> <I>n</I> amplitude</P> <LI> <P><B>ampulla</B> <I>n</I> 1. [Pathol.] blister; 2. [Eccl.] ampulla; 3. phial, flask; <I>also:</I> ampoule; 4. (electric) bulb</P> <LI> <P><B>amputar</B> <I>v</I> to amputate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amputation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>amputation</B> <I>n</I> amputation</P> <LI> <P><B>amuleto</B> <I>n</I> amulet; <I>also:</I> charm</P> <LI> <P><B>amusamento</B> <I>n</I> amusement</P> <LI> <P><B>amusar</B> <I>v</I> to amuse, entertain; <BR> <B>amusar se</B> to amuse or divert oneself <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amusamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[an]</B> 1. <I>interr part</I> -; <BR> <B>an il habe le libro?</B> has he the book?; 2. <I>conj</I> whether <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> annon etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-an</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with names of places and persons] -an (1. pertaining to ...; 2. native to, citizen of, or inhabiting ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> -ano; african etc.; italian etc.; urban etc.; mohammedan etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>an-</B> <I>prefixo</I> [<B>a-</B> in positions other than before <B>-h-</B> and vowels; used with nouns and adjectives] a-, an-, (= not ...; without or lacking ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> agnostic etc.; amnesia etc.; analphabete etc.; anarchia etc.; anesthesia etc.; anesthetic etc.; anhydre etc.; athee etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ana-</B> <I>prefixo</I> ana- (1. up, upwards; 2. backwards; 3. again) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anachrone etc.; anabaptisar etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anabaptisar</B> <I>v</I> to anabaptize, rabaptize</P> <LI> <P><B>anabaptismo</B> <I>n</I> Anabaptism</P> <LI> <P><B>anabaptista</B> <I>n</I> Anabaptist</P> <LI> <P><B>anacardiaceas</B> <I>npl</I> [Bot.] Anacardiaceae</P> <LI> <P><B>anacardiacee</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] anacardiaceous</P> <LI> <P><B>anacardio</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] anacardium <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anacardiacee-anacardiaceas</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anachrone</B> <I>adj</I> anachronous, anachronic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anachronic; anachronisar-anachronismo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anachronic</B> <I>adj</I> anachronous, anachronic, anachronistic</P> <LI> <P><B>anachronisar</B> <I>v</I> to anachronize, commit anachronisms</P> <LI> <P><B>anachronismo</B> <I>n</I> anachronism</P> <LI> <P><B>Anacreonte</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Lit.] Anacreon <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anacreontic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anacreontic</B> <I>adj</I> Anacreontic</P> <LI> <P><B>anaerobie</B> <I>adj</I> [Biol.] anaerobic</P> <LI> <P><B>anaerobio</B> <I>n</I> [Biol.] anaerobe</P> <LI> <P><B>anagramma</B> <I>n</I> anagram</P> <LI> <P><B>anal</B> <I>adj</I> [Anat.] anal</P> <LI> <P><B>analectos</B> <I>npl</I> analects, analecta</P> <LI> <P><B>analgesia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] analgesia (= insensitivity to pain)</P> <LI> <P><B>analgesic</B> <I>adj</I> [Med.] analgesic</P> <LI> <P><B>analgia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] analgia, analgesia (= insensitivity to pain)</P> <LI> <P><B>analgic</B> <I>adj</I> [Med.] analgic, analgesic</P> <LI> <P><B>analoge (-&aacute;loge)</B> <I>adj</I> analogous (= corresponding in some ways); <BR> <B>analoge a</B> analogous to <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> analogia-analogic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>analogia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> analogy</P> <LI> <P><B>analogic</B> <I>adj</I> analogic, analogical (= founded on analogy)</P> <LI> <P><B>analphabete</B> <I>adj</I> illiterate</P> <LI> <P><B>analphabetic</B> <I>adj</I> 1. illiterate; 2. [Phonet.] analphabetic; 3. unwritten, without an alphabet</P> <LI> <P><B>analphabetismo</B> <I>n</I> 1. illiteracy; 2. [Phonet.] analphabetism, analphabetic notation</P> <LI> <P><B>analphabeto</B> <I>n</I> illiterate</P> <LI> <P><B>analysabile</B> <I>adj</I> analyzable</P> <LI> <P><B>analysar</B> <I>v</I> to analyze</P> <LI> <P><B>analysator</B> <I>n</I> analyzer, analyst</P> <LI> <P><B>analyse (-&aacute;lyse)</B> <I>n</I> analysis; <BR> <B>analyse qualitative</B> qualitative analysis; <BR> <B>analyse quantitative</B> quantitative analysis; <BR> <B>analyse infinitesimal</B> infinitesimal calculus; <BR> <B>in le ultime analyse</B> in the last analysis, all things considered <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> analysar-analysabile, analysator, analysta; psychoanalyse etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>analysta</B> <I>n</I> analyst, analyzer</P> <LI> <P><B>analytic</B> <I>adj</I> analytic, analytical; <BR> <B>geometria analytic</B> analytic geometry <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> psychoanalytic etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ananas (-&aacute;s)</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] pineapple</P> <LI> <P><B>anarch-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] anarch-, anarcho- (= anarchic, anarchical) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anarchia-anarchismo, anarchista, anarchic; anarchosyndicalismo etc.; anarchosyndicalista etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anarchia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anarchy</P> <LI> <P><B>anarchic</B> <I>adj</I> anarchic, anarchical</P> <LI> <P><B>anarchismo</B> <I>n</I> anarchism</P> <LI> <P><B>anarchista</B> <I>n</I> anarchist</P> <LI> <P><B>anarcho&middot;syndicalismo</B> <I>n</I> anarchosyndicalism</P> <LI> <P><B>anarcho&middot;syndicalista</B> <I>n</I> anarchosyndicalist; <I>also:</I> attrib.</P> <LI> <P><B>anate (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Zool.] duck</P> <LI> <P><B>anathema [-ma/-mat-] (-&aacute;tema)</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl.] anathema <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anathematisar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anathemat-</B> <I>see</I> <B>anathema</B></P> <LI> <P><B>anathematisar</B> <I>v</I> [Eccl.] to anathematize</P> <LI> <P><B>Anatolia</B> <I>npr</I> Anatolia</P> <LI> <P><B>anatom-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives] anatom- (= anatomy) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anatomia-anatomista; anatomic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anatomia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anatomy</P> <LI> <P><B>anatomic</B> <I>adj</I> anatomic, anatomical</P> <LI> <P><B>anatomista</B> <I>n</I> anatomist</P> <LI> <P><B>ancestral</B> <I>adj</I> ancestral</P> <LI> <P><B>ancestre</B> <I>n</I> ancestor <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ancestral</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ancian</B> <I>adj</I> ancient, old; <BR> <B>(le) ancianos</B> (the) ancients <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ancianitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ancianitate</B> <I>n</I> 1. oldness, antiquity; 2. seniority (= length of service)</P> <LI> <P><B>ancora (&aacute;n-)</B> <I>n</I> anchor <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ancorar-ancorage; disancorar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[ancora]</B> 1. <I>adv</I> still, yet; 2. <I>interj</I> encore!</P> <LI> <P><B>ancorage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> anchorage (1. action of anchoring; 2. place to anchor; 3. anchorage dues)</P> <LI> <P><B>ancorar</B> <I>v</I> to anchor</P> <LI> <P><B>andaluse</B> <I>adj</I> Andalusian <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> andaluso-Andalusia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Andalusia</B> <I>npr</I> Andalusia</P> <LI> <P><B>andaluso</B> <I>n</I> Andalusian</P> <LI> <P><B>andante [I]</B> <I>adj/adv/n</I> [Mus.] andante</P> <LI> <P><B>andantino [I]</B> <I>adj/n</I> [Mus.] andantino</P> <LI> <P><B>Andes</B> <I>nprpl</I> Andes; <BR> <B>Cordillera del Andes</B> Cordillera of the Andes</P> <LI> <P><B>andr-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] andr-, andro- (= man, male, husband) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> androide; androphobia etc.; androgyne etc.; gynandre etc.; polyandre etc.; monandre etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Andreas (-&eacute;as)</B> <I>nprm</I> Andrew</P> <LI> <P><B>andro&middot;gyne</B> <I>adj</I> androgynous (1. hermaphroditic; 2. [Bot.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> androgynia; androgyno</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>androgynia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> androgyny</P> <LI> <P><B>androgyno (-r&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> androgyne (1. hermaphrodite; 2. [Bot.])</P> <LI> <P><B>androide</B> <I>n</I> android</P> <LI> <P><B>andro&middot;phobia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> androphobia</P> <LI> <P><B>anecdota (-&eacute;c-)</B> <I>n</I> anecdote <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anecdotista; anecdotic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anecdotic</B> <I>adj</I> anecdotal</P> <LI> <P><B>anecdotista</B> <I>n</I> anecdotist</P> <LI> <P><B>anellar</B> <I>v</I> to (cause to) curl in ringlets, locks, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>anellides (-&eacute;l-)</B> <I>npl</I> [Zool.] Annelides</P> <LI> <P><B>anello</B> <I>n</I> ring (= circle of metal or other material); <I>also:</I> link (of a chain); <BR> <B>anello nuptial</B> wedding ring; <BR> <B>anello del piscator</B> fisherman's ring <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anellides; anellar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anemia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] anemia, anaemia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anemic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anemic</B> <I>adj</I> anemic, anaemic</P> <LI> <P><B>anemo-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] anemo- (= wind) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anemone; anemometro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anemographia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Meterol.] anemography</P> <LI> <P><B>anemo&middot;grapho (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> anemograph</P> <LI> <P><B>anemo&middot;metro (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> anemometer</P> <LI> <P><B>anemone (-&oacute;ne)</B> <I>n</I> anemone; <BR> <B>anemone de mar</B> sea anemone</P> <LI> <P><B>anemo&middot;scopio</B> <I>n</I> anemoscope</P> <LI> <P><B>anesthesia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anesthesia</P> <LI> <P><B>anesthesiar</B> <I>v</I> to anesthetize</P> <LI> <P><B>anesthetic</B> <I>adj</I> anesthetic</P> <LI> <P><B>anesthetico</B> <I>n</I> anesthetic</P> <LI> <P><B>anetho</B> <I>n</I> dill</P> <LI> <P><B>-ange-</B> <I>see</I> <B>angio-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>Angela (&aacute;-)</B> <I>nprf</I> Angela</P> <LI> <P><B>angelic</B> <I>adj</I> angelic; <BR> <B>le salutation angelic</B> the Angelic Salutation, the Ave Maria</P> <LI> <P><B>Angelica</B> <I>nprf</I> Angelica</P> <LI> <P><B>angelica</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] angelica</P> <LI> <P><B>angelo (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> angel; <BR> <B>angelo tutelar</B> guardian angel <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> angelic-angelica, Angelica; archangelo etc.; Angela</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>angelus (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [R.C.Ch.] Angelus; <I>also:</I> Angelus bell</P> <LI> <P><B>angina</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] quinsy, angina; <BR> <B>angina de pectore</B> angina pectoris <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anginose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anginose</B> <I>adj</I> quinsied</P> <LI> <P><B>angio-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] angio- (= vessel) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> angiographia etc.; angiosperme etc.; sporangio etc.; hydrangea etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>angio&middot;graphia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> angiography</P> <LI> <P><B>angio&middot;logia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anglology</P> <LI> <P><B>angiosperma</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] angiosperm; <BR> <B>angiospermas</B> Angiospermae</P> <LI> <P><B>angio&middot;sperme</B> <I>adj</I> [Bot.] angiospermous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> angiosperma</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Anglaterra</B> <I>npr</I> England</P> <LI> <P><B>anglese&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> English</P> <LI> <P><B>anglese&sup2;</B> <I>n</I> 1. English (= English language); 2. Englishman, Englishwoman</P> <LI> <P><B>Anglia</B> <I>npr</I> [Hist.] Anglia</P> <LI> <P><B>anglic</B> <I>adj</I> Anglic, Anglian</P> <LI> <P><B>anglican</B> <I>adj</I> [Eccl.] Anglican; <BR> <B>ecclesia anglican</B> Church of England</P> <LI> <P><B>anglicanismo</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl.] Anglicanism</P> <LI> <P><B>anglicano</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl.] Anglican</P> <LI> <P><B>anglicisar</B> <I>v</I> to Anglicize</P> <LI> <P><B>anglicismo</B> <I>n</I> Anglicism (1. English idiom; 2. quality of being English)</P> <LI> <P><B>anglo&middot;american</B> <I>adj</I> Anglo-American <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> angloamericano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>angloamericano</B> <I>n</I> Anglo-American</P> <LI> <P><B>anglo&middot;catholic</B> <I>adj</I> [Eccl.] Anglo-Catholic, High-Church <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anglocatholico</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anglocatholico</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl.] Anglo-Catholic, High-churchman</P> <LI> <P><B>anglo&middot;mania (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> Anglomania</P> <LI> <P><B>anglo&middot;mano (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> Anglomaniac</P> <LI> <P><B>anglo&middot;phile</B> <I>adj</I> Anglophile <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anglophilo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anglophilo (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> Anglophile</P> <LI> <P><B>anglo&middot;phobe (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> Anglophobe, Anglophobic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anglophobia; anglophobo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anglophobia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> Anglophobia</P> <LI> <P><B>anglophobo (-&oacute;phoho)</B> <I>n</I> Anglophobe</P> <LI> <P><B>anglos</B> <I>npl</I> [Hist.] Angles <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Anglia; anglese; anglic-anglicismo, anglican-anglicanismo, anglicano, anglicisar; angloamerican etc; anglocatholic etc.; anglosaxone etc.; anglophile etc.; Anglaterra etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anglo&middot;saxone</B> <I>adj/n</I> Anglo-Saxon</P> <LI> <P><B>angue</B> <I>n</I> snake, serpent <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anguilla &amp;; anguin; anguiforme etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>angui&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> anguiform</P> <LI> <P><B>anguilla</B> <I>n</I> eel <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anguilliforme etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anguilli&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> anguilliform, eel-shaped</P> <LI> <P><B>anguin</B> <I>adj</I> anguine</P> <LI> <P><B>angular</B> <I>adj</I> angular</P> <LI> <P><B>angularitate</B> <I>n</I> angularity, angularness</P> <LI> <P><B>angulate</B> <I>adj</I> angulate, angled</P> <LI> <P><B>angulo (&aacute;n-)</B> <I>n</I> angle, corner; <BR> <B>angulo acute, angulo obtuse</B> acute angle, obtuse angle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> angular-angularitate; angulate; angulose; trilangule etc.; rectangule etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>angulose</B> <I>adj</I> angulous, angular</P> <LI> <P><B>angustia</B> <I>n</I> anguish (1. [Pathol.]; 2. agony, distress) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> angustiose; angustiar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>angustiar</B> <I>v</I> to anguish</P> <LI> <P><B>angustiose</B> <I>adj</I> anguished</P> <LI> <P><B>anhelante</B> 1. ppr of <B>anhelar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> panting, gasping</P> <LI> <P><B>anhelar</B> <I>v</I> to pant, gasp <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anhelante; anhelation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anhelation</B> <I>n</I> panting, gasping</P> <LI> <P><B>anhydre (&aacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> anhydrous</P> <LI> <P><B>anhydrido</B> <I>n</I> [Chcm.] anhydride; <BR> <B>anhydrido carbonic</B> carbon dioxide</P> <LI> <P><B>anhydrite</B> <I>n</I> [Mineral.] anhydrite</P> <LI> <P><B>anil</B> <I>n</I> anil (1. Indigo shrub; 2. indigo dye) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anilic; anilina</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anilic</B> <I>adj</I> anilic (1. pertaining to anil; 2. pertaining to aniline)</P> <LI> <P><B>anilina</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] aniline; <I>attrib.:</I> aniline</P> <LI> <P><B>anima (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> soul; <BR> <B>render le anima</B> give up the ghost; <BR> <B>stato de anima</B> state of mind, frame of mind <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> animismo; animista; animar-animation, animator, animate-inanimate, disanimar-disanimate, reanimar; pusillanime etc.; equanime etc.; unanime etc.; see also animo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>animadvers-</B> <I>see</I> <B>animadverter</B></P> <LI> <P><B>animadversion</B> <I>n</I> animadversion (= adverse criticism)</P> <LI> <P><B>anim&middot;adverter [-vert-/-vers-]</B> <I>v</I> to animadvert (= to express adverse criticism) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> animadversion</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>animal</B> <I>adj</I> animal (= pertaining to animals) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> animalitate; animalisar-animalisation; vegetoanimal etc.; animal&sup2;-animalculo, animalesc</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>animal</B> <I>n</I> animal</P> <LI> <P><B>animalculo</B> <I>n</I> animalcule</P> <LI> <P><B>animalesc</B> <I>adj</I> animal (= characteristic of an animal)</P> <LI> <P><B>animalisar</B> <I>v</I> to animalize (1. to convert into animal matter; 2. to reduce to animal nature)</P> <LI> <P><B>animalisation</B> <I>n</I> animalization (1. conversion into animal matter; 2. reduction to animal nature)</P> <LI> <P><B>animalitate</B> <I>n</I> animality</P> <LI> <P><B>animar</B> <I>v</I> to animate</P> <LI> <P><B>animate</B> I. pp of <B>animar</B>; II. <I>adj</I> 1. animate, living; 2. animated, lively</P> <LI> <P><B>animation</B> <I>n</I> animation (1. the action of animating; 2. vivacity, sprightliness)</P> <LI> <P><B>animator</B> <I>n</I> animater, animator</P> <LI> <P><B>animismo</B> <I>n</I> animism</P> <LI> <P><B>animista</B> <I>n</I> animist</P> <LI> <P><B>animo (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> animating spirit <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> animositate; animadverter etc.; pusillanime etc.; equanime etc.; unanime etc; see also anima</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>animositate</B> <I>n</I> animosity</P> <LI> <P><B>anion (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Phys.] anion</P> <LI> <P><B>anis [F]</B> <I>n</I> anise <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anisar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anisar</B> <I>v</I> to flavor with anise</P> <LI> <P><B>Anna</B> <I>nprf</I> Ann <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Marianna etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>annal</B> <I>adj</I> annual (= lasting one year)</P> <LI> <P><B>annales (-&aacute;les)</B> <I>npl</I> annals</P> <LI> <P><B>annecter [-nect-/-nex-]</B> <I>v</I> to annex (= to join as an addition to existing possessions) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> annexion; annexo-annexar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>annex-</B> <I>see</I> <B>annecter</B></P> <LI> <P><B>annexar</B> <I>v</I> to annex (1. to add, append; 2. to join as an addition to existing possessions)</P> <LI> <P><B>annexion</B> <I>n</I> annexation</P> <LI> <P><B>annexo</B> <I>n</I> annex</P> <LI> <P><B>annidar</B> <I>v</I> to nest</P> <LI> <P><B>annihilabile</B> <I>adj</I> 1. annihilable; 2. voidable</P> <LI> <P><B>annihilar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to annihilate; 2. to annul <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> annihilabile; annihilation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>annihilation</B> <I>n</I> 1. annihilation; 2. annulment, voiding</P> <LI> <P><B>anni&middot;versari</B> <I>adj</I> anniversary <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anniversario</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anniversario</B> <I>n</I> anniversary</P> <LI> <P><B>anno</B> <I>n</I> year; <BR> <B>anno bissextil</B> leap year; <BR> <B>anno nove</B> New Year; <BR> <B>anno de lumine</B> [Astron.] light-year <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> annuario; annue-amnuitate; annal-annales; annual; anniversari etc.; trienne etc.; perenne etc.; millenio etc.; biennal etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>annoctar</B> <I>v</I> to grow dark (as in &quot;it is growing dark, evening is coming&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>anno Domini [L]</B> anno Domini, in the year of Our Lord</P> <LI> <P><B>[an&middot;non] (&aacute;n-)</B> <I>conj</I> or not</P> <LI> <P><B>annotar</B> <I>v</I> to annotate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> annotation; annotator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>annotation</B> <I>n</I> annotation</P> <LI> <P><B>annotator</B> <I>n</I> annotator</P> <LI> <P><B>annual</B> <I>adj</I> annual (= coming once a year)</P> <LI> <P><B>annuario</B> <I>n</I> yearbook</P> <LI> <P><B>annue</B> <I>adj</I> annual (1. coming once a year; 2. lasting one year)</P> <LI> <P><B>annuitate</B> <I>n</I> annuity</P> <LI> <P><B>annullabile</B> <I>adj</I> voidable</P> <LI> <P><B>annullar</B> <I>v</I> to annul, cancel <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> annullabile; annullation; annullative</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>annullation</B> <I>n</I> annulment, cancellation</P> <LI> <P><B>annullative</B> <I>adj</I> annulling, quashing</P> <LI> <P><B>annunciar</B> <I>v</I> to announce <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> annuncio; annunciation; annunciator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>annunciation</B> <I>n</I> announcement; le Annunciation the Annunciation</P> <LI> <P><B>annunciator</B> <I>n</I> announcer</P> <LI> <P><B>annuncio</B> <I>n</I> 1. announcement; 2. advertisement</P> <LI> <P><B>ano</B> <I>n</I> [Anat.] anus <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anal; anello &amp;; anulo &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ano</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with names of places and persons] -an (1. native, citizen, or inhabitant of ...; 2. language of ...; 3. adherent of ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> africano etc.; italiano etc.; mohammedano etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anodic</B> <I>adj</I> anodic; <I>also:</I> [Med., Bot.]</P> <LI> <P><B>anodo (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Elec.] anode <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anodic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anomale</B> <I>adj</I> anomalous</P> <LI> <P><B>anomalia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anomaly</P> <LI> <P><B>anonyme (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> anonymous; <BR> <B>societate anonyme</B> joint-stock company, limited company <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anonymitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anonymitate</B> <I>n</I> anonymity, anonymousness</P> <LI> <P><B>anormal</B> <I>adj</I> abnormal</P> <LI> <P><B>anormalitate</B> <I>n</I> abnormality</P> <LI> <P><B>[anque] (anke)</B> <I>adv</I> also, too; <BR> <B>anque (io)</B> (I) too, (me) too; <BR> <B>non solmente ... ma anque</B> not only ... but also</P> <LI> <P><B>ansa</B> <I>n</I> handle (of a cup, jug, basket, etc.); <I>also:</I> [Anat.] ansa <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ansate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ansate</B> <I>adj</I> ansate, looped; <BR> <B>cruce ansate</B> crux ansata, ansate cross</P> <LI> <P><B>ansere (&aacute;n-)</B> <I>n</I> goose <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anserin</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anserin</B> <I>adj</I> goose (as in &quot;goose liver&quot;); <BR> <B>cute anserin</B> goose flesh, goose skin</P> <LI> <P><B>antagonisar</B> <I>v</I> to antagonize (= to contend with; to act in opposition to) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antagonismo; antagonista; antagonistic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antagonismo</B> <I>n</I> antagonism</P> <LI> <P><B>antagonista</B> <I>n</I> antagonist (1. opponent; 2. [Physiol.]); <I>attrib.:</I> antagonistic</P> <LI> <P><B>antagonistic</B> <I>adj</I> antagonistic</P> <LI> <P><B>antarctic</B> <I>adj</I> antarctic; <BR> <B>polo antarctic</B> antarctic pole, south pole; <BR> <B>circulo antarctic</B> antarctic circle; <BR> <B>Oceano Antarctic</B> Antarctic (Ocean)</P> <LI> <P><B>ante</B> I. <I>prep</I> before (1. in front of; 2. earlier than; 3. above); II. <I>adv</I> before (1. in front, ahead; <I>also:</I> forward; 2. earlier); <BR> <B>ante que (io iva al theatro)</B> before (I went to the theater) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ante-heri etc.; [antea] etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ante</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>; forming verbal adjectives] -ing, -ant (as in &quot;abounding,&quot; &quot;abundant&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> -antia; abundante etc.; brillante etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ante</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -ant (1. one who or that which is ...ant; 2. one who or that which ...s) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> amante etc.; brillante etc.; disinfectante etc.; litigante etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ante-</B> <I>prefixo</I> [used with nouns, adjectives; also in combination with adjectival suffixes] ante- (= before in time or position) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antecamera etc.; antepenultime etc; antediluvial etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[ant&middot;ea]</B> <I>adv</I> before, formerly, previously</P> <LI> <P><B>antebracio</B> <I>n</I> forearm</P> <LI> <P><B>antecamera (-c&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> anteroom; <I>also:</I> waiting room (at a doctor's office, etc.); <BR> <B>facer antecamera</B> to wait in the antichamber</P> <LI> <P><B>antecedente</B> <I>n</I> antecedent (1. [Logic, Math.]; 2. [Gram.]); <BR> <B>le antecedentes de un persona</B> someone's antecedents</P> <LI> <P><B>anteceder [-ced-/-cess-]</B> <I>v</I> to antecede, be the antecedent <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antecedente; antecessor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antecess-</B> <I>see</I> <B>anteceder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>antecessor</B> <I>n</I> predecessor</P> <LI> <P><B>antedata</B> <I>n</I> antedate</P> <LI> <P><B>antedatar</B> <I>v</I> to antedate (= to affix an earlier date than the actual one)</P> <LI> <P><B>antediluvian</B> <I>adj</I> antediluvian</P> <LI> <P><B>antefixa</B> <I>n</I> [Arch.] antefix</P> <LI> <P><B>ante-heri</B> <I>adv</I> day before yesterday</P> <LI> <P><B>antemeridian</B> <I>adj</I> antemeridian</P> <LI> <P><B>antemural</B> <I>n</I> [Fortif.] barbican</P> <LI> <P><B>antenna</B> <I>n</I> I. [Naut.] lateen yard; II. antenna (1. [Zool.]; 2. [Radio] aerial)</P> <LI> <P><B>antepenultima (-&uacute;l-)</B> <I>n</I> antepenult</P> <LI> <P><B>antepenultime (-&uacute;l-)</B> <I>adj</I> last but two, antepenultimate</P> <LI> <P><B>anteponer [-pon-/-posit-]</B> <I>v</I> to prepose, place before or in front <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antoposition</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anteposit-</B> <I>see</I> <B>anteponer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>anteposition</B> <I>n</I> (act of) preposing, (act of) placing before or in front</P> <LI> <P><B>anterior</B> <I>adj</I> anterior; <BR> <B>(periodo) anterior</B> former (period); <BR> <B>(data) anterior</B> earlier (date); <BR> <B>(gamba) anterior</B> fore(leg); <BR> <B>(muro) anterior</B> front (wall) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anterioritate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anterioritate</B> <I>n</I> anteriority</P> <LI> <P><B>anteriormente</B> <I>adv</I> formerly, before</P> <LI> <P><B>anthelminthic</B> <I>adj</I> anthelminthic, vermifuge</P> <LI> <P><B>anthelminthico</B> <I>n</I> anthelminthic, vermifuge</P> <LI> <P><B>anthemo- (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] -anthemum (= flower) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> chrysanthemo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antho-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] antho-, anth- (= flower) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> perianthio; anthologia etc.; anthocyanina etc.; diantho etc.; heliantho etc.; sclerantho etc.; argyranthe etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antho&middot;cyanina</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] anthocyanin</P> <LI> <P><B>antho&middot;graphia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] anthography</P> <LI> <P><B>antho&middot;logia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anthology <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthologista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthologista</B> <I>n</I> anthologist</P> <LI> <P><B>anthra-</B> <I>see</I> <B>anthrace</B></P> <LI> <P><B>anthrace (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Med., Veter.] anthrax <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthracen; anthracite &amp;; anthracic; anthracifere; anthraciforme etc.; anthracometro etc.; anthraquinon etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthracen</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] anthracene</P> <LI> <P><B>anthracic</B> <I>adj</I> anthracic</P> <LI> <P><B>anthracifere</B> <I>adj</I> anthraciferous</P> <LI> <P><B>anthraci&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> anthraciform</P> <LI> <P><B>anthracite</B> <I>n</I> anthracite (coal), hard coal <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthracitic; anthracitose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthracitic</B> <I>adj</I> anthracitic</P> <LI> <P><B>anthracitose</B> <I>adj</I> anthracitous</P> <LI> <P><B>anthraco&middot;metro (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> anthracometer</P> <LI> <P><B>anthra&middot;quinon</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] anthraquinone</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropo-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] anthropo- (= man) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthropoide; anthropogenese etc.: anthropologo etc.; anthropometria etc.; anthropomorphe etc.; anthropophage etc.; lycanthrope etc.; eoanthropo etc.; misanthrope etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthropo&middot;genese (-g&eacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> anthropogenesis</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropo&middot;genesis (-g&eacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> anthropogenesis</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropoide&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> anthropoid</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropoide&sup2;</B> <I>n</I> anthropoid</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropologia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anthropology</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropologic</B> <I>adj</I> anthropological</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropologista</B> <I>n</I> anthropologist</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropo&middot;logo (-&oacute;logo)</B> <I>n</I> anthropologist <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthropologia-anthropologista; anthropologic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthropo&middot;metria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anthropometry <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthropometric</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthropometric</B> <I>adj</I> anthropometric</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropo&middot;morphe</B> <I>adj</I> anthropomorphous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthropomorphismo; anthropomorphista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthropomorphismo</B> <I>n</I> anthropomorphism</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropomorphista</B> <I>n</I> anthropomorphist</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropo&middot;phage (-&oacute;phage)</B> <I>adj</I> man-eating, cannibal, anthropophagous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthropophagia; anthropophago</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthropophagia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anthropophagy, cannibalism</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropophago (-&oacute;phago)</B> <I>n</I> man-eater, cannibal; <BR> <B>anthropophagos</B> anthropophagi</P> <LI> <P><B>anthropo&middot;sophe (-&oacute;sophe)</B> <I>adj</I> anthroposophical <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anthroposophia-anthroposophic; anthroposopho</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anthroposophia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> anthroposophy</P> <LI> <P><B>anthroposophic</B> <I>adj</I> anthroposophical</P> <LI> <P><B>anthroposopho (-&oacute;sopho)</B> <I>n</I> anthroposophist</P> <LI> <P><B>anti-</B> preffixo [used with nouns and adjectives; <I>also:</I> in combination with substantival and adjectival suffixes] anti- <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antichristo etc.; antinational etc.; antialkoholista etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-antia</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -ance, -ancy (= state or quality of ...ing or being ...ant) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> importantia etc.; tolerantia etc.; vigilantia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antiaeree</B> <I>adj</I> [Mil.] antiaircraft</P> <LI> <P><B>antiasthmatic</B> <I>adj</I> antasthmatic</P> <LI> <P><B>anticatholic</B> <I>adj</I> anti-Catholic</P> <LI> <P><B>antichristian&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> antichristian</P> <LI> <P><B>antichristian&sup2;</B> <I>adj</I> anti-Christian</P> <LI> <P><B>Antichristo</B> <I>npr</I> Antichrist; <BR> <B>antichristo</B> antichrist</P> <LI> <P><B>anticipar</B> <I>v</I> to anticipate (= to do or use in advance); <BR> <B>anticipar un pagamento</B> to advance a payment <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anticipation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anticipation</B> <I>n</I> 1. anticipation (= act of doing or using in advance); 2. [Rhet.] prolepsis</P> <LI> <P><B>anticlerical</B> <I>adj</I> anticlerical</P> <LI> <P><B>anticlericalismo</B> <I>n</I> anticlericalism</P> <LI> <P><B>anticonception</B> <I>n</I> contraception</P> <LI> <P><B>anticonceptional</B> <I>adj</I> contraceptive; <BR> <B>medio anticonceptional</B> contraceptive</P> <LI> <P><B>anticonstitutional</B> <I>adj</I> unconstitutional</P> <LI> <P><B>anticyclon</B> <I>n</I> [Meteorol.] anticyclone</P> <LI> <P><B>antidotar</B> <I>v</I> to antidote</P> <LI> <P><B>antidoto (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> antidote; <BR> <B>antidoto de</B> antidote to, for, against <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antidotar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antifascista</B> <I>n</I> antifascist; <I>also:</I> <I>attrib.</I> antifascist</P> <LI> <P><B>Antilibano (-l&iacute;-)</B> <I>npr</I> Anti-Lebanon (= mountain range parallel to the Lebanon Mountains)</P> <LI> <P><B>antilope (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> antelope</P> <LI> <P><B>antimonial</B> <I>adj</I> antimonial</P> <LI> <P><B>antimonio</B> <I>n</I> antimony <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antimonial</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antinational</B> <I>adj</I> antinational</P> <LI> <P><B>antinephritic</B> <I>adj</I> antinephritic</P> <LI> <P><B>antinomia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> antinomy</P> <LI> <P><B>antinomic</B> <I>adj</I> antinomic</P> <LI> <P><B>antinomio</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl. Hist.] antinomian</P> <LI> <P><B>antinomismo</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl. Hist.] antinomianism</P> <LI> <P><B>Antiochia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>npr</I> Antioch</P> <LI> <P><B>antipapa</B> <I>n</I> antipope</P> <LI> <P><B>antiparlamentari</B> <I>adj</I> antiparliamentary</P> <LI> <P><B>antipath-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in derivatives] antipath- (= antipathetic) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antipathia-antipathic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antipathia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> antipathy</P> <LI> <P><B>antipathic</B> <I>adj</I> antipathetic</P> <LI> <P><B>antiperistase (-&iacute;stase)</B> <I>n</I> antiperistasis (= intensification of a quality by an opposing quality)</P> <LI> <P><B>antiphona (-t&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl.] antiphon, antiphony <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antiphonal; antiphonario</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antiphonal</B> <I>adj</I> antiphonal</P> <LI> <P><B>antiphonario</B> <I>n</I> antiphonary, antiphonal</P> <LI> <P><B>antiphras-</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antiphrase; antiphrastic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antiphrase (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> antiphrasis</P> <LI> <P><B>antiphrastic</B> <I>adj</I> antiphrastic</P> <LI> <P><B>antipode (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> opposite, contrary, antipode; <BR> <B>antipodes</B> antipodes <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antipodic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antipodic</B> <I>adj</I> antipodal</P> <LI> <P><B>antiqualia</B> <I>n</I> old stuff, trash</P> <LI> <P><B>antiquar</B> <I>v</I> to antiquate</P> <LI> <P><B>antiquario</B> <I>n</I> 1. antiquary; 2. antiquedealer</P> <LI> <P><B>antiquate</B> <I>adj</I> antiquated, old-fashioned</P> <LI> <P><B>antique</B> <I>adj</I> antique, ancient; <BR> <B>(le) antiquos</B> (the) ancients <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antiqualia; antiquario; antiquitate; antiquar-antiquate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antiquitate</B> <I>n</I> antiquity (1. ancient character; 2. early ages of history; 3. antique)</P> <LI> <P><B>antireligiose</B> <I>adj</I> antireligious</P> <LI> <P><B>antiscios</B> <I>npl</I> antiscians, antiscii</P> <LI> <P><B>antiscorbutic</B> <I>adj</I> antiscorbutic</P> <LI> <P><B>antisemita</B> <I>n</I> anti-Semite</P> <LI> <P><B>antisemitic</B> <I>adj</I> anti-Semitic</P> <LI> <P><B>antisemitismo</B> <I>n</I> anti-Semitism</P> <LI> <P><B>antisepsis</B> <I>n</I> antisepsis</P> <LI> <P><B>antiseptic</B> <I>adj</I> antiseptic, antiseptical</P> <LI> <P><B>antiseptico</B> <I>n</I> antiseptic</P> <LI> <P><B>antisocial</B> <I>adj</I> antisocial</P> <LI> <P><B>antispasmodic</B> <I>adj</I> [Med.] antispasmodic</P> <LI> <P><B>antithese (-&iacute;tese)</B> <I>n</I> antithesis (1. [Rhet.]; 2. opposition)</P> <LI> <P><B>antitoxina</B> <I>n</I> antitoxin</P> <LI> <P><B>antitrinitari</B> <I>adj</I> anti-Trinitarian</P> <LI> <P><B>Antonio</B> <I>nprm</I> Anthony</P> <LI> <P><B>antonyme (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> antonymous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> antonymia; antonymo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>antonymia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> antonymy</P> <LI> <P><B>antonymo (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> antonym</P> <LI> <P><B>Antwerpen [Flem.]</B> <I>npr</I> Antwerp</P> <LI> <P><B>anular</B> <I>adj</I> ring-shaped, annular; <BR> <B>digito anular</B> ring finger, annular; <BR> <B>eclipse anular</B> annular eclipse</P> <LI> <P><B>anuletto</B> <I>n</I> small ring, annulet</P> <LI> <P><B>anulo</B> <I>n</I> ring (= circle of metal or other material); <I>also:</I> ringlike object; <BR> <B>anulo piscatori</B> fisherman's ring <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anuletto; anular; anulose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anulose</B> <I>adj</I> [Zool.] annulose</P> <LI> <P><B>anxie</B> <I>adj</I> anxious (1. uneasy, worried; 2. eagerly desiring) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><FONT SIZE="2">Hence; anxietate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>anxietate</B> <I>n</I> anxiety (1. uneasiness; 2. eager desire)</P> <LI> <P><B>aorta</B> <I>n</I> aorta <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aortic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aortic</B> <I>adj</I> aortic</P> <LI> <P><B>&agrave; outrance [F]</B> &agrave; outrance, in the extreme</P> <LI> <P><B>ap-</B> <I>see</I> <B>apo-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>apath-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in derivatives] apath- (= apathetic) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apathia-apatic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apathia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> apathy</P> <LI> <P><B>apathic</B> <I>adj</I> apathetic</P> <LI> <P><B>ape</B> <I>n</I> bee; <BR> <B>ape operari, ape neutre</B> working bee; <BR> <B>ape matre, ape regina, ape femine</B> queen bee; <BR> <B>ape mascule</B> drone <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apiario&sup1;; apiario&sup2;, apicula-apiculario; apicultura etc.; apivore etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[a&middot;pena]</B> <I>adv</I> hardly, scarcely (= <B>a pena</B>)</P> <LI> <P><B>apennin</B> <I>adj</I> Apennine <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Apenninos</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Apenninos</B> <I>nprpl</I> Apennines</P> <LI> <P><B>apepsia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] apepsy</P> <LI> <P><B>apercept-</B> <I>see</I> <B>aperciper</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aperiente</B> 1. ppr of <B>aperir</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> aperient, laxative</P> <LI> <P><B>aperir [-per-/-pert-]</B> <I>v</I> to open (1. to unclose; 2. to begin) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aperiente; apertura; aperte; aperitive-aperitivo; aperitor; reaperir-reapertura</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aperitive</B> <I>adj</I> aperitive, aperient, laxative</P> <LI> <P><B>aperitivo</B> <I>n</I> 1. aperient, laxative; 2. ap&eacute;ritif</P> <LI> <P><B>aperitor</B> <I>n</I> opener</P> <LI> <P><B>apert-</B> <I>see</I> <B>aperir</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aperte</B> <I>adj</I> open (= not closed, limited or hidden)</P> <LI> <P><B>apertura</B> <I>n</I> opening (1. action of opening; 2. aperture; 3. beginning)</P> <LI> <P><B>apetale</B> <I>adj</I> [Bot.] apetalous</P> <LI> <P><B>aphasia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] aphasia</P> <LI> <P><B>aphasic</B> <I>adj</I> aphasic, aphasiac</P> <LI> <P><B>aphasico</B> <I>n</I> aphasic, aphasiac</P> <LI> <P><B>aphone</B> <I>adj</I> aphonic, voiceless</P> <LI> <P><B>aphonia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> aphonia</P> <LI> <P><B>aphonic</B> <I>adj</I> aphonic, voiceless</P> <LI> <P><B>aphorisar</B> <I>v</I> to aphorize (= to speak, write, etc., in aphorisms) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aphorismo; aphorista-aphoristic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aphorismo</B> <I>n</I> aphorism</P> <LI> <P><B>aphorista</B> <I>n</I> aphorist</P> <LI> <P><B>aphoristic</B> <I>adj</I> aphoristic</P> <LI> <P><B>aphrodis-</B> <I>see</I> <B>Aphrodite</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aphrodisiac (&iacute;ac)</B> <I>adj</I> aphrodisiac</P> <LI> <P><B>aphrodisiaco (-&iacute;aco)</B> <I>n</I> aphrodisiac</P> <LI> <P><B>Aphrodite</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Aphrodite <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aphroditic; aphrodisiac-aphrodisiaco; Hermaphrodito etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aphroditic</B> <I>adj</I> aphroditic, venereal</P> <LI> <P><B>apiario&sup1;</B> <I>n</I> bee-keeper</P> <LI> <P><B>apiario&sup2;</B> <I>n</I> apiary</P> <LI> <P><B>apice (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> apex</P> <LI> <P><B>apicula</B> <I>n</I> honey-bee</P> <LI> <P><B>apiculario</B> <I>n</I> bee-hive</P> <LI> <P><B>api&middot;cultor</B> <I>n</I> bee-keeper, apiculturist</P> <LI> <P><B>api&middot;cultura</B> <I>n</I> bee-keeping, apiculture</P> <LI> <P><B>api&middot;vore</B> <I>adj</I> bee-eating</P> <LI> <P><B>apo-</B> <I>prefixo</I> [<B>ap-</B> before <B>-h-</B> and vowels; used chiefly to form technical terms] apo-, ap- (1. off, away; 2. separate) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apogee etc.: apostasia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apocryphe (-&oacute;cryphe)</B> <I>adj</I> apocryphal; <I>specif.:</I> [Eccl.]; also: spurious, unauthenticated <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apocrypho</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apocrypho (-&oacute;crypho)</B> <I>n</I> apocryphon, <I>also:</I> apocrypha; <BR> <B>apocryphos</B> apocrypha, apocryphas</P> <LI> <P><B>apogee (-&eacute;e)</B> <I>adj</I> apogean, apogeal</P> <LI> <P><B>apogeo (-&eacute;o)</B> <I>n</I> apogee (1. [Astron.]; 2. highest point, culmination)</P> <LI> <P><B>Apolline</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr.Myth.] Apollo <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apollinee</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apollinee</B> <I>adj</I> Apolline, Apollonian</P> <LI> <P><B>Apollon</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Apollo</P> <LI> <P><B>apolog-</B> <I>see</I> <B>apologia</B></P> <LI> <P><B>apologetic</B> <I>adj</I> apologetic (= defending by speech or writing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apologetica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apologetica</B> <I>n</I> apologetics</P> <LI> <P><B>apologia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> apology, apologia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apologista; apologetic &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apologista</B> <I>n</I> apologist</P> <LI> <P><B>apologo (-&oacute;logo)</B> <I>n</I> apologue</P> <LI> <P><B>apophysis (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Anat., Zool., etc.] apophysis</P> <LI> <P><B>apoplectic</B> <I>adj</I> apoplectic, apoplectical</P> <LI> <P><B>apoplexia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> apoplexy</P> <LI> <P><B>apostasia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> apostasy</P> <LI> <P><B>apostata (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> apostate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apostatic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>a posteriori [L]</B> <I>adv</I> a posteriori</P> <LI> <P><B>apostolato</B> <I>n</I> apostolate</P> <LI> <P><B>apostolic</B> <I>adj</I> apostolic (1. pertaining to the apostles or their teachings; 2. papal)</P> <LI> <P><B>apostolicitate</B> <I>n</I> apostolicity</P> <LI> <P><B>apostolo (-&oacute;s-)</B> <I>n</I> apostle; <BR> <B>le Symbolo del Apostolos</B> the Apostles' Creed <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apostolato; apostolic-apostolicitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apostrophar</B> <I>v</I> [Rhet.] to apostrophize (= to address in an apostrophe)</P> <LI> <P><B>apostrophe (-p&oacute;s-)</B> <I>n</I> [Rhet.] apostrophe <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apostrophar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apostropho</B> <I>n</I> apostrophe (= the mark ' as used in &quot;ne'er, boy's, etc.&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>apotheca</B> <I>n</I> pharmacy, apothecary's <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apothecario</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apothecario</B> <I>n</I> apothecary</P> <LI> <P><B>apotheosis (-&oacute;sis)</B> <I>n</I> apotheosis (1. [Class. Hist.] deification; 2. glorification)</P> <LI> <P><B>appaciabile</B> <I>adj</I> appeasable</P> <LI> <P><B>appaciamento</B> <I>n</I> appeasement; pacification</P> <LI> <P><B>appaciar</B> <I>v</I> to appease <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appaciamento; appaciabile-inappaciabile; appaciator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appaciator</B> <I>n</I> appeaser</P> <LI> <P><B>apparar</B> <I>v</I> to prepare <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apparato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apparato</B> <I>n</I> I. apparatus (1. appliance, instrument; 2. collection of mechanical contrivances for carrying out a given work); II. pomp, display; <BR> <B>apparato respiratori</B> respiratory apparatus; <BR> <B>apparato photographic</B> [Photog.] camera</P> <LI> <P><B>apparentar</B> <I>v</I> to ally or connect by marriage</P> <LI> <P><B>apparente</B> <I>adj</I> apparent (1. plain to see; 2. seeming); <BR> <B>diametro apparente</B> apparent diameter; <BR> <B>morte apparente</B> suspended animation</P> <LI> <P><B>apparentia</B> <I>n</I> appearance (= aspect); <BR> <B>salvar le apparentias</B> to keep up appearances</P> <LI> <P><B>apparer</B> <I>v</I> to appear (= to come in sight) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apparente-apparentia; apparition; reapparer-reapparition</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apparition</B> <I>n</I> apparition (1. act of appearing, appearance; 2. phantom, ghost)</P> <LI> <P><B>appartamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (act of) separating; 2. apartment, flat</P> <LI> <P><B>appartar</B> <I>v</I> to separate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appartamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appellabile</B> <I>adj</I> appealable</P> <LI> <P><B>appellante</B> <I>n</I> [Law] appellant</P> <LI> <P><B>appellar</B> <I>v</I> 1. [Law] to appeal; 2. to call, name; <BR> <B>appellar a</B> to appeal to (for help etc.); <BR> <B>appellar de (un sententia)</B> to appeal against (a sentence) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appello; appellante; appellabile-inappellabile; appellation; appellative-appellativo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appellation</B> <I>n</I> I. appeal (1. [Law]; 2. as in &quot;the appeal to reason&quot;); II. appellation</P> <LI> <P><B>appellative</B> <I>adj</I> appellative (1. denominative of a class; 2. as in &quot;the appellative faculty of children&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>appellativo</B> <I>n</I> [Gram.] appellative (= common or class name)</P> <LI> <P><B>appello</B> <I>n</I> appeal (1. [Law]; 2. earnest request); <BR> <B>corte de appello</B> Court of Appeal, Appellate Court; <BR> <B>appello nominal</B> roll call</P> <LI> <P><B>appender</B> <I>v</I> 1. to hang up (on, to, onto, etc.); 2. to append <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appendice &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appendice (-&eacute;n-)</B> <I>n</I> appendix (1. appendage; 2. &quot;appendix to a book, etc.&quot;; 3. [Anat.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appendicitis; appendicula-appendicular; appendicectomia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appendic&middot;ectomia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Surg.] appendectomy</P> <LI> <P><B>appendicitis (-&iacute;tis)</B> <I>n</I> appendicitis</P> <LI> <P><B>appendicula</B> <I>n</I> appendicle, small appendix or appendage</P> <LI> <P><B>appendicular</B> <I>adj</I> [Pathol.] appendicular</P> <LI> <P><B>appercept-</B> <I>see</I> <B>apperciper</B></P> <LI> <P><B>apperception</B> <I>n</I> [Psychol.] apperception</P> <LI> <P><B>apperciper [-cip-/-cept-]</B> <I>v</I> to perceive, apprehend (mentally) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apperception</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appertinente</B> <I>adj</I> appurtenant, appertinent</P> <LI> <P><B>appertinentia</B> <I>n</I> [Law] appurtenance</P> <LI> <P><B>appertiner</B> <I>v</I> to appertain</P> <LI> <P><B>appestar</B> <I>v</I> to infect (with a plague)</P> <LI> <P><B>appetente</B> 1. ppr of <B>appeter</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> longing, desirous (of)</P> <LI> <P><B>appetentia</B> <I>n</I> appetency, appetence (= fixed and strong desire); <I>also:</I> appetite</P> <LI> <P><B>appeter</B> <I>v</I> to crave, have a craving for <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appetente-appetentia, inappetente-inappetentia; appetibile; appetive; appetito</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appetibile</B> <I>adj</I> appetible, desirable</P> <LI> <P><B>appetitive</B> <I>adj</I> appetitive (= having appetite; giving appetite)</P> <LI> <P><B>appetito</B> <I>n</I> appetite</P> <LI> <P><B>applanamento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) flattening, smoothing, planing</P> <LI> <P><B>applanar</B> <I>v</I> to flatten, smooth, plane; <BR> <B>applanar difficultates</B> to smooth away difficulties <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> applanamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>applattar</B> <I>v</I> to flatten (= to make flat, bring level)</P> <LI> <P><B>applauder [-plaud-/-plaus-]</B> <I>v</I> to applaud <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> applauso; applauditor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>applauditor</B> <I>n</I> applauder</P> <LI> <P><B>applaus-</B> <I>see</I> <B>applauder</B></P> <LI> <P><B>applauso</B> <I>n</I> applause</P> <LI> <P><B>applicabile</B> <I>adj</I> 1. that can be applied or put on; 2. applicable, appropriate</P> <LI> <P><B>applicabilitate</B> <I>n</I> appropriateness, applicability</P> <LI> <P><B>applicar</B> <I>v</I> to apply (1. to put on; 2. to put to use); <BR> <B>applicar se</B> a to apply oneself, put one's mind to; <BR> <B>scientias applicate</B> applied sciences <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> applicabile-applicabilitate, inapplicabile-inapplicabilitate; application-inapplication</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>application</B> <I>n</I> application (1. act of putting on; 2. act of putting to use; 3. diligence)</P> <LI> <P><B>appoiar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to keep up, prop (up); <I>also:</I> to support, back, aid; <BR> <B>appoiar (un cosa) contra</B> to lean (something) against; <BR> <B>appoiar (un cosa) super</B> to rest (something) on; <BR> <B>appoiar se (super, contra)</B> to lean (on, against) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appoio</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appoio (-&oacute;yo)</B> <I>n</I> support (1. backing, aid; 2. prop, rest, shore)</P> <LI> <P><B>apponer [-pon-/-posit-]</B> <I>v</I> to appose (as in &quot;to appose one's seal to&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apposition; appositivo; apposite</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apportar</B> <I>v</I> to bring</P> <LI> <P><B>apportionamento</B> <I>n</I> apportionment</P> <LI> <P><B>apportionar</B> <I>v</I> to apportion <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apportionamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apposit-</B> <I>see</I> <B>apponer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>apposite (-p&oacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> apposite, relevant</P> <LI> <P><B>apposition</B> <I>n</I> apposition (1. act of placing near; 2. [Gram.]); <BR> <B>in apposition</B> in apposition</P> <LI> <P><B>appositive</B> <I>adj</I> [Gram.] appositive</P> <LI> <P><B>appreciabile</B> <I>adj</I> 1. appreciable; 2. worthy of esteem</P> <LI> <P><B>appreciamento</B> <I>n</I> appraisal</P> <LI> <P><B>appreciar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to appraise (= to estimate the value of); 2. to appreciate (= to esteem highly) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appreciabile-inappreciabile; appreciamento; appreciation; appreciator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appreciation</B> <I>n</I> appreciation (1. appraisal; 2. adequate or high estimation of value)</P> <LI> <P><B>appreciator</B> <I>n</I> 1. appraiser; 2. one who appreciates, esteems highly</P> <LI> <P><B>apprehender [-hend-/-hens-]</B> <I>v</I> to apprehend (1. to seize, arrest; 2. to grasp mentally, understand; 3. to dread) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apprehensibile-apprehensibilitate; apprehension; apprehensive</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apprehens-</B> <I>see</I> <B>apprehender</B></P> <LI> <P><B>apprehensibile</B> <I>adj</I> apprehensible, understandable</P> <LI> <P><B>apprehensibilitate</B> <I>n</I> apprehensibility, understandability</P> <LI> <P><B>apprehension</B> <I>n</I> apprehension (1. act of grasping mentally; 2. dread)</P> <LI> <P><B>apprehensive</B> <I>adj</I> apprehensive (= dreading)</P> <LI> <P><B>apprender</B> <I>v</I> to learn (1. to gain knowledge of, by study or instruction; 2. to acquire information about, find out about) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> disapprender</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apprentissage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> apprenticeship</P> <LI> <P><B>apprentisse</B> <I>n</I> apprentice <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apprentissage</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apprestar</B> <I>v</I> to prepare, make ready <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appresto</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appresto</B> <I>n</I> preparation</P> <LI> <P><B>approbabile</B> <I>adj</I> approvable</P> <LI> <P><B>approbar</B> <I>v</I> to approve, approve of <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> approbabile; approbation; approbative; approbator; approbatori; disapprobar-disapprobation, disapprobator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>approbation</B> <I>n</I> approval, approbation</P> <LI> <P><B>approbative</B> <I>adj</I> approving, approbative</P> <LI> <P><B>approbator</B> <I>n</I> approver</P> <LI> <P><B>approbatori</B> <I>adj</I> approbatory, approbative</P> <LI> <P><B>approchabile (-sh-)</B> <I>adj</I> approachable</P> <LI> <P><B>approchar (-sh-)</B> <I>v</I> to approach (= to come or go near to) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> approche; approchabile</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>approche (-sh-)</B> <I>n</I> approach (= action of approaching); <BR> <B>approches</B> [Mil.] approaches</P> <LI> <P><B>approfundamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (action of) deepening, making deeper in level; 2. (thorough) investigation</P> <LI> <P><B>approfundar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to deepen (= to make deeper in level); 2. to go deeply into, fathom, investigate</P> <LI> <P><B>appropriabile</B> <I>adj</I> 1. that may be appropriated; 2. adaptable</P> <LI> <P><B>appropriar</B> <I>v</I> to adapt; <BR> <B>appropriar se un cosa</B> to appropriate something (= to take something for one's own) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appropriabile; appropriation; appropriate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appropriate</B> 1. pp of <B>appropriar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> appropriate</P> <LI> <P><B>appropriation</B> <I>n</I> 1. appropriation (= action of appropriating); 2. adaptation (= action of adapting)</P> <LI> <P><B>approvisionamento</B> <I>n</I> (act of) supplying, furnishing</P> <LI> <P><B>approvisionar</B> <I>v</I> to supply, furnish, cater</P> <LI> <P><B>approximar</B> <I>v</I> to approximate, bring near; <BR> <B>approximar se (a)</B> to approach, come near <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> approximation; approximative</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>approximation</B> <I>n</I> approximation (1. action of approximating; 2. close estimate)</P> <LI> <P><B>approximative</B> <I>adj</I> approximate, approximative</P> <LI> <P><B>appunctamento</B> <I>n</I> appointment, rendez-vous</P> <LI> <P><B>appunctar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to appoint (as in &quot;to appoint someone to a post&quot;); 2. to point, sharpen <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appunctamento, disappunctar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>appuramento</B> <I>n</I> 1. purification; 2. verification, audit</P> <LI> <P><B>appurar</B> <I>v</I> I. to clear (1. to free from impurities; 2. to free from obligation); II. to free from errors; to verify, audit, etc. <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> appuramento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>april</B> <I>n</I> April</P> <LI> <P><B>a priori [L]</B> <I>adv</I> a priori <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apriorismo; apriorista-aprioristic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>apriorismo</B> <I>n</I> a priori reasoning</P> <LI> <P><B>apriorista</B> <I>n</I> a priori reasoner</P> <LI> <P><B>aprioristic</B> <I>adj</I> a priori</P> <LI> <P><B>apsidal</B> <I>adj</I> apsidal (1. [Astron.]; 2. [Arch.])</P> <LI> <P><B>apside (&aacute;pside)</B> <I>n</I> apse (1. [Astron.] apsis; 2. [Arch.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> apsidal</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aptar</B> <I>v</I> to adapt</P> <LI> <P><B>apte</B> <I>adj</I> apt (= suited to its purpose) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aptitude; aptar-adaptar &amp;; inepte &amp;; inapte-inaptitude</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aptere</B> <I>adj</I> [Entom.] apterous</P> <LI> <P><B>apteros (&aacute;p-)</B> <I>npl</I> [Entom.] Aptera</P> <LI> <P><B>aptitude</B> <I>n</I> aptitude (= natural capacity or propensity)</P> <LI> <P><B>apud (&aacute;-)</B> <I>prep</I> near, with, at, by</P> <LI> <P><B>aqua</B> <I>n</I> water (1. the liquid &quot;water&quot;; 2. limpidity and luster of a precious stone); <BR> <B>aqua de Colonia</B> cologne, eau de Cologne; <BR> <B>aqua forte</B> 1. aqua fortis, nitric acid; 2. etching (= picture printed from etched plate); <BR> <B>aqua pesante</B> heavy water; <BR> <B>via de aqua</B> [Naut.] leak; <BR> <B>facer aqua</B> [Naut.] to leak <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aquarella &amp;; aquario; aquiero; aquatic; aquatile; aquee-terraquee etc; aquose-aquositate; aquar-disaquar-disaquamento; aquamarin etc; aqueducto etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aqua&middot;marin</B> <I>adj</I> aquamarine <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aquamarina</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aquamarina</B> <I>n</I> 1. (the stone) aquamarine; 2. (the color) aquamarine</P> <LI> <P><B>aquar</B> <I>v</I> to water (plants, etc.); to sprinkle (with water)</P> <LI> <P><B>aquarella</B> <I>n</I> water color (painting) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aquarellista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aquarellista</B> <I>n</I> water-color painter</P> <LI> <P><B>aquario</B> <I>n</I> aquarium; <BR> <B>Aquario</B> [Astron.] Aquarius, Water Bearer</P> <LI> <P><B>aquatic</B> <I>adj</I> aquatic</P> <LI> <P><B>aquatile</B> <I>adj</I> aquatic</P> <LI> <P><B>aque&middot;ducto</B> <I>n</I> [Arch.] aqueduct</P> <LI> <P><B>aquee</B> <I>adj</I> aqueous</P> <LI> <P><B>aquiero</B> <I>n</I> drain (= channel or pipe for carrying away water or other liquid)</P> <LI> <P><B>aquila (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> eagle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aquilin</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aquilegia</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] columbine</P> <LI> <P><B>aquilin</B> <I>adj</I> aquiline</P> <LI> <P><B>Aquisgrano</B> <I>npr</I> Aachen, Aix-la-Chapelle</P> <LI> <P><B>aquose</B> <I>adj</I> aqueous, watery</P> <LI> <P><B>aquositate</B> <I>n</I> aquosity, wateriness</P> <LI> <P><B>ar</B> <I>n</I> are (= one hundredth part of a hectare) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> hectar etc.; deciar etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ar</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used instead of <B>-al</B> with nouns containing <B>-l-</B>] -ar (= pertaining to ..., characteristic of ..., etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> lunar etc.; regular etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ar</B> <I>suffixo verbal</I> [used with nouns and adjectives] -ate or zero (as in &quot;to catenate; to chain, etc.&quot;) (1. [with nouns] to make use of ..., to apply ..., etc.; 2. [with adjectives] to render ..., to + '. ., etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> martellar etc.; acierar etc.; examinar etc.; vulnerar etc.; siccar etc.; duplicar etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arabe&sup1; (&aacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> Arab, Arabian, Arabic; <BR> <B>cavallo arabe</B> Arabian horse <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arabe&sup2;-Arabia-arabic, arabismo, arabista, arabesc-arabesco</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arabe&sup2; (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> 1. Arab; 2. Arabic</P> <LI> <P><B>arabesc</B> <I>adj</I> [Art] arabesque</P> <LI> <P><B>arabesco</B> <I>n</I> [Art] arabesque</P> <LI> <P><B>Arabia</B> <I>npr</I> Arabia</P> <LI> <P><B>arabic</B> <I>adj</I> Arab, Arabian, Arabic; <BR> <B>cifra arabic</B> Arabic number; <BR> <B>gumma arabic</B> gum Arabic</P> <LI> <P><B>arabile</B> <I>adj</I> arable</P> <LI> <P><B>arabismo</B> <I>n</I> Arabicism, Arabism, Arabic idiom</P> <LI> <P><B>arabista</B> <I>n</I> Arabist (= student of Arabic language and culture)</P> <LI> <P><B>arachide (-r&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> 1. [Bot.] Arachis; 2. peanut; <BR> <B>oleo de arachide</B> peanut oil <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arachidic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arachidic</B> <I>adj</I> arachidic; <BR> <B>acido arachidic</B> arachidic acid</P> <LI> <P><B>aranea</B> <I>n</I> spider; <BR> <B>tela de aranea</B> cobweb, spider web</P> <LI> <P><B>arar</B> <I>v</I> to plow <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arabile; arator; aratori; aratura</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arator</B> <I>n</I> plower, plowman</P> <LI> <P><B>aratori</B> <I>adj</I> agricultural, farming</P> <LI> <P><B>aratro</B> <I>n</I> plow</P> <LI> <P><B>aratura</B> <I>n</I> 1. (act of) plowing; 2. plowed field</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitrage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> 1. arbitration, arbitrament; 2. [Bank. etc.] arbitrage</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitramento</B> <I>n</I> arbitration, arbitrament</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitrar</B> <I>v</I> to arbitrate</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitrari</B> <I>adj</I> arbitrary</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitrarietate</B> <I>n</I> arbitrariness</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitration</B> <I>n</I> arbitration</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitrator</B> <I>n</I> arbitrator</P> <LI> <P><B>arbitro (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> arbiter; <I>also:</I> umpire <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arbitrari-arbitrarietate; arbitrar-arbitrage, arbitramento, arbitration, arbitrator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arbore</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] tree; <BR> <B>arbore genealogic</B> family tree, genealogical tree <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arboreto; arboretto; arborista; arboree; arborescer-arborescente-arborescentia; arborisar-arborisation, arborisate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arboree</B> <I>adj</I> arboreal, tree</P> <LI> <P><B>arborescente</B> 1. ppr of <B>arborescer</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> [Bot.] arborescent (= of treelike growth)</P> <LI> <P><B>arborescentia</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] arborescence</P> <LI> <P><B>arborescer</B> <I>v</I> [Bot.] to arboresce, grow into a tree</P> <LI> <P><B>arboreto</B> <I>n</I> grove; <I>also:</I> arboretum</P> <LI> <P><B>arboretto</B> <I>n</I> small tree</P> <LI> <P><B>arborisar</B> <I>v</I> to give a treelike appearance to, arborize</P> <LI> <P><B>arborisate</B> 1. pp of <B>arborisar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> [Mineral.] dendritic</P> <LI> <P><B>arborisation</B> <I>n</I> arborization; <I>also:</I> [Mineral.; Anat.; etc.]</P> <LI> <P><B>arborista</B> <I>n</I> arborist</P> <LI> <P><B>arbusto</B> <I>n</I> shrub, bush</P> <LI> <P><B>arca</B> <I>n</I> ark <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arcan &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arcada</B> <I>n</I> 1. archway; 2. arcade</P> <LI> <P><B>Arcadia</B> <I>npr</I> Arcadia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arcadian</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arcadian</B> <I>adj</I> Arcadian</P> <LI> <P><B>arcan</B> <I>adj</I> secret, mysterious <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arcano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arcano</B> <I>n</I> secret, mystery</P> <LI> <P><B>arcar</B> <I>v</I> to arch (1. to cause to arch or curve; 2. to furnish with arches)</P> <LI> <P><B>arch-</B> [occurring in compounds] I. -arch-, -arch (= rule, ruling, ruler, etc.); II. archi-, arche-, arch- (1. chief, principal, leading; 2. primitive, original, archetypal) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anarch- &amp;; archetypo etc.; archiduce etc.; archipresbytero etc.; architrave etc.; hierarcha etc.; patriarcha etc.; syriarcha etc.; tetrarcha etc.; pentarchia etc.; archonte; exarch- &amp;; oligarch- etc.; monarch- etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arch-</B> <I>see also</I> arco</P> <LI> <P><B>archa-</B> <I>see</I> <B>arche-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>archaic (-&aacute;ic)</B> <I>adj</I> archaic</P> <LI> <P><B>archaisar</B> <I>v</I> to archaize</P> <LI> <P><B>archaismo (-&iacute;smo)</B> <I>n</I> archaism</P> <LI> <P><B>archaista (-&iacute;sta)</B> <I>n</I> archaist</P> <LI> <P><B>arch&middot;angelo (-&aacute;n-)</B> <I>n</I> archangel</P> <LI> <P><B>arche-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] archaeo-, archae- (= old) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> archaic; archaisar-archaismo, archaista; archeologo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>archeologia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> archaeology</P> <LI> <P><B>archeologic</B> <I>adj</I> archaeological</P> <LI> <P><B>archeo&middot;logo (-&oacute;lo-)</B> <I>n</I> archaeologist <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> archeologia; archeologic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>archero</B> <I>n</I> archer</P> <LI> <P><B>archetto</B> <I>n</I> (violin) bow</P> <LI> <P><B>arche&middot;typo (-&eacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> archetype</P> <LI> <P><B>archi&middot;diacono (-di&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> archdeacon</P> <LI> <P><B>archiducal</B> <I>adj</I> archducal</P> <LI> <P><B>archiducato</B> <I>n</I> archduchy</P> <LI> <P><B>archi&middot;duce</B> <I>n</I> archduke <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> archiducato; archiduchessa; archiducal</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>archiduchessa</B> <I>n</I> archduchess</P> <LI> <P><B>archiepiscopal</B> <I>adj</I> archiepiscopal</P> <LI> <P><B>archiepiscopato</B> <I>n</I> archiepiscopate; <I>also:</I> archbishopric</P> <LI> <P><B>archi&middot;episcopo (-&iacute;s-)</B> <I>n</I> archbishop <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> archiepiscopato; archiepiscopal</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Archimedes (-m&eacute;-)</B> <I>npr</I> Archimedes; <BR> <B>principio de Archimedes</B> Archimedean principle, Archimedes' principle; <BR> <B>vite de Archimedes</B> Archimedean screw, Archimedes' screw</P> <LI> <P><B>archipelago (-p&eacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> archipelago</P> <LI> <P><B>archi&middot;presbytero (-b&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> archpriest</P> <LI> <P><B>archi&middot;prestre</B> <I>n</I> archpriest</P> <LI> <P><B>architect-</B> <I>see</I> <B>architecton-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>architecto</B> <I>n</I> architect</P> <LI> <P><B>archi&middot;tecton-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives] architecton- (= architect) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> architectonic; architectonica; architecto-architectura</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>architectonic</B> <I>adj</I> architectonic (= architectural; also: constructive)</P> <LI> <P><B>architectonica</B> <I>n</I> architectonics (= science or principles of architecture)</P> <LI> <P><B>architectura</B> <I>n</I> architecture</P> <LI> <P><B>archi&middot;trave</B> <I>n</I> [Arch.] architrave</P> <LI> <P><B>archival</B> <I>adj</I> archival</P> <LI> <P><B>archivamento</B> <I>n</I> (action of) filing in archives</P> <LI> <P><B>archivar</B> <I>v</I> to file in archives</P> <LI> <P><B>archivista</B> <I>n</I> archivist</P> <LI> <P><B>archivo</B> <I>n</I> archive <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> archivista; archival; archivar-archivamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>archi&middot;volta</B> <I>n</I> archivolt</P> <LI> <P><B>archonte</B> <I>n</I> [Gr. Hist.] archon</P> <LI> <P><B>arcion</B> <I>n</I> saddlebow</P> <LI> <P><B>arco</B> <I>n</I> I. arc; II. arch; III. bow (1. weapon for shooting arrows; 2. rod for playing the violin, etc.); <BR> <B>arco triumphal</B> or <B>de triumpho</B> triumphal arch <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arcada; archero; archetto; arcion; arcar; archivolta etc.; arcobalista etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arco&middot;ballista</B> <I>n</I> crossbow</P> <LI> <P><B>arct-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] arct- (= bear) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arctic-antarctic, holarctic etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arctic</B> <I>adj</I> arctic; <BR> <B>polo arctic</B> arctic pole, north pole; <BR> <B>circulo arctic</B> arctic circle; <BR> <B>Oceano Arctic</B> Arctic (Ocean)</P> <LI> <P><B>Arcturo</B> <I>npr</I> [Astron.] Arcturus</P> <LI> <P><B>ardente</B> I. ppr of <B>arder</B>; II. <I>adj</I> ardent (1. burning; 2. fervent)</P> <LI> <P><B>arder</B> <I>v</I> to burn (1. to be on fire; 2. to cause to be consumed by fire) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ardente; ardimento; ardor-ardorose; arditura</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ardesia</B> <I>n</I> slate (1. [Mineral.]; 2. roofing slate; 3. writing slate) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ardesiero; ardesiera; ardesiose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ardesiera</B> <I>n</I> slate quarry</P> <LI> <P><B>ardesiero</B> <I>n</I> slate worker; slate-quarry owner</P> <LI> <P><B>ardesiose</B> <I>adj</I> slate, slaty</P> <LI> <P><B>ardimento</B> <I>n</I> burning (1. being on fire; 2. causing to be consumed by fire)</P> <LI> <P><B>arditura</B> <I>n</I> burn (= hurt, injury, or effect caused by burning)</P> <LI> <P><B>ardor</B> <I>n</I> ardor (1. fierce heat; 2. fervor)</P> <LI> <P><B>ardorose</B> <I>adj</I> ardent, ardurous</P> <LI> <P><B>ardue</B> <I>adj</I> arduous (1. steep; 2. difficult to achieve) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arduitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arduitate</B> <I>n</I> arduousness</P> <LI> <P><B>area</B> <I>n</I> area (1. clear space within a building; 2. surface extent)</P> <LI> <P><B>arena</B> <I>n</I> I. sand; II. arena (1. place of combat; 2. [Med.] gravel) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arenari-arenario; arenero; arenacee; arenose-arenositate; arenar-arenamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arenacee</B> <I>adj</I> sandy, arenaceous</P> <LI> <P><B>arenamento</B> <I>n</I> stranding, grounding</P> <LI> <P><B>arenar</B> <I>v</I> I. to sand (1. to cover with sand; 2. to rub with sand); II. to strand, run aground</P> <LI> <P><B>arenari</B> <I>adj</I> (of) sand; <BR> <B>petra arenari</B> sandstone</P> <LI> <P><B>arenario</B> <I>n</I> sandpit</P> <LI> <P><B>arenero</B> <I>n</I> dealer in sand</P> <LI> <P><B>arenose</B> <I>adj</I> sandy, gravelly; gritty</P> <LI> <P><B>arenositate</B> <I>n</I> sandiness, gravelliness; grittiness</P> <LI> <P><B>areopagita</B> <I>n</I> [Gr. Hist.] Arcopagite</P> <LI> <P><B>Areopago (-&oacute;-)</B> [Gr. Hist.] Areopagus <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> areopagita</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Ares (&aacute;-)</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Ares</P> <LI> <P><B>argentano</B> <I>n</I> argentan, German silver</P> <LI> <P><B>argentar</B> <I>v</I> to silver, cover or plate with silver</P> <LI> <P><B>argentate</B> <I>adj</I> argentate</P> <LI> <P><B>argentator</B> <I>n</I> silverer, silver plater</P> <LI> <P><B>argentee</B> <I>adj</I> silvery (= silver-colored)</P> <LI> <P><B>argenteria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> silver plate</P> <LI> <P><B>argentero</B> <I>n</I> silversmith</P> <LI> <P><B>argentifere</B> <I>adj</I> argentiferous, yielding silver</P> <LI> <P><B>argentin</B> adj. I. silvery, argentine (1. silvercolored; 2. silver-toned); II. Argentine</P> <LI> <P><B>Argentina&sup1;</B> <I>npr</I> Argentina</P> <LI> <P><B>argentina&sup2;</B> <I>n</I> [Zool.] argentine</P> <LI> <P><B>argentino</B> <I>n</I> Argentine, Argentino</P> <LI> <P><B>argento</B> <I>n</I> silver; <BR> <B>argento vive</B> quicksilver, mercury <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> argentano; argentero; argenteria; argentee; argentifere; argentin-argentino, argentina, Argentina; argentose; argentar-argentator, argentate, disargentar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>argentose</B> <I>adj</I> containing silver, argentous</P> <LI> <P><B>argilla</B> <I>n</I> clay, argil <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> argillaria; argillose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>argillaria</B> <I>n</I> clay-pit</P> <LI> <P><B>argillose</B> <I>adj</I> clayey</P> <LI> <P><B>Argo</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Argo <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Argonauta etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>argon (&aacute;r-)</B> <I>n</I> [(Chem.] argon</P> <LI> <P><B>Argo&middot;nauta</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Argonaut; <BR> <B>argonauta</B> 1. pioneer, explorer etc.; 2. [Zool.] argonaut</P> <LI> <P><B>argot [F]</B> <I>n</I> argot; <I>also:</I> slang <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> argotic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>argotic</B> <I>adj</I> argotic; <I>also:</I> slangy (as in &quot;a slangy expression&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>arguer</B> <I>v</I> 1. to argue (= to offer arguments for or against); 2. to show, make clear; 3. to infer <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> argumento &amp;; arguibile; argute &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arguibile</B> <I>adj</I> arguable, debatable</P> <LI> <P><B>argumentar</B> <I>v</I> to argue (= to offer arguments for or against)</P> <LI> <P><B>argumentation</B> <I>n</I> argumentation</P> <LI> <P><B>argumentative</B> <I>adj</I> 1. [Lit.] expository, giving the argument of; 2. argumentative (= containing a process of reasoning)</P> <LI> <P><B>argumento</B> <I>n</I> argument (1. reason offered in proof; 2. summary) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> argumentar-argumentation, argumentative</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>argute</B> <I>adj</I> 1. clear (to the ear); shrill, piercing; 2. keen, quick-witted, subtle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> argutia-argutiose, argutiar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>argutia</B> <I>n</I> 1. quick-wittedness; subtlety; 2. quibble, cavil; 3. witticism</P> <LI> <P><B>argutiar</B> <I>v</I> to quibble, cavil</P> <LI> <P><B>argutiose</B> <I>adj</I> quibbling, caviling</P> <LI> <P><B>argyr&middot;anthe</B> <I>adj</I> argyranthous</P> <LI> <P><B>argyric</B> <I>adj</I> argyric</P> <LI> <P><B>argyrite</B> <I>n</I> [Mineral.] argyrite</P> <LI> <P><B>argyro-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] argyro-, argyr- (= silver) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> argyrite; argyric; argyroneta etc.; argyranthe etc.; lithargyro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>argyro&middot;neta</B> <I>n</I> [Zool.] Argyroneta, water spider</P> <LI> <P><B>-ari</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with nouns] -ary (= pertaining to ..., consisting of ..., etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> -ario; legendari etc.; cotonari etc.; sanitari etc.; nonagenari etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aria [I]</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] aria <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arietta; ariose-arioso</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Ariadna</B> <I>nprf</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Ariadne; <BR> <B>filo de Ariadna</B> Ariadne's clew</P> <LI> <P><B>aride (&aacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> arid <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ariditate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ariditate</B> <I>n</I> aridity</P> <LI> <P><B>Aries (&aacute;-)</B> <I>npr</I> [Astron.] Aries, Ram</P> <LI> <P><B>arietar</B> <I>v</I> to ram</P> <LI> <P><B>arietari</B> <I>adj</I> ram, ram's (= of a ram or battering ram)</P> <LI> <P><B>arietation</B> <I>n</I> ramming, arietation</P> <LI> <P><B>ariete</B> <I>n</I> 1. ram; 2. battering ram; <I>also:</I> [Rom. Antiq.] aries; <BR> <B>ariete hydraulic</B> hydraulic ram; <BR> <B>Ariete</B> [Astron.] Aries, Ram <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arietari; arietar-arietation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arietta</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] arietta</P> <LI> <P><B>-ario&sup1;</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with nouns] -ary, -arian, -aire (= person concerned with ... or characterized by ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> missionario etc.; pensionario etc.; millionario etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ario&sup2;</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with nouns] -ary, -arium (1. collection of ...; 2. place containing ... or place containing a collection of ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aquario etc.; aviario etc.; granario etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ariose</B> <I>adj</I> [Mus.] ariose, arioso</P> <LI> <P><B>arioso</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] arioso</P> <LI> <P><B>arist-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in compounds] aristo-, arist- (= best) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aristocrate etc.; aristocratia etc.; aristocratic etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aristo&middot;crate (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> aristocrat</P> <LI> <P><B>aristo&middot;cratia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> aristocracy</P> <LI> <P><B>aristo&middot;cratic</B> <I>adj</I> aristocratic</P> <LI> <P><B>Aristotele</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Philos.] Aristotle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aristotelismo; aristotelic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aristotelic</B> <I>adj</I> Aristotelian</P> <LI> <P><B>aristotelismo</B> <I>n</I> Aristotelianism</P> <LI> <P><B>arithme-</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives]</P> <LI> <P><B>arithmetic</B> <I>adj</I> arithmetic, arithmetical</P> <LI> <P><B>arithmetica</B> <I>n</I> arithmetic; <BR> <B>arithmetica superior</B> higher arithmetic</P> <LI> <P><B>arithmetico</B> <I>n</I> arithmetician</P> <LI> <P><B>arithmo-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] arithmo-, arithm- (= number) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arithme-arithmetic-arithmetico, arithmetica; arithmometro etc.; arithmomantia etc.; logarithmo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arithmo&middot;mantia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> arithmomancy</P> <LI> <P><B>arithmo&middot;metro (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> arithmometer</P> <LI> <P><B>Arlequin</B> <I>npr</I> Harlequin; <BR> <B>arlequin</B> harlequin, buffoon <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arlequinada</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arlequinada</B> <I>n</I> harlequinade; <I>also:</I> buffoonery</P> <LI> <P><B>arma</B> <I>n</I> arm (1. weapon; 2. branch of the military service); <BR> <B>armas blanc</B> side-arms; <BR> <B>armas de foco</B> fire-arms; <BR> <B>homine de armas</B> man-at-arms; <BR> <B>prender le armas</B> to take up arms; <BR> <B>armas</B> [Her.] arms <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> armero; armar-armamento, armatura, armea, disarmar-disarmamento, rearmar-rearmamento; armistitio etc.; armipotente etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>armamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. armament (= equipment with arms); 2. commissioning (of a ship)</P> <LI> <P><B>armar</B> <I>v</I> to arm (1. to supply with weapons; 2. to equip, fit out); <BR> <B>armar un persona cavallero</B> to dub someone a knight; <BR> <B>armar se de patientia</B> to exercise patience</P> <LI> <P><B>armario</B> <I>n</I> wardrobe, cupboard</P> <LI> <P><B>armatura</B> <I>n</I> 1. armor; 2. [Magnet., Elec.] armature; 3. frame, framework</P> <LI> <P><B>armea (-&eacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> army; <BR> <B>armea aeree</B> air force</P> <LI> <P><B>Armenia</B> <I>npr</I> Armenia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> armeniaca; armenie-armenio</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>armeniaca (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> apricot</P> <LI> <P><B>armenie</B> <I>adj</I> Armenian</P> <LI> <P><B>armenio&sup1;</B> <I>n</I> Armenian (1. Armenian language; 2. inhabitant of Armenia)</P> <LI> <P><B>armenio&sup2;</B> <I>n</I> ermine (1. the animal &quot;ermine&quot;; 2. ermine fur)</P> <LI> <P><B>armero</B> <I>n</I> armorer (1. manufacturer of arms; 2. official in charge of armament or arms)</P> <LI> <P><B>armi&middot;potente</B> <I>adj</I> armipotent</P> <LI> <P><B>armi&middot;stitio</B> <I>n</I> armistice</P> <LI> <P><B>aroma [-ma/-mat-]</B> <I>n</I> aroma <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aromatic; aromatisar-aromatisation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aromat-</B> <I>see</I> <B>aroma</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aromate (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> aroma <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aromatic; aromatisar-aromatisation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aromatic</B> <I>adj</I> aromatic, fragrant</P> <LI> <P><B>aromatisar</B> <I>v</I> to aromatize</P> <LI> <P><B>aromatisation</B> <I>n</I> aromatization</P> <LI> <P><B>arpeggio [I]</B> <I>n</I> [Mus.] arpeggio</P> <LI> <P><B>arrangiamento (-ja-)</B> <I>n</I> arrangement (1. order; 2. preparation, plan)</P> <LI> <P><B>arrangiar (-ja-)</B> <I>v</I> to arrange (1. to set in order; 2. to contrive; 3. to settle, straighten out); <BR> <B>arrangiar se</B> to manage, get along <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arrangiamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arrentar</B> <I>v</I> to rent or let (for hire)</P> <LI> <P><B>arrestar</B> <I>v</I> to arrest (1. to stop, bring to a standstill; 2. to seize (someone) by legal authority) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arresto; arrestation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arrestation</B> <I>n</I> 1. arresting, stopping (= bringing to a standstill); 2. arrest (= act of seizing someone by legal authority)</P> <LI> <P><B>arresto</B> <I>n</I> 1. arresting, stopping (= bringing to a standstill); 2. arrest (= apprehension by legal authority)</P> <LI> <P><B>arretrar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to draw backwards; 2. to delay; <BR> <B>arretrar se</B> 1. to withdraw, draw (oneself) back; 2. to be behindhand or in arrears</P> <LI> <P><B>arretrate</B> 1. pp of <B>arretrar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> behindhand, in arrears; <BR> <B>pagamento arretrate</B> overdue payment; <BR> <B>soldo arretrate</B> [Mil.] back pay</P> <LI> <P><B>arretrato</B> <I>n</I> arrears</P> <LI> <P><B>arrha</B> <I>n</I> [Law] earnest, earnest money</P> <LI> <P><B>arrivar</B> <I>v</I> to arrive <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arrivismo; arrivista; arrivata</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arrivata</B> <I>n</I> arrival</P> <LI> <P><B>arrivismo</B> <I>n</I> unscrupulous ambition</P> <LI> <P><B>arrivista</B> <I>n</I> (social) climber</P> <LI> <P><B>arrogante</B> <I>adj</I> arrogant</P> <LI> <P><B>arrogantia</B> <I>n</I> arrogance</P> <LI> <P><B>arrogar</B> <I>v</I> to arrogate (1. [Rom. Law] to adrogate; 2. to claim as one's own); <BR> <B>arrogar se</B> to arrogate to oneself <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arrogante-arrogantia; arrogation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arrogation</B> <I>n</I> arrogation (1. act of making exorbitant claims; 2. [Rom. Law])</P> <LI> <P><B>arrotundar</B> <I>v</I> to round, make round</P> <LI> <P><B>arrugar</B> <I>v</I> to wrinkle, crease; <BR> <B>arrugar le fronte</B> to frown</P> <LI> <P><B>arsen-</B> <I>see</I> <B>arsenico</B></P> <LI> <P><B>arsenal</B> <I>n</I> 1. dockyard; 2. arsenal</P> <LI> <P><B>arsenical</B> <I>adj</I> arsenical; [Chem.] arsenic</P> <LI> <P><B>arsenico</B> <I>n</I> arsenic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arsenical; arsenite; arsenium; arseniose-arseniophosphato etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arsenio-</B> <I>see</I> <B>arseniose</B></P> <LI> <P><B>arsenio&middot;phosphato</B> <I>n</I> arseniophosphate</P> <LI> <P><B>arseniose</B> <I>adj</I> arsenious</P> <LI> <P><B>arsenio&middot;sulfato</B> <I>n</I> arseniosulfate</P> <LI> <P><B>arsenite</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] arsenite</P> <LI> <P><B>arsenium (-s&eacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> arsenium, arsenic</P> <LI> <P><B>arte</B> <I>n</I> art (1. &quot;fine art&quot;; 2. skill); <BR> <B>opera de arte</B> work of art; <BR> <B>artes liberal</B> liberal arts; <BR> <B>belle artes</B> fine arts <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> artisano; artista-artistic; artifice etc.; artefacto etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arte&middot;facto</B> <I>n</I> artifact, man-made product</P> <LI> <P><B>arteria</B> <I>n</I> artery <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arterial; arteriosclerosis etc.; arteriotomia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arterial</B> <I>adj</I> arterial; <BR> <B>sanguine arterial</B> arterial blood; <BR> <B>pression arterial</B> blood pressure</P> <LI> <P><B>arterio&middot;sclerosis (-&oacute;sis)</B> <I>n</I> arteriosclerosis</P> <LI> <P><B>arterio&middot;tomia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> arteriotomy</P> <LI> <P><B>arthritic</B> <I>adj</I> [Pathol.] arthritic</P> <LI> <P><B>arthritis (-&iacute;tis)</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] arthritis</P> <LI> <P><B>arthritismo</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] arthritism</P> <LI> <P><B>arthro-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] arthro- (= joint) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arthritis-arthritismo, arthritic; arthropode etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arthro&middot;pode (-r&oacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> arthropod <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> arthropodo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arthropodo (-r&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> arthropod; arthropodos [Zool.] Arthropoda</P> <LI> <P><B>artichoc</B> <I>n</I> artichoke</P> <LI> <P><B>articulabile</B> <I>adj</I> pronounceable (that can be articulated)</P> <LI> <P><B>articular&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> articular</P> <LI> <P><B>articular&sup2;</B> <I>v</I> to articulate (1. to form, move in, a joint; 2. to speak distinctly)</P> <LI> <P><B>articulate</B> <I>adj</I> articulate (1. jointed; 2. uttered in distinct syllables)</P> <LI> <P><B>articulation</B> <I>n</I> articulation (1. [Anat.] joint; 2. enunciation)</P> <LI> <P><B>articulista</B> <I>n</I> writer of articles</P> <LI> <P><B>articulo</B> <I>n</I> I. [Anat.] joint; II. article (1. paragraph, section; 2. &quot;article in a magazine, newspapcr, etc.); 3. &quot;article of merchandise&quot;; 4. [Gram]); <BR> <B>articulo de fide</B> article of faith; <BR> <B>articulo de fundo</B> editorial, leading article; <BR> <B>articulo definite (indefinite)</B> definite (indefinite) article <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> articulista; articular&sup1;; articular&sup2;-articulabile-inarticulabile, articulation, articulate-inarticulate, multiarticulate etc., multarticulate etc.; disarticular-disarticulation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>arti&middot;fice (-t&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> artificer (= skilled or artistic worker) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> artificio-artificial, artificiose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>artificial</B> <I>adj</I> artificial; <BR> <B>seta artificial</B> rayon</P> <LI> <P><B>artificio</B> <I>n</I> artifice, trick; <BR> <B>foco de artificio</B> fireworks</P> <LI> <P><B>artificiose</B> <I>adj</I> artful, crafty</P> <LI> <P><B>artillar</B> <I>v</I> to arm (= to equip with artillery) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> artilleria-artillerista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>artilleria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> artillery; ordnance, gunnery; <BR> <B>artilleria de campania</B> field artillery; <BR> <B>artilleria a cavallo</B> horse artillery</P> <LI> <P><B>artillerista</B> <I>n</I> artilleryman</P> <LI> <P><B>artisano</B> <I>n</I> artisan</P> <LI> <P><B>artista</B> <I>n</I> artist</P> <LI> <P><B>artistic</B> <I>adj</I> artistic</P> <LI> <P><B>Arya [Skr.]</B> <I>n</I> Arya, Aryan <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aryan-aryano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aryan</B> <I>adj</I> Aryan (1. Indo-Iranian; 2. Indo-European)</P> <LI> <P><B>aryano</B> <I>n</I> Aryan (1. Indo-Iranian; 2. Indo-European)</P> <LI> <P><B>asbesto</B> <I>n</I> asbestos</P> <LI> <P><B>ascendente</B> <I>n</I> 1. ancestor; 2. ascendant, ascendancy</P> <LI> <P><B>ascendentia</B> <I>n</I> ancestry (= ancestral lineage)</P> <LI> <P><B>ascender [-scend-/-scens-]</B> <I>v</I> to ascend <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ascendente-ascendentia; ascension-ascensional, ascensionista; ascensor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ascens-</B> <I>see</I> <B>ascender</B></P> <LI> <P><B>ascension</B> <I>n</I> ascent, ascension; <BR> <B>le Ascension</B> the Ascension</P> <LI> <P><B>ascensional</B> <I>adj</I> ascensional</P> <LI> <P><B>ascensionista</B> <I>n</I> mountain climber, ascensionist</P> <LI> <P><B>ascensor</B> <I>n</I> elevator, lift</P> <LI> <P><B>ascese</B> <I>n</I> ascetic practice; asceticism</P> <LI> <P><B>asceta</B> <I>n</I> ascetic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ascetismo; ascetic; ascetica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ascetic</B> <I>adj</I> ascetic, ascetical</P> <LI> <P><B>ascetica</B> <I>n</I> ascetics; ascetical theology</P> <LI> <P><B>ascetismo</B> <I>n</I> asceticism</P> <LI> <P><B>asclepiadaceas</B> <I>npl</I> [Bot.] Asclepiadaceae</P> <LI> <P><B>asclepiades (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>npl</I> [Bot.] Asclepias</P> <LI> <P><B>Asclepio</B> <I>nprm</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Asclepius <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> asclepiades-asclepiadaceas</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ascolta</B> <I>n</I> 1. listening, hearing; 2. eavesdropping; 3. listening place or post</P> <LI> <P><B>ascoltamento</B> <I>n</I> listening</P> <LI> <P><B>ascoltar</B> <I>v</I> to listen to (1. to hearken to; 2. to mind, heed) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ascolta; ascoltamento; ascoltator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ascoltator</B> <I>n</I> listener</P> <LI> <P><B>ascriber [-scrib-/-script-]</B> <I>v</I> to ascribe, attribute <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ascription</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ascript-</B> <I>see</I> <B>ascriber</B></P> <LI> <P><B>ascription</B> <I>n</I> ascription</P> <LI> <P><B>asepsis</B> <I>n</I> asepsis</P> <LI> <P><B>aseptic</B> <I>adj</I> aseptic</P> <LI> <P><B>aseptico</B> <I>n</I> aseptic</P> <LI> <P><B>asexual</B> <I>adj</I> asexual, sexless</P> <LI> <P><B>Asia</B> <I>npr</I> Asia (1. Roman Province in Asia Minor; 2. the continent Asia); <BR> <B>Asia Minor</B> Asia Minor <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> asiatic-asiatico; Australasia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asiatic</B> <I>adj</I> Asiatic (1. pertaining to Asia; 2. [Rhet.] florid, ornate)</P> <LI> <P><B>asiatico</B> <I>n</I> Asiatic</P> <LI> <P><B>asineria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> 1. asininity; 2. asinine act</P> <LI> <P><B>asinero</B> <I>n</I> donkey driver</P> <LI> <P><B>asinin</B> <I>adj</I> asinine</P> <LI> <P><B>asininitate</B> <I>n</I> asininity</P> <LI> <P><B>asino (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> donkey, ass <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> asinero; asineria; asinin-asininitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asparago (-p&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> asparagus; <BR> <B>asparago plumose</B> asparagus fern</P> <LI> <P><B>aspect-</B> <I>see</I> <B>aspic-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aspecto</B> <I>n</I> aspect (1. look, appearance; 2. &quot;one of the aspects of a question&quot;; 3. [Astrol.])</P> <LI> <P><B>asperar</B> <I>v</I> to make rough, roughen</P> <LI> <P><B>aspere (&aacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> rough, harsh <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> asperitate; asperar-exasperar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asperger [-sperg-/-spers-]</B> <I>v</I> to besprinkle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aspersion; aspersorio</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asperitate</B> <I>n</I> roughness, harshness, asperity</P> <LI> <P><B>aspers-</B> <I>see</I> <B>asperger</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aspersion</B> <I>n</I> (act of) sprinkling, aspersion</P> <LI> <P><B>aspersorio</B> <I>n</I> [Eccl.] aspergillum</P> <LI> <P><B>asphalto</B> <I>n</I> asphalt</P> <LI> <P><B>aspic [F]</B> <I>n</I> [Cookery] aspic</P> <LI> <P><B>aspic- [-spic-/-spect-]</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aspecto</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aspirante</B> <I>n</I> 1. aspirant; 2. [Mil., Nav.] midshipman, cadet, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>aspirar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to aspire (= to desire earnestly); 2. [Phonet.] to aspirate; 3. to inhale; <BR> <B>aspirar a</B> to aspire to <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aspirante; aspiration; aspirator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aspiration</B> <I>n</I> I. aspiration (1. desire for; 2. [Phonet.] action of aspirating); II. inspiration, inhaling</P> <LI> <P><B>aspirator</B> <I>n</I> 1. [Mech.] aspirator; 2. vacuum cleaner</P> <LI> <P><B>aspirina</B> <I>n</I> aspirin</P> <LI> <P><B>asplenio</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] Asplenium; <I>also:</I> spleenwort</P> <LI> <P><B>assalir [-sal-/-salt-]</B> <I>v</I> to attack, assail <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assalto-assaltar-assaltator; assalitor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assalitor</B> <I>n</I> attacker, assailant, assailer</P> <LI> <P><B>assalt-</B> <I>see</I> <B>assalir</B></P> <LI> <P><B>assaltar</B> <I>v</I> to attack, assault, assail</P> <LI> <P><B>assaltator</B> <I>n</I> attacker, assaulter, assailant</P> <LI> <P><B>assalto</B> <I>n</I> attack, assault</P> <LI> <P><B>assassinamento</B> <I>n</I> murder(ing), assassinating</P> <LI> <P><B>assassinar</B> <I>v</I> to assassinate, murder</P> <LI> <P><B>assassination</B> <I>n</I> assassination</P> <LI> <P><B>assassinato</B> <I>n</I> murder</P> <LI> <P><B>assassinator</B> <I>n</I> assassin, murderer</P> <LI> <P><B>assassino</B> <I>n</I> 1. Assassin; 2. assassin, murderer; <I>attrib.</I> murderous, killing <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assassinar-assassinamento, assassination, assassinator, assassinato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assatis (-s&aacute;-)</B> <I>adv</I> 1. enough; 2. rather (= fairly, quite)</P> <LI> <P><B>asse</B> <I>n</I> I. [Rom. Antiq.] as; II. ace (1. [Cards, Dice, etc.]; 2. highly skilled person; <I>also:</I> [Aviation])</P> <LI> <P><B>assecurabile</B> <I>adj</I> insurable</P> <LI> <P><B>assecurantia</B> <I>n</I> 1. assurance (= positive statement); 2. [Com.] insurance</P> <LI> <P><B>assecurar</B> <I>v</I> I. to secure (= to make firm or fast); II. to assure (= to state positively); III. [Com.] to insure; <BR> <B>assecurar se de un cosa</B> to make sure of, ascertain, something; <BR> <B>assecurar se de un persona</B> to lay hold of, apprehend, a person; <BR> <B>assecurar se que</B> to make sure that <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assecurantia; assecurabile; assecurator; reassecurar-reassecurantia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assecurator</B> <I>n</I> insurer, assurer, underwriter</P> <LI> <P><B>assediar</B> <I>v</I> to besiege</P> <LI> <P><B>assediator</B> <I>n</I> besieger</P> <LI> <P><B>assedio</B> <I>n</I> siege (= act of besieging) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assediar-assediator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assemblar</B> <I>v</I> to assemble (= to gather or fit together) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assemblea; reassemblar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assemblea (-&eacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> assembly, meeting</P> <LI> <P><B>assentimento</B> <I>n</I> assent</P> <LI> <P><B>assentir</B> <I>v</I> to assent <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assentimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asserer [-ser-/-sert-]</B> <I>v</I> to assert, affirm <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assertion; assertive; assertor; assertori</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assert-</B> <I>see</I> <B>asserer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>assertion</B> <I>n</I> assertion, affirmation</P> <LI> <P><B>assertive</B> <I>adj</I> assertive, affirmative</P> <LI> <P><B>assertor</B> <I>n</I> asserter, assertor</P> <LI> <P><B>assertori</B> <I>adj</I> assertory, affirming</P> <LI> <P><B>assess-</B> <I>see</I> <B>assider</B></P> <LI> <P><B>assessor</B> <I>n</I> assessor (as in &quot;assessor to a judge, magistrate, etc.&quot;)</P> <LI> <P><B>assetar</B> <I>v</I> to make thirsty</P> <LI> <P><B>assetate</B> 1. pp of <B>assetar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> thirsty, thirsting</P> <LI> <P><B>asseverar</B> <I>v</I> to affirm positively, asseverate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> asseverative</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asseverative</B> <I>adj</I> asseverating, asseverative</P> <LI> <P><B>[as&middot;si] (-s&iacute;)</B> <I>adv</I> thus, so; <BR> <B>assi . . como</B> as ... as; <BR> <B>(un libro) assi (belle)</B> so (beautiful a book), such (a beautiful book) (= <B>si</B>)</P> <LI> <P><B>assider [-sid-/-sess-]</B> <I>v</I> to sit (by or near) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assidue &amp;; assessor</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assidue</B> <I>adj</I> assiduous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assiduitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assiduitate</B> <I>n</I> assiduity</P> <LI> <P><B>assignabile</B> <I>adj</I> assignable</P> <LI> <P><B>assignar</B> <I>v</I> to assign (1. to allot; 2. to fix, determine) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assignabile; assignation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assignation</B> <I>n</I> assignation, assignment (1. act of allotting; 2. [Law] transfer of property, a right, etc.)</P> <LI> <P><B>assimilabile</B> <I>adj</I> assimilable</P> <LI> <P><B>assimilar</B> <I>v</I> I. to assimilate (1. to make like; 2. to absorb); II. to liken, compare <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assimilabile; assimilation; assimilative; assimilator; disassimilar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assimilation</B> <I>n</I> I. assimilation (1. action of making like; 2. absorption); II. likening, comparison</P> <LI> <P><B>assimilative</B> <I>adj</I> assimilative</P> <LI> <P><B>assimilator</B> <I>n</I> [Physiol.] assimilator</P> <LI> <P><B>assistente</B> <I>n</I> assistant</P> <LI> <P><B>assistentia</B> <I>n</I> 1. assistance; 2. attendance; <BR> <B>assistentia public</B> (poor) relief; <BR> <B>assistentia social</B> social welfare</P> <LI> <P><B>assister</B> <I>v</I> to assist, help; <BR> <B>assister a</B> to attend, be present at <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assistente-assistentia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>associar</B> <I>v</I> to associate (= to connect, combine) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> association; associato; disassociar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>association</B> <I>n</I> association (1. act of connecting, combining; 2. group of people joined together for some purpose)</P> <LI> <P><B>associato</B> <I>n</I> 1. associate (= business partner); 2. member of an association</P> <LI> <P><B>assonante</B> 1. ppr of <B>assonar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> assonant</P> <LI> <P><B>assonantia</B> <I>n</I> assonance; <I>also:</I> [Pros.]</P> <LI> <P><B>assonar</B> <I>v</I> to assonate (= to put or be in assonance) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assonante-assonantia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assortimento</B> <I>n</I> assortment (= collection of various kinds of goods)</P> <LI> <P><B>assortir</B> <I>v</I> to sort, assort <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assortimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assumer [-sum-/-sumpt-]</B> <I>v</I> to assume (= to take to or upon oneself) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assumption; reassumer</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assumpt-</B> <I>see</I> <B>assumer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>assumption</B> <I>n</I> assumption (1. taking to or upon oneself; 2. [Logic]); <BR> <B>le Assumption</B> [Eccl.] the Assumption</P> <LI> <P><B>assurdar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to deafen (= to stun with noise); 2. to mute, muffle</P> <LI> <P><B>Assyria</B> <I>npr</I> Assyria <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assyrie-assyrio; assyriologo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>assyrie</B> <I>adj</I> Assyrian</P> <LI> <P><B>assyrio</B> <I>n</I> Assyrian</P> <LI> <P><B>assyriologia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> Assyriology</P> <LI> <P><B>assyrio&middot;logo (-&oacute;logo)</B> <I>n</I> Assyriologist, Assyriologue <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> assyriologia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astere</B> <I>n</I> I. star (1. heavenly body; 2. starshaped figure, etc.); II. [Bot.] aster <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> asteria; asterisco; asterismo; asteroide</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asteria</B> <I>n</I> 1. starfish; 2. asteriated opal</P> <LI> <P><B>asterisco</B> <I>n</I> [Print.] asterisk</P> <LI> <P><B>asterismo</B> <I>n</I> [Astron.] asterism</P> <LI> <P><B>asteroide</B> <I>n</I> [Astron.] asteroid</P> <LI> <P><B>asthen-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in derivatives] asthen- (= weak)</P> <LI> <P><B>asthenia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> asthenia</P> <LI> <P><B>asthenic</B> <I>adj</I> asthenic</P> <LI> <P><B>asthenico</B> <I>n</I> asthenic</P> <LI> <P><B>asthma [-ma/-mat-]</B> <I>n</I> asthma <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> asthmatic-antiasthmatic; asthmatico</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>asthmat-</B> <I>see</I> <B>asthma</B></P> <LI> <P><B>asthmatic</B> <I>adj</I> asthmatic</P> <LI> <P><B>asthmatico</B> <I>n</I> asthmatic</P> <LI> <P><B>astigmatic</B> <I>adj</I> astigmatic</P> <LI> <P><B>astigmatismo</B> <I>n</I> astigmatism</P> <LI> <P><B>-astra</B> <I>suffixo substantive fem</I> [used with nouns] step- (as in &quot;stepmother&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> matrastra</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astral</B> <I>adj</I> astral; <BR> <B>corpore astral</B> astral body</P> <LI> <P><B>astrict-</B> <I>see</I> <B>astringer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>astriction</B> <I>n</I> astriction</P> <LI> <P><B>astrictive</B> <I>adj</I> astringent, astrictive</P> <LI> <P><B>astringente&sup1;</B> 1. ppr of <B>astringer</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> astringent</P> <LI> <P><B>astringente&sup2;</B> <I>n</I> astringent</P> <LI> <P><B>astringentia</B> <I>n</I> astringency</P> <LI> <P><B>astringer [-string-/-strict-]</B> <I>v</I> to astringe <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> astringente-astringentia; astriction; astrictive</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astro</B> <I>n</I> star (1. heavenly body; 2. starshaped figure, etc.) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> astral; disastro &amp;; astrophotographia etc.; astrolatria etc.; astrophysic etc.; astronomo etc.; astrolabio etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-astro</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with nouns] 1. -aster (= inferior or worthless ...); 2. step- (as in &quot;stepfather&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> -astra; poetastro etc.; patrastro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astro&middot;labio</B> <I>n</I> astrolabe</P> <LI> <P><B>astro&middot;latria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> astrolatry</P> <LI> <P><B>astrologia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> astrology</P> <LI> <P><B>astrologic</B> <I>adj</I> astrological</P> <LI> <P><B>astro&middot;logo (-tr&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> astrologer <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> astrologia; astrologic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astronomia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> astronomy</P> <LI> <P><B>astronomic</B> <I>adj</I> astronomic, astronomical</P> <LI> <P><B>astro&middot;nomo (-tr&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> astronomer <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> astronomia; astronomic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astro&middot;photographia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> astrophotography <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> astrophotographic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astrophotographic</B> <I>adj</I> astrophotographic</P> <LI> <P><B>astro&middot;physic</B> <I>adj</I> astrophysical <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> astrophysica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astrophysica</B> <I>n</I> astrophysics</P> <LI> <P><B>astute</B> <I>adj</I> astute (1. sagacious; 2. crafty) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> astutia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>astutia</B> <I>n</I> astuteness; <I>also:</I> wiliness, cunning</P> <LI> <P><B>asylo</B> <I>n</I> asylum (1. shelter, refuge; 2. institution for protection or relief); <BR> <B>derecto de asylo</B> right of sanctuary; <BR> <B>asylo de nocte</B> night-shelter, flop-house</P> <LI> <P><B>asymmetre (-s&iacute;m-)</B> <I>adj</I> asymmetric, asymmetrical</P> <LI> <P><B>asymmetria (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> asymmetry</P> <LI> <P><B>asymmetric</B> <I>adj</I> asymmetric</P> <LI> <P><B>-ata</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with nouns] -ful (= contents of or quantity contained in one ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> buccata etc.; carrettata etc.; coclearata etc.; furcata etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atavic</B> <I>adj</I> atavistic</P> <LI> <P><B>atavismo</B> <I>n</I> atavism</P> <LI> <P><B>atavista</B> <I>n</I> atavist</P> <LI> <P><B>atavistic</B> <I>adj</I> atavistic</P> <LI> <P><B>atavo (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> forefather, ancestor <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atavismo; atavista-atavistic; atavic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ataxia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Pathol.] ataxia, ataxy; <BR> <B>ataxia locomotor</B> locomotor ataxia</P> <LI> <P><B>-ate</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with nouns] -ate, -ated, -ed (= having a ... or ...s) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> litterate etc.; vertebrate etc.; decorate etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atele (-t&eacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> spider monkey; Ateles</P> <LI> <P><B>-atelia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> philatelia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atettar</B> <I>n</I> to give the breast to, suckle</P> <LI> <P><B>athee</B> <I>adj</I> atheist, atheistic; godless <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atheismo; atheista; atheo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atheismo</B> <I>n</I> atheism</P> <LI> <P><B>atheista</B> <I>n</I> atheist</P> <LI> <P><B>athematic</B> <I>adj</I> athematic; <I>specif.:</I> [Gram., Mus.]</P> <LI> <P><B>Athena</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Athena <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Atheneo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Athenas (-t&eacute;-)</B> <I>npr</I> Athens <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atheniese</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Atheneo (-&eacute;o)</B> <I>npr</I> Athenaeum (1. [Gr. Hist.]; 2. [Rom. Hist.]); <BR> <B>atheneo</B> athenaeum (= meeting place or organization for the study of letters)</P> <LI> <P><B>atheniese</B> <I>adj/n</I> Athenian</P> <LI> <P><B>atheo</B> <I>n</I> atheist</P> <LI> <P><B>athleta</B> <I>n</I> athlete <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> athletismo; athletic; athletica</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>athletic</B> <I>adj</I> athletic</P> <LI> <P><B>athletica</B> <I>n</I> athletics</P> <LI> <P><B>athletismo</B> <I>n</I> athleticism; athletics</P> <LI> <P><B>athlo-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] athlo- (= contest) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> pentathlo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ation</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>; <I>note:</I> <B>-ation</B> + <B>-ose</B> = <B>-atiose</B>] -ation (= action or result of ...ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> deviation etc.; installation etc.; ventilation etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-ative</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -ative (1. tending to ...; 2. having the function of ...ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> comparative etc.; cooperative etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Atlanta</B> <I>npr</I> Atlanta</P> <LI> <P><B>Atlante</B> <I>npr</I> [Gr. Mythol.] Atlas; <BR> <B>atlante</B> atlas (1. [Arch.]; 2. [Anat.]) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Atlantida; atlantic; Atlanta</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atlantic</B> <I>adj</I> Atlantic (as in &quot;Atlantic coast&quot;); <BR> <B>Oceano Atlantic</B> or <B>le Atlantico</B> Atlantic Ocean, the Atlantic</P> <LI> <P><B>Atlantida (-l&aacute;n-)</B> <I>npr</I> Atlantis</P> <LI> <P><B>Atlas (&aacute;t-)</B> <I>npr</I> 1. [Gr. Mythol.] Atlas; 2. [Geog.] Atlas Mountains; <BR> <B>atlas</B> atlas (= book of maps)</P> <LI> <P><B>atmo-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in compounds] atmo- (= steam, vapor) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atmosphera etc...</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atmo&middot;sphera</B> <I>n</I> atmosphere</P> <LI> <P><B>atmospheric</B> <I>adj</I> atmospheric, atmospherical</P> <LI> <P><B>-ato</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with titles, designations of rank, etc.] -ate, -dom (= function, status, rank, jurisdiction, period of office, or territory of a ...) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> ducato etc.; episcopato etc.; noviciato etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atollo</B> <I>n</I> atoll</P> <LI> <P><B>atomic</B> <I>adj</I> atomic; <BR> <B>peso atomic</B> atomic weight</P> <LI> <P><B>atomicitate</B> <I>n</I> atomicity</P> <LI> <P><B>atomisar</B> <I>v</I> to atomize (= to reduce to atoms)</P> <LI> <P><B>atomismo</B> <I>n</I> [Philos.] atomism</P> <LI> <P><B>atomista</B> <I>n</I> atomist</P> <LI> <P><B>atomistic</B> <I>adj</I> atomistic</P> <LI> <P><B>atomo (&aacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> atom <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atomismo; atomista-atomistic; atomic-atomicitate, polyatomic etc., pentatomic etc.; atomisar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atone</B> <I>adj</I> 1. [Med.] atonic; 2. unstressed <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atonia; atonic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atonia (-&iacute;a)</B> atony (1. [Med.]; 2. [Phonet.])</P> <LI> <P><B>atonic</B> <I>adj</I> atonic (1. [Med.]; 2. [Phonet.])</P> <LI> <P><B>-ator</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -ator, - er (= one who, or that which ...s) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> administrator etc.; accelerator etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-atori</B> <I>suffixo adjective</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -atory (= pertaining to, or serving for, the action of ...ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> -atoria; -atorio; circulatori etc.; inflammatori etc.; proparatori etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-atoria</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -er (= instrument for ...ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> mangiatoria etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-atorio</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -atory, -atorium (= place where ...ing is done) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> laboratorio etc.; sanatorio etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[atque]</B> <I>conj</I> and, and also, and even</P> <LI> <P><B>atr-</B> <I>adj</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] atro- (= black) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atrabile etc. ...</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>-atra</B> <I>see</I> <B>-latra</B></P> <LI> <P><B>atra&middot;bile (-&iacute;le)</B> <I>n</I> atrabile, melancholy (1. [Anc. Med.] black bile; 2. gloom) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atrabiliari</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atrabili-</B> <I>see</I> <B>atrabile</B></P> <LI> <P><B>atrabiliari</B> <I>adj</I> atrabiliary, melancholic (1. [Med.]; 2. gloomy, depressed in spirit)</P> <LI> <P><B>atroce</B> <I>adj</I> atrocious <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atrocitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atrocitate</B> <I>n</I> atrocity (1. horrible wickedness; 2. atrocious deed)</P> <LI> <P><B>atrophe (&aacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> atrophic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atrophia-atrophiar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atrophia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> atrophy</P> <LI> <P><B>atrophiar</B> <I>v</I> to atrophy (= to cause to atrophy)</P> <LI> <P><B>attaccabile&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> attackable, assailable</P> <LI> <P><B>attaccabile&sup2;</B> <I>adj</I> attachable</P> <LI> <P><B>attaccamento</B> <I>n</I> attachment (1. action of fastening; 2. affection)</P> <LI> <P><B>attaccar&sup1;</B> <I>v</I> to attack, assail <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attacco; attaccabile-inattaccabile; reattaccar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attaccar&sup2;</B> <I>v</I> to attach, fasten <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attaccamento; attaccabile; reattaccar-reattaccamento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attacco</B> <I>n</I> attack (1. assault; 2. [Med.])</P> <LI> <P><B>attach&eacute; [F]</B> <I>n</I> [Admin.; Dipl., Mil.; etc.] attach&eacute;; <BR> <B>attach&eacute; militar</B> military attach&eacute;</P> <LI> <P><B>attemperar</B> <I>v</I> to attemper (1. to temper, moderate by mixture; 2. to accommodate)</P> <LI> <P><B>attendente</B> <I>n</I> attendant (= one attending to someone's needs)</P> <LI> <P><B>attender [-tend-/-tent-]</B> <I>v</I> 1. to give attention to, attend to; 2. to await, wait for <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attendente; attention-inattention; attentive; attente</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attent-</B> <I>see</I> <B>attender</B></P> <LI> <P><B>attentar</B> <I>v</I> to make a criminal attempt; <BR> <B>attentar al vita de un persona</B> to make an attempt on someone's life <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attentatori; attentato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attentato</B> <I>n</I> criminal attempt</P> <LI> <P><B>attentatori</B> <I>adj</I> attacking, making a criminal attempt on</P> <LI> <P><B>attente</B> <I>adj</I> attentive, intent</P> <LI> <P><B>attention</B> <I>n</I> attention (1. careful notice, heed; 2. act of courtesy); <BR> <B>prestar attention</B> to pay attention</P> <LI> <P><B>attentive</B> <I>adj</I> attentive (1. intent; 2. courteous)</P> <LI> <P><B>attenuante</B> 1. ppr of <B>attenuar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> extenuating; <BR> <B>circumstantias attenuante</B> extenuating circumstances</P> <LI> <P><B>attenuar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to attenuate (= to make thin or slender); 2. to extenuate (as in &quot;to extenuate an offense&quot;) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attenuante; attenuation</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attenuation</B> <I>n</I> attenuation</P> <LI> <P><B>atter- [-ter-/-trit-]</B> <I>v</I> [occurring in derivatives] <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attrition, attrite</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>atterrage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> [Aeronaut.] landing</P> <LI> <P><B>atterrar</B> <I>v</I> [Aeronaut.] to land <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> atterrage</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attestar</B> <I>v</I> to attest (1. to testify to; 2. to certify) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attestation; attestator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attestation</B> <I>n</I> 1. attestation (= attesting, witnessing); 2. certificate, certification</P> <LI> <P><B>attestator</B> <I>n</I> attester, attestant</P> <LI> <P><B>attinger</B> <I>v</I> to attain (= to arrive at, reach) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attingimento</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attingimento</B> <I>n</I> attainment (= action or process of attaining)</P> <LI> <P><B>attitude</B> <I>n</I> attitude (1. position of the body; 2. way of thinking, acting, or feeling)</P> <LI> <P><B>attract-</B> <I>see</I> <B>attraher</B></P> <LI> <P><B>attraction</B> <I>n</I> attraction; <I>also:</I> [Phys.]; <BR> <B>attractiones</B> attractions (= things that delight or attract people)</P> <LI> <P><B>attractive</B> <I>adj</I> attractive (1. [Phys.]; 2. alluring)</P> <LI> <P><B>attractivitate</B> <I>n</I> 1. [Phys.] (force of) attraction; 2. attractiveness</P> <LI> <P><B>attrahente</B> 1. ppr of <B>attraher</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> attractive, attracting</P> <LI> <P><B>attraher [-trah-/-tract-]</B> <I>v</I> to attract (1. to draw to oneself; 2. to allure) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attrahente; attraction; attractive-attractivitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attrappar</B> <I>v</I> to catch, seize</P> <LI> <P><B>attribuer [-tribu-/-tribut-]</B> <I>v</I> 1. to assign, allot; 2. to attribute, ascribe; <BR> <B>attribuer se un cosa</B> to arrogate something to oneself <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> attribution; attributive; attributo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>attribut-</B> <I>see</I> <B>attribuer</B></P> <LI> <P><B>attribution</B> <I>n</I> attribution</P> <LI> <P><B>attributive</B> <I>adj</I> attributive (1. attributing; 2. [Gram.])</P> <LI> <P><B>attributo</B> <I>n</I> attribute (1. inherent quality; 2. conventional symbol; 3. [Gram.])</P> <LI> <P><B>attristar</B> <I>v</I> to sadden, make sad</P> <LI> <P><B>attrit-</B> <I>see</I> <B>atter-</B></P> <LI> <P><B>attrite</B> <I>adj</I> [Theol.] attrite</P> <LI> <P><B>attrition</B> <I>n</I> attrition; <I>specif.:</I> [Theol.]</P> <LI> <P><B>attruppamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (act of) assembling, gathering; 2. crowd, gathering</P> <LI> <P><B>attruppar</B> <I>v</I> to troup, gather, assemble; <BR> <B>attruppar se</B> to flock together, assemble</P> <LI> <P><B>-atura</B> <I>suffixo substantive</I> [used with verbs in <B>-ar</B>] -ature (= action or result of ...ing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> caricatura etc.; creatura etc.; ligatura etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>auction</B> <I>n</I> auction <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> auctionar-auctionator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>auctionar</B> <I>v</I> to auction, auctioneer</P> <LI> <P><B>auctionator</B> <I>n</I> auctioneer</P> <LI> <P><B>audace</B> <I>adj</I> audacious, daring <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> audacia-audaciose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>audacia</B> <I>n</I> audacity, daring</P> <LI> <P><B>audaciose</B> <I>adj</I> audacious, daring</P> <LI> <P><B>audibile</B> <I>adj</I> audible</P> <LI> <P><B>audibitate</B> <I>n</I> audibility</P> <LI> <P><B>audientia</B> <I>n</I> I. the perception of sounds; II. audience (1. interview with a person of high rank; 2. hearing)</P> <LI> <P><B>audio&middot;metro (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> [Acous.] audiometer</P> <LI> <P><B>audir</B> <I>v</I> to hear (= to perceive by the ear) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> audientia; audibile-audibilitate, inaudibile; audition; auditive; auditor; auditori; auditorio; inaudite; audito; audita; audiometro etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>audita</B> <I>n</I> audition (= act of hearing)</P> <LI> <P><B>audition</B> <I>n</I> audition (= act of hearing)</P> <LI> <P><B>auditive</B> <I>adj</I> auditory</P> <LI> <P><B>audito</B> <I>n</I> hearing, sense of hearing</P> <LI> <P><B>auditor</B> <I>n</I> auditor, hearer, listener</P> <LI> <P><B>auditori</B> <I>adj</I> auditory</P> <LI> <P><B>auditorio</B> <I>n</I> 1. auditorium, auditory; 2. audience (= assembly of listeners)</P> <LI> <P><B>augmentabile</B> <I>adj</I> augmentable</P> <LI> <P><B>augmentar</B> <I>v</I> to augment, increase; <BR> <B>augmentar le precio de un cosa</B> to raise, advance the price of something; <BR> <B>augmentar de precio</B> to rise, advance in price</P> <LI> <P><B>augmentation</B> <I>n</I> increase, augmentation</P> <LI> <P><B>augmentative</B> <I>adj</I> [Gram.] augmentative</P> <LI> <P><B>augmentator</B> <I>n</I> augmenter</P> <LI> <P><B>augmento</B> <I>n</I> 1. increase, augmentation; 2. [Gram.] augment <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> augmentar-augmentabile, augmentation, augmentative, augmentator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>augurar</B> <I>v</I> to augur (1. to act as augur; 2. to predict, foretell)</P> <LI> <P><B>augure (&aacute;ugure)</B> <I>n</I> augur (1. [Rom. Hist.]; 2. soothsayer) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> augurio; augurar-inaugurar-inauguration, inaugurator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>augurio</B> <I>n</I> augury (1. art of the augur; 2. omen, sign); <BR> <B>de bon augurio</B> auspicious; <BR> <B>de mal augurio</B> ominous</P> <LI> <P><B>Augusta</B> <I>nprf</I> Augusta</P> <LI> <P><B>auguste</B> <I>adj</I> august <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> augusto</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>augustee</B> <I>adj</I> Augustan</P> <LI> <P><B>augustinian</B> <I>adj</I> Augustinian</P> <LI> <P><B>augustinianismo</B> <I>n</I> Augustinianism</P> <LI> <P><B>augustiniano</B> <I>n</I> Augustinian</P> <LI> <P><B>Augustino</B> <I>nprm</I> Augustine; <BR> <B>Sancte Augustino</B> St. Augustine <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> augustinian-augustinianismo, augustiniano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>augusto&sup1;</B> <I>n</I> (the) august (one); <BR> <B>Augusto</B> Augustus (= honorific of Roman emperors)</P> <LI> <P><B>Augusto&sup2;</B> <I>nprm</I> Augustus, August; <BR> <B>augusto</B> (the month of) August <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> Augustee; Augustino &amp;; Augusta</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aulo-</B> <I>n</I> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] aulo- (= flute; pipe) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><FONT SIZE="2">Hence; hydraulic etc. ...</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aura</B> <I>n</I> aura; <I>specif.:</I> [Pathol.]</P> <LI> <P><B>aural</B> <I>adj</I> aural</P> <LI> <P><B>aurar</B> <I>v</I> to gild; <BR> <B>aurar le pillula</B> to gild or sugar the pill</P> <LI> <P><B>aurate</B> 1. pp of <B>aurar</B>; 2. golden, gold-colored; <BR> <B>juventute aurate</B> jeunesse dor&eacute;e, gilded youth</P> <LI> <P><B>aure</B> <I>n</I> ear (= organ and faculty of hearing); <BR> <B>esser tote aures</B> to be all ears; <BR> <B>prestar le aure a</B> to lend an ear to; <BR> <B>aure de mure</B> [Bot.] mouse-ear, forget-me-not <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> auricula; aurista; aural; auriforme etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>auree</B> <I>adj</I> golden</P> <LI> <P><B>aureola (-r&eacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> aureole, halo <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aureolari; aureolate; aureolar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aureolar&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> halo-like</P> <LI> <P><B>aureolar&sup2;</B> <I>v</I> to halo, invest with a halo</P> <LI> <P><B>aureolate</B> <I>adj</I> haloed, invested with a halo</P> <LI> <P><B>au revoir [F]</B> au revoir</P> <LI> <P><B>auricula</B> <I>n</I> I. auricle (1. &quot;auricle of the ear&quot;; 2. &quot;auricle of the heart&quot;); II. [Bot.] auricula, bear's ear; <BR> <B>auricula de urso</B> [Bot.] bear's ear, auricula; <BR> <B>auricula de mure</B> [Bot.] mouse-ear, forget-me-not</P> <LI> <P><B>aurifere</B> <I>adj</I> auriferous, gold-bearing</P> <LI> <P><B>aurificar</B> <I>v</I> [Dent.] to fill with gold</P> <LI> <P><B>aurification</B> <I>n</I> [Dent.] (making of a) gold filling</P> <LI> <P><B>aurifice (-r&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> goldsmith</P> <LI> <P><B>auri&middot;forme</B> <I>adj</I> auriform, ear-shaped</P> <LI> <P><B>auri&middot;pelle</B> <I>n</I> 1. tinsel, foil; 2. sham (= tawdry object)</P> <LI> <P><B>auri&middot;pigmento</B> <I>n</I> [Chem.] orniment</P> <LI> <P><B>aurista</B> <I>n</I> aurist, otologist (= ear specialist)</P> <LI> <P><B>auro</B> <I>n</I> gold; <BR> <B>folio de auro</B> gold foil or leaf; <BR> <B>natar in le auro</B> to be rolling in wealth; <BR> <B>auro virgine</B> virgin or native gold; <BR> <B>pagar in auro</B> to pay in gold; <BR> <B>de auro</B> golden, gold (= made of gold); <BR> <B>etate de auro</B> golden age <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> auree; aurifere; aurar-aurate, disaurar; aurifice-aurificar-aurification; auripigmento etc.; auriforme etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aurora</B> <I>n</I> dawn; <BR> <B>aurora boreal</B> northern lights, aurora borealis</P> <LI> <P><B>auspice (&aacute;u-)</B> <I>n</I> [Hist.] auspex <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> auspicio</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>auspicio</B> <I>n</I> [Hist.] auspice (= sign or token derived from the observation of birds); <BR> <B>auspicios</B> auspices, patronage; <BR> <B>sub le auspicios</B> de under the auspices of</P> <LI> <P><B>auster</B> <I>adj</I> austere <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> austeritate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>austeritate</B> <I>n</I> austerity, austereness</P> <LI> <P><B>austral</B> <I>adj</I> southern, austral</P> <LI> <P><B>Austral&middot;asia</B> <I>n</I> Australasia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> australasian</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>australasian</B> <I>adj</I> Australasian</P> <LI> <P><B>Australia</B> <I>npr</I> Australia <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> australian-australiano</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>australian</B> <I>adj</I> Australian</P> <LI> <P><B>australiano</B> <I>n</I> Australian</P> <LI> <P><B>Austria</B> <I>npr</I> Austria <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> austriac-austriaco</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>austriac (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> Austrian</P> <LI> <P><B>austriaco (-&iacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> Austrian</P> <LI> <P><B>austro</B> <I>n</I> south wind, Auster <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> austral-Australia &amp;; Australasia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>[aut]</B> <I>conj</I> or; <BR> <B>aut ... aut</B> either ... or (= <B>o</B>)</P> <LI> <P><B>autarchia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> autarchy, self-sufficiency</P> <LI> <P><B>authentic</B> <I>adj</I> authentic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> authenticitate; authenticar-authentication; inauthentic-inauthenticitate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>authenticar</B> <I>v</I> to authenticate (1. to render authentic; 2. to prove authentic)</P> <LI> <P><B>authentication</B> <I>n</I> authentication</P> <LI> <P><B>authenticitate</B> <I>n</I> authenticity</P> <LI> <P><B>auto</B> <I>n</I> auto, motorcar, car <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autoista; autodromo etc.; autobus etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>auto-</B> <I>prefixco</I> auto-, aut- (= self) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autobiographia etc.; automobile etc.; autonome etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>autobiographia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> autobiography</P> <LI> <P><B>autobiographic</B> <I>adj</I> autobiographic, autobiographical</P> <LI> <P><B>auto&middot;bus (-b&uacute;s)</B> <I>n</I> (motor)bus, autobus</P> <LI> <P><B>auto&middot;car</B> <I>n</I> motor coach; <I>also:</I> sight-seeing bus, etc.</P> <LI> <P><B>autochthone</B> <I>adj</I> autochthonous <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autochthonia; autochthono</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>autochthonia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> autochthony</P> <LI> <P><B>autochthono (-&oacute;ctono)</B> <I>n</I> autochthon</P> <LI> <P><B>autoclave</B> <I>n</I> pressure cooker, autoclave</P> <LI> <P><B>autocrate (-&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> autocrat</P> <LI> <P><B>autocratia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> autocracy</P> <LI> <P><B>autocratic</B> <I>adj</I> autocratic</P> <LI> <P><B>autodaf&eacute; [P]</B> <I>n</I> auto-da-f&eacute;</P> <LI> <P><B>autodidacte</B> <I>adj</I> self-taught <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autodidactic; autodidactico</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>autodidactic</B> <I>adj</I> autodidactic</P> <LI> <P><B>autodidacto</B> <I>n</I> autodidact (= one who is self-taught)</P> <LI> <P><B>auto&middot;dromo</B> (-t&oacute;-) <I>n</I> autodrome (= race course for automobiles)</P> <LI> <P><B>autographia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> autography (= art of autographic reproduction)</P> <LI> <P><B>autographiar</B> <I>v</I> to make autographic reproductions, to autograph</P> <LI> <P><B>autographic</B> <I>adj</I> autographic</P> <LI> <P><B>autographo (-t&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> autograph <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autographia-autographiar; autographic; telautographo etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>autogyro</B> <I>n</I> autogiro</P> <LI> <P><B>autoista</B> <I>n</I> autoist</P> <LI> <P><B>automate (-t&oacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> automatous, automatic <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> automato-automatismo, automatic-automaticitate, automatisar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>automatic</B> <I>adj</I> automatic</P> <LI> <P><B>automaticitate</B> <I>n</I> automaticity, automatism (= state of being automatic)</P> <LI> <P><B>automatisar</B> <I>v</I> to automatize, render automatic</P> <LI> <P><B>automatismo</B> <I>n</I> automatism</P> <LI> <P><B>automato (-t&oacute;-)</B> <I>n</I> automaton</P> <LI> <P><B>automobile</B> <I>adj</I> self-propelling, automobile; <BR> <B>(vehiculo) automobile</B> motor vehicle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> automobilismo; automobilista</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>automobile</B> <I>n</I> automobile, motor vehicle</P> <LI> <P><B>automobilismo</B> <I>n</I> automobilism</P> <LI> <P><B>automobilista</B> <I>n</I> automobilist, motorist</P> <LI> <P><B>autonome (-t&oacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> autonomous (= self-governing) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autonomia</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>autonomia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> autonomy; self-government</P> <LI> <P><B>autopsia (-&iacute;a)</B> <I>n</I> [Med.] autopsy</P> <LI> <P><B>autor</B> <I>n</I> author (1. originator; 2. writer); <BR> <B>derectos de autor</B> author's rights <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autorato; autoritate &amp;; autorisar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>autorato</B> <I>n</I> authorship</P> <LI> <P><B>autorisabile</B> <I>adj</I> authorizable</P> <LI> <P><B>autorisar</B> <I>v</I> to authorize <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autorisabile; autorisation; autorisate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>autorisate</B> 1. pp of <B>autorisar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> authorized</P> <LI> <P><B>autorisation</B> <I>n</I> authorization</P> <LI> <P><B>autoritari</B> <I>adj</I> 1. authoritative, dictatorial; 2. authoritarian</P> <LI> <P><B>autoritatismo</B> <I>n</I> authoritarianism</P> <LI> <P><B>autoritate</B> <I>n</I> authority <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autoritari-autoritarismo</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>auto&middot;strata</B> <I>n</I> (auto) highway</P> <LI> <P><B>autumnal</B> <I>adj</I> autumnal</P> <LI> <P><B>autumno</B> <I>n</I> autumn, fall <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> autumnal</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>auxiliar&sup1;</B> <I>adj</I> auxiliary; <BR> <B>verbos auxiliar</B> auxiliary verbs</P> <LI> <P><B>auxiliar&sup2;</B> <I>v</I> to help, aid</P> <LI> <P><B>auxiliator</B> <I>n</I> helper</P> <LI> <P><B>auxilio</B> <I>n</I> help, aid <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> auxiliar&sup1;; auxiliar&sup2;-auxiliator</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ava</B> <I>n</I> grandmother</P> <LI> <P><B>aval</B> <I>n</I> [Com.] endorsement, backing (of a bill of exchange) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avalista; avalisar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avalanche [F]</B> <I>n</I> avalanche</P> <LI> <P><B>avalisar</B> <I>v</I> [Com.] to endorse, back (a bill of exchange)</P> <LI> <P><B>avalista</B> <I>n</I> [Com.] endorser, backer (of a bill of exchange)</P> <LI> <P><B>avantage (-aje)</B> <I>n</I> advantage; <BR> <B>haber le avantage super un persona</B> to have an advantage over someone; <BR> <B>prender avantage de un cosa</B> to take advantage of something, to turn to account; <BR> <B>dar avantage a un persona</B> to give someone odds <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avantagiose; avantagiar; disavantage-disavantagiose</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avantagiar (-ajar)</B> <I>v</I> to give an advantage to</P> <LI> <P><B>avantagiose (-ajo-)</B> <I>adj</I> advantageous</P> <LI> <P><B>avantal</B> <I>n</I> apron</P> <LI> <P><B>avante</B> <I>adv</I> before (= in front, ahead) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avantage &amp;; avantal; avantiar &amp;</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avantia</B> <I>n</I> advance (= payment beforehand)</P> <LI> <P><B>avantiamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. advance (= forward motion); 2. advancement (= promotion in rank)</P> <LI> <P><B>avantiar</B> <I>v</I> to advance (1. to move forward; 2. as in &quot;to advance a proposition&quot;; 3. to promote in rank) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avantia; avantiamento; avantiate-avantiata</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avantiata</B> <I>n</I> [Mil.] outpost, advance guard</P> <LI> <P><B>avantiate</B> I. pp of <B>avantiar</B>; II. <I>adj</I> advanced (1. far on in progress; 2. far on in life, time or course); <BR> <B>posto avantiate</B> advanced post</P> <LI> <P><B>avar</B> <I>adj</I> avaricious, miserly <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avaritia-avaritiose; avaro</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avaritia</B> <I>n</I> avarice</P> <LI> <P><B>avaritiose</B> <I>adj</I> avaricious</P> <LI> <P><B>avaro</B> <I>n</I> miser</P> <LI> <P><B>ave&sup1;</B> <I>n</I> bird; <BR> <B>ave de appello</B> decoy (bird); <BR> <B>aves domestic</B> poultry <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aviario-aviarista; avion; aviar &amp;; avicultura etc.; avestruthio etc.; espaventaaves etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ave&sup2;</B> <I>n</I> ave (1. Ave Maria; 2. time of ringing the Ave bell; 3. Ave bead of the rosary)</P> <LI> <P><B>Ave&sup3;! [L]</B> <I>interj</I> ave!, hail!</P> <LI> <P><B>avellana</B> <I>n</I> hazelnut, filbert <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avellaniero</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avellaniero</B> <I>n</I> hazel (tree)</P> <LI> <P><B>aveller [-vell-/-vuls-]</B> <I>v</I> to tear away, avulse <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avulsion</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>Ave Maria [L]</B> Ave Maria, Hail Mary</P> <LI> <P><B>avena</B> <I>n</I> oat, oats</P> <LI> <P><B>aventura</B> <I>n</I> adventure; <BR> <B>per aventura</B> by chance; <BR> <B>al aventura</B> at random <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aventurero; aventurose; aventurar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aventurar</B> <I>v</I> to venture, risk</P> <LI> <P><B>aventurero</B> <I>n</I> adventurer</P> <LI> <P><B>aventurose</B> <I>adj</I> adventurous</P> <LI> <P><B>avenue [F]</B> <I>n</I> avenue</P> <LI> <P><B>averar</B> <I>v</I> to aver (= to avouch, verify)</P> <LI> <P><B>avergoniar</B> <I>v</I> to shame, put to shame; to make (feel) ashamed</P> <LI> <P><B>avergoniate</B> 1. pp of <B>avergoniar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> ashamed</P> <LI> <P><B>avers-</B> <I>see</I> <B>averter</B></P> <LI> <P><B>aversion</B> <I>n</I> aversion (1. act of averting turning away; 2. strong dislike); <BR> <B>haber un aversion a un persona</B> to have an aversion to someone</P> <LI> <P><B>averter [-vert-/-vers-]</B> <I>v</I> to turn away, avert <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aversion</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>ave&middot;struthio</B> <I>n</I> ostrich; <BR> <B>haber un stomacho de avestruthio</B> to have the digestion of an ostrich</P> <LI> <P><B>aviar</B> <I>v</I> to aviate <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> aviation; aviator; aviatrice</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aviario</B> <I>n</I> aviary</P> <LI> <P><B>aviarista</B> <I>n</I> aviarist</P> <LI> <P><B>aviation</B> <I>n</I> aviation; <BR> <B>base de aviation</B> air base; <BR> <B>campo de aviation</B> airfield</P> <LI> <P><B>aviator</B> <I>n</I> aviator</P> <LI> <P><B>aviatrice</B> <I>n</I> aviatrix</P> <LI> <P><B>avicinar</B> <I>v</I> to border upon, neighbor</P> <LI> <P><B>avi&middot;cultura</B> <I>n</I> aviculture</P> <LI> <P><B>avide (&aacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> avid, greedy <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> anviditate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>aviditate</B> <I>n</I> avidity, greed, greediness</P> <LI> <P><B>avinar</B> <I>v</I> -; <BR> <B>avinar se</B> to tipple, get drunk <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avinate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avinate</B> <I>adj</I> drunk, in one's cups</P> <LI> <P><B>avion</B> <I>n</I> airplane</P> <LI> <P><B>avisar</B> <I>v</I> to advise (1. to give information or notice to; 2. to counsel) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avisate</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avisate</B> 1. pp of <B>avisar</B>; 2. <I>adj</I> prudent, circumspect; <BR> <B>mal avisate</B> ill-advised, imprudent</P> <LI> <P><B>ariso</B> <I>n</I> I. opinion, judgment; II. advice (1. notice; 2. counsel); <BR> <B>littera de aviso</B> [Com.] notification of dispatch, letter of advice</P> <LI> <P><B>avivamento</B> <I>n</I> 1. (action of) reviving, vivifying; 2. (action of) heightening (colors)</P> <LI> <P><B>avivar</B> <I>v</I> 1. to revive, vivify; 2. to heighten (colors) <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avivamento; reavivar</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avo</B> <I>n</I> grandfather <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avunculo &amp;; atavo &amp;: bisavo etc.: bisava etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avocatiero</B> <I>n</I> avocado (tree)</P> <LI> <P><B>avocato</B> <I>n</I> avocado, alligator pear <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avocatiero</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>avoirdupois [A]</B> <I>n</I> avoirdupois</P> <LI> <P><B>avuls-</B> <I>see</I> <B>aveller</B></P> <LI> <P><B>avulsion</B> <I>n</I> avulsion (= tearing away)</P> <LI> <P><B>avuncular</B> <I>adj</I> avuncular</P> <LI> <P><B>avunculo</B> <I>n</I> uncle <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> avuncular</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>axe</B> <I>n</I> 1. axis; 2. axle, axletree <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> axilla &amp;; axial; axungia etc.</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>axial</B> <I>adj</I> axial</P> <LI> <P><B>axilla</B> <I>n</I> 1. armpit, axilla; 2. [Bot.] axil <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> axillari</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>axillari</B> <I>adj</I> axillary (1. pertaining to the axilla; 2. [Bot.])</P> <LI> <P><B>axioma [-ma/-mat-]</B> <I>n</I> axiom <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> axiomatic</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>axiomat-</B> <I>see</I> <B>axioma</B></P> <LI> <P><B>axiomatic</B> <I>adj</I> axiomatic</P> <LI> <P><B>ax&middot;ungia</B> <I>n</I> [Pharm.] axunge</P> <LI> <P><B>azalea</B> <I>n</I> [Bot.] azalea</P> <LI> <P><B>azoic</B> <I>adj</I> azoic; <I>also:</I> [Geol.]</P> <LI> <P><B>Azores (-z&oacute;-)</B> <I>nprpl</I> Azores</P> <LI> <P><B>azur</B> <I>adj</I> azure; <I>also:</I> blue <BLOCKQUOTE> <P><I><FONT SIZE="2">Hence:</FONT></I><FONT SIZE="2"> azuro-azurato</FONT> </BLOCKQUOTE> <LI><FONT SIZE="2"></FONT> <P><B>azurato</B> <I>n</I> azure (= color of the clear sky)</P> <LI> <P><B>azuro</B> <I>n</I> azure (= the blue color of the clear sky); <I>also:</I> blue, bluing</P> <LI> <P><B>azyme (&aacute;-)</B> <I>adj</I> azymous, unleavened; <BR> <B>(festa del) azymos</B> [Jewish Rel.] Feast of Unleavened Bread </UL> <P> </BODY> </HTML> 2028 2005-04-13T09:19:00Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>a</b> <i>prep</i> 1. to (a point in space or time, a goal, etc.); 2. at (a point in space or time, a stage of development, etc.); <br> <b>a</b> (+ <i>inf</i>) to; <i>also:</i> for (+ <i>gerund</i>); <br> <b>sala a attender</b> waiting room <br> <I>Hence:</i> [apena] etc.<br> <br> <b>[a-]</b> <i>prefixo verbal</i> [used with verbs and, in combination with verbal suffixes, with nouns and adjectives] to, toward, into (expressing motion to, change into, increase of intensity, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> abatter etc.; abassar etc.<br> <br> <b>a-</b> <i>prefixo</i> [<b>an-</b> before <b>-h-</b> and vowels; used with nouns and adjectives] a-, an- (= not ...; without, lacking ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> agnostic etc.; amnesia etc.; analphabete etc.; anarchia etc.; anesthesia etc.; anesthetic etc.; anhydre etc.; athee etc.<br> <br> <B>Aachen [G]</b> <i>npr</i> Aachen, Aix-la-Chapelle<br> <br> <b>ab</b> <i>prep</i> since, from<br> <br> <b>abandonamento</b> <i>n</i> abandonment<br> <br> <b>abandonar</b> <i>v</i> to abandon; <br> <b>abandonar se a</b> to indulge in<br> <br> <b>abandono</b> <i>n</i> I. abandonment (1. action of abandoning; 2. state of being abandoned); II. abandon <br> <I>Hence:</i> abandonar-abandonamento<br> <br> <b>abassamento</b> <i>n</i> lowering; <i>also:</i> abasement; <br> <b>abassamento de un equation</b> [Math.] reduction of an equation<br> <br> <b>abassar</b> <i>v</i> to lower; <i>also:</i> to abase; <br> <b>abassar un perpendicular</b> [Geom.] to drop a perpendicular<br> <br> <b>abatter</b> <i>v</i> to knock or cast down <br> <I>Hence:</i> abattimento; abattitor; abattitorio; abattite<br> <br> <b>abattimento</b> <i>n</i> despondency, dejection<br> <br> <b>abattite</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>abatter</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> downcast, dejected<br> <br> <b>abattitor</b> <i>n</i> one who knocks down; <i>also:</i> feller, wood-cutter, slaughterer, etc.<br> <br> <b>abattitorio</b> <i>n</i> slaughterhouse, abattoir<br> <br> <b>abbate</b> <i>n</i> abbot <br> <I>Hence:</i> abbatessa; abbatia-abbatial<br> <br> <b>abbatessa</b> <i>n</i> abbess<br> <br> <b>abbatia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> 1. abbacy; 2. abbey<br> <br> <b>abbatial</b> <i>adj</i> abbatial<br> <br> <b>abbordabile</b> <i>adj</i> approachable, accessible<br> <br> <b>abbordage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> [Naut.] (act of) boarding (a ship)<br> <br> <b>abbordar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to land (= to go ashore from a ship or boat); 2. [Navy] to board (= to come alongside in order to attack); 3. to accost, address <br> <I>Hence:</i> abbordo; abbordage; abbordabile<br> <br> <b>abbordo</b> <i>n</i> 1. [Naut.] (act of) landing; 2. [Navy] (act of) boarding (a ship)<br> <br> <b>abbreviamento</b> <i>n</i> abridgement, abbreviation<br> <br> <b>abbreviar</b> <i>v</i> to abridge, abbreviate <br> <I>Hence:</i> abbreviamento; abbreviation; abbreviative; abbreviator; abbreviatura<br> <br> <b>abbreviation</b> <i>n</i> abbreviation, abridgment<br> <br> <b>abbreviative</b> <i>adj</i> abridging, abbreviatory<br> <br> <b>abbreviator</b> <i>n</i> 1. abridger, abbreviator; 2. [R.C.Ch.] abbreviator<br> <br> <b>abbreviatura</b> <i>n</i> abbreviation (= shortened form of a word)<br> <br> <b>abdicar</b> <i>v</i> to abdicate <br> <I>Hence:</i> abdication; abdicative<br> <br> <b>abdication</b> <i>n</i> abdication<br> <br> <b>abdicative</b> <i>adj</i> abdicative<br> <br> <b>abdominal</b> <i>adj</i> abdominal<br> <br> <b>abdomine</b> <i>n</i> abdomen <br> <I>Hence:</i> abdominal<br> <br> <b>abducer [-duc-/-duct-]</b> <i>v</i> to lead away, abduce; 2. [Physiol.] to abduct <br> <I>Hence:</i> abduction; abductor<br> <br> <b>abduct-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abducer</b><br> <br> <b>abduction</b> <i>n</i> [Physiol.] abduction<br> <br> <b>abductor</b> <i>n</i> [Physiol.] abductor<br> <br> <B>Abel</b> <i>nprm</i> Abel<br> <br> <b>aberrante</b> <i>adj</i> aberrant (= deviating from the normal type)<br> <br> <b>aberrar</b> <i>v</i> to deviate, aberrate <br> <I>Hence:</i> aberrante; aberration<br> <br> <b>aberration</b> <i>n</i> aberration<br> <br> <b>abhorrer</b> <i>v</i> to abhor <br> <I>Hence:</i> abhorrimento; abhorribile<br> <br> <b>abhorribile</b> <i>adj</i> abominable, hateful<br> <br> <b>abhorrimento</b> <i>n</i> abhorrence<br> <br> <b>abiberar</b> <i>v</i> to water (1. to supply with drink; 2. to irrigate)<br> <br> <b>abiberatorio</b> <i>n</i> watering-place, water-hole<br> <br> <b>abiete</b> <i>n</i> fir (1. fir-tree; 2. fir wood); <br> <b>abiete de Canada</b> hemlock (spruce)<br> <br> <b>-abile</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -able (= that can be ...ed; that is worthy to be ...ed) <br> <I>Hence:</i> observabile etc.; admirabile etc.<br> <br> <b>abiogenese (-génese)</b> <i>n</i> abiogenesis, spontaneous generation<br> <br> <b>abiogenesis (-génesis)</b> <i>n</i> abiogenesis, spontaneous generation<br> <br> <b>abiogenetic</b> <i>adj</i> abiogenetic<br> <br> <b>abject-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abjic-</b><br> <br> <b>abjecte</b> <i>adj</i> abject, mean<br> <br> <b>abjection</b> <i>n</i> abjection, abjectness<br> <br> <b>abjic- [-jic-/-ject-]</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> abjection; abjecte<br> <br> <b>abjurar</b> <i>v</i> to abjure (1. to forswear; 2. to recant, repudiate) <br> <I>Hence:</i> abjuration<br> <br> <b>abjuration</b> <i>n</i> abjuration<br> <br> <b>ablandar</b> <i>v</i> to soften; <i>also:</i> to mollify, mitigate, assuage, etc.<br> <br> <b>ablativo</b> <i>n</i> ablative; <br> <b>ablativo absolute</b> ablative absolute<br> <br> <b>abluer [-lu-/-lut-]</b> <i>v</i> to wash, cleanse <br> <I>Hence:</i> ablution<br> <br> <b>ablut-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abluer</b><br> <br> <b>ablution</b> <i>n</i> ablution, washing<br> <br> <b>abnegar</b> <i>v</i> to deny oneself, abnegate <br> <I>Hence:</i> abnegation<br> <br> <b>abnegation</b> <i>n</i> abnegation, self-denial<br> <br> <b>abolimento</b> <i>n</i> abolishment, abolition<br> <br> <b>abolir</b> <i>v</i> to abolish <br> <I>Hence:</i> abolimento; abolition-abolitionismo, abolitionista<br> <br> <b>abolition</b> <i>n</i> abolition, abolishment<br> <br> <b>abolitionismo</b> <i>n</i> abolitionism<br> <br> <b>abolitionista</b> <i>n</i> abolitionist<br> <br> <b>abominabile</b> <i>adj</i> abominable<br> <br> <b>abominar</b> <i>v</i> to abominate <br> <I>Hence:</i> abominabile; abomination<br> <br> <b>abomination</b> <i>n</i> abomination (1. loathing; 2. loathsome object)<br> <br> <b>abonamento</b> <i>n</i> subscription (to a periodical, etc.)<br> <br> <b>abonar¹</b> <i>v</i> to enter the subscription (to a periodical, etc.) of (a person); <br> <b>abonar se</b> to subscribe (to a periodical, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> abonamento<br> <br> <b>abonar²</b> <i>v</i> to improve (= to make better)<br> <br> <b>abor- [-bor-/-bort-]</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> abortive; aborto-abortar-abortamento<br> <br> <b>aborigines (-ígines)</b> <i>npl</i> aborigines<br> <br> <b>abort-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abor-</b><br> <br> <b>abortamento</b> <i>n</i> miscarriage, abortion<br> <br> <b>abortar</b> <i>v</i> I. to miscarry (1. to have a miscarriage; 2. to come to nought); II. [Biol.] to abort (= to remain undeveloped or shrink away)<br> <br> <b>abortive</b> <i>adj</i> abortive<br> <br> <b>aborto</b> <i>n</i> abortion<br> <br> <b>ab ovo [L]</b> <i>ab ovo</i>, from the beginning<br> <br> <b>abrader [-rad-/-ras-]</b> <i>v</i> to abrade <br> <I>Hence:</i> abrasion; abrasive<br> <br> <b>abras-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abrader</b><br> <br> <b>abrasion</b> <i>n</i> abrasion<br> <br> <b>abrasive</b> <i>adj</i> abrasive<br> <br> <b>abrogabile</b> <i>adj</i> abrogable<br> <br> <b>abrogar</b> <i>v</i> to abrogate <br> <I>Hence:</i> abrogabile; abrogation; abrogative; abrogator; abrogatori<br> <br> <b>abrogation</b> <i>n</i> repeal, abrogation<br> <br> <b>abrogative</b> <i>adj</i> abrogative<br> <br> <b>abrogator</b> <i>n</i> abrogator<br> <br> <b>abrogatori</b> <i>adj</i> rescinding, abrogating<br> <br> <b>abrumper [-rump-/-rupt-]</b> <i>v</i> to break off, rend <br> <I>Hence:</i> abrupte<br> <br> <b>abrupt-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abrumper</b><br> <br> <b>abrupte</b> <i>adj</i> abrupt (= very steep)<br> <br> <B>Abruzzi [I]</b> <i>nprpl</i> Abruzzi<br> <br> <B>Absalom</b> <i>nprm</i> Absalom<br> <br> <b>absceder [-ced-/-cess-]</b> <i>v</i> to form (turn into) an abscess <br> <I>Hence:</i> abscesso<br> <br> <b>abscess-</b> <i>see</i> <b>absceder</b><br> <br> <b>abscesso</b> <i>n</i> abscess<br> <br> <b>abscinder [-scind-/-sciss-]</b> <i>v</i> to cut off, abscind <br> <I>Hence:</i> abscissa<br> <br> <b>absciss-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abscinder</b><br> <br> <b>abscissa</b> <i>n</i> [Math.] abscissa<br> <br> <b>absentar</b> <i>v</i> -; <br> <b>absentar se</b> to absent oneself<br> <br> <b>absente</b> <i>adj</i> absent <br> <I>Hence:</i> absentia; absentismo; absentista; absentar<br> <br> <b>absentia</b> <i>n</i> absence; <br> <b>brillar per su absentia</b> to be conspicuous by one’s absence<br> <br> <b>absentismo</b> <i>n</i> absenteeism<br> <br> <b>absentista</b> <i>n</i> absentee (owner)<br> <br> <b>absinthic</b> <i>adj</i> absinthial, absinthic<br> <br> <b>absinthina</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] absinthin<br> <br> <b>absinthio</b> <i>n</i> absinthe (1. [Bot.] Absinthium; 2. “alcoholic liquor absinthe”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> absinthismo; absinthic; absinthina<br> <br> <b>absinthismo</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] absinthism<br> <br> <b>absolut-</b> <i>see</i> <b>absolver</b><br> <br> <b>absolute</b> <i>adj</i> absolute; <br> <b>temperatura absolute</b> absolute temperature; <br> <b>ablativo absolute</b> ablative absolute<br> <br> <b>absolution</b> <i>n</i> absolution, remission; <i>also:</i> acquittal<br> <br> <b>absolutismo</b> <i>n</i> absolutism<br> <br> <b>absolutista</b> <i>n</i> absolutist<br> <br> <b>absolutor</b> <i>n</i> absolver<br> <br> <b>absolutori</b> <i>adj</i> absolutory, absolving<br> <br> <b>absolver [-solv-/-solut-]</b> <i>v</i> to absolve, acquit <br> <I>Hence:</i> absolution; absolutor; absolutori; absolute-absolutismo, absolutista<br> <br> <b>absorbente¹</b> <i>adj</i> absorbent<br> <br> <b>absorbente²</b> <i>n</i> absorbent (= absorbing substance)<br> <br> <b>absorbentia</b> <i>n</i> absorbency<br> <br> <b>absorber [-sorb-/-sorpt-]</b> <i>v</i> to absorb; <br> <b>absorbite in</b> absorbed in <br> <I>Hence:</i> absorbente-absorbentia; absorbibile; absorption; reabsorber-reabsorption<br> <br> <b>absorbibile</b> <i>adj</i> absorbable<br> <br> <b>absorpt-</b> <i>see</i> <b>absorber</b><br> <br> <b>absorption</b> <i>n</i> absorption<br> <br> <b>abstent-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abstiner</b><br> <br> <b>abstention</b> <i>n</i> abstention<br> <br> <b>abstentionista</b> <i>n</i> abstentionist<br> <br> <b>abstinente</b> <i>adj</i> abstemious<br> <br> <b>abstinentia</b> <i>n</i> abstinence<br> <br> <b>abstiner [-tin-/-tent-]</b> <i>v</i> -; <br> <b>abstiner se de</b> to abstain from <br> <I>Hence:</i> abstinente-abstinentia; abstention-abstentionista<br> <br> <b>abstract-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abstraher</b><br> <br> <b>abstracte</b> <i>adj</i> abstract<br> <br> <b>abstraction</b> <i>n</i> abstraction (1. [Logic]; 2. state of being lost in thought); <br> <b>facer abstraction de</b> to disregard, leave out of consideration<br> <br> <b>abstraher [-trah-/-tract-]</b> <i>v</i> [Logic] to abstract <br> <I>Hence:</i> abstraction; abstracte<br> <br> <b>abstruder [-trud-/-trus-]</b> <i>v</i> 1. to thrust away; 2. to conceal <br> <I>Hence:</i> abstruse<br> <br> <b>abstrus-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abstruder</b><br> <br> <b>abstruse</b> <i>adj</i> abstruse<br> <br> <b>absurde</b> <i>adj</i> absurd <br> <I>Hence:</i> absurditate<br> <br> <b>absurditate</b> <i>n</i> absurdity<br> <br> <b>abuccamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (action of) seizing, snatching up (with the mouth); 2. (action of) interconnecting (two openings); 3. interview, conference<br> <br> <b>abuccar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to seize, snatch up (with the mouth); 2. to interconnect (two openings); <br> <b>abuccar se</b> to come or get together (for an interview, a conference, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> abuccamento<br> <br> <b>abundante</b> <i>adj</i> abundant<br> <br> <b>abundantia</b> <i>n</i> abundance; <br> <b>corno del abundantia</b> cornucopia, horn of abundance or plenty<br> <br> <b>abundar</b> <i>v</i> to abound, be plentiful; <br> <b>abundar in</b> to abound in or with <br> <I>Hence:</i> abundante-abundantia; superabundar-superabundante-superabundantia<br> <br> <b>abus-</b> <i>see</i> <b>abut-</b><br> <br> <b>abusar</b> <i>v</i> -; <br> <b>abusar de</b> to abuse, make bad use of<br> <br> <b>abusator</b> <i>n</i> abuser, misuser<br> <br> <b>abusive</b> <i>adj</i> abusive (= of improper or wrong use)<br> <br> <b>abuso</b> <i>n</i> abuse (= improper or wrong use)<br> <br> <b>abut- [-ut-/-us-]</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> abusive; abuso-abusar-abusator, disabusar<br> <br> <b>abysmal</b> <i>adj</i> abysmal<br> <br> <b>abysmo</b> <i>n</i> abysm <br> <I>Hence:</i> abysmal<br> <br> <b>abyssal</b> <i>adj</i> abyssal<br> <br> <b>abyssin</b> <i>adj</i> Abyssinian <br> <I>Hence:</i> Abyssinia; abyssino<br> <br> <B>Abyssinia</b> <i>npr</i> Abyssinia<br> <br> <b>abyssino</b> <i>n</i> Abyssinian<br> <br> <b>abysso</b> <i>n</i> abyss <br> <I>Hence:</i> abyssal<br> <br> <b>acacia</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] acacia<br> <br> <b>academia</b> <i>n</i> academy <br> <I>Hence:</i> academic, academico<br> <br> <b>academic</b> <i>adj</i> academic, academical<br> <br> <b>academico</b> <i>n</i> academician<br> <br> <B>Academo</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Academus <br> <I>Hence:</i> academia &<br> <br> <b>acaju [-jú]</b> <i>n</i> 1. cashew; 2. mahogany; <br> <b>nuce de acaju</b> cashew nut<br> <br> <b>acantha</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] prickle, thorn <br> <I>Hence:</i> acanthophore etc.; tragacantha etc.; notacanthe etc.<br> <br> <b>acanthaceas</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] Acanthaceae<br> <br> <b>acanthacee</b> <i>adj</i> [Bot.] acanthaceous<br> <br> <b>acantho</b> <i>n</i> acanthus (1. [Bot.]; 2. [Arch.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> acanthacee-acanthaceas<br> <br> <b>acanthophore [-óphore]</b> <i>adj</i> spine-bearing, acanthophorous<br> <br> <b>acceder [-ced-/-cess-]</b> <i>v</i> 1. to approach; 2. to accede (= to assent) <br> <I>Hence:</i> accessibile-accessibilitate, inaccessibile-inaccessibilitate; accession; accessori-accessorio; accesso<br> <br> <b>accelerando [I]</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] accelerando<br> <br> <b>accelerar</b> <i>v</i> to accelerate <br> <I>Hence:</i> acceleration; accelerator<br> <br> <b>acceleration</b> <i>n</i> acceleration<br> <br> <b>accelerator</b> <i>n</i> accelerator (1. anything which increases speed of motion; 2. contrivance for producing greater speed in a machine)<br> <br> <b>accendalia</b> <i>n</i> kindling (= wood, shavings etc. used to kindle a fire)<br> <br> <b>accender [-cend-/-cens-]</b> <i>v</i> to light, kindle <br> <I>Hence:</i> accendalia; accendimento; accendibile; accensibile-accensibilitate; accenditor<br> <br> <b>accendibile</b> <i>adj</i> inflammable, combustible<br> <br> <b>accendimento</b> <i>n</i> lighting, kindling<br> <br> <b>accenditor</b> <i>n</i> lighter (= device for lighting cigarettes, gas, candles, etc.)<br> <br> <b>accens-</b> <i>see</i> <b>accender</b><br> <br> <b>accensibile</b> <i>adj</i> inflammable, combustible, accensible<br> <br> <b>accensibilitate</b> <i>n</i> inflammability, combustibility, accensibility<br> <br> <b>accento</b> <i>n</i> 1. accent, stress; 2. accent mark <br> <I>Hence:</i> accentuar-accentuation<br> <br> <b>accentu-</b> <i>see</i> <b>accento</b><br> <br> <b>accentuar</b> <i>v</i> to accentuate, accent<br> <br> <b>accentuation</b> <i>n</i> accentuation<br> <br> <b>accept-</b> <i>see</i> <b>accip-</b><br> <br> <b>acceptabile</b> <i>adj</i> acceptable<br> <br> <b>acceptabilitate</b> <i>n</i> acceptability<br> <br> <b>acceptar</b> <i>v</i> to accept<br> <br> <b>acceptation</b> <i>n</i> acceptance<br> <br> <b>acception</b> <i>n</i> acceptation (= standard meaning)<br> <br> <b>access-</b> <i>see</i> <b>acceder</b><br> <br> <b>accessibile</b> <i>adj</i> accessible<br> <br> <b>accessibilitate</b> <i>n</i> accessibility<br> <br> <b>accession</b> <i>n</i> 1. accession (“accession to a dignity, a throne, etc.”); 2. adherence (“adherence to a treaty, a party, etc.”)<br> <br> <b>accesso</b> <i>n</i> access (1. “access to a place”; 2. fit)<br> <br> <b>accessori</b> <i>adj</i> accessory (= adjunct)<br> <br> <b>accessorio</b> <i>n</i> accessory<br> <br> <b>accidental</b> <i>adj</i> accidental (1. nonessential; 2. happening by chance)<br> <br> <b>accidente</b> <i>n</i> I. accident (1. nonessential quality; 2. contingency; 3. mishap); II. [Gram.] accidence<br> <br> <b>accider</b> <i>v</i> to happen, befall <br> <I>Hence:</i> accidente-accidental<br> <br> <b>accip- [-cip-/-cept-]</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> acception; acceptar-acceptabile-acceptabilitate, inacceptabile; acceptation<br> <br> <b>accisia</b> <i>n</i> excise<br> <br> <b>acclamar</b> <i>v</i> to acclaim (= to applaud) <br> <I>Hence:</i> acclamation; acclamator<br> <br> <b>acclamation</b> <i>n</i> acclaim, acclamation; <br> <b>per acclamation</b> by acclamation<br> <br> <b>acclamator</b> <i>n</i> acclaimer<br> <br> <b>acclimatar</b> <i>v</i> to acclimatize, acclimate<br> <br> <b>acclimatation</b> <i>n</i> acclimatization, acclimation<br> <br> <b>accollada</b> <i>n</i> accolade (= ceremonious salutation and embrace)<br> <br> <b>accollar</b> <i>v</i> to embrace, salute with an accolade <br> <I>Hence:</i> accollada<br> <br> <b>accommodabile</b> <i>adj</i> 1. adaptable; 2. adjustable (as in “adjustable quarrel”)<br> <br> <b>accommodamento</b> <i>n</i> settlement (of disputes, etc.)<br> <br> <b>accommodar</b> <i>v</i> to accommodate (1. to adapt; 2. to settle (disputes, etc.)) <br> <I>Hence:</i> accommodamento; accommodabile; accommodator; accommodation<br> <br> <b>accommodation</b> <i>n</i> adaptation, accommodation<br> <br> <b>accommodator</b> <i>n</i> accommodator<br> <br> <b>accompaniamento</b> <i>n</i> I. (action of) accompanying; II. retinue, attendance; III. accompaniment (1. concomitant; 2. [Mus.])<br> <br> <b>accompaniar</b> <i>v</i> to accompany <br> <I>Hence:</i> accompaniamento; accompaniator<br> <br> <b>accompaniator</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] accompanist<br> <br> <b>accopulamento</b> <i>n</i> coupling (1. act of coupling; 2. [Techn.]); <i>specif.:</i> [R.R.]<br> <br> <b>accopular</b> <i>v</i> 1. to couple (= to unite, bring together in pairs); 2. to mate (= to bring together for breeding)<br> <br> <b>accordabile</b> <i>adj</i> 1. reconcilable; 2. tunable; 3. grantable<br> <br> <b>accordante</b> I. <i>ppr</i> of <b>accordar</b>; II. <i>adj</i> accordant (1. conformable; 2. [Mus.] harmonious)<br> <br> <b>accordar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to harmonize (= to cause to agree); 2. to tune; 3. to grant, accord <br> <I>Hence:</i> accordo; accordante; accordabile; accordator; accordatura; disaccordar-disaccordo<br> <br> <b>accordator</b> <i>n</i> tuner (of pianos, etc.); <br> <b>clave accordator</b> tuning key<br> <br> <b>accordatura</b> <i>n</i> 1. tuning; 2. pitch (as in “concert pitch”)<br> <br> <b>accordion</b> <i>n</i> accordion <br> <I>Hence:</i> accordionista<br> <br> <b>accordionista</b> <i>n</i> accordionist<br> <br> <b>accordo</b> <i>n</i> 1. accord, agreement; 2. [Mus.] chord; <br> <b>de accordo</b> in accord; <br> <b>esser de accordo</b> to be in accord, agree; <br> <b>poner se de accordo</b> to come to an agreement; <br> <b>de commun accordo</b> by common consent<br> <br> <b>accostabile</b> <i>adj</i> approachable, accostable<br> <br> <b>accostamento</b> <i>n</i> approach (as in “new lines of approach”)<br> <br> <b>accostar</b> <i>v</i> to accost <br> <I>Hence:</i> accostamento; accostabile<br> <br> <b>accostumar</b> <i>v</i> to accustom <br> <I>Hence:</i> accostumate-inaccostumate; disaccostumar<br> <br> <b>accostumate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>accostumar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> accustomed, usual<br> <br> <b>accreditar</b> <i>v</i> to accredit (= to send with credentials)<br> <br> <b>accrescer</b> <i>v</i> to increase (= to cause to increase) <br> <I>Hence:</i> accrescimento<br> <br> <b>accrescimento</b> <i>n</i> increase (= growth in size, amount, or degree)<br> <br> <b>accular</b> <i>v</i> to back up (a horse, cart, etc. against a wall, etc.)<br> <br> <b>accumulamento</b> <i>n</i> heaping or piling up, accumulation<br> <br> <b>accumular</b> <i>v</i> to accumulate, heap up <br> <I>Hence:</i> accumulamento; accumulation; accumulator<br> <br> <b>accumulation</b> <i>n</i> accumulation<br> <br> <b>accumulator</b> <i>n</i> accumulator (1. one who accumulates; 2. storage battery)<br> <br> <b>accurrer</b> <i>v</i> to come running, rush up<br> <br> <b>accurtamento</b> <i>n</i> shortening (= act of making shorter)<br> <br> <b>accurtar</b> <i>v</i> to shorten, make shorter <br> <I>Hence:</i> accurtamento<br> <br> <b>accusabile</b> <i>adj</i> blameworthy, liable to be accused; accusable<br> <br> <b>accusabilitate</b> <i>n</i> blameworthiness<br> <br> <b>accusamento</b> <i>n</i> accusing, accusation<br> <br> <b>accusar</b> <i>v</i> to accuse; <br> <b>accusar reception de</b> to acknowledge receipt of <br> <I>Hence:</i> accusamento; accusabile-accusabilitate; accusation; accusativo; accusator; accusatori; accusato-coaccusato<br> <br> <b>accusation</b> <i>n</i> accusation<br> <br> <b>accusativo</b> <i>n</i> [Gram.] accusative<br> <br> <b>accusato</b> <i>n</i> accused, defendant<br> <br> <b>accusator</b> <i>n</i> accuser<br> <br> <b>accusatori</b> <i>adj</i> accusing, accusatory; <i>also:</i> accusatorial<br> <br> <b>acerbar</b> <i>v</i> to acerbate<br> <br> <b>acerbe</b> <i>adj</i> acerb; <i>also:</i> sour, bitter, harsh <br> <I>Hence:</i> acerbitate; acerbar-exacerbar &<br> <br> <b>acerbitate</b> <i>n</i> acerbity<br> <br> <b>acere</b> <i>n</i> maple, maple tree<br> <br> <b>acetabulo</b> <i>n</i> [Rom. Antiq.] acetabulum; <i>also:</i> [Anat.]<br> <br> <b>acetamido (-ámido)</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] acetamide<br> <br> <b>acetato</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] acetate<br> <br> <b>acetic</b> <i>adj</i> acetic<br> <br> <b>acetificar</b> <i>v</i> to acetify<br> <br> <b>acetification</b> <i>n</i> acetification<br> <br> <b>aceto</b> <i>n</i> vinegar <br> <I>Hence:</i> acetato; acetabulo; acetona; acetic; acetose; acetificar-acetification; acetamido etc.<br> <br> <b>acetona</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] acetone<br> <br> <b>acetose</b> <i>adj</i> acetous, acetose<br> <br> <b>acetylen</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] acetylene<br> <br> <B>Acheronte</b> <i>npr</i> Acheron<br> <br> <b>achillea (-éa)</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] Achillea<br> <br> <B>Achilles (-ílles)</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Achilles; <br> <b>calce de Achilles</b> Achilles’ heel; <br> <b>tendon de Achilles</b> Achilles’ tendon <br> <I>Hence:</i> achillea<br> <br> <b>achromate</b> <i>adj</i> achromatous, colorless<br> <br> <b>achromatic</b> <i>adj</i> [Opt.] achromatic<br> <br> <b>achromatisar</b> <i>v</i> [Opt.] to achromatize<br> <br> <b>achromatisation</b> <i>n</i> [Opt.] achromatization<br> <br> <b>achromatismo</b> <i>n</i> [Opt.] achromatism<br> <br> <b>achromatopsia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> achromatopsy (= complete color blindness)<br> <br> <b>acicula</b> <i>n</i> [Bot., etc.] acicula (= needle, prickle etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> acicular<br> <br> <b>acicular</b> <i>adj</i> acicular<br> <br> <b>acide (ácide)</b> <i>adj</i> acid <br> <I>Hence:</i> aciditate; acidule-acidular; acidificar-acidificabile, acidification; acido-amino-acido etc.; hydracido etc.; acidimetro etc.<br> <br> <b>acidificabile</b> <i>adj</i> acidifiable<br> <br> <b>acidificar</b> <i>v</i> to acidify (= to make acid, convert into an acid)<br> <br> <b>acidification</b> <i>n</i> acidification<br> <br> <b>acidimetro (-ímetro)</b> <i>n</i> acidimeter<br> <br> <b>aciditate</b> <i>n</i> acidity<br> <br> <b>acido (ácido)</b> <i>n</i> acid; <br> <b>acido carbonic</b> 1. carbonic acid; 2. carbon dioxide, carbonic acid gas; <br> <b>acido chlorhydric</b> hydrochloric acid<br> <br> <b>acidular</b> <i>v</i> to acidulate, flavor with an acid<br> <br> <b>acidule</b> <i>adj</i> acidulous<br> <br> <b>acierage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> steel plating, acierage<br> <br> <b>acierar</b> <i>v</i> to steel (1. to overlay, point, plate, etc., with steel; 2. to convert into or cause to resemble steel)<br> <br> <b>acieration</b> <i>n</i> acieration (= conversion into steel)<br> <br> <b>acieria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> steelworks, steel mill<br> <br> <b>aciero</b> <i>n</i> steel <br> <I>Hence:</i> acieria; acierar-acierage, acieration<br> <br> <b>aco</b> <i>n</i> needle <br> <I>Hence:</i> acicula &; acupunctura etc.<br> <br> <b>aco-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in compounds] aco-, -ac- (= remedy) <br> <I>Hence:</i> acologia etc.; panac- etc.<br> <br> <b>acologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] acology <br> <I>Hence:</i> acologic<br> <br> <b>acologic</b> <i>adj</i> [Med.] acologic<br> <br> <b>acordonar</b> <i>v</i> to lace (= to fasten or tighten with a lace)<br> <br> <b>acquest-</b> <i>see</i> <b>acquirer</b><br> <br> <b>acquesto</b> <i>n</i> acquisition (= thing acquired)<br> <br> <b>acquiescente</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>acquiescer</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> acquiescent<br> <br> <b>acquiescentia</b> <i>n</i> acquiescence<br> <br> <b>acquiescer</b> <i>v</i> to acquiesce <br> <I>Hence:</i> acquiescente-acquiescentia<br> <br> <b>acquirer [-quir-/-quest-/-quisit-]</b> <i>v</i> to acquire <br> <I>Hence:</i> acquiribile; acquesto; acquisition; acquisitor; acquiritor<br> <br> <b>acquiribile</b> <i>adj</i> acquirable<br> <br> <b>acquiritor</b> <i>n</i> acquirer<br> <br> <b>acquisit-</b> <i>see</i> <b>acquirer</b><br> <br> <b>acquisition</b> <i>n</i> acquisition (1. act of acquiring; 2. thing acquired)<br> <br> <b>acquisitor</b> <i>n</i> acquirer<br> <br> <b>acr-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in compounds] acro- (= terminal, topmost) <br> <I>Hence:</i> acropole etc.; acrostichio etc. ...<br> <br> <b>acre¹ [A]</b> <i>n</i> acre<br> <br> <b>acre²</b> <i>adj</i> acrid <br> <I>Hence:</i> acritate; acrimonia &<br> <br> <b>acrimonia</b> <i>n</i> acrimony <br> <I>Hence:</i> acrimoniose<br> <br> <b>acrimoniose</b> <i>adj</i> acrimonious<br> <br> <b>acritate</b> <i>n</i> acridness<br> <br> <b>acrobata (-óbata)</b> <i>n</i> acrobat <br> <I>Hence:</i> acrobatia; acrobatismo; acrobatic<br> <br> <b>acrobatia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> acrobatics<br> <br> <b>acrobatic</b> <i>adj</i> acrobatic<br> <br> <b>acrobatismo</b> <i>n</i> acrobatism<br> <br> <b>acropole</b> <i>n</i> acropolis<br> <br> <b>acrostichio</b> <i>n</i> [Pros.] acrostic<br> <br> <b>act-</b> <i>see</i> <b>ager</b><br> <br> <b>action</b> <i>n</i> I. action (1. act, acting; 2. lawsuit); II. [Fin.] share; <br> <b>homine de action</b> man of action; <br> <b>action civil</b> civil action<br> <br> <b>actionabile</b> <i>adj</i> actionable<br> <br> <b>actionar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to actuate (= to set in action or motion); 2. [Law] to sue<br> <br> <b>actionero</b> <i>n</i> shareholder, stockholder<br> <br> <b>actionista</b> <i>n</i> shareholder, stockholder<br> <br> <b>activar</b> <i>v</i> to activate; <i>also:</i> to stir up, rouse<br> <br> <b>activation</b> <i>n</i> activation<br> <br> <b>active</b> <i>adj</i> active; <br> <b>le voce active</b> the active voice<br> <br> <b>activitate</b> <i>n</i> activity<br> <br> <b>activo</b> <i>n</i> [Com.] assets<br> <br> <b>acto</b> <i>n</i> I. act (1. action, deed; 2. “act of a play”); II. [Law] instrument, deed, record, etc.<br> <br> <b>actor</b> <i>n</i> actor<br> <br> <b>actrice</b> <i>n</i> actress<br> <br> <b>actual</b> <i>adj</i> 1. actual, real; 2. current, present<br> <br> <b>actualisar</b> <i>v</i> to actualize<br> <br> <b>actualisation</b> <i>n</i> actualization<br> <br> <b>actualitate</b> <i>n</i> 1. actuality (= actual existence); 2. character of what is current or present, thing or event that is current or present; <br> <b>actualitates</b> current events, news (as in “news report, newsreel, news film, etc.”)<br> <br> <b>actualmente</b> <i>adv</i> 1. at present, (just) now; 2. actually<br> <br> <b>actuar</b> <i>v</i> to actuate (= to put into action)<br> <br> <b>actuarial</b> <i>adj</i> actuarial<br> <br> <b>actuariato</b> <i>n</i> actuary’s office (or profession)<br> <br> <b>actuario</b> <i>n</i> actuary<br> <br> <b>actuation</b> <i>n</i> actuation<br> <br> <b>aculeate</b> <i>adj</i> [Zool., Bot.] aculeate<br> <br> <b>aculeiforme</b> <i>adj</i> aculeiform<br> <br> <b>aculeo</b> <i>n</i> 1. [Zool.] sting; 2. [Bot.] thorn <br> <I>Hence:</i> aculeate; aculeiforme etc.<br> <br> <b>acuminar</b> <i>v</i> to sharpen, acuminate<br> <br> <b>acuminate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>acuminar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> pointed, acuminate<br> <br> <b>acumine</b> <i>n</i> 1. [Bot.] a tapering point; 2. acumen <br> <I>Hence:</i> acuminar-acuminate<br> <br> <b>acupunctura</b> <i>n</i> acupuncture <br> <I>Hence:</i> acupuncturar<br> <br> <b>acupuncturar</b> <i>v</i> to acupuncture<br> <br> <b>acustic</b> <i>adj</i> acoustic; <br> <b>tubo acustic</b> speaking tube; <br> <b>corno acustic</b> ear trumpet <br> <I>Hence:</i> acustica<br> <br> <b>acustica</b> <i>n</i> acoustics<br> <br> <b>acutangule</b> <i>adj</i> [Geom.] acute-angled, acutangular<br> <br> <b>acute</b> <i>adj</i> acute (1. sharp-pointed; 2. shrewd, penetrating, keen; 3. acting keenly on the senses); <br> <b>angulo acute</b> [Geom.] acute angle; <br> <b>morbo acute</b> acute disease; <br> <b>nota acute</b> high-pitched sound; <br> <b>voce acute</b> shrill voice; <br> <b>dolor acute</b> acute or sharp pain; <br> <b>accento acute</b> [Gram.] acute accent, ´ <br> <I>Hence:</i> acutessa; acutiar-acutiamento, acutiator; acutangule etc.<br> <br> <b>acutessa</b> <i>n</i> sharpness, acuteness<br> <br> <b>acutiamento</b> <i>n</i> sharpening<br> <br> <b>acutiar</b> <i>v</i> to sharpen (= to make sharp)<br> <br> <b>acutiator</b> <i>n</i> sharpener (= one who sharpens)<br> <br> <b>[ad]</b> <i>prep</i> 1. to; 2. at <br> (= <b>a</b>)<br> <br> <b>ad-</b> <i>prefixo verbal</i> [subject to assimilation before single consonant; used with verbs and, in combination with verbal suffixes, with nouns and adjectives] ad- (= to, toward, into [expressing motion to, change into, increase of intensity, etc.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> accurrer etc.; approximar, etc.; adjudicar, etc.<br> <br> <b>-ada</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with nouns and verbs] -ade I. [used with nouns] (1. product made from ...; 2. series of ...); II. [used with verbs] (= action of ...ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> limonada etc.; columnada etc.; cavalcada etc.<br> <br> <b>adagio¹</b> <i>n</i> adage<br> <br> <b>adagio² [I]</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] adagio<br> <br> <b>adagio³ [I]</b> <i>adv</i> [Mus.] adagio<br> <br> <B>Adam</b> <i>npr</i> Adam; <br> <b>pomo de Adam</b> Adam’s apple <br> <I>Hence:</i> adamitas; adamic<br> <br> <b>adamic</b> <i>adj</i> Adamic<br> <br> <b>adamitas</b> <i>npl</i> [Eccl. Hist.] Adamites<br> <br> <b>adaptabile</b> <i>adj</i> adaptable<br> <br> <b>adaptabilitate</b> <i>n</i> adaptability<br> <br> <b>adaptar</b> <i>v</i> to adapt; <br> <b>adaptar a</b> to adapt to <br> <I>Hence:</i> adaptabile-adaptabilitate, inadaptabile; adaptation<br> <br> <b>adaptation</b> <i>n</i> adaptation; <br> <b>facultate de adaptation</b> adaptability, ability to adapt oneself<br> <br> <b>addendum (<i>pl</i> addenda) [NL]</b> <i>n</i> addendum<br> <br> <b>adder</b> <i>v</i> to add (“to add one thing to another”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> addition-additional, additionar; additive<br> <br> <b>addition</b> <i>n</i> addition (1. action of adding; 2. thing added)<br> <br> <b>additional</b> <i>adj</i> additional<br> <br> <b>additionar</b> <i>v</i> [Math.] to add up<br> <br> <b>additive</b> <i>adj</i> additive<br> <br> <b>addormir</b> <i>v</i> to put to sleep; <br> <b>addormir se</b> to fall asleep<br> <br> <b>addormite</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>addormir</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> asleep<br> <br> <b>adducer [-duc-/-duct-]</b> <i>v</i> to adduce <br> <I>Hence:</i> adduction; adductor<br> <br> <b>adduct-</b> <i>see</i> <b>adducer</b><br> <br> <b>adduction</b> <i>n</i> adduction (1. act of adducing; 2. [Physiol.])<br> <br> <b>adductor</b> <i>n</i> 1. adducer; 2. [Physiol.] adductor<br> <br> <b>adelpho-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in compounds] adelpho-, adelph- (1. brother; 2. twin) <br> <I>Hence:</i> monadelphe etc.; Philadelphia etc.<br> <br> <b>aden [Gr.]</b> <i>n</i> [Physiol.] gland <br> <I>Hence:</i> adenitis; adenoma; adenoide; adenose; adenographia etc.<br> <br> <b>adenitis (-ítis)</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] adenitis<br> <br> <b>adenographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> adenography<br> <br> <b>adenoide</b> <i>adj</i> adenoid, adenoidal<br> <br> <b>adenoides</b> <i>npl</i> adenoids<br> <br> <b>adenoma</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] adenoma<br> <br> <b>adenose</b> <i>adj</i> glandulous, adenose<br> <br> <b>adeo (-éo)</b> <i>interj</i> farewell, good-by(e)<br> <br> <b>adepto</b> <i>n</i> adept<br> <br> <b>adequar</b> <i>v</i> to equalize <br> <I>Hence:</i> adequation; adequate-inadequate<br> <br> <b>adequate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>adequar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> adequate<br> <br> <b>adequation</b> <i>n</i> adequation<br> <br> <b>adherente</b> <i>n</i> adherent, follower<br> <br> <b>adherentia</b> <i>n</i> adherence, attachment<br> <br> <b>adherer [-her-/-hes-]</b> <i>v</i> to adhere (1. to stick fast; 2. as in “to adhere to an opinion, party, etc.”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> adherente-adherentia; adhesion; adhesive<br> <br> <b>adhes-</b> <i>see</i> <b>adherer</b><br> <br> <b>adhesion</b> <i>n</i> adhesion (1. sticking; 2. assent)<br> <br> <b>adhesive</b> <i>adj</i> adhesive, sticking<br> <br> <b>ad hoc [L]</b> <i>ad hoc</i> (= for the sake of this particular case, well-suited for this matter)<br> <br> <b>ad hominem [L]</b> <i>ad hominem</i>; <br> <b>argumento ad hominem</b> <i>argumentum ad hominem</i><br> <br> <b>[adhuc]</b> <i>adv</i> to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still<br> <br> <b>adieu [F]</b> <i>n</i> farewell, adieu<br> <br> <b>adipe (ádipe)</b> <i>n</i> animal fat, body fat; <i>also:</i> adeps <br> <I>Hence:</i> adiposis; adipose-adipositate; adipocera etc.<br> <br> <b>adipocera</b> <i>n</i> adipocere<br> <br> <b>adipose</b> <i>adj</i> adipose, fat<br> <br> <b>adiposis (-ósis)</b> <i>n</i> adiposis, fatty degeneration<br> <br> <b>adipositate</b> <i>n</i> adiposity, fatness<br> <br> <b>adir</b> <i>v</i> 1. to approach; go to; 2. to attain, enter upon; <i>also:</i> [Law] to enter on (an inheritance, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> adition; adito<br> <br> <b>adition</b> <i>n</i> [Law] entering upon (an inheritance)<br> <br> <b>adito (ádito)</b> <i>n</i> adit, entrance (1. door, passage, etc. through which one enters; 2. access)<br> <br> <b>adjacente</b> <i>adj</i> adjacent; <br> <b>angulos adjacente</b> adjacent angles<br> <br> <b>adjacentia</b> <i>n</i> adjacency (= state of being adjacent)<br> <br> <b>adjacer</b> <i>v</i> -; <br> <b>adjacer a</b> to lie near or close to, border upon <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjacente-adjacentia<br> <br> <b>adject-</b> <i>see</i> <b>adjic-</b><br> <br> <b>adjectival</b> <i>adj</i> [Gram.] adjectival, adjective<br> <br> <b>adjective</b> <i>adj</i> [Gram.] adjective, adjectival <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjectivo-adjectival<br> <br> <b>adjectivo</b> <i>n</i> [Gram.] adjective<br> <br> <b>adjic- [-jic-/-ject-]</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjective &<br> <br> <b>adjudicar</b> <i>v</i> to adjudge (= to award judicially, as a prize, etc.); <br> <b>adjudicar a</b> to knock down to (at an auction) <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjudication; adjudicative; adjudicator; adjudicatario<br> <br> <b>adjudicatario</b> <i>n</i> highest bidder, purchaser (at an auction)<br> <br> <b>adjudication</b> <i>n</i> 1. adjudgment, award; 2. knocking down (at an auction)<br> <br> <b>adjudicative</b> <i>adj</i> adjudging, awarding<br> <br> <b>adjudicator</b> <i>n</i> adjudger, awarder<br> <br> <b>adjunct-</b> <i>see</i> <b>adjunger</b><br> <br> <b>adjunction</b> <i>n</i> adjunction (= the act of joining or adding)<br> <br> <b>adjunctive</b> <i>adj</i> adjunctive<br> <br> <b>adjuncto</b> <i>n</i> 1. assistant, deputy; 2. [Gram.] adjunct<br> <br> <b>adjunger [-jung-/junct-]</b> <i>v</i> to join, unite (one thing to another) <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjunction; adjunctive; adjuncto<br> <br> <b>adjurar</b> <i>v</i> to adjure <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjuration<br> <br> <b>adjuration</b> <i>n</i> adjuration<br> <br> <b>adjustabile</b> <i>adj</i> adjustable<br> <br> <b>adjustage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> [Mach.] assembly (of the parts of a machine)<br> <br> <b>adjustamento</b> <i>n</i> adjustment (= action of adjusting)<br> <br> <b>adjustar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to adjust; 2. [Mach.] to fit together, set up <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjustage; adjustamento; adjustabile; adjustator; readjustar-readjustamento, readjustator<br> <br> <b>adjustator</b> <i>n</i> adjuster; [Mach.] fitter, setter, etc.<br> <br> <b>adjut-</b> <i>see</i> <b>adjuvar</b><br> <br> <b>adjuta</b> <i>n</i> 1. aid, help; 2. aide (= assistant)<br> <br> <b>adjutante</b> <i>n</i> 1. helper, assistant; 2. [Mil.] adjutant<br> <br> <b>adjutar</b> <i>v</i> to aid, help; <br> <b>adjutar se de</b> to use, make use of <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjuta; adjutante<br> <br> <b>adjutor</b> <i>n</i> help, helper<br> <br> <b>adjuvante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>adjuvar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> helpful, adjuvant<br> <br> <b>adjuvar [-juv-/-jut-]</b> <i>v</i> to aid, help <br> <I>Hence:</i> adjuvante; adjutor; adjutar &; coadjuvar &<br> <br> <b>ad libitum, ad lib. [L]</b> <i>ad libitum</i>, <i>ad lib.</i><br> <br> <b>administrabile</b> <i>adj</i> administrable<br> <br> <b>administrar</b> <i>v</i> to administer (1. to direct, manage; 2. to furnish or apply) <br> <I>Hence:</i> administrabile; administration; administrative; administrator<br> <br> <b>administration</b> <i>n</i> administration (1. action of furnishing or applying; 2. management of public affairs, an institution, business, etc.; 3. the persons collectively managing public affairs, an institution, business, etc.)<br> <br> <b>administrative</b> <i>adj</i> administrative<br> <br> <b>administrator</b> <i>n</i> administrator, manager<br> <br> <b>admirabile</b> <i>adj</i> admirable<br> <br> <b>admiral</b> <i>n</i> admiral <br> <I>Hence:</i> admiralato; admiralitate<br> <br> <b>admiralato</b> <i>n</i> admiralship, admiralty<br> <br> <b>admiralitate</b> <i>n</i> admiralty (1. “law or court of the admiralty”; 2. government department in charge of naval affairs)<br> <br> <b>admirar</b> <i>v</i> to admire <br> <I>Hence:</i> admirabile; admiration; admirative; admirator<br> <br> <b>admiration</b> <i>n</i> admiration<br> <br> <b>admirative</b> <i>adj</i> admiring<br> <br> <b>admirator</b> <i>n</i> admirer<br> <br> <b>admiscer [-misc-/-mixt-]</b> <i>v</i> to admix <br> <I>Hence:</i> admixtion<br> <br> <b>admiss-</b> <i>see</i> <b>admitter</b><br> <br> <b>admissibile</b> <i>adj</i> admissible<br> <br> <b>admissibilitate</b> <i>n</i> admissibility<br> <br> <b>admission</b> <i>n</i> admission (1. act of allowing entrance or access; 2. act of conceding the validity or truth of)<br> <br> <b>admitter [-mitt-/-miss-]</b> <i>v</i> to admit (1. to allow to enter; 2. to acknowledge as valid or true) <br> <I>Hence:</i> admissibile-admissibilitate, inadmissibile-inadmissibilitate; admission-inadmission; readmitter-readmission<br> <br> <b>admixt-</b> <i>see</i> <b>admiscer</b><br> <br> <b>admixtion</b> <i>n</i> admixture, admixtion<br> <br> <b>admoner</b> <i>v</i> to admonish <br> <I>Hence:</i> admonition; admonitor; admonitori<br> <br> <b>admonestar</b> <i>v</i> to admonish <br> <I>Hence:</i> admonestation<br> <br> <b>admonestation</b> <i>n</i> admonition, admonishment<br> <br> <b>admonition</b> <i>n</i> admonition<br> <br> <b>admonitor</b> <i>n</i> admonitor, admonisher<br> <br> <b>admonitori</b> <i>adj</i> admonitory<br> <br> <b>adoculamento</b> <i>n</i> (action of) fixing one’s eyes upon<br> <br> <b>adocular</b> <i>v</i> to fix one’s eyes upon, glue one’s eyes to<br> <br> <b>adolescente¹</b> <i>adj</i> adolescent<br> <br> <b>adolescente²</b> <i>n</i> adolescent<br> <br> <b>adolescentia</b> <i>n</i> adolescence<br> <br> <b>adolescer</b> <i>v</i> to grow up, to become adolescent <br> <I>Hence:</i> adolescente-adolescentia<br> <br> <b>adonic</b> <i>adj</i> Adonic, Adonian<br> <br> <b>adonico</b> <i>n</i> [Pros.] Adonic<br> <br> <b>adonie</b> <i>adj</i> Adonian, Adonic<br> <br> <b>adonio</b> <i>n</i> [Pros.] Adonic<br> <br> <B>Adonis (-dó-)</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Adonis; <br> <b>adonis</b> 1. [Bot.] Adonis, pheasant’s eye; 2. fop, dandy <br> <I>Hence:</i> adonic-adonico; adonie-adonio<br> <br> <b>adoptabile</b> <i>adj</i> adoptable<br> <br> <b>adoptabilitate</b> <i>n</i> adoptability<br> <br> <b>adoptar</b> <i>v</i> to adopt <br> <I>Hence:</i> adoptabile-adoptabilitate, inadoptabile; adoptator<br> <br> <b>adoptator</b> <i>n</i> adopter<br> <br> <b>adoption</b> <i>n</i> adoption<br> <br> <b>adoptive</b> <i>adj</i> adoptive<br> <br> <b>adorabile</b> <i>adj</i> adorable<br> <br> <b>adorabilitate</b> <i>n</i> adorability<br> <br> <b>adorar</b> <i>v</i> to adore, worship <br> <I>Hence:</i> adorabile-adorabilitate; adoration<br> <br> <b>adoration</b> <i>n</i> adoration, worship<br> <br> <b>adornamento</b> <i>n</i> adornment (= action of adorning)<br> <br> <b>adornar</b> <i>v</i> to adorn; <br> <b>adornar de</b> to adorn with <br> <I>Hence:</i> adornamento; adornator<br> <br> <b>adornator</b> <i>n</i> adorner<br> <br> <b>adorsar</b> <i>v</i> -; <br> <b>adorsar (un cosa) a</b> to place (something) with its back against<br> <br> <b>ad rem [L]</b> <i>ad rem</i>, to the point<br> <br> <b>adrenal</b> <i>adj</i> [Anat.] adrenal; <br> <b>glandulas adrenal</b> adrenal glands<br> <br> <b>adrenalina</b> <i>n</i> adrenalin<br> <br> <b>adressar</b> <i>v</i> to address (1. to write the address on, direct; 2. as in “to address a prayer to”); <br> <b>adressar se</b> to address oneself (to)<br> <br> <b>adresse [F]</b> <i>n</i> address (1. formal communication; 2. as in “address of a letter, package, etc.”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> adressar<br> <br> <B>Adria</b> <i>npr</i> (city of) Adria <br> <I>Hence:</i> adriatic-Adriatico<br> <br> <B>Adriano</b> <i>nprm</i> Adrian <br> <I>Hence:</i> Adrianopolis etc.<br> <br> <B>Adrianopolis (-ópolis)</b> <i>npr</i> Adrianople<br> <br> <b>adriatic</b> <i>adj</i> Adriatic (1. pertaining to the city of Adria; 2. pertaining to the Adriatic); <br> <B>Mar Adriatic</b> Adriatic<br> <br> <B>Adriatico</b> <i>n</i> Adriatic<br> <br> <b>adular</b> <i>v</i> to adulate <br> <I>Hence:</i> adulation; adulator; adulatori<br> <br> <b>adulation</b> <i>n</i> adulation<br> <br> <b>adulator</b> <i>n</i> adulator<br> <br> <b>adulatori</b> <i>adj</i> adulatory<br> <br> <b>adulciamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (act of) sweetening; 2. (act of) softening, etc.<br> <br> <b>adulciar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to sweeten (= to make sweet); 2. to soften, to make milder or more pleasing, etc.; 3. to render ductile or malleable<br> <br> <b>adulte</b> <i>adj</i> adult, grown-up <br> <I>Hence:</i> adulto<br> <br> <b>adultera (-últera)</b> <i>n</i> adulteress<br> <br> <b>adulterar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to adulterate; 2. to commit adultery <br> <I>Hence:</i> adultero-adulterin, adulterose, adultera; adulterio; adulteration; adulterator<br> <br> <b>adulteration</b> <i>n</i> adulteration (= action of adulterating)<br> <br> <b>adulterator</b> <i>n</i> 1. adulterator; 2. adulterer<br> <br> <b>adulterin</b> <i>adj</i> adulterine<br> <br> <b>adulterio</b> <i>n</i> adultery; <br> <b>committer adulterio</b> to commit adultery<br> <br> <b>adultero (-últero)</b> <i>n</i> adulterer<br> <br> <b>adulterose</b> <i>adj</i> adulterous<br> <br> <b>adulto</b> <i>n</i> adult<br> <br> <b>adumbrar</b> <i>v</i> to overshadow, adumbrate <br> <I>Hence:</i> adumbration<br> <br> <b>adumbration</b> <i>n</i> adumbration, overshadowing<br> <br> <b>adurer [-ur-/-ust-]</b> <i>v</i> 1. to burn, scorch; 2. [Med.] to cauterize <br> <I>Hence:</i> aduste; adustion<br> <br> <b>adust-</b> <i>see</i> <b>adurer</b><br> <br> <b>aduste</b> <i>adj</i> burnt, scorched, adust<br> <br> <b>adustion</b> <i>n</i> 1. (act of) burning, scorching; 2. [Med.] cauterization<br> <br> <b>ad valorem [L]</b> [Com.] <i>ad valorem</i><br> <br> <b>advenimento</b> <i>n</i> advent (= arrival)<br> <br> <b>advenir [-ven-/-vent-]</b> <i>v</i> to happen, come to pass <br> <I>Hence:</i> advenimento; advento-adventicie<br> <br> <b>advent-</b> <i>see</i> <b>advenir</b><br> <br> <b>adventicie</b> <i>adj</i> adventitious<br> <br> <B>Advento</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl.] Advent<br> <br> <b>adverbial</b> <i>adj</i> adverbial<br> <br> <b>adverbio</b> <i>n</i> adverb <br> <I>Hence:</i> adverbial<br> <br> <b>advers-</b> <i>see</i> <b>adverter</b><br> <br> <b>adversar</b> <i>v</i> to oppose<br> <br> <b>adversario</b> <i>n</i> adversary<br> <br> <b>adversative</b> <i>adj</i> [Gram.] adversative<br> <br> <b>adverse</b> <i>adj</i> 1. adverse (= contrary, unfavorable); 2. opposite (= placed opposite)<br> <br> <b>adversitate</b> <i>n</i> adversity<br> <br> <b>[adverso]</b> <i>adv/prep</i> 1. towards; 2. against; 3. opposite<br> <br> <b>advertente</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>adverter</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> advertent, attentive<br> <br> <b>advertentia</b> <i>n</i> advertence, advertency<br> <br> <b>adverter [-vert-/-vers-]</b> <i>v</i> to advert, have reference (to) <br> <I>Hence:</i> advertente-advertentia, inadvertente-inadvertentia; adverse-adversario, adversitate; adversar-adversative; animadverter etc.<br> <br> <b>advertimento</b> <i>n</i> notice, warning<br> <br> <b>advertir</b> <i>v</i> to advise, give notice <br> <I>Hence:</i> advertimento<br> <br> <b>advocar</b> <i>v</i> to call, summon; to call to one’s aid <br> <I>Hence:</i> advocato<br> <br> <b>advocato</b> <i>n</i> advocate (1. [Law; 2. champion, supporter)<br> <br> <b>adyname (-íname)</b> <i>adj</i> weak, without strength <br> <I>Hence:</i> adynamia-adynamic<br> <br> <b>adynamia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] adynamia<br> <br> <b>adynamic</b> <i>adj</i> [Med.] adynamic<br> <br> <b>aer</b> <i>n</i> air (1. “atmospheric air”; 2. appearance; 3. melody); <br> <b>esser in le aer</b> to be up in the air; <br> <b>facer castellos in le aer</b> to build castles in the air; <br> <b>prender le aer</b> to take an airing; <br> <b>dar se aeres</b> to give oneself airs; <br> <b>parlar in le aer</b> to talk at random; <br> <b>haber le aer de (facer un cosa)</b> to appear to be (doing something); <br> <b>haber le aer (triste)</b> to look (sad); <br> <b>aer libere</b> open air <br> <I>Hence:</i> aeree-antiaeree; aerifere; aerar-aerage, aeration; aerificar-aerification; aerodromo etc.; aerologia etc.; aeroplano etc.; aerobie etc.; aeriforme etc.; aerodynamic etc.<br> <br> <b>aerage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> aeration, airing<br> <br> <b>aerar</b> <i>v</i> to air (= to expose to the open air)<br> <br> <b>aeration</b> <i>n</i> aeration, airing; <i>also:</i> [Chem.]<br> <br> <b>aeree</b> <i>adj</i> air (= airy, aerial); <br> <b>via aeree</b> [Aeronaut.] airway; <br> <b>posta aeree</b> air mail; <br> <b>vias aeree</b> [Anat.] air-passages<br> <br> <b>aerifere</b> <i>adj</i> aeriferous<br> <br> <b>aerificar</b> <i>v</i> to aerify (= to change to an aeriform state)<br> <br> <b>aerification</b> <i>n</i> aerification<br> <br> <b>aeriforme</b> <i>adj</i> aeriform<br> <br> <b>aerobie</b> <i>adj</i> [Biol.] aerobic <br> <I>Hence:</i> anaerobie-anaerobio; aerobio<br> <br> <b>aerobio</b> <i>n</i> [Biol.] aerobe<br> <br> <b>aerodromo (-ódromo)</b> <i>n</i> aerodrome; <i>also:</i> airfield<br> <br> <b>aerodynamic</b> <i>adj</i> aerodynamic <br> <I>Hence:</i> aerodynamica<br> <br> <b>aerodynamica</b> <i>n</i> aerodynamics<br> <br> <b>aerographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> aerography<br> <br> <b>aerolitic</b> <i>adj</i> aerolitic<br> <br> <b>aerolitho (-ólito)</b> <i>n</i> aerolite <br> <I>Hence:</i> aerolithic<br> <br> <b>aerologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> aerology<br> <br> <b>aerometria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> aerometry<br> <br> <b>aerometro (-ómetro)</b> <i>n</i> aerometer <br> <I>Hence:</i> aerometria<br> <br> <b>aeronauta</b> <i>n</i> aeronaut, airman <br> <I>Hence:</i> aeronautic; aeronautica<br> <br> <b>aeronautic</b> <i>adj</i> aeronautic(al)<br> <br> <b>aeronautica</b> <i>n</i> aeronautics<br> <br> <b>aeronave</b> <i>n</i> airship; <br> <b>aeronaves</b> aircraft<br> <br> <b>aeroplano</b> <i>n</i> airplane <br> <I>Hence:</i> hydroaeroplano etc.; portaaeroplanos etc.<br> <br> <b>aeroporto</b> <i>n</i> airport<br> <br> <b>aerostatic</b> <i>adj</i> aerostatic <br> <I>Hence:</i> aerostatica<br> <br> <b>aerostatica</b> <i>n</i> aerostatics<br> <br> <b>aerostation</b> <i>n</i> aerostation<br> <br> <b>aerostato (-óstato)</b> <i>n</i> [Aeronaut.] aerostat <br> <I>Hence:</i> aerostation<br> <br> <b>affabile</b> <i>adj</i> affable <br> <I>Hence:</i> affabilitate<br> <br> <b>affabilitate</b> <i>n</i> affability<br> <br> <b>affaire [F]</b> <i>n</i> affair (1. concern; 2. event); <br> <b>affaires</b> affairs, business<br> <br> <b>affamar</b> <i>v</i> to starve, famish (= to cause to starve or famish) <br> <I>Hence:</i> affamator<br> <br> <b>affamator</b> <i>n</i> starver (as in “starver of the people”)<br> <br> <b>affect-</b> <i>see</i> <b>afficer</b><br> <br> <b>affectabile</b> <i>adj</i> impressionable<br> <br> <b>affectar¹</b> <i>v</i> to affect (= to have an affection for)<br> <br> <b>affectar²</b> <i>v</i> to affect (to pretend, feign) <br> <I>Hence:</i> affectation; affectate<br> <br> <b>affectate</b> <i>adj</i> affected (= full of affectation)<br> <br> <b>affectation</b> <i>n</i> affectation (= artificiality of manner)<br> <br> <b>affectibile</b> <i>adj</i> impressionable<br> <br> <b>affectibilitate</b> <i>n</i> impressionability<br> <br> <b>affection</b> <i>n</i> affection (1. the fact or state of being affected or acted upon); 2. fondness; 3. [Pathol.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> affectionar-affectionate; disaffection-disaffectionar<br> <br> <b>affectionar</b> <i>v</i> to be fond of<br> <br> <b>affectionate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>affectionar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> affectionate<br> <br> <b>affective</b> <i>adj</i> affective, emotional<br> <br> <b>affecto</b> <i>n</i> affection, fondness<br> <br> <b>affectuose</b> <i>adj</i> loving, affectionate<br> <br> <b>afficer [-fic-/-fect-]</b> <i>v</i> to affect (= to have an effect on) <br> <I>Hence:</i> affectibile-affectibilitate; affection &; affective; affecto-affectuose, affectar¹-affectabile; affectar² &<br> <br> <b>affidavit (-ávit)</b> <i>n</i> affidavit (= written statement made on oath)<br> <br> <b>affiger [-fig-/-fix-]</b> <i>v</i> to affix, fasten <br> <I>Hence:</i> affixo-affixar<br> <br> <b>affilar</b> <i>v</i> to whet, sharpen <br> <I>Hence:</i> affilatoria<br> <br> <b>affilatoria</b> <i>n</i> sharpener, sharpening machine<br> <br> <b>affiliar</b> <i>v</i> to affiliate (= to receive or connect as member, branch, etc.); <br> <b>affiliar se con</b> to affiliate with, join <br> <I>Hence:</i> affiliation; affiliate<br> <br> <b>affiliate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>affiliar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> affiliate, affiliated<br> <br> <b>affiliation</b> <i>n</i> affiliation (with a society, etc.)<br> <br> <b>affin</b> <i>adj</i> 1. resembling, like; 2. related by marriage; <br> <b>(patre, matre, etc.) affin</b> (father-, mother-, etc.) in-law <br> <I>Hence:</i> affinitate<br> <br> <b>affinamento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) refining, improving; <i>also:</i> [Metal.]<br> <br> <b>affinar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to refine, improve; <i>also:</i> [Metal.] <br> <I>Hence:</i> affinamento; affinator; raffinar &<br> <br> <b>affinator</b> <i>n</i> refiner (of metals)<br> <br> <b>affinitate</b> <i>n</i> affinity (1. relationship by marriage; 2. resemblance, likeness; 3. attraction)<br> <br> <b>affirmabile</b> <i>adj</i> affirmable<br> <br> <b>affirmar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to strengthen, make firm; 2. to affirm, assert <br> <I>Hence:</i> affirmabile; affirmation; affirmative-affirmativa; affirmator; reaffirmar<br> <br> <b>affirmation</b> <i>n</i> affirmation (1. assertion; 2. affirmative proposition)<br> <br> <b>affirmativa</b> <i>n</i> affirmative (= affirmative statement, reply, etc.)<br> <br> <b>affirmative</b> <i>adj</i> affirmative; <br> <b>responder affirmativemente</b> to answer in the affirmative<br> <br> <b>affirmator</b> <i>n</i> affirmer<br> <br> <b>affix-</b> <i>see</i> <b>affiger</b><br> <br> <b>affixar</b> <i>v</i> to affix, fasten<br> <br> <b>affixo</b> <i>n</i> [Gram.] affix<br> <br> <b>afflict-</b> <i>see</i> <b>affliger</b><br> <br> <b>affliction</b> <i>n</i> affliction, distress<br> <br> <b>afflictive</b> <i>adj</i> giving pain, distressing; <br> <b>pena afflictive</b> corporal punishment<br> <br> <b>affliger [-flig-/-flict-]</b> <i>v</i> to afflict; <br> <b>affliger se</b> to be grieved <br> <I>Hence:</i> affliction; afflictive<br> <br> <b>affloramento</b> <i>n</i> [Geol.] outcrop<br> <br> <b>afflorar</b> <i>v</i> [Geol.] to outcrop <br> <I>Hence:</i> affloramento<br> <br> <b>affluente¹</b> I. <i>ppr</i> of <b>affluer</b>; II. <i>adj</i> 1. tributary (as in “tributary stream”); 2. affluent, opulent<br> <br> <b>affluente²</b> <i>n</i> tributary (stream), affluent<br> <br> <b>affluentia</b> <i>n</i> affluence (1. concourse, flowing towards; 2. as in “affluence of people”; 3. profusion, opulence)<br> <br> <b>affluer [-flu-/-flux-]</b> <i>v</i> 1. to flow (into); 2. to crowd, flock, throng (to a place) <br> <I>Hence:</i> affluente-affluentia; affluxo<br> <br> <b>afflux-</b> <i>see</i> <b>affluer</b><br> <br> <b>affluxo</b> <i>n</i> afflux<br> <br> <b>affollamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. madness; 2. panic, terror<br> <br> <b>affollar</b> <i>v</i> to madden, drive mad; <br> <b>affollar se</b> to go mad; <i>also:</i> to lose control of oneself, grow panicky <br> <I>Hence:</i> affollamento<br> <br> <b>affrontamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (act of) affronting, insulting; 2. open defiance<br> <br> <b>affrontar</b> <i>v</i> to affront (1. to insult to the face; 2. to face in defiance) <br> <I>Hence:</i> affronto; affrontamento; affrontator<br> <br> <b>affrontator</b> <i>n</i> affronter, insulter<br> <br> <b>affronto</b> <i>n</i> affront<br> <br> <b>affusar</b> <i>v</i> to spindle, give a spindle shape to (as in “to spindle a column, etc.”)<br> <br> <B>Africa (á-)</b> <i>npr</i> Africa <br> <I>Hence:</i> african-africano<br> <br> <b>african</b> <i>adj</i> African<br> <br> <b>africano</b> <i>n</i> African<br> <br> <b>agar-agar [Mal.]</b> <i>n</i> agar-agar<br> <br> <b>agata (á-)</b> <i>n</i> agate (= the stone agate) <br> <I>Hence:</i> agatifere; agatin; agatiforme etc.<br> <br> <b>agatifere</b> <i>adj</i> agatiferous<br> <br> <b>agatiforme</b> <i>adj</i> agatiform<br> <br> <b>agatin</b> <i>adj</i> agate, agatine<br> <br> <b>-age (-aje)</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with nouns and verbs; <b>-agi-</b> before <b>-a-</b> and <b>-o-</b> of additional suffix] -age (1. collection of ...; 2. action or process of -ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> foliage etc.; acierage etc.<br> <br> <b>agenda</b> <i>n</i> agenda (= memorandum book)<br> <br> <b>agente</b> <i>n</i> agent (1. active power; 2. one who acts for another); <br> <b>agente (de cambio)</b> (stock)broker<br> <br> <b>agentia</b> <i>n</i> agency (as in “news agency, real estate agency, etc.”)<br> <br> <b>ager [ag-/act-; -ig-/-act-]</b> <i>v</i> to act (= to be doing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> agenda: agente-agentia; agitar &: agibile; action-actionero, actionista, actionar-actionabile, inaction; active-activate, activar-activation, activo, inactive-inactivitate, radioactive etc.; actor; actrice; acto-actuario-actuariato, actuarial, actual-actualitate, actualisar-actualisation, actuar-actuation, interacto; coager &; reager &; retroager-retroaction, retroactive-retroactivitate; transiger &; litigar etc.<br> <br> <b>agglomerar</b> <i>v</i> to agglomerate (= to gather or heap together) <br> <I>Hence:</i> agglomeration; agglomerato<br> <br> <b>agglomeration</b> <i>n</i> agglomeration<br> <br> <b>agglomerato</b> <i>n</i> agglomerate<br> <br> <b>agglutinante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>agglutinar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> agglutinant, agglutinative; <br> <b>linguas agglutinante</b> agglutinative languages<br> <br> <b>agglutinar</b> <i>v</i> to stick or glue together, agglutinate <br> <I>Hence:</i> agglutinante; agglutination; agglutinative<br> <br> <b>agglutination</b> <i>n</i> agglutination<br> <br> <b>agglutinative</b> <i>adj</i> agglutinative, agglutinating<br> <br> <b>aggrandimento</b> <i>n</i> 1. enlargement; 2. aggrandizement<br> <br> <b>aggrandir</b> <i>v</i> 1. to make greater, enlarge; <i>also:</i> to magnify; 2. to aggrandize (= to increase the power, wealth, or rank, of) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aggrandimento<br> <br> <b>aggravamento</b> <i>n</i> aggravation<br> <br> <b>aggravar</b> <i>v</i> to aggravate (= to make worse); <br> <b>aggravar se</b> to grow worse or more serious <br> <I>Hence:</i> aggravamento; aggravation; aggravator<br> <br> <b>aggravation</b> <i>n</i> aggravation (= act of aggravating, or state of being aggravated)<br> <br> <b>aggravator</b> <i>n</i> aggravator<br> <br> <b>aggreder [-gred-/-gress-]</b> <i>v</i> to assail, attack <br> <I>Hence:</i> aggression; aggressive; aggressor<br> <br> <b>aggregar</b> <i>v</i> to aggregate (= to collect or unite into a mass or sum) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aggregation; aggregative; aggregato; disaggregar-disaggregation<br> <br> <b>aggregation</b> <i>n</i> aggregation<br> <br> <b>aggregative</b> <i>adj</i> aggregative<br> <br> <b>aggregato</b> <i>n</i> aggregate<br> <br> <b>aggress-</b> <i>see</i> <b>aggreder</b><br> <br> <b>aggression</b> <i>n</i> aggression<br> <br> <b>aggressive</b> <i>adj</i> aggressive<br> <br> <b>aggressor</b> <i>n</i> aggressor<br> <br> <b>aggruppamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (act of) grouping; 2. group<br> <br> <b>aggruppar</b> <i>v</i> to group<br> <br> <b>-agi-</b> <i>see</i> <b>-age</b><br> <br> <b>agibile</b> <i>adj</i> 1. feasible; 2. manageable<br> <br> <b>agile</b> <i>adj</i> agile; nimble <br> <I>Hence:</i> agilitate<br> <br> <b>agilitate</b> <i>n</i> agility; nimbleness<br> <br> <b>agio (ajo)</b> <i>n</i> [Com.] agio, exchange premium <br> <I>Hence:</i> agiotar-agiotage, agiotator<br> <br> <b>agiotage (ajotaje)</b> <i>n</i> agiotage, exchange business, stockbroking<br> <br> <b>agiotar (aj-)</b> <i>v</i> to speculate (on the stock exchange)<br> <br> <b>agiotator (aj-)</b> <i>n</i> speculator (on the stock exchange)<br> <br> <b>agitar</b> <i>v</i> I. to agitate (1. to move or shake violently; to stir; 2. to perturb, excite); II. to debate <br> <I>Hence:</i> agitation; agitator<br> <br> <b>agitation</b> <i>n</i> agitation (1. violent moving or shaking; 2. disturbance, excitement)<br> <br> <b>agitator</b> <i>n</i> agitator (1. [Pol.]; 2. apparatus for shaking or mixing; <i>also:</i> stirring rod, mixer)<br> <br> <b>agno</b> <i>n</i> lamb<br> <br> <b>agnostic</b> <i>adj</i> agnostic <br> <I>Hence:</i> agnosticismo; agnostico<br> <br> <b>agnosticismo</b> <i>n</i> agnosticism<br> <br> <b>agnostico</b> <i>n</i> agnostic<br> <br> <b>-agog-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in compounds] -agogue (1. leading; 2. drawing forth) <br> <I>Hence:</i> sialagoge etc.; hypnagogic etc.; demagogo etc.; pedagogo etc.<br> <br> <b>agon</b> <i>n</i> [Gr. Antiq.] agon <br> <I>Hence:</i> agonia; agonisar-agonista-protagonista etc., agonistic, agonisante, antagonisar &<br> <br> <b>agonia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> agony (1. death struggle; 2. extreme pain of mind)<br> <br> <b>agonisante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>agonisar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> on the point of death<br> <br> <b>agonisar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to be on the point of death; 2. to agonize, suffer mental anguish<br> <br> <b>agonista</b> <i>n</i> [Gr. Antiq.] agonist<br> <br> <b>agonistic</b> <i>adj</i> [Gr. Antiq.] agonistic<br> <br> <b>agora (ágora)</b> <i>n</i> [Gr. Hist.] agora <br> <I>Hence:</i> agoraphobe etc.<br> <br> <b>agoraphobe (-áphobe)</b> <i>adj</i> agoraphobic <br> <I>Hence:</i> agoraphobia; agoraphobo<br> <br> <b>agoraphobia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Psychopathol.] agoraphobia<br> <br> <b>agoraphobo (-áphobo)</b> <i>n</i> [Psychopathol.] agoraphobe<br> <br> <b>-agra</b> [occurring in compounds] <br> <I>Hence:</i> podagra etc. ...<br> <br> <b>agradabile</b> <i>adj</i> agreeable, pleasing<br> <br> <b>agradamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. pleasure; 2. agreeableness, pleasantness<br> <br> <b>agradar</b> <i>v</i> -; <br> <b>agradar a</b> to please<br> <br> <b>agrari</b> <i>adj</i> agrarian; <i>also:</i> farm, field (as in “farm or field laborer”)<br> <br> <b>agreste</b> <i>adj</i> rustic (1. rural; 2. awkward, uncouth)<br> <br> <b>agricola (-ícola)</b> <i>n</i> agriculturalist<br> <br> <b>agricole</b> <i>adj</i> agricultural<br> <br> <b>agricultor</b> <i>n</i> agriculturist; <i>also:</i> farmer, husbandman, etc.<br> <br> <b>agricultura</b> <i>n</i> agriculture, farming<br> <br> <b>agrimensor</b> <i>n</i> surveyor (= one who surveys lands, highways, etc.)<br> <br> <b>agrimensura</b> <i>n</i> 1. surveying; 2. [Topog.] survey<br> <br> <b>agro</b> <i>n</i> field (= arable land) <br> <I>Hence:</i> agrari; agreste; agricola etc.: agricole etc.; agricultura etc.; agronomo etc.<br> <br> <b>agronomia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> agronomy, agronomics<br> <br> <b>agronomic</b> <i>adj</i> agronomic, agricultural<br> <br> <b>agronomo (-ró-)</b> <i>n</i> agronomist <br> <I>Hence:</i> agronomia, agronomic<br> <br> <b>aguerrimento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) inuring to war<br> <br> <b>aguerrir</b> <i>v</i> to inure to war <br> <I>Hence:</i> aguerrimento<br> <br> <b>agulia</b> <i>n</i> needle; <i>also:</i> gramophone needle; <br> <b>agulia magnetic</b> magnetic needle <br> <I>Hence:</i> aguliata; agulietta<br> <br> <b>aguliata</b> <i>n</i> needleful (of thread, etc.)<br> <br> <b>agulietta</b> <i>n</i> aglet, aiguillette<br> <br> <b>aigrette [F]</b> <i>n</i> aigrette<br> <br> <b>aira</b> <i>n</i> threshing floor<br> <br> <b>ajornamento</b> <i>n</i> adjournment, postponement<br> <br> <b>ajornar</b> <i>v</i> to adjourn, postpone <br> <I>Hence:</i> ajornamento<br> <br> <b>-al</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with nouns] -al (= pertaining to ..., characteristic of ..., etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> natural etc.; conversational etc.<br> <br> <b>al-</b> <i>see</i> <b>alcohol</b>, <b>aldehydo</b>, or <b>aluminium</b><br> <br> <b>al-</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] <br> <I>Hence:</i> alimento &; alibile &; coal- &<br> <br> <b>-al-</b> [occurring in compounds] <br> <I>Hence:</i> nyctalopia etc.<br> <br> <b>ala</b> <i>n</i> wing (1. “wing of a bird, airplane etc.”; 2. part of a building) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aletta; alate<br> <br> <b>à la [F]</b> à la (as in “à la Newburgh”)<br> <br> <b>alabastrin</b> <i>adj</i> alabastrine, alabaster<br> <br> <b>alabastrite</b> <i>n</i> alabaster (= Oriental alabaster)<br> <br> <b>alabastro</b> <i>n</i> alabaster (as in “gypseous alabaster”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> alabastrite; alabastrin<br> <br> <b>à la carte [F]</b> à la carte<br> <br> <b>alacre (ál-)</b> <i>adj</i> eager, brisk, alacritous <br> <I>Hence:</i> alacritate<br> <br> <b>alacritate</b> <i>n</i> eagerness, briskness, alacrity<br> <br> <b>alarma</b> <i>n</i> alarm (1. call to arms; 2. fright) <br> <I>Hence:</i> alarmista; alarmar-alarmante<br> <br> <b>alarmante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>alarmar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> alarming<br> <br> <b>alarmar</b> <i>v</i> to alarm (1. to call to arms; 2. to startle)<br> <br> <b>alarmista</b> <i>n</i> alarmist<br> <br> <b>alate</b> <i>adj</i> winged<br> <br> <b>alauda</b> <i>see</i> <b>aloda</b><br> <br> <b>alba</b> <i>n</i> 1. dawn, break of day; 2. [Eccl.] alb<br> <br> <b>alban-</b> <i>see</i> <B>Albania</b><br> <br> <b>albanese</b> <i>adj/n</i> Albanian<br> <br> <B>Albania</b> <i>npr</i> Albania <br> <I>Hence:</i> albanese<br> <br> <b>albatros</b> <i>n</i> [Ornith.] albatross<br> <br> <b>albe</b> <i>adj</i> white (= of the color white) <br> <I>Hence:</i> albin &; albumine &; albiflor etc.; alba<br> <br> <b>albergar</b> <i>v</i> to shelter, lodge<br> <br> <b>albergero</b> <i>n</i> innkeeper<br> <br> <b>albergo</b> <i>n</i> 1. shelter, lodging; 2. inn; <br> <b>albergo de juventute</b> youth hostel <br> <I>Hence:</i> albergero; albergar<br> <br> <b>albiflor</b> <i>adj</i> white-flowered, albiflorous<br> <br> <b>albin</b> <i>adj</i> albino <br> <I>Hence:</i> albinismo; albino<br> <br> <b>albinismo</b> <i>n</i> albinism<br> <br> <b>albino</b> <i>n</i> albino<br> <br> <b>albricoc</b> <i>n</i> apricot <br> <I>Hence:</i> albricochiero<br> <br> <b>albricoch-</b> <i>see</i> <b>albricoc</b><br> <br> <b>albricochiero</b> <i>n</i> apricot tree<br> <br> <b>album (ál-)</b> <i>n</i> album<br> <br> <b>albumina (-úmina)</b> <i>n</i> [Biochem.] albumin<br> <br> <b>albumine</b> <i>n</i> albumen (1. white of an egg 2. [Bot.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> albuminoide; albuminose; albuminuria etc.; albumina<br> <br> <b>albuminoide¹</b> <i>adj</i> albuminoid, albuminoidal<br> <br> <b>albuminoide²</b> <i>n</i> [Biochem.] albuminoid<br> <br> <b>albuminose</b> <i>adj</i> albuminous, albuminose<br> <br> <b>albuminuria</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] albuminuria<br> <br> <b>[al(c)-]</b> [occurring in compounds] some-, any- <br> (= <b>ali(c)-</b>) <br> <I>Hence:</i> alco; alcun etc.; alcuno etc.; alquando etc.<br> <br> <b>alca</b> <i>n</i> [Ornith.] auk<br> <br> <b>alcal-</b> <i>see</i> <b>alcali</b><br> <br> <b>alcalde [H]</b> <i>n</i> alcalde (= mayor of a Spanish town, etc.)<br> <br> <b>alcali (ál-)</b> [Chem.] alkali; <br> <b>alcali volatile</b> ammonia <br> <I>Hence:</i> alcalin-alcalinitate, alcalino; alcaloide; alcalisar-alcalisation; alcalimetro etc.<br> <br> <b>alcalimetro (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> alkalimeter<br> <br> <b>alcalin</b> <i>adj</i> alkaline<br> <br> <b>alcalinitate</b> <i>n</i> alkalinity<br> <br> <b>alcalino</b> <i>n</i> alkaline<br> <br> <b>alcalisar</b> <i>v</i> to alkalize<br> <br> <b>alcalisation</b> <i>n</i> alkalization<br> <br> <b>alcaloide</b> <i>n</i> alkaloid<br> <br> <b>alce</b> <i>n</i> [Zool.] elk<br> <br> <b>alchimia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> alchemy <br> <I>Hence:</i> alchimista; alchimic<br> <br> <b>alchimic</b> <i>adj</i> alchemical<br> <br> <b>alchimista</b> <i>n</i> alchemist<br> <br> <b>[alco]</b> <i>pron</i> something, anything; <i>adv</i> somewhat <br> (= <b>alique</b>)<br> <br> <b>alcohol [NL]</b> <i>n</i> alcohol <br> <I>Hence:</i> alcoholismo; alcoholic-alcoholico; alcoholisar-alcoholisation; chloral etc.<br> <br> <b>alcoholic</b> <i>adj</i> alcoholic<br> <br> <b>alcoholico</b> <i>n</i> alcoholic<br> <br> <b>alcoholisar</b> <i>v</i> to alcoholize<br> <br> <b>alcoholisation</b> <i>n</i> alcoholization<br> <br> <b>alcoholismo</b> <i>n</i> alcoholism<br> <br> <b>alcova</b> <i>n</i> alcove (= recessed portion of a room)<br> <br> <b>[alcun]</b> <i>adj</i> some, any; <i>also:</i> a few <br> (= <b>alicun</b>)<br> <br> <b>[alcuno]</b> <i>indef pron</i> someone, anyone <br> (= <b>alicuno</b>)<br> <br> <b>ale [A]</b> <i>n</i> ale<br> <br> <b>alerta</b> <i>n</i> [Mil.] alert <br> <I>Hence:</i> alerte<br> <br> <b>alerte</b> <i>adj</i> alert (= vigilant)<br> <br> <b>aletta</b> <i>n</i> 1. small wing, winglet; 2. (small) wingshaped appendage (= flange, rib, fin, etc.)<br> <br> <b>aleut</b> <i>n</i> Aleut <br> <I>Hence:</i> aleutic; Aleutas<br> <br> <B>Aleutas</b> <i>nprpl</i> Aleutians<br> <br> <b>aleutic</b> <i>adj</i> Aleutian; <br> <B>Insulas Aleutic</b> Aleutian Islands<br> <br> <B>Alexandra</b> <i>nprf</i> Alexandra<br> <br> <B>Alexandria</b> <i>npr</i> Alexandria<br> <br> <b>alexandrian</b> <i>adj</i> Alexandrian (= of Alexandria)<br> <br> <b>alexandrin</b> <i>adj</i> I. Alexandrian (1. of Alexandria; 2. of Alexander the Great); II. [Pros.] Alexandrine<br> <br> <b>alexandrino</b> <i>n</i> [Pros.] Alexandrine<br> <br> <B>Alexandro</b> <i>nprm</i> Alexander <br> <I>Hence:</i> Alexandria-alexandrian, alexandrin-alexandrino; Alexandra<br> <br> <b>alga</b> <i>n</i> alga<br> <br> <b>algebra (ál-)</b> <i>n</i> algebra <br> <I>Hence:</i> algebrista; algebric<br> <br> <b>algebric</b> <i>adj</i> algebraic, algebraical<br> <br> <b>algebrista</b> <i>n</i> algebrist<br> <br> <B>Alger</b> <i>npr</i> 1. Alger; 2. Algiers <br> <I>Hence:</i> Algeria-algerian-algeriano<br> <br> <B>Algeria</b> <i>npr</i> Algeria<br> <br> <b>algerian</b> <i>adj</i> Algerian, Algerine<br> <br> <b>algeriano</b> <i>n</i> Algerian<br> <br> <b>algesia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] algesia (= sensitivity to pain) <br> <I>Hence:</i> analgesia-analgesic<br> <br> <b>-algia (-ía)</b> [occurring in compounds] -algia (= pain)<br> <br> <b>algo-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] algo-, alg- (= pain) <br> <I>Hence:</i> algia-analgia-analgic, neuralgia etc.; nostalgia etc.; algometro etc.<br> <br> <b>algometria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Psychol.] algometry (= measurement of sensitivity to pain)<br> <br> <b>algometric</b> <i>adj</i> [Psychol.] algometric<br> <br> <b>algometro (-ómetro)</b> <i>n</i> [Psychol.] algometer <br> <I>Hence:</i> alometria; algometric<br> <br> <b>[alia] [L]</b> <i>npl</i> other things; <br> <b>inter alia</b> <i>inter alia</i>, among other things<br> <br> <b>-alia</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with nouns] (= worthless collection of ...s) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ferralia etc.<br> <br> <b>alias (ál-)</b> <i>adv</i> 1. otherwise (= in another manner); 2. alias; 3. at another time<br> <br> <b>alibi¹ (ál-)</b> <i>adv</i> elsewhere<br> <br> <b>alibi² (ál-)</b> <i>n</i> alibi<br> <br> <b>alibile</b> <i>adj</i> nutritive, nourishing, alible <br> <I>Hence:</i> alibilitate<br> <br> <b>alibilitate</b> <i>n</i> alibility<br> <br> <b>ali(c)-</b> [occurring in compounds] any-, some- <br> <I>Hence:</i> alique etc.; aliquando etc.; alicubi etc.; alicun etc.; [aliquid] etc.; [aliqua] etc.<br> <br> <b>alicubi (-ícubi)</b> <i>adv</i> 1. somewhere; 2. anywhere as in (“did you see him anywhere?”)<br> <br> <b>alicun</b> <i>adj</i> some, any; <i>also:</i> a few; <br> <b>alicun cosa</b> something, anything <br> <I>Hence:</i> alicuno<br> <br> <b>alicuno</b> <i>indef pron</i> someone, somebody; anyone, anybody<br> <br> <b>[alie]</b> <i>adj</i> other <br> (= <b>altere</b>)<br> <br> <b>alien</b> <i>adj</i> alien (= differing in nature) <br> <I>Hence:</i> alienismo; alienista; alienar-alienabile-alienabilitate, inalienabile-inalienabilitate, alienation, alienator, alienate-alienatario<br> <br> <b>alienabile</b> <i>adj</i> alienable<br> <br> <b>alienabilitate</b> <i>n</i> alienability<br> <br> <b>alienar</b> <i>v</i> to alienate (1. to transfer ownership of; 2. to estrange)<br> <br> <b>alienatario</b> <i>n</i> alienee<br> <br> <b>alienate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>alienar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> insane<br> <br> <b>alienation</b> <i>n</i> alienation (1. transfer of ownership to another; 2. estrangement; 3. insanity)<br> <br> <b>alienator</b> <i>n</i> alienator<br> <br> <b>alienismo</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] alienism<br> <br> <b>alienista</b> <i>n</i> alienist<br> <br> <b>alimentar</b> <i>v</i> to feed<br> <br> <b>alimentari</b> <i>adj</i> alimentary<br> <br> <b>alimentation</b> <i>n</i> nourishment, alimentation<br> <br> <b>alimentator</b> <i>n</i> feeder, alimenter<br> <br> <b>alimento</b> <i>n</i> food; <br> <b>alimentos</b> allowance; <i>specif.:</i> alimony <br> <I>Hence:</i> alimentari; alimentose; alimentar-alimentation, alimentator, subalimentar-subalimentation, superalimentar-superalimentation<br> <br> <b>alimentose</b> <i>adj</i> nutritious<br> <br> <b>alineamento</b> <i>n</i> alignment (= action of aligning)<br> <br> <b>alinear</b> <i>v</i> to align (= to range or place in a line) <br> <I>Hence:</i> alineamento<br> <br> <b>[aliqua] (ál-)</b> <i>adv</i> 1. somewhere; 2. somehow<br> <br> <b>aliquando</b> <i>adv</i> at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time<br> <br> <b>aliquanto</b> <i>adv</i> somewhat, to some degree<br> <br> <b>alique (ál-)</b> <i>pron</i> something, anything; <i>adv</i> somewhat<br> <br> <b>[aliquid] (ál-)</b> <i>pron</i> something <br> (= <b>alique</b>)<br> <br> <b>[aliquot] (ál-)</b> <i>adj/indef pron</i> some, several, a few<br> <br> <b>alizari</b> <i>n</i> madder root <br> <I>Hence:</i> alizarina<br> <br> <b>alizarina</b> <i>n</i> alizarin, madder root<br> <br> <b>all-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in compounds] allo-, all- (= other) <br> <I>Hence:</i> allotrope etc.<br> <br> <b>allactamento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) suckling, nursing<br> <br> <b>allactar</b> <i>v</i> to suckle, nurse <br> <I>Hence:</i> allactamento<br> <br> <b>allargamento</b> <i>n</i> widening, broadening<br> <br> <b>allargar</b> <i>v</i> to widen (= to make broad(er))<br> <br> <b>allectar</b> <i>v</i> to lay up (through illness) <br> <I>Hence:</i> allectate<br> <br> <b>allectate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>allectar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> bedridden<br> <br> <b>allée [F]</b> <i>n</i> avenue, walk, alley<br> <br> <b>allegar</b> <i>v</i> to allege (= to bring forward as an argument or excuse) <br> <I>Hence:</i> allegation<br> <br> <b>allegation</b> <i>n</i> [Law] allegation<br> <br> <b>allegoria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> allegory <br> <I>Hence:</i> allegorista; allegoric; allegorisar-allegorisation, allegorisator<br> <br> <b>allegoric</b> <i>adj</i> allegoric, allegorical<br> <br> <b>allegorisar</b> <i>v</i> to allegorize<br> <br> <b>allegorisation</b> <i>n</i> allegorization<br> <br> <b>allegorisator</b> <i>n</i> allegorizer<br> <br> <b>allegorista</b> <i>n</i> allegorist<br> <br> <b>allegrar</b> <i>v</i> to cheer up, brighten up (= to make gay or cheerful); <br> <b>allegrar se</b> to rejoice<br> <br> <b>allegre</b> <i>adj</i> gay, sprightly; merry; cheerful <br> <I>Hence:</i> allegressa; allegrar; allegro-allegretto<br> <br> <b>allegressa</b> <i>n</i> gayness, sprightliness; merriness; cheerfulness<br> <br> <b>allegretto</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] allegretto<br> <br> <b>allegro</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] allegro<br> <br> <b>alleluia (-úya)</b> alleluia, hallelujah<br> <br> <b>allergia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] allergy <br> <I>Hence:</i> allergic<br> <br> <b>allergic</b> <i>adj</i> [Pathol.] allergic<br> <br> <b>allerta</b> <i>n</i> alert, alarm<br> <br> <b>allertar</b> <i>v</i> to give the alarm to, alarm<br> <br> <b>allerte</b> <i>adj</i> alert, watchful <br> <I>Hence:</i> allerta-allertar<br> <br> <b>alleviar</b> <i>v</i> to lighten (= to make less heavy); <i>also:</i> to alleviate <br> <I>Hence:</i> alleviation; alleviator<br> <br> <b>alleviation</b> <i>n</i> lightening (= making less heavy); <i>also:</i> alleviation<br> <br> <b>alleviator</b> <i>n</i> lightener; <i>also:</i> alleviator<br> <br> <b>alliantia</b> <i>n</i> alliance; <br> <b>le arca del alliantia</b> the Ark of the Covenant<br> <br> <b>alliar</b> <i>v</i> to ally; <br> <b>alliar se</b> to form an alliance <br> <I>Hence:</i> alliantia; alliato<br> <br> <b>alliato</b> <i>n</i> ally<br> <br> <b>alligar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to bind, attach (to); 2. to alloy (as in “to alloy silver with copper”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> alligato<br> <br> <b>alligato</b> <i>n</i> alloy<br> <br> <b>alligator [A]</b> <i>n</i> alligator<br> <br> <b>allio</b> <i>n</i> garlic<br> <br> <b>alliterar</b> <i>v</i> to alliterate <br> <I>Hence:</i> alliteration<br> <br> <b>alliteration</b> <i>n</i> alliteration<br> <br> <b>allitter-</b> <i>see</i> <b>alliter-</b><br> <br> <b>allocut-</b> <i>see</i> <b>alloquer</b><br> <br> <b>allocution</b> <i>n</i> allocution<br> <br> <b>allongamento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) lengthening<br> <br> <b>allongar</b> <i>v</i> to lengthen (= to make longer); <br> <b>allongar (le bracio)</b> to stretch out (one’s arm) <br> Hence; allongamento<br> <br> <b>allopathe (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> allopath<br> <br> <b>allopathia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> allopathy<br> <br> <b>alloquer [-loqu-/-locut-]</b> <i>v</i> to pronounce an allocution <br> <I>Hence:</i> allocution<br> <br> <b>allotrope (-ótrope)</b> <i>adj</i> 1. [Chem.] allotropic; 2. [Zoo.] allotropous <br> <I>Hence:</i> allotropia; allotropic; allotropo<br> <br> <b>allotropia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] allotropy<br> <br> <b>allotropic</b> <i>adj</i> [Chem.] allotropic<br> <br> <b>allotropo (-ótropo)</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] allotrope<br> <br> <b>all right [A]</b> all right<br> <br> <b>allu-</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> alluvion; alluvial<br> <br> <b>alluder [-lud-/-lus-]</b> <i>v</i> to allude <br> <I>Hence:</i> allusion; allusive<br> <br> <b>allus-</b> <i>see</i> <b>alluder</b><br> <br> <b>allusion</b> <i>n</i> allusion; <br> <b>facer allusion a</b> to allude to<br> <br> <b>allusive</b> <i>adj</i> allusive; alluding<br> <br> <b>alluv-</b> <i>see</i> <b>allu-</b><br> <br> <b>alluvial</b> <i>adj</i> alluvial<br> <br> <b>alluvion</b> <i>n</i> 1. inundation; alluvion; 2. alluvium<br> <br> <b>alma mater [L]</b> <i>alma mater</i><br> <br> <b>almanac</b> <i>n</i> almanac<br> <br> <b>almosna</b> <i>n</i> alms; <br> <b>facer almosna</b> to give alms <br> <I>Hence:</i> almosnero; almosneria; almosniera<br> <br> <b>almosneria (-ía]</b> <i>n</i> almonry<br> <br> <b>almosnero</b> <i>n</i> almoner; almsgiver<br> <br> <b>almosniera</b> <i>n</i> alms purse, alms bag<br> <br> <b>aloda</b> <i>n</i> lark (= singing bird of the family Alaudidae)<br> <br> <b>[alora]</b> <i>adv</i> then (1. at that time; 2. in that case, consequently) <br> (= <b>tunc)</b><br> <br> <B>Alpes</b> <i>nprpl</i> Alps <br> <I>Hence:</i> alpestre; alpin-alpinismo, alpinista, cisalpin, transalpin-transalpino<br> <br> <b>alpestre</b> <i>adj</i> Alpine, Alpestrine<br> <br> <b>alpha</b> <i>n</i> alpha (= the first letter of the Greek alphabet); <br> <b>alpha e omega</b> alpha and omega; <br> <b>particula alpha</b> alpha particle; <br> <b>radio alpha</b> alpha ray <br> <I>Hence:</i> alphabeto etc.<br> <br> <b>alphabetic</b> <i>adj</i> alphabetical<br> <br> <b>alphabetisar</b> <i>v</i> to alphabetize<br> <br> <b>alphabetisation</b> <i>n</i> alphabetization<br> <br> <b>alphabeto</b> <i>n</i> alphabet <br> <I>Hence:</i> alphabetic; alphabetisar-alphabetisation; analphabete-analphabetismo, analphabeto-analphabetic<br> <br> <b>alpin</b> <i>adj</i> Alpine, alpine; <i>also:</i> [Ethnol.]<br> <br> <b>alpinismo</b> <i>n</i> Alpinism; mountaineering<br> <br> <b>alpinista</b> <i>n</i> Alpinist; Alpine climber<br> <br> <b>[alquando]</b> <i>adv</i> at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> (= <b>aliquando</b>)<br> <br> <b>[alquanto]</b> <i>adv</i> somewhat, to some degree <br> (= <b>aliquanto</b>)<br> <br> <B>Alsatia</b> <i>npr</i> Alsace <br> <I>Hence:</i> alsatian-alsatiano<br> <br> <b>alsatian</b> <i>adj</i> Alsatian<br> <br> <b>alsatiano</b> <i>n</i> Alsatian<br> <br> <b>[alsi] (-í)</b> <i>adv</i> 1. also, too; 2. likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> (= <b>etiam</b>)<br> <br> <B>Altai (-ái)</b> <i>npr</i> Altai (1. Altai mountains; 2. Altai region) <br> <I>Hence:</i> altaic-uraloaltaic etc.<br> <br> <b>altaic (-áic)</b> <i>adj</i> Altaic<br> <br> <b>altar</b> <i>n</i> altar<br> <br> <b>alte</b> <i>adj</i> 1. high; 2. loud; <br> <b>in alte voce</b> aloud (1. not in a whisper; 2. loudly) <br> <I>Hence:</i> altessa; altitude; exaltar &; altiar &; altimetro etc.; altisone etc.; altisonante etc.; altoparlator etc.; alto-contralto<br> <br> <b>alterabile</b> <i>adj</i> alterable<br> <br> <b>alterar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to alter (= to make different); 2. to adulterate; <br> <b>su voce se alterava (con emotion)</b> his voice broke (with emotion)<br> <br> <b>alteration</b> <i>n</i> 1. alteration; 2. adulteration (= action of adulterating)<br> <br> <b>altercar</b> <i>v</i> to quarrel, wrangle, altercate <br> <I>Hence:</i> altercation<br> <br> <b>altercation</b> <i>n</i> altercation<br> <br> <b>altere</b> <i>adj</i> other (1. additional; 2. different); <br> <b>un altere</b> another; <br> <b>le un le altere, le unes le alteres</b> one another, each other; <br> <b>altere vice</b> a second time, once again, once more <br> <I>Hence:</i> alterne &; alterar-alterabile-inalterabile-inalterabilitate, alteration; altruismo; altruista; [alterubi] etc.; [unaltere] etc.; sesquialtere etc.<br> <br> <b>alternar</b> <i>v</i> to alternate (1. to do by turns; 2. to occur by turns)<br> <br> <b>alternate</b> <i>adj</i> alternate, alternating<br> <br> <b>alternation</b> <i>n</i> alternation<br> <br> <b>alternativa</b> <i>n</i> 1. alternation; 2. alternative (= choice between two possible things or lines of action)<br> <br> <b>alternative</b> <i>adj</i> 1. alternate, alternating; 2. alternative; <br> <b>currente alternative</b> alternating current<br> <br> <b>alterne</b> <i>adj</i> [Math., Bot.] alternate; <br> <b>angulos alterne</b> alternate angles <br> <I>Hence:</i> alternar-alternation, alternative-alternativa, alternate; subalterne<br> <br> <b>[alterubi] (-érubi)</b> <i>adv</i> elsewhere<br> <br> <b>altessa</b> <i>n</i> Highness<br> <br> <b>altiamento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) raising or lifting<br> <br> <b>altiar</b> <i>v</i> to raise (1. to make higher; 2. to raise the position or level of); <br> <b>altiar le voce</b> to raise one’s voice <br> <I>Hence:</i> altiamento; realtiar<br> <br> <b>altimetro (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> altimeter<br> <br> <b>altisonante</b> <i>adj</i> altisonant, high-sounding<br> <br> <b>altisone</b> <i>adj</i> altisonant, high-sounding<br> <br> <b>altitude</b> <i>n</i> 1. altitude; 2. height; <br> <b>al altitude del (situation, etc.)</b> equal to (the situation, etc.); <br> <b>al altitude de (un capo, un insula, etc.)</b> off (a cape, an island, etc.)<br> <br> <b>alto</b> <i>n</i> I. top, upper part; II. [Mus.] alto (1. contralto voice; 2. tenor violin); <br> <b>le altos e (le) bassos</b> the ups and downs; <br> <b>in alto</b> 1. upward(s), up; <i>also:</i> upstairs; 2. (up) on top; <i>also:</i> upstairs; <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> 1. from the top to the bottom; 2. from top to bottom, from top to toe<br> <br> <b>alto-parlator</b> <i>n</i> loud-speaker<br> <br> <b>altru-</b> <i>see</i> <b>altere</b><br> <br> <b>altruismo</b> <i>n</i> altruism<br> <br> <b>altruista</b> <i>n</i> altruist<br> <br> <b>aluminium (-ínium)</b> <i>n</i> aluminum, aluminium<br> <br> <b>alveo</b> <i>n</i> trough, tub; <i>also:</i> bathtub <br> <I>Hence:</i> alveolo-alveolari, alveolate<br> <br> <b>alveolari</b> <i>adj</i> 1. cell-like; honeycomb (as in “honeycomb pattern”); 2. [Anat.] alveolar<br> <br> <b>alveolate</b> <i>adj</i> honeycombed, pitted, alveolate<br> <br> <b>alveolo (-éolo)</b> <i>n</i> 1. cell (of a honeycomb); 2. socket (of a tooth)<br> <br> <b>am-</b> <i>see</i> <b>ammoniaco</b><br> <br> <b>amabile</b> <i>adj</i> lovable, amiable<br> <br> <b>amabilitate</b> <i>n</i> amiability<br> <br> <b>amalgama (-mál-)</b> <i>n</i> amalgam <br> <I>Hence:</i> amalgamar-amalgamation, amalgamator<br> <br> <b>amalgamar</b> <i>v</i> to amalgamate (1. [Metal.]; 2. to combine, consolidate)<br> <br> <b>amalgamation</b> <i>n</i> amalgamation (1. union, consolidation; 2. [Metal.])<br> <br> <b>amalgamator</b> <i>n</i> amalgamator<br> <br> <b>amandola (-ándola)</b> <i>n</i> almond <br> <I>Hence:</i> amandoliero<br> <br> <b>amandoliero</b> <i>n</i> almond-tree<br> <br> <b>amante</b> <i>n</i> lover, paramour<br> <br> <b>amar¹</b> <i>adj</i> bitter <br> <I>Hence:</i> amaritude; amarisar<br> <br> <b>amar²</b> <i>v</i> to love; <i>also:</i> to like, be fond of, etc. <br> <I>Hence:</i> amante; amabile-amabilitate; amator; amatori; amate<br> <br> <b>amarage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> [Aeronaut.] action of alighting on water<br> <br> <b>amarar</b> <i>v</i> [Aeronaut.] to alight on water <br> <I>Hence:</i> amarage<br> <br> <b>amarisar</b> <i>v</i> to make bitter; to embitter<br> <br> <b>amaritude</b> <i>n</i> bitterness<br> <br> <b>amassamento</b> <i>n</i> amassment<br> <br> <b>amassar</b> <i>v</i> to amass <br> <I>Hence:</i> amassamento; amassator<br> <br> <b>amassator</b> <i>n</i> amasser<br> <br> <b>amate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>amar²</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> beloved<br> <br> <b>amateur [F]</b> <i>n</i> amateur<br> <br> <b>amator</b> <i>v</i> lover (= one who has a strong liking for something)<br> <br> <b>amatori</b> <i>adj</i> amatory<br> <br> <B>Amazon</b> <i>npr</i> Amazon (1. Gr. Mythol.]; 2. [Geog.]); <br> <b>amazon</b> amazon, horsewoman; <i>also:</i> virago <br> <I>Hence:</i> amazonie<br> <br> <b>amazonie</b> <i>adj</i> Amazonian (1. pertaining to the Amazons; 2. pertaining to the Amazon river)<br> <br> <b>ambass-</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambassada; ambassator<br> <br> <b>ambassada</b> <i>n</i> embassy<br> <br> <b>ambassator</b> <i>n</i> ambassador<br> <br> <b>ambe</b> <i>adj</i> both; <br> <b>ambes</b> <i>pron</i> both<br> <br> <b>ambidextere, ambidextre</b> <i>adj</i> ambidextrous<br> <br> <b>ambiente¹</b> <i>adj</i> ambient, surrounding<br> <br> <b>ambiente²</b> <i>n</i> environment (= all of the surrounding conditions and influences)<br> <br> <b>ambigue</b> <i>adj</i> ambiguous <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambiguitate; inambigue-inambiguitate<br> <br> <b>ambiguitate</b> <i>n</i> ambiguity (1. double or dubious meaning; 2. ambiguous expression)<br> <br> <b>ambir</b> <i>v</i> 1. to go round (something), surround; 2. to go round after, solicit <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambiente; ambition &; ambito<br> <br> <b>ambition</b> <i>n</i> ambition <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambitiose<br> <br> <b>ambitiose</b> <i>adj</i> ambitious<br> <br> <b>ambito (ám-)</b> <i>n</i> ambit, circuit, circuitous route<br> <br> <b>ambivert-</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambivertito<br> <br> <b>ambivertito</b> <i>n</i> [Psychol.] ambivert<br> <br> <b>ambly-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in compounds] ambly- (= dull; dim; blunt; obtuse, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amblyopia etc. ...<br> <br> <b>amblyopia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] amblyopia <br> <I>Hence:</i> amblyopic<br> <br> <b>amblyopic</b> <i>adj</i> amblyopic<br> <br> <b>ambra</b> <i>n</i> 1. amber; 2. ambergris; <br> <b>ambra gris</b> ambergris <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambrar<br> <br> <b>ambrar</b> <i>v</i> to perfume with ambergris<br> <br> <b>ambrosia</b> <i>n</i> ambrosia (1. food intended or fit for the gods; 2. [Bot.] wormseed)<br> <br> <b>ambrosial</b> <i>adj</i> ambrosial<br> <br> <b>ambrosian</b> <i>adj</i> Ambrosian; <br> <b>canto ambrosian</b> Ambrosian chant; <br> <b>rito ambrosian</b> Ambrosian rite<br> <br> <b>ambrosie</b> <i>adj</i> ambrosial <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambrosia-ambrosial<br> <br> <B>Ambrosio</b> <i>nprm</i> Ambrose; <br> <B>Sancte Ambrosio</b> Saint Ambrose <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambrosian<br> <br> <b>ambulante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>ambular</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> ambulant<br> <br> <b>ambulantia</b> <i>n</i> ambulance (1. field hospital; 2. “hospital ambulance”)<br> <br> <b>ambular</b> <i>v</i> to walk (= to go on foot) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ambulante-ambulantia; ambulatori; ambulatura; deambular-deambulation, deambulatori; preambular-preambulo; funambulo etc.; noctambule etc.<br> <br> <b>ambulatura</b> <i>n</i> gait, walk<br> <br> <b>ameba</b> <i>n</i> [Zool.] amoeba <br> <I>Hence:</i> amebic; ameboide; amebiforme etc.<br> <br> <b>amebic</b> <i>adj</i> amoebic<br> <br> <b>amebiforme</b> <i>adj</i> amoebiform<br> <br> <b>ameboide</b> <i>adj</i> amoeboid; <br> <b>movimentos ameboide</b> [Zool., Physiol.] amoeboid movements<br> <br> <b>amen [L]</b> <i>interj</i> amen<br> <br> <b>-amento</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -ament, -ement, -ment (= action or result of ...ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> arrangiamento etc.; commandamento etc; discoragiamento etc.; governamento etc.; ornamento etc.<br> <br> <B>America</b> <i>npr</i> America; <br> <B>America del nord</b> North America; <br> <B>America del sud</b> South America; <br> <B>America latin</b> Latin America <br> <I>Hence:</i> american-americanismo, americanisar, angloamerican etc., panamerican etc., americano<br> <br> <b>american</b> <i>adj</i> American (1. belonging to North or South America; 2. belonging to the United States)<br> <br> <b>americanisar</b> <i>v</i> to Americanize<br> <br> <b>americanismo</b> <i>n</i> Americanism (1. American custom or characteristic; 2. word or phrase peculiar to American English)<br> <br> <b>americano</b> <i>n</i> American (1. an inhabitant of North or South America; 2. an inhabitant of the United States)<br> <br> <b>amethysto</b> <i>n</i> amethyst<br> <br> <b>amic (-íc)</b> <i>adj</i> friendly (= not enemy); <br> <b>(nation) amic</b> friendly (nation) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amicitate; amicar-amicabile-amicabilitate; inimic &; amico-amical-inamical; amica<br> <br> <b>amica (-íca)</b> <i>n</i> friend (<i>fem.</i>)<br> <br> <b>amicabile</b> <i>adj</i> amicable, friendly<br> <br> <b>amicabilitate</b> <i>n</i> friendliness, amicability<br> <br> <b>amical</b> <i>adj</i> friendly; <br> <b>(reguardo) amical</b> friendly (look)<br> <br> <b>amicar</b> <i>v</i> to make friends of; <br> <b>amicar se</b> to make friends (with)<br> <br> <b>amicitate</b> <i>n</i> friendship<br> <br> <b>amico (-íco)</b> <i>n</i> friend (<i>masc.</i>)<br> <br> <b>amido (á-)</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] amide <br> <I>Hence:</i> amidogeno etc.; acetamido etc.<br> <br> <b>amidogeno (-ógeno)</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] amidogen<br> <br> <b>amino</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] amine <br> <I>Hence:</i> aminophenol etc.; amino-acido etc.; methylamino etc.; vitamina etc.<br> <br> <b>amino-acido (-ácido)</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] amino acid<br> <br> <b>aminophenol</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] aminophenol<br> <br> <b>amita (ám-)</b> <i>n</i> aunt <br> <I>Hence:</i> granamita<br> <br> <B>Ammon</b> <i>npr</i> Ammon (1. [Egypt. Relig.]; 2. [Gr., Rom. Relig.]); <br> <b>corno de Ammon</b> horn of Ammon <br> <I>Hence:</i> ammonite; ammoniac-ammoniaco &<br> <br> <b>ammon-</b> <i>see</i> <b>ammoniaco</b> or <b>ammonium</b><br> <br> <b>ammonal</b> <i>n</i> [Technol.] ammonal<br> <br> <b>ammoniac</b> <i>adj</i> ammoniac; <br> <b>gumma ammoniac</b> gum ammoniac; <br> <b>aqua ammoniac</b> ammonia (water)<br> <br> <b>ammoniacal</b> <i>adj</i> ammoniacal<br> <br> <b>ammoniaco</b> <i>n</i> 1. ammonia (= [Chem.] NH3); 2. ammoniac, gum ammoniac; <br> <b>ammoniaco (liquide)</b> (liquid) ammonia, ammonia (water) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ammoniacal; ammonium-ammonal etc.; ammonic; ammonificar-ammonification; amido &; amino &<br> <br> <b>ammonic</b> <i>adj</i> ammonic, ammoniacal<br> <br> <b>ammonificar</b> <i>v</i> to ammonify<br> <br> <b>ammonification</b> <i>n</i> ammonification (1. impregnation with ammonia; 2. decomposition with production of ammonia)<br> <br> <b>ammonite</b> <i>n</i> [Paleontol.] ammonite<br> <br> <b>ammonium (-ónium)</b> <i>n</i> ammonium<br> <br> <b>amnesia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> amnesia, loss of memory <br> <I>Hence:</i> cryptomnesia etc.<br> <br> <b>amnestia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> amnesty <br> <I>Hence:</i> amnestic; amnestiar<br> <br> <b>amnestiar</b> <i>v</i> to amnesty, give or proclaim amnesty (to)<br> <br> <b>amnestic</b> <i>adj</i> amnesty, amnestic<br> <br> <b>amollimento</b> <i>n</i> softening, making soft<br> <br> <b>amollir</b> <i>v</i> to soften (= to make soft) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amollimento<br> <br> <b>amonta</b> <i>n</i> amount<br> <br> <b>amontar</b> <i>v</i> to amount <br> <I>Hence:</i> amonta<br> <br> <b>amor</b> <i>n</i> love (= passionate affection); <br> <b>amor proprie</b> self-esteem; <br> <b>amores</b> amours, love-affairs <br> <I>Hence:</i> amoretto; amorose-amorositate; inamorar-inamorate<br> <br> <b>amoral</b> <i>adj</i> amoral, nonmoral <br> <I>Hence:</i> amoralismo<br> <br> <b>amoralismo</b> <i>n</i> amoralism<br> <br> <b>amoretto</b> <i>n</i> love affair, flirtation<br> <br> <b>amorose</b> <i>adj</i> amorous (1. loving; 2. pertaining to love)<br> <br> <b>amorositate</b> <i>n</i> amorousness<br> <br> <b>amorphe</b> <i>adj</i> amorphous; <i>specif.:</i> [Chem.; Geol.; Biol.; etc.]<br> <br> <b>amorphia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> amorphism<br> <br> <b>amorphismo</b> <i>n</i> amorphism<br> <br> <b>amortimento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) deadening, subduing<br> <br> <b>amortir</b> <i>v</i> to deaden (feelings, taste, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amortimento<br> <br> <b>amortisar</b> <i>v</i> to amortize (= to extinguish a debt by means of a sinking fund) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amortisation<br> <br> <b>amortisation</b> <i>n</i> amortization<br> <br> <b>amover</b> <i>v</i> to amove, remove (from office, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amovibile-amovibilitate, inamovibile<br> <br> <b>amovibile</b> <i>adj</i> amovable, removable (= subject to removal)<br> <br> <b>amovibilitate</b> <i>n</i> amovability, removability<br> <br> <b>amperage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> amperage<br> <br> <B>Ampère, André Marie</b> <i>npr</i> [1775-1836; physicist after whom the “ampere” is named]; <br> <b>lege de Ampère</b> Ampère’s law <br> <I>Hence:</i> ampere-amperage, amperometro etc., ampere-hora etc., ampere-torno etc., voltampere etc.<br> <br> <b>ampere (ampér)</b> <i>n</i> ampere<br> <br> <b>ampere-hora (amper-hóra)</b> <i>n</i> ampere-hour<br> <br> <b>ampere-torno (amper-tórno)</b> <i>n</i> ampere turn<br> <br> <b>amperometro (-ómetro)</b> <i>n</i> amperometer, ammeter<br> <br> <b>amphi-</b> <i>prefixo</i> [used chiefly to form technical terms] amphi- (1. both; 2. around, about) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amphibie etc.; amphitheatro etc.<br> <br> <b>amphibie</b> <i>adj</i> amphibious <br> <I>Hence:</i> amphibio-amphibiologia etc.<br> <br> <b>amphibio</b> <i>n</i> amphibian (1. [Zool.]; 2. amphibian airplane)<br> <br> <b>amphibiologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> amphibiology<br> <br> <b>amphitheatral</b> <i>adj</i> amphitheatric, amphitheatrical<br> <br> <b>amphitheatro</b> <i>n</i> amphitheater <br> <I>Hence:</i> amphitheatral<br> <br> <b>amphora (ám-)</b> <i>n</i> amphora<br> <br> <b>ample</b> <i>adj</i> ample (1. spacious, extensive; 2. copious) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amplitude; ampliar-ampliation; amplificar-amplification, amplificative, amplificator<br> <br> <b>ampliar</b> <i>v</i> to enlarge (= to make larger)<br> <br> <b>ampliation</b> <i>n</i> enlargement, enlarging<br> <br> <b>amplificar</b> <i>v</i> to amplify (1. as in “to amplify a story, etc.”; 2. [Elec.]; 3. to exaggerate)<br> <br> <b>amplification</b> <i>n</i> amplification<br> <br> <b>amplificative</b> <i>adj</i> amplifying, magnifying<br> <br> <b>amplificator</b> <i>n</i> amplifier; <i>also:</i> [Photog.] enlarger<br> <br> <b>amplitude</b> <i>n</i> amplitude<br> <br> <b>ampulla</b> <i>n</i> 1. [Pathol.] blister; 2. [Eccl.] ampulla; 3. phial, flask; <i>also:</i> ampoule; 4. (electric) bulb<br> <br> <b>amputar</b> <i>v</i> to amputate <br> <I>Hence:</i> amputation<br> <br> <b>amputation</b> <i>n</i> amputation<br> <br> <b>amuleto</b> <i>n</i> amulet; <i>also:</i> charm<br> <br> <b>amusamento</b> <i>n</i> amusement<br> <br> <b>amusar</b> <i>v</i> to amuse, entertain; <br> <b>amusar se</b> to amuse or divert oneself <br> <I>Hence:</i> amusamento<br> <br> <b>[an]</b> 1. <i>interr part</i> -; <br> <b>an ille habe le libro?</b> has he the book?; <br> 2. <i>conj</i> whether <br> <I>Hence:</i> annon etc.<br> <br> <b>-an</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with names of places and persons] -an (1. pertaining to ...; 2. native to, citizen of, or inhabiting ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> -ano; african etc.; italian etc.; urban etc.; mohammedan etc.<br> <br> <b>an-</b> <i>prefixo</i> [<b>a-</b> in positions other than before <b>-h-</b> and vowels; used with nouns and adjectives] a-, an-, (= not ...; without or lacking ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> agnostic etc.; amnesia etc.; analphabete etc.; anarchia etc.; anesthesia etc.; anesthetic etc.; anhydre etc.; athee etc.<br> <br> <b>ana-</b> <i>prefixo</i> ana- (1. up, upwards; 2. backwards; 3. again) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anachrone etc.; anabaptisar etc.<br> <br> <b>anabaptisar</b> <i>v</i> to anabaptize, rebaptize<br> <br> <b>anabaptismo</b> <i>n</i> Anabaptism<br> <br> <b>anabaptista</b> <i>n</i> Anabaptist<br> <br> <b>anacardiaceas</b> <i>npl</i> [Bot.] Anacardiaceae<br> <br> <b>anacardiacee</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] anacardiaceous<br> <br> <b>anacardio</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] anacardium <br> <I>Hence:</i> anacardiacee-anacardiaceas<br> <br> <b>anachrone</b> <i>adj</i> anachronous, anachronic <br> <I>Hence:</i> anachronic; anachronisar-anachronismo<br> <br> <b>anachronic</b> <i>adj</i> anachronous, anachronic, anachronistic<br> <br> <b>anachronisar</b> <i>v</i> to anachronize, commit anachronisms<br> <br> <b>anachronismo</b> <i>n</i> anachronism<br> <br> <B>Anacreonte</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Lit.] Anacreon <br> <I>Hence:</i> anacreontic<br> <br> <b>anacreontic</b> <i>adj</i> Anacreontic<br> <br> <b>anaerobie</b> <i>adj</i> [Biol.] anaerobic<br> <br> <b>anaerobio</b> <i>n</i> [Biol.] anaerobe<br> <br> <b>anagramma</b> <i>n</i> anagram<br> <br> <b>anal</b> <i>adj</i> [Anat.] anal<br> <br> <b>analectos</b> <i>npl</i> analects, analecta<br> <br> <b>analgesia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] analgesia (= insensitivity to pain)<br> <br> <b>analgesic</b> <i>adj</i> [Med.] analgesic<br> <br> <b>analgia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] analgia, analgesia (= insensitivity to pain)<br> <br> <b>analgic</b> <i>adj</i> [Med.] analgic, analgesic<br> <br> <b>analoge (-áloge)</b> <i>adj</i> analogous (= corresponding in some ways); <br> <b>analoge a</b> analogous to <br> <I>Hence:</i> analogia-analogic<br> <br> <b>analogia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> analogy<br> <br> <b>analogic</b> <i>adj</i> analogic, analogical (= founded on analogy)<br> <br> <b>analphabete</b> <i>adj</i> illiterate<br> <br> <b>analphabetic</b> <i>adj</i> 1. illiterate; 2. [Phonet.] analphabetic; 3. unwritten, without an alphabet<br> <br> <b>analphabetismo</b> <i>n</i> 1. illiteracy; 2. [Phonet.] analphabetism, analphabetic notation<br> <br> <b>analphabeto</b> <i>n</i> illiterate<br> <br> <b>analysabile</b> <i>adj</i> analyzable<br> <br> <b>analysar</b> <i>v</i> to analyze<br> <br> <b>analysator</b> <i>n</i> analyzer, analyst<br> <br> <b>analyse (-ályse)</b> <i>n</i> analysis; <br> <b>analyse qualitative</b> qualitative analysis; <br> <b>analyse quantitative</b> quantitative analysis; <br> <b>analyse infinitesimal</b> infinitesimal calculus; <br> <b>in le ultime analyse</b> in the last analysis, all things considered <br> <I>Hence:</i> analysar-analysabile, analysator, analysta; psychoanalyse etc.<br> <br> <b>analysta</b> <i>n</i> analyst, analyzer<br> <br> <b>analytic</b> <i>adj</i> analytic, analytical; <br> <b>geometria analytic</b> analytic geometry <br> <I>Hence:</i> psychoanalytic etc.<br> <br> <b>ananas (-ás)</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] pineapple<br> <br> <b>anarch-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] anarch-, anarcho- (= anarchic, anarchical) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anarchia-anarchismo, anarchista, anarchic; anarchosyndicalismo etc.; anarchosyndicalista etc.<br> <br> <b>anarchia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anarchy<br> <br> <b>anarchic</b> <i>adj</i> anarchic, anarchical<br> <br> <b>anarchismo</b> <i>n</i> anarchism<br> <br> <b>anarchista</b> <i>n</i> anarchist<br> <br> <b>anarchosyndicalismo</b> <i>n</i> anarchosyndicalism<br> <br> <b>anarchosyndicalista</b> <i>n</i> anarchosyndicalist; <i>also: attrib.</i><br> <br> <b>anate (á-)</b> <i>n</i> [Zool.] duck<br> <br> <b>anathema [-ma/-mat-] (-átema)</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl.] anathema <br> <I>Hence:</i> anathematisar<br> <br> <b>anathemat-</b> <i>see</i> <b>anathema</b><br> <br> <b>anathematisar</b> <i>v</i> [Eccl.] to anathematize<br> <br> <B>Anatolia</b> <i>npr</i> Anatolia<br> <br> <b>anatom-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives] anatom- (= anatomy) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anatomia-anatomista; anatomic<br> <br> <b>anatomia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anatomy<br> <br> <b>anatomic</b> <i>adj</i> anatomic, anatomical<br> <br> <b>anatomista</b> <i>n</i> anatomist<br> <br> <b>ancestral</b> <i>adj</i> ancestral<br> <br> <b>ancestre</b> <i>n</i> ancestor <br> <I>Hence:</i> ancestral<br> <br> <b>ancian</b> <i>adj</i> ancient, old; <br> <b>(le) ancianos</b> (the) ancients <br> <I>Hence:</i> ancianitate<br> <br> <b>ancianitate</b> <i>n</i> 1. oldness, antiquity; 2. seniority (= length of service)<br> <br> <b>ancora¹ (án-)</b> <i>n</i> anchor <br> <I>Hence:</i> ancorar-ancorage; disancorar<br> <br> <b>[ancora]²</b> 1. <i>adv</i> still, yet; 2. <i>interj</i> encore!<br> <br> <b>ancorage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> anchorage (1. action of anchoring; 2. place to anchor; 3. anchorage dues)<br> <br> <b>ancorar</b> <i>v</i> to anchor<br> <br> <b>andaluse</b> <i>adj</i> Andalusian <br> <I>Hence:</i> andaluso-Andalusia<br> <br> <B>Andalusia</b> <i>npr</i> Andalusia<br> <br> <b>andaluso</b> <i>n</i> Andalusian<br> <br> <b>andante [I]</b> <i>adj/adv/n</i> [Mus.] andante<br> <br> <b>andantino [I]</b> <i>adj/n</i> [Mus.] andantino<br> <br> <B>Andes</b> <i>nprpl</i> Andes; <br> <B>Cordillera del Andes</b> Cordillera of the Andes<br> <br> <b>andr-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] andr-, andro- (= man, male, husband) <br> <I>Hence:</i> androide; androphobia etc.; androgyne etc.; gynandre etc.; polyandre etc.; monandre etc.<br> <br> <B>Andreas (-éas)</b> <i>nprm</i> Andrew<br> <br> <b>androgyne</b> <i>adj</i> androgynous (1. hermaphroditic; 2. [Bot.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> androgynia; androgyno<br> <br> <b>androgynia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> androgyny<br> <br> <b>androgyno (-ró-)</b> <i>n</i> androgyne (1. hermaphrodite; 2. [Bot.])<br> <br> <b>androide</b> <i>n</i> android<br> <br> <b>androphobia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> androphobia<br> <br> <b>anecdota (-éc-)</b> <i>n</i> anecdote <br> <I>Hence:</i> anecdotista; anecdotic<br> <br> <b>anecdotic</b> <i>adj</i> anecdotal<br> <br> <b>anecdotista</b> <i>n</i> anecdotist<br> <br> <b>anellar</b> <i>v</i> to (cause to) curl in ringlets, locks, etc.<br> <br> <b>anellides (-él-)</b> <i>npl</i> [Zool.] Annelides<br> <br> <b>anello</b> <i>n</i> ring (= circle of metal or other material); <i>also:</i> link (of a chain); <br> <b>anello nuptial</b> wedding ring; <br> <b>anello del piscator</b> fisherman’s ring <br> <I>Hence:</i> anellides; anellar<br> <br> <b>anemia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] anemia, anaemia <br> <I>Hence:</i> anemic<br> <br> <b>anemic</b> <i>adj</i> anemic, anaemic<br> <br> <b>anemo-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] anemo- (= wind) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anemone; anemometro etc.<br> <br> <b>anemographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Meterol.] anemography<br> <br> <b>anemographo (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> anemograph<br> <br> <b>anemometro (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> anemometer<br> <br> <b>anemone (-óne)</b> <i>n</i> anemone; <br> <b>anemone de mar</b> sea anemone<br> <br> <b>anemoscopio</b> <i>n</i> anemoscope<br> <br> <b>anesthesia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anesthesia<br> <br> <b>anesthesiar</b> <i>v</i> to anesthetize<br> <br> <b>anesthetic</b> <i>adj</i> anesthetic<br> <br> <b>anesthetico</b> <i>n</i> anesthetic<br> <br> <b>anetho</b> <i>n</i> dill<br> <br> <b>-ange-</b> <i>see</i> <b>angio-</b><br> <br> <B>Angela (á-)</b> <i>nprf</i> Angela<br> <br> <b>angelic</b> <i>adj</i> angelic; <br> <b>le salutation angelic</b> the Angelic Salutation, the Ave Maria<br> <br> <B>Angelica</b> <i>nprf</i> Angelica<br> <br> <b>angelica</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] angelica<br> <br> <b>angelo (á-)</b> <i>n</i> angel; <br> <b>angelo tutelar</b> guardian angel <br> <I>Hence:</i> angelic-angelica, Angelica; archangelo etc.; Angela<br> <br> <b>angelus (á-)</b> <i>n</i> [R.C.Ch.] Angelus; <i>also:</i> Angelus bell<br> <br> <b>angina</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] quinsy, angina; <br> <b>angina de pectore</b> <i>angina pectoris</i> <br> <I>Hence:</i> anginose<br> <br> <b>anginose</b> <i>adj</i> quinsied<br> <br> <b>angio-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] angio- (= vessel) <br> <I>Hence:</i> angiographia etc.; angiosperme etc.; sporangio etc.; hydrangea etc.<br> <br> <b>angiographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> angiography<br> <br> <b>angiologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> angiology<br> <br> <b>angiosperma</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] angiosperm; <br> <b>angiospermas</b> Angiospermae<br> <br> <b>angiosperme</b> <i>adj</i> [Bot.] angiospermous <br> <I>Hence:</i> angiosperma<br> <br> <B>Anglaterra</b> <i>npr</i> England<br> <br> <b>anglese¹</b> <i>adj</i> English<br> <br> <b>anglese²</b> <i>n</i> 1. English (= English language); 2. Englishman, Englishwoman<br> <br> <B>Anglia</b> <i>npr</i> [Hist.] Anglia<br> <br> <b>anglic</b> <i>adj</i> Anglic, Anglian<br> <br> <b>anglican</b> <i>adj</i> [Eccl.] Anglican; <br> <b>ecclesia anglican</b> Church of England<br> <br> <b>anglicanismo</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl.] Anglicanism<br> <br> <b>anglicano</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl.] Anglican<br> <br> <b>anglicisar</b> <i>v</i> to Anglicize<br> <br> <b>anglicismo</b> <i>n</i> Anglicism (1. English idiom; 2. quality of being English)<br> <br> <b>angloamerican</b> <i>adj</i> Anglo-American <br> <I>Hence:</i> angloamericano<br> <br> <b>angloamericano</b> <i>n</i> Anglo-American<br> <br> <b>anglocatholic</b> <i>adj</i> [Eccl.] Anglo-Catholic, High-Church <br> <I>Hence:</i> anglocatholico<br> <br> <b>anglocatholico</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl.] Anglo-Catholic, High-churchman<br> <br> <b>anglomania (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> Anglomania<br> <br> <b>anglomano (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> Anglomaniac<br> <br> <b>anglophile</b> <i>adj</i> Anglophile <br> <I>Hence:</i> anglophilo<br> <br> <b>anglophilo (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> Anglophile<br> <br> <b>anglophobe (-ó-)</b> <i>adj</i> Anglophobe, Anglophobic <br> <I>Hence:</i> anglophobia; anglophobo<br> <br> <b>anglophobia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> Anglophobia<br> <br> <b>anglophobo (-óphoho)</b> <i>n</i> Anglophobe<br> <br> <b>anglos</b> <i>npl</i> [Hist.] Angles <br> <I>Hence:</i> Anglia; anglese; anglic-anglicismo, anglican-anglicanismo, anglicano, anglicisar; angloamerican etc; anglocatholic etc.; anglosaxone etc.; anglophile etc.; Anglaterra etc.<br> <br> <b>anglosaxone</b> <i>adj/n</i> Anglo-Saxon<br> <br> <b>angue</b> <i>n</i> snake, serpent <br> <I>Hence:</i> anguilla &; anguin; anguiforme etc.<br> <br> <b>anguiforme</b> <i>adj</i> anguiform<br> <br> <b>anguilla</b> <i>n</i> eel <br> <I>Hence:</i> anguilliforme etc.<br> <br> <b>anguilliforme</b> <i>adj</i> anguilliform, eel-shaped<br> <br> <b>anguin</b> <i>adj</i> anguine<br> <br> <b>angular</b> <i>adj</i> angular<br> <br> <b>angularitate</b> <i>n</i> angularity, angularness<br> <br> <b>angulate</b> <i>adj</i> angulate, angled<br> <br> <b>angulo (án-)</b> <i>n</i> angle, corner; <br> <b>angulo acute</b>, <b>angulo obtuse</b> acute angle, obtuse angle <br> <I>Hence:</i> angular-angularitate; angulate; angulose; triangule etc.; rectangule etc.<br> <br> <b>angulose</b> <i>adj</i> angulous, angular<br> <br> <b>angustia</b> <i>n</i> anguish (1. [Pathol.]; 2. agony, distress) <br> <I>Hence:</i> angustiose; angustiar<br> <br> <b>angustiar</b> <i>v</i> to anguish<br> <br> <b>angustiose</b> <i>adj</i> anguished<br> <br> <b>anhelante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>anhelar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> panting, gasping<br> <br> <b>anhelar</b> <i>v</i> to pant, gasp <br> <I>Hence:</i> anhelante; anhelation<br> <br> <b>anhelation</b> <i>n</i> panting, gasping<br> <br> <b>anhydre (á-)</b> <i>adj</i> anhydrous<br> <br> <b>anhydrido</b> <i>n</i> [Chcm.] anhydride; <br> <b>anhydrido carbonic</b> carbon dioxide<br> <br> <b>anhydrite</b> <i>n</i> [Mineral.] anhydrite<br> <br> <b>anil</b> <i>n</i> anil (1. Indigo shrub; 2. indigo dye) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anilic; anilina<br> <br> <b>anilic</b> <i>adj</i> anilic (1. pertaining to anil; 2. pertaining to aniline)<br> <br> <b>anilina</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] aniline; <i>attrib.:</i> aniline<br> <br> <b>anima (á-)</b> <i>n</i> soul; <br> <b>render le anima</b> give up the ghost; <br> <b>stato de anima</b> state of mind, frame of mind <br> <I>Hence:</i> animismo; animista; animar-animation, animator, animate-inanimate, disanimar-disanimate, reanimar; pusillanime etc.; equanime etc.; unanime etc.; <i>see also</i> animo<br> <br> <b>animadvers-</b> <i>see</i> <b>animadverter</b><br> <br> <b>animadversion</b> <i>n</i> animadversion (= adverse criticism)<br> <br> <b>animadverter [-vert-/-vers-]</b> <i>v</i> to animadvert (= to express adverse criticism) <br> <I>Hence:</i> animadversion<br> <br> <b>animal¹</b> <i>adj</i> animal (= pertaining to animals) <br> <I>Hence:</i> animalitate; animalisar-animalisation; vegetoanimal etc.; animal²-animalculo, animalesc<br> <br> <b>animal²</b> <i>n</i> animal<br> <br> <b>animalculo</b> <i>n</i> animalcule<br> <br> <b>animalesc</b> <i>adj</i> animal (= characteristic of an animal)<br> <br> <b>animalisar</b> <i>v</i> to animalize (1. to convert into animal matter; 2. to reduce to animal nature)<br> <br> <b>animalisation</b> <i>n</i> animalization (1. conversion into animal matter; 2. reduction to animal nature)<br> <br> <b>animalitate</b> <i>n</i> animality<br> <br> <b>animar</b> <i>v</i> to animate<br> <br> <b>animate</b> I. <i>pp</i> of <b>animar</b>; II. <i>adj</i> 1. animate, living; 2. animated, lively<br> <br> <b>animation</b> <i>n</i> animation (1. the action of animating; 2. vivacity, sprightliness)<br> <br> <b>animator</b> <i>n</i> animater, animator<br> <br> <b>animismo</b> <i>n</i> animism<br> <br> <b>animista</b> <i>n</i> animist<br> <br> <b>animo (á-)</b> <i>n</i> animating spirit <br> <I>Hence:</i> animositate; animadverter etc.; pusillanime etc.; equanime etc.; unanime etc; <i>see also</i> anima<br> <br> <b>animositate</b> <i>n</i> animosity<br> <br> <b>anion (á-)</b> <i>n</i> [Phys.] anion<br> <br> <b>anis [F]</b> <i>n</i> anise <br> <I>Hence:</i> anisar<br> <br> <b>anisar</b> <i>v</i> to flavor with anise<br> <br> <B>Anna</b> <i>nprf</i> Ann <br> <I>Hence:</i> Marianna etc.<br> <br> <b>annal</b> <i>adj</i> annual (= lasting one year)<br> <br> <b>annales (-áles)</b> <i>npl</i> annals<br> <br> <b>annecter [-nect-/-nex-]</b> <i>v</i> to annex (= to join as an addition to existing possessions) <br> <I>Hence:</i> annexion; annexo-annexar<br> <br> <b>annex-</b> <i>see</i> <b>annecter</b><br> <br> <b>annexar</b> <i>v</i> to annex (1. to add, append; 2. to join as an addition to existing possessions)<br> <br> <b>annexion</b> <i>n</i> annexation<br> <br> <b>annexo</b> <i>n</i> annex<br> <br> <b>annidar</b> <i>v</i> to nest<br> <br> <b>annihilabile</b> <i>adj</i> 1. annihilable; 2. voidable<br> <br> <b>annihilar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to annihilate; 2. to annul <br> <I>Hence:</i> annihilabile; annihilation<br> <br> <b>annihilation</b> <i>n</i> 1. annihilation; 2. annulment, voiding<br> <br> <b>anniversari</b> <i>adj</i> anniversary <br> <I>Hence:</i> anniversario<br> <br> <b>anniversario</b> <i>n</i> anniversary<br> <br> <b>anno</b> <i>n</i> year; <br> <b>anno bissextil</b> leap year; <br> <b>anno nove</b> New Year; <br> <b>anno de lumine</b> [Astron.] light-year <br> <I>Hence:</i> annuario; annue-annuitate; annal-annales; annual; anniversari etc.; trienne etc.; perenne etc.; millennio etc.; biennal etc.<br> <br> <b>annoctar</b> <i>v</i> to grow dark (as in “it is growing dark, evening is coming”)<br> <br> <b>anno Domini [L]</b> <i>anno Domini</i>, in the year of Our Lord<br> <br> <b>[annon] (án-)</b> <i>conj</i> or not<br> <br> <b>annotar</b> <i>v</i> to annotate <br> <I>Hence:</i> annotation; annotator<br> <br> <b>annotation</b> <i>n</i> annotation<br> <br> <b>annotator</b> <i>n</i> annotator<br> <br> <b>annual</b> <i>adj</i> annual (= coming once a year)<br> <br> <b>annuario</b> <i>n</i> yearbook<br> <br> <b>annue</b> <i>adj</i> annual (1. coming once a year; 2. lasting one year)<br> <br> <b>annuitate</b> <i>n</i> annuity<br> <br> <b>annullabile</b> <i>adj</i> voidable<br> <br> <b>annullar</b> <i>v</i> to annul, cancel <br> <I>Hence:</i> annullabile; annullation; annullative<br> <br> <b>annullation</b> <i>n</i> annulment, cancellation<br> <br> <b>annullative</b> <i>adj</i> annulling, quashing<br> <br> <b>annunciar</b> <i>v</i> to announce <br> <I>Hence:</i> annuncio; annunciation; annunciator<br> <br> <b>annunciation</b> <i>n</i> announcement; <br> <b>le Annunciation</b> the Annunciation<br> <br> <b>annunciator</b> <i>n</i> announcer<br> <br> <b>annuncio</b> <i>n</i> 1. announcement; 2. advertisement<br> <br> <b>ano</b> <i>n</i> [Anat.] anus <br> <I>Hence:</i> anal; anello &; anulo &<br> <br> <b>-ano</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with names of places and persons] -an (1. native, citizen, or inhabitant of ...; 2. language of ...; 3. adherent of ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> africano etc.; italiano etc.; mohammedano etc.<br> <br> <b>anodic</b> <i>adj</i> anodic; <i>also:</i> [Med., Bot.]<br> <br> <b>anodo (á-)</b> <i>n</i> [Elec.] anode <br> <I>Hence:</i> anodic<br> <br> <b>anomale</b> <i>adj</i> anomalous<br> <br> <b>anomalia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anomaly<br> <br> <b>anonyme (-ó-)</b> <i>adj</i> anonymous; <br> <b>societate anonyme</b> joint-stock company, limited company <br> <I>Hence:</i> anonymitate<br> <br> <b>anonymitate</b> <i>n</i> anonymity, anonymousness<br> <br> <b>anormal</b> <i>adj</i> abnormal<br> <br> <b>anormalitate</b> <i>n</i> abnormality<br> <br> <b>[anque] (anke)</b> <i>adv</i> also, too; <br> <b>anque (io)</b> (I) too, (me) too; <br> <b>non solmente ... ma anque</b> not only ... but also <br> (= <b>etiam</b>)<br> <br> <b>ansa</b> <i>n</i> handle (of a cup, jug, basket, etc.); <i>also:</i> [Anat.] ansa <br> <I>Hence:</i> ansate<br> <br> <b>ansate</b> <i>adj</i> ansate, looped; <br> <b>cruce ansate</b> <i>crux ansata</i>, ansate cross<br> <br> <b>ansere (án-)</b> <i>n</i> goose <br> <I>Hence:</i> anserin<br> <br> <b>anserin</b> <i>adj</i> goose (as in “goose liver”); <br> <b>cute anserin</b> goose flesh, goose skin<br> <br> <b>antagonisar</b> <i>v</i> to antagonize (= to contend with; to act in opposition to) <br> <I>Hence:</i> antagonismo; antagonista; antagonistic<br> <br> <b>antagonismo</b> <i>n</i> antagonism<br> <br> <b>antagonista</b> <i>n</i> antagonist (1. opponent; 2. [Physiol.]); <i>attrib.:</i> antagonistic<br> <br> <b>antagonistic</b> <i>adj</i> antagonistic<br> <br> <b>antarctic</b> <i>adj</i> antarctic; <br> <b>polo antarctic</b> antarctic pole, south pole; <br> <b>circulo antarctic</b> antarctic circle; <br> <B>Oceano Antarctic</b> Antarctic (Ocean)<br> <br> <b>ante</b> I. <i>prep</i> before (1. in front of; 2. earlier than; 3. above); II. <i>adv</i> before (1. in front, ahead; <i>also:</i> forward; 2. earlier); <br> <b>ante que (io iva al theatro)</b> before (I went to the theater) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ante-heri etc.; [antea] etc.<br> <br> <b>-ante¹</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>; forming verbal adjectives] -ing, -ant (as in “abounding,” “abundant”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> -antia; abundante etc.; brillante etc.<br> <br> <b>-ante²</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -ant (1. one who or that which is ...ant; 2. one who or that which ...s) <br> <I>Hence:</i> amante etc.; brillante etc.; disinfectante etc.; litigante etc.<br> <br> <b>ante-</b> <i>prefixo</i> [used with nouns, adjectives; also in combination with adjectival suffixes] ante- (= before in time or position) <br> <I>Hence:</i> antecamera etc.; antepenultime etc; antediluvial etc.<br> <br> <b>[antea]</b> <i>adv</i> before, formerly, previously <br> (= <b>ante</b>)<br> <br> <b>antebracio</b> <i>n</i> forearm<br> <br> <b>antecamera (-cá-)</b> <i>n</i> anteroom; <i>also:</i> waiting room (at a doctor’s office, etc.); <br> <b>facer antecamera</b> to wait in the antichamber<br> <br> <b>antecedente</b> <i>n</i> antecedent (1. [Logic, Math.]; 2. [Gram.]); <br> <b>le antecedentes de un persona</b> someone’s antecedents<br> <br> <b>anteceder [-ced-/-cess-]</b> <i>v</i> to antecede, be the antecedent <br> <I>Hence:</i> antecedente; antecessor<br> <br> <b>antecess-</b> <i>see</i> <b>anteceder</b><br> <br> <b>antecessor</b> <i>n</i> predecessor<br> <br> <b>antedata</b> <i>n</i> antedate<br> <br> <b>antedatar</b> <i>v</i> to antedate (= to affix an earlier date than the actual one)<br> <br> <b>antediluvian</b> <i>adj</i> antediluvian<br> <br> <b>antefixa</b> <i>n</i> [Arch.] antefix<br> <br> <b>ante-heri</b> <i>adv</i> day before yesterday<br> <br> <b>antemeridian</b> <i>adj</i> antemeridian<br> <br> <b>antemural</b> <i>n</i> [Fortif.] barbican<br> <br> <b>antenna</b> <i>n</i> I. [Naut.] lateen yard; II. antenna (1. [Zool.]; 2. [Radio] aerial)<br> <br> <b>antepenultima (-úl-)</b> <i>n</i> antepenult<br> <br> <b>antepenultime (-úl-)</b> <i>adj</i> last but two, antepenultimate<br> <br> <b>anteponer [-pon-/-posit-]</b> <i>v</i> to prepose, place before or in front <br> <I>Hence:</i> anteposition<br> <br> <b>anteposit-</b> <i>see</i> <b>anteponer</b><br> <br> <b>anteposition</b> <i>n</i> (act of) preposing, (act of) placing before or in front<br> <br> <b>anterior</b> <i>adj</i> anterior; <br> <b>(periodo) anterior</b> former (period); <br> <b>(data) anterior</b> earlier (date); <br> <b>(gamba) anterior</b> fore(leg); <br> <b>(muro) anterior</b> front (wall) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anterioritate<br> <br> <b>anterioritate</b> <i>n</i> anteriority<br> <br> <b>anteriormente</b> <i>adv</i> formerly, before<br> <br> <b>anthelminthic</b> <i>adj</i> anthelminthic, vermifuge<br> <br> <b>anthelminthico</b> <i>n</i> anthelminthic, vermifuge<br> <br> <b>anthemo- (á-)</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in compounds] -anthemum (= flower) <br> <I>Hence:</i> chrysanthemo etc.<br> <br> <b>antho-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in compounds] antho-, anth- (= flower) <br> <I>Hence:</i> perianthio; anthologia etc.; anthocyanina etc.; diantho etc.; heliantho etc.; sclerantho etc.; argyranthe etc.<br> <br> <b>anthocyanina</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] anthocyanin<br> <br> <b>anthographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] anthography<br> <br> <b>anthologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anthology <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthologista<br> <br> <b>anthologista</b> <i>n</i> anthologist<br> <br> <b>anthra-</b> <i>see</i> <b>anthrace</b><br> <br> <b>anthrace (á-)</b> <i>n</i> [Med., Veter.] anthrax <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthracen; anthracite &; anthracic; anthracifere; anthraciforme etc.; anthracometro etc.; anthraquinon etc.<br> <br> <b>anthracen</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] anthracene<br> <br> <b>anthracic</b> <i>adj</i> anthracic<br> <br> <b>anthracifere</b> <i>adj</i> anthraciferous<br> <br> <b>anthraciforme</b> <i>adj</i> anthraciform<br> <br> <b>anthracite</b> <i>n</i> anthracite (coal), hard coal <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthracitic; anthracitose<br> <br> <b>anthracitic</b> <i>adj</i> anthracitic<br> <br> <b>anthracitose</b> <i>adj</i> anthracitous<br> <br> <b>anthracometro (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> anthracometer<br> <br> <b>anthraquinon</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] anthraquinone<br> <br> <b>anthropo-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] anthropo- (= man) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthropoide; anthropogenese etc.: anthropologo etc.; anthropometria etc.; anthropomorphe etc.; anthropophage etc.; lycanthrope etc.; eoanthropo etc.; misanthrope etc.<br> <br> <b>anthropogenese (-gé-)</b> <i>n</i> anthropogenesis<br> <br> <b>anthropogenesis (-gé-)</b> <i>n</i> anthropogenesis<br> <br> <b>anthropoide¹</b> <i>adj</i> anthropoid<br> <br> <b>anthropoide²</b> <i>n</i> anthropoid<br> <br> <b>anthropologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anthropology<br> <br> <b>anthropologic</b> <i>adj</i> anthropological<br> <br> <b>anthropologista</b> <i>n</i> anthropologist<br> <br> <b>anthropologo (-ólogo)</b> <i>n</i> anthropologist <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthropologia-anthropologista; anthropologic<br> <br> <b>anthropometria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anthropometry <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthropometric<br> <br> <b>anthropometric</b> <i>adj</i> anthropometric<br> <br> <b>anthropomorphe</b> <i>adj</i> anthropomorphous <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthropomorphismo; anthropomorphista<br> <br> <b>anthropomorphismo</b> <i>n</i> anthropomorphism<br> <br> <b>anthropomorphista</b> <i>n</i> anthropomorphist<br> <br> <b>anthropophage (-óphage)</b> <i>adj</i> man-eating, cannibal, anthropophagous <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthropophagia; anthropophago<br> <br> <b>anthropophagia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anthropophagy, cannibalism<br> <br> <b>anthropophago (-óphago)</b> <i>n</i> man-eater, cannibal; <br> <b>anthropophagos</b> anthropophagi<br> <br> <b>anthroposophe (-ósophe)</b> <i>adj</i> anthroposophical <br> <I>Hence:</i> anthroposophia-anthroposophic; anthroposopho<br> <br> <b>anthroposophia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> anthroposophy<br> <br> <b>anthroposophic</b> <i>adj</i> anthroposophical<br> <br> <b>anthroposopho (-ósopho)</b> <i>n</i> anthroposophist<br> <br> <b>anti-</b> <i>prefixo</i> [used with nouns and adjectives; <i>also:</i> in combination with substantival and adjectival suffixes] anti- <br> <I>Hence:</i> antichristo etc.; antinational etc.; antialcoholista etc.<br> <br> <b>-antia</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -ance, -ancy (= state or quality of ...ing or being ...ant) <br> <I>Hence:</i> importantia etc.; tolerantia etc.; vigilantia etc.<br> <br> <b>antiaeree</b> <i>adj</i> [Mil.] antiaircraft<br> <br> <b>antiasthmatic</b> <i>adj</i> antasthmatic<br> <br> <b>anticatholic</b> <i>adj</i> anti-Catholic<br> <br> <b>antichristian¹</b> <i>adj</i> antichristian<br> <br> <b>antichristian²</b> <i>adj</i> anti-Christian<br> <br> <B>Antichristo</b> <i>npr</i> Antichrist; <br> <b>antichristo</b> antichrist<br> <br> <b>anticipar</b> <i>v</i> to anticipate (= to do or use in advance); <br> <b>anticipar un pagamento</b> to advance a payment <br> <I>Hence:</i> anticipation<br> <br> <b>anticipation</b> <i>n</i> 1. anticipation (= act of doing or using in advance); 2. [Rhet.] prolepsis<br> <br> <b>anticlerical</b> <i>adj</i> anticlerical<br> <br> <b>anticlericalismo</b> <i>n</i> anticlericalism<br> <br> <b>anticonception</b> <i>n</i> contraception<br> <br> <b>anticonceptional</b> <i>adj</i> contraceptive; <br> <b>medio anticonceptional</b> contraceptive<br> <br> <b>anticonstitutional</b> <i>adj</i> unconstitutional<br> <br> <b>anticyclon</b> <i>n</i> [Meteorol.] anticyclone<br> <br> <b>antidotar</b> <i>v</i> to antidote<br> <br> <b>antidoto (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> antidote; <br> <b>antidoto de</b> antidote to, for, against <br> <I>Hence:</i> antidotar<br> <br> <b>antifascista</b> <i>n</i> antifascist; <i>also:</i> <i>attrib.</i> antifascist<br> <br> <B>Antilibano (-lí-)</b> <i>npr</i> Anti-Lebanon (= mountain range parallel to the Lebanon Mountains)<br> <br> <b>antilope (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> antelope<br> <br> <b>antimonial</b> <i>adj</i> antimonial<br> <br> <b>antimonio</b> <i>n</i> antimony <br> <I>Hence:</i> antimonial<br> <br> <b>antinational</b> <i>adj</i> antinational<br> <br> <b>antinephritic</b> <i>adj</i> antinephritic<br> <br> <b>antinomia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> antinomy<br> <br> <b>antinomic</b> <i>adj</i> antinomic<br> <br> <b>antinomio</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl. Hist.] antinomian<br> <br> <b>antinomismo</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl. Hist.] antinomianism<br> <br> <B>Antiochia (-ía)</b> <i>npr</i> Antioch<br> <br> <b>antipapa</b> <i>n</i> antipope<br> <br> <b>antiparlamentari</b> <i>adj</i> antiparliamentary<br> <br> <b>antipath-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in derivatives] antipath- (= antipathetic) <br> <I>Hence:</i> antipathia-antipathic<br> <br> <b>antipathia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> antipathy<br> <br> <b>antipathic</b> <i>adj</i> antipathetic<br> <br> <b>antiperistase (-ístase)</b> <i>n</i> antiperistasis (= intensification of a quality by an opposing quality)<br> <br> <b>antiphona (-tí-)</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl.] antiphon, antiphony <br> <I>Hence:</i> antiphonal; antiphonario<br> <br> <b>antiphonal</b> <i>adj</i> antiphonal<br> <br> <b>antiphonario</b> <i>n</i> antiphonary, antiphonal<br> <br> <b>antiphras-</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> antiphrase; antiphrastic<br> <br> <b>antiphrase (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> antiphrasis<br> <br> <b>antiphrastic</b> <i>adj</i> antiphrastic<br> <br> <b>antipode (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> opposite, contrary, antipode; <br> <b>antipodes</b> antipodes <br> <I>Hence:</i> antipodic<br> <br> <b>antipodic</b> <i>adj</i> antipodal<br> <br> <b>antiqualia</b> <i>n</i> old stuff, trash<br> <br> <b>antiquar</b> <i>v</i> to antiquate<br> <br> <b>antiquario</b> <i>n</i> 1. antiquary; 2. antiquedealer<br> <br> <b>antiquate</b> <i>adj</i> antiquated, old-fashioned<br> <br> <b>antique</b> <i>adj</i> antique, ancient; <br> <b>(le) antiquos</b> (the) ancients <br> <I>Hence:</i> antiqualia; antiquario; antiquitate; antiquar-antiquate<br> <br> <b>antiquitate</b> <i>n</i> antiquity (1. ancient character; 2. early ages of history; 3. antique)<br> <br> <b>antireligiose</b> <i>adj</i> antireligious<br> <br> <b>antiscios</b> <i>npl</i> antiscians, antiscii<br> <br> <b>antiscorbutic</b> <i>adj</i> antiscorbutic<br> <br> <b>antisemita</b> <i>n</i> anti-Semite<br> <br> <b>antisemitic</b> <i>adj</i> anti-Semitic<br> <br> <b>antisemitismo</b> <i>n</i> anti-Semitism<br> <br> <b>antisepsis</b> <i>n</i> antisepsis<br> <br> <b>antiseptic</b> <i>adj</i> antiseptic, antiseptical<br> <br> <b>antiseptico</b> <i>n</i> antiseptic<br> <br> <b>antisocial</b> <i>adj</i> antisocial<br> <br> <b>antispasmodic</b> <i>adj</i> [Med.] antispasmodic<br> <br> <b>antithese (-ítese)</b> <i>n</i> antithesis (1. [Rhet.]; 2. opposition)<br> <br> <b>antitoxina</b> <i>n</i> antitoxin<br> <br> <b>antitrinitari</b> <i>adj</i> anti-Trinitarian<br> <br> <B>Antonio</b> <i>nprm</i> Anthony<br> <br> <b>antonyme (-ó-)</b> <i>adj</i> antonymous <br> <I>Hence:</i> antonymia; antonymo<br> <br> <b>antonymia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> antonymy<br> <br> <b>antonymo (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> antonym<br> <br> <B>Antwerpen [Flem.]</b> <i>npr</i> Antwerp<br> <br> <b>anular</b> <i>adj</i> ring-shaped, annular; <br> <b>digito anular</b> ring finger, annular; <br> <b>eclipse anular</b> annular eclipse<br> <br> <b>anuletto</b> <i>n</i> small ring, annulet<br> <br> <b>anulo</b> <i>n</i> ring (= circle of metal or other material); <i>also:</i> ringlike object; <br> <b>anulo piscatori</b> fisherman’s ring <br> <I>Hence:</i> anuletto; anular; anulose<br> <br> <b>anulose</b> <i>adj</i> [Zool.] annulose<br> <br> <b>anxie</b> <i>adj</i> anxious (1. uneasy, worried; 2. eagerly desiring) <br> Hence; anxietate<br> <br> <b>anxietate</b> <i>n</i> anxiety (1. uneasiness; 2. eager desire)<br> <br> <b>aorta</b> <i>n</i> aorta <br> <I>Hence:</i> aortic<br> <br> <b>aortic</b> <i>adj</i> aortic<br> <br> <b>à outrance [F]</b> <i>à outrance</i>, in the extreme<br> <br> <b>ap-</b> <i>see</i> <b>apo-</b><br> <br> <b>apath-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in derivatives] apath- (= apathetic) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apathia-apathic<br> <br> <b>apathia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> apathy<br> <br> <b>apathic</b> <i>adj</i> apathetic<br> <br> <b>ape</b> <i>n</i> bee; <br> <b>ape operari, ape neutre</b> working bee; <br> <b>ape matre, ape regina, ape femina</b> queen bee; <br> <b>ape mascule</b> drone <br> <I>Hence:</i> apiario¹; apiario², apicula-apiculario; apicultura etc.; apivore etc.<br> <br> <b>[apena]</b> <i>adv</i> hardly, scarcely <br> (= <b>a pena</b>)<br> <br> <b>apennin</b> <i>adj</i> Apennine <br> <I>Hence:</i> Apenninos<br> <br> <B>Apenninos</b> <i>nprpl</i> Apennines<br> <br> <b>apepsia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] apepsy<br> <br> <b>aperiente</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>aperir</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> aperient, laxative<br> <br> <b>aperir [-per-/-pert-]</b> <i>v</i> to open (1. to unclose; 2. to begin) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aperiente; apertura; aperte; aperitive-aperitivo; aperitor; reaperir-reapertura<br> <br> <b>aperitive</b> <i>adj</i> aperitive, aperient, laxative<br> <br> <b>aperitivo</b> <i>n</i> 1. aperient, laxative; 2. apéritif<br> <br> <b>aperitor</b> <i>n</i> opener<br> <br> <b>apert-</b> <i>see</i> <b>aperir</b><br> <br> <b>aperte</b> <i>adj</i> open (= not closed, limited or hidden)<br> <br> <b>apertura</b> <i>n</i> opening (1. action of opening; 2. aperture; 3. beginning)<br> <br> <b>apetale</b> <i>adj</i> [Bot.] apetalous<br> <br> <b>aphasia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] aphasia<br> <br> <b>aphasic</b> <i>adj</i> aphasic, aphasiac<br> <br> <b>aphasico</b> <i>n</i> aphasic, aphasiac<br> <br> <b>aphone</b> <i>adj</i> aphonic, voiceless<br> <br> <b>aphonia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> aphonia<br> <br> <b>aphonic</b> <i>adj</i> aphonic, voiceless<br> <br> <b>aphorisar</b> <i>v</i> to aphorize (= to speak, write, etc., in aphorisms) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aphorismo; aphorista-aphoristic<br> <br> <b>aphorismo</b> <i>n</i> aphorism<br> <br> <b>aphorista</b> <i>n</i> aphorist<br> <br> <b>aphoristic</b> <i>adj</i> aphoristic<br> <br> <b>aphrodis-</b> <i>see</i> <B>Aphrodite</b><br> <br> <b>aphrodisiac (-íac)</b> <i>adj</i> aphrodisiac<br> <br> <b>aphrodisiaco (-íaco)</b> <i>n</i> aphrodisiac<br> <br> <B>Aphrodite</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Aphrodite <br> <I>Hence:</i> aphroditic; aphrodisiac-aphrodisiaco; Hermaphrodito etc.<br> <br> <b>aphroditic</b> <i>adj</i> aphroditic, venereal<br> <br> <b>apiario¹</b> <i>n</i> bee-keeper<br> <br> <b>apiario²</b> <i>n</i> apiary<br> <br> <b>apice (á-)</b> <i>n</i> apex<br> <br> <b>apicula</b> <i>n</i> honey-bee<br> <br> <b>apiculario</b> <i>n</i> bee-hive<br> <br> <b>apicultor</b> <i>n</i> bee-keeper, apiculturist<br> <br> <b>apicultura</b> <i>n</i> bee-keeping, apiculture<br> <br> <b>apivore</b> <i>adj</i> bee-eating<br> <br> <b>apo-</b> <i>prefixo</i> [<b>ap-</b> before <b>-h-</b> and vowels; used chiefly to form technical terms] apo-, ap- (1. off, away; 2. separate) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apogee etc.: apostasia etc.<br> <br> <b>apocryphe (-ócryphe)</b> <i>adj</i> apocryphal; <i>specif.:</i> [Eccl.]; <i>also:</i> spurious, unauthenticated <br> <I>Hence:</i> apocrypho<br> <br> <b>apocrypho (-ócrypho)</b> <i>n</i> apocryphon, <i>also:</i> apocrypha; <br> <b>apocryphos</b> apocrypha, apocryphas<br> <br> <b>apogee (-ée)</b> <i>adj</i> apogean, apogeal<br> <br> <b>apogeo (-éo)</b> <i>n</i> apogee (1. [Astron.]; 2. highest point, culmination)<br> <br> <B>Apolline</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr.Myth.] Apollo <br> <I>Hence:</i> apollinee<br> <br> <b>apollinee</b> <i>adj</i> Apolline, Apollonian<br> <br> <B>Apollon</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Apollo<br> <br> <b>apolog-</b> <i>see</i> <b>apologia</b><br> <br> <b>apologetic</b> <i>adj</i> apologetic (= defending by speech or writing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apologetica<br> <br> <b>apologetica</b> <i>n</i> apologetics<br> <br> <b>apologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> apology, apologia <br> <I>Hence:</i> apologista; apologetic &<br> <br> <b>apologista</b> <i>n</i> apologist<br> <br> <b>apologo (-ólogo)</b> <i>n</i> apologue<br> <br> <b>apophysis (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> [Anat., Zool., etc.] apophysis<br> <br> <b>apoplectic</b> <i>adj</i> apoplectic, apoplectical<br> <br> <b>apoplexia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> apoplexy<br> <br> <b>apostasia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> apostasy<br> <br> <b>apostata (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> apostate <br> <I>Hence:</i> apostatic<br> <br> <b>a posteriori [L]</b> <i>adv</i> <i>a posteriori</i><br> <br> <b>apostolato</b> <i>n</i> apostolate<br> <br> <b>apostolic</b> <i>adj</i> apostolic (1. pertaining to the apostles or their teachings; 2. papal)<br> <br> <b>apostolicitate</b> <i>n</i> apostolicity<br> <br> <b>apostolo (-ós-)</b> <i>n</i> apostle; <br> <b>le Symbolo del Apostolos</b> the Apostles’ Creed <br> <I>Hence:</i> apostolato; apostolic-apostolicitate<br> <br> <b>apostrophar</b> <i>v</i> [Rhet.] to apostrophize (= to address in an apostrophe)<br> <br> <b>apostrophe (-pós-)</b> <i>n</i> [Rhet.] apostrophe <br> <I>Hence:</i> apostrophar<br> <br> <b>apostropho</b> <i>n</i> apostrophe (= the mark ’ as used in “ne’er”, “boy’s”, etc.)<br> <br> <b>apotheca</b> <i>n</i> pharmacy, apothecary’s <br> <I>Hence:</i> apothecario<br> <br> <b>apothecario</b> <i>n</i> apothecary<br> <br> <b>apotheosis (-ósis)</b> <i>n</i> apotheosis (1. [Class. Hist.] deification; 2. glorification)<br> <br> <b>appaciabile</b> <i>adj</i> appeasable<br> <br> <b>appaciamento</b> <i>n</i> appeasement; pacification<br> <br> <b>appaciar</b> <i>v</i> to appease <br> <I>Hence:</i> appaciamento; appaciabile-inappaciabile; appaciator<br> <br> <b>appaciator</b> <i>n</i> appeaser<br> <br> <b>apparar</b> <i>v</i> to prepare <br> <I>Hence:</i> apparato<br> <br> <b>apparato</b> <i>n</i> I. apparatus (1. appliance, instrument; 2. collection of mechanical contrivances for carrying out a given work); II. pomp, display; <br> <b>apparato respiratori</b> respiratory apparatus; <br> <b>apparato photographic</b> [Photog.] camera<br> <br> <b>apparentar</b> <i>v</i> to ally or connect by marriage<br> <br> <b>apparente</b> <i>adj</i> apparent (1. plain to see; 2. seeming); <br> <b>diametro apparente</b> apparent diameter; <br> <b>morte apparente</b> suspended animation<br> <br> <b>apparentia</b> <i>n</i> appearance (= aspect); <br> <b>salvar le apparentias</b> to keep up appearances<br> <br> <b>apparer</b> <i>v</i> to appear (= to come in sight) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apparente-apparentia; apparition; reapparer-reapparition<br> <br> <b>apparition</b> <i>n</i> apparition (1. act of appearing, appearance; 2. phantom, ghost)<br> <br> <b>appartamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (act of) separating; 2. apartment, flat<br> <br> <b>appartar</b> <i>v</i> to separate <br> <I>Hence:</i> appartamento<br> <br> <b>appellabile</b> <i>adj</i> appealable<br> <br> <b>appellante</b> <i>n</i> [Law] appellant<br> <br> <b>appellar</b> <i>v</i> 1. [Law] to appeal; 2. to call, name; <br> <b>appellar a</b> to appeal to (for help etc.); <br> <b>appellar de (un sententia)</b> to appeal against (a sentence) <br> <I>Hence:</i> appello; appellante; appellabile-inappellabile; appellation; appellative-appellativo<br> <br> <b>appellation</b> <i>n</i> I. appeal (1. [Law]; 2. as in “the appeal to reason”); II. appellation<br> <br> <b>appellative</b> <i>adj</i> appellative (1. denominative of a class; 2. as in “the appellative faculty of children”)<br> <br> <b>appellativo</b> <i>n</i> [Gram.] appellative (= common or class name)<br> <br> <b>appello</b> <i>n</i> appeal (1. [Law]; 2. earnest request); <br> <b>corte de appello</b> Court of Appeal, Appellate Court; <br> <b>appello nominal</b> roll call<br> <br> <b>appender</b> <i>v</i> 1. to hang up (on, to, onto, etc.); 2. to append <br> <I>Hence:</i> appendice &<br> <br> <b>appendice (-én-)</b> <i>n</i> appendix (1. appendage; 2. “appendix to a book, etc.”; 3. [Anat.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> appendicitis; appendicula-appendicular; appendicectomia etc.<br> <br> <b>appendicectomia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Surg.] appendectomy<br> <br> <b>appendicitis (-ítis)</b> <i>n</i> appendicitis<br> <br> <b>appendicula</b> <i>n</i> appendicle, small appendix or appendage<br> <br> <b>appendicular</b> <i>adj</i> [Pathol.] appendicular<br> <br> <b>appercept-</b> <i>see</i> <b>apperciper</b><br> <br> <b>apperception</b> <i>n</i> [Psychol.] apperception<br> <br> <b>apperciper [-cip-/-cept-]</b> <i>v</i> to perceive, apprehend (mentally) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apperception<br> <br> <b>appertinente</b> <i>adj</i> appurtenant, appertinent<br> <br> <b>appertinentia</b> <i>n</i> [Law] appurtenance<br> <br> <b>appertiner</b> <i>v</i> to appertain<br> <br> <b>appestar</b> <i>v</i> to infect (with a plague)<br> <br> <b>appetente</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>appeter</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> longing, desirous (of)<br> <br> <b>appetentia</b> <i>n</i> appetency, appetence (= fixed and strong desire); <i>also:</i> appetite<br> <br> <b>appeter</b> <i>v</i> to crave, have a craving for <br> <I>Hence:</i> appetente-appetentia, inappetente-inappetentia; appetibile; appetive; appetito<br> <br> <b>appetibile</b> <i>adj</i> appetible, desirable<br> <br> <b>appetitive</b> <i>adj</i> appetitive (= having appetite; giving appetite)<br> <br> <b>appetito</b> <i>n</i> appetite<br> <br> <b>applanamento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) flattening, smoothing, planing<br> <br> <b>applanar</b> <i>v</i> to flatten, smooth, plane; <br> <b>applanar difficultates</b> to smooth away difficulties <br> <I>Hence:</i> applanamento<br> <br> <b>applattar</b> <i>v</i> to flatten (= to make flat, bring level)<br> <br> <b>applauder [-plaud-/-plaus-]</b> <i>v</i> to applaud <br> <I>Hence:</i> applauso; applauditor<br> <br> <b>applauditor</b> <i>n</i> applauder<br> <br> <b>applaus-</b> <i>see</i> <b>applauder</b><br> <br> <b>applauso</b> <i>n</i> applause<br> <br> <b>applicabile</b> <i>adj</i> 1. that can be applied or put on; 2. applicable, appropriate<br> <br> <b>applicabilitate</b> <i>n</i> appropriateness, applicability<br> <br> <b>applicar</b> <i>v</i> to apply (1. to put on; 2. to put to use); <br> <b>applicar se a</b> to apply oneself, put one’s mind to; <br> <b>scientias applicate</b> applied sciences <br> <I>Hence:</i> applicabile-applicabilitate, inapplicabile-inapplicabilitate; application-inapplication<br> <br> <b>application</b> <i>n</i> application (1. act of putting on; 2. act of putting to use; 3. diligence)<br> <br> <b>appoiar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to keep up, prop (up); <i>also:</i> to support, back, aid; <br> <b>appoiar (un cosa) contra</b> to lean (something) against; <br> <b>appoiar (un cosa) super</b> to rest (something) on; <br> <b>appoiar se (super, contra)</b> to lean (on, against) <br> <I>Hence:</i> appoio<br> <br> <b>appoio (-óyo)</b> <i>n</i> support (1. backing, aid; 2. prop, rest, shore)<br> <br> <b>apponer [-pon-/-posit-]</b> <i>v</i> to appose (as in “to appose one’s seal to”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apposition; appositivo; apposite<br> <br> <b>apportar</b> <i>v</i> to bring<br> <br> <b>apportionamento</b> <i>n</i> apportionment<br> <br> <b>apportionar</b> <i>v</i> to apportion <br> <I>Hence:</i> apportionamento<br> <br> <b>apposit-</b> <i>see</i> <b>apponer</b><br> <br> <b>apposite (-pó-)</b> <i>adj</i> apposite, relevant<br> <br> <b>apposition</b> <i>n</i> apposition (1. act of placing near; 2. [Gram.]); <br> <b>in apposition</b> in apposition<br> <br> <b>appositive</b> <i>adj</i> [Gram.] appositive<br> <br> <b>appreciabile</b> <i>adj</i> 1. appreciable; 2. worthy of esteem<br> <br> <b>appreciamento</b> <i>n</i> appraisal<br> <br> <b>appreciar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to appraise (= to estimate the value of); 2. to appreciate (= to esteem highly) <br> <I>Hence:</i> appreciabile-inappreciabile; appreciamento; appreciation; appreciator<br> <br> <b>appreciation</b> <i>n</i> appreciation (1. appraisal; 2. adequate or high estimation of value)<br> <br> <b>appreciator</b> <i>n</i> 1. appraiser; 2. one who appreciates, esteems highly<br> <br> <b>apprehender [-hend-/-hens-]</b> <i>v</i> to apprehend (1. to seize, arrest; 2. to grasp mentally, understand; 3. to dread) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apprehensibile-apprehensibilitate; apprehension; apprehensive<br> <br> <b>apprehens-</b> <i>see</i> <b>apprehender</b><br> <br> <b>apprehensibile</b> <i>adj</i> apprehensible, understandable<br> <br> <b>apprehensibilitate</b> <i>n</i> apprehensibility, understandability<br> <br> <b>apprehension</b> <i>n</i> apprehension (1. act of grasping mentally; 2. dread)<br> <br> <b>apprehensive</b> <i>adj</i> apprehensive (= dreading)<br> <br> <b>apprender</b> <i>v</i> to learn (1. to gain knowledge of, by study or instruction; 2. to acquire information about, find out about) <br> <I>Hence:</i> disapprender<br> <br> <b>apprentissage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> apprenticeship<br> <br> <b>apprentisse</b> <i>n</i> apprentice <br> <I>Hence:</i> apprentissage<br> <br> <b>apprestar</b> <i>v</i> to prepare, make ready <br> <I>Hence:</i> appresto<br> <br> <b>appresto</b> <i>n</i> preparation<br> <br> <b>approbabile</b> <i>adj</i> approvable<br> <br> <b>approbar</b> <i>v</i> to approve, approve of <br> <I>Hence:</i> approbabile; approbation; approbative; approbator; approbatori; disapprobar-disapprobation, disapprobator<br> <br> <b>approbation</b> <i>n</i> approval, approbation<br> <br> <b>approbative</b> <i>adj</i> approving, approbative<br> <br> <b>approbator</b> <i>n</i> approver<br> <br> <b>approbatori</b> <i>adj</i> approbatory, approbative<br> <br> <b>approchabile (-sh-)</b> <i>adj</i> approachable<br> <br> <b>approchar (-sh-)</b> <i>v</i> to approach (= to come or go near to) <br> <I>Hence:</i> approche; approchabile<br> <br> <b>approche (-sh-)</b> <i>n</i> approach (= action of approaching); <br> <b>approches</b> [Mil.] approaches<br> <br> <b>approfundamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (action of) deepening, making deeper in level; 2. (thorough) investigation<br> <br> <b>approfundar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to deepen (= to make deeper in level); 2. to go deeply into, fathom, investigate<br> <br> <b>appropriabile</b> <i>adj</i> 1. that may be appropriated; 2. adaptable<br> <br> <b>appropriar</b> <i>v</i> to adapt; <br> <b>appropriar se un cosa</b> to appropriate something (= to take something for one’s own) <br> <I>Hence:</i> appropriabile; appropriation; appropriate<br> <br> <b>appropriate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>appropriar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> appropriate<br> <br> <b>appropriation</b> <i>n</i> 1. appropriation (= action of appropriating); 2. adaptation (= action of adapting)<br> <br> <b>approvisionamento</b> <i>n</i> (act of) supplying, furnishing<br> <br> <b>approvisionar</b> <i>v</i> to supply, furnish, cater<br> <br> <b>approximar</b> <i>v</i> to approximate, bring near; <br> <b>approximar se (a)</b> to approach, come near <br> <I>Hence:</i> approximation; approximative<br> <br> <b>approximation</b> <i>n</i> approximation (1. action of approximating; 2. close estimate)<br> <br> <b>approximative</b> <i>adj</i> approximate, approximative<br> <br> <b>appunctamento</b> <i>n</i> appointment, rendez-vous<br> <br> <b>appunctar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to appoint (as in “to appoint someone to a post”); 2. to point, sharpen <br> <I>Hence:</i> appunctamento, disappunctar &<br> <br> <b>appuramento</b> <i>n</i> 1. purification; 2. verification, audit<br> <br> <b>appurar</b> <i>v</i> I. to clear (1. to free from impurities; 2. to free from obligation); II. to free from errors; to verify, audit, etc. <br> <I>Hence:</i> appuramento<br> <br> <b>april</b> <i>n</i> April<br> <br> <b>a priori [L]</b> <i>adv</i> <i>a priori</i> <br> <I>Hence:</i> apriorismo; apriorista-aprioristic<br> <br> <b>apriorismo</b> <i>n</i> <i>a priori</i> reasoning<br> <br> <b>apriorista</b> <i>n</i> <i>a priori</i> reasoner<br> <br> <b>aprioristic</b> <i>adj</i> <i>a priori</i><br> <br> <b>apsidal</b> <i>adj</i> apsidal (1. [Astron.]; 2. [Arch.])<br> <br> <b>apside (ápside)</b> <i>n</i> apse (1. [Astron.] apsis; 2. [Arch.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> apsidal<br> <br> <b>aptar</b> <i>v</i> to adapt<br> <br> <b>apte</b> <i>adj</i> apt (= suited to its purpose) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aptitude; aptar-adaptar &; inepte &; inapte-inaptitude<br> <br> <b>aptere</b> <i>adj</i> [Entom.] apterous<br> <br> <b>apteros (áp-)</b> <i>npl</i> [Entom.] Aptera<br> <br> <b>aptitude</b> <i>n</i> aptitude (= natural capacity or propensity)<br> <br> <b>apud (á-)</b> <i>prep</i> near, with, at, by<br> <br> <b>aqua</b> <i>n</i> water (1. the liquid “water”; 2. limpidity and luster of a precious stone); <br> <b>aqua de Colonia</b> cologne, eau de Cologne; <br> <b>aqua forte</b> 1. <i>aqua fortis</i>, nitric acid; 2. etching (= picture printed from etched plate); <br> <b>aqua pesante</b> heavy water; <br> <b>via de aqua</b> [Naut.] leak; <br> <b>facer aqua</b> [Naut.] to leak <br> <I>Hence:</i> aquarella &; aquario; aquiero; aquatic; aquatile; aquee-terraquee etc; aquose-aquositate; aquar-disaquar-disaquamento; aquamarin etc; aqueducto etc.<br> <br> <b>aquamarin</b> <i>adj</i> aquamarine <br> <I>Hence:</i> aquamarina<br> <br> <b>aquamarina</b> <i>n</i> 1. (the stone) aquamarine; 2. (the color) aquamarine<br> <br> <b>aquar</b> <i>v</i> to water (plants, etc.); to sprinkle (with water)<br> <br> <b>aquarella</b> <i>n</i> water color (painting) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aquarellista<br> <br> <b>aquarellista</b> <i>n</i> water-color painter<br> <br> <b>aquario</b> <i>n</i> aquarium; <br> <B>Aquario</b> [Astron.] Aquarius, Water Bearer<br> <br> <b>aquatic</b> <i>adj</i> aquatic<br> <br> <b>aquatile</b> <i>adj</i> aquatic<br> <br> <b>aqueducto</b> <i>n</i> [Arch.] aqueduct<br> <br> <b>aquee</b> <i>adj</i> aqueous<br> <br> <b>aquiero</b> <i>n</i> drain (= channel or pipe for carrying away water or other liquid)<br> <br> <b>aquila (á-)</b> <i>n</i> eagle <br> <I>Hence:</i> aquilin<br> <br> <b>aquilegia</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] columbine<br> <br> <b>aquilin</b> <i>adj</i> aquiline<br> <br> <B>Aquisgrano</b> <i>npr</i> Aachen, Aix-la-Chapelle<br> <br> <b>aquose</b> <i>adj</i> aqueous, watery<br> <br> <b>aquositate</b> <i>n</i> aquosity, wateriness<br> <br> <b>ar</b> <i>n</i> are (= one hundredth part of a hectare) <br> <I>Hence:</i> hectar etc.; deciar etc.<br> <br> <b>-ar</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used instead of <b>-al</b> with nouns containing <b>-l-</b>] -ar (= pertaining to ..., characteristic of ..., etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> lunar etc.; regular etc.<br> <br> <b>-ar</b> <i>suffixo verbal</i> [used with nouns and adjectives] -ate or zero (as in “to catenate; to chain, etc.”) (1. [with nouns] to make use of ..., to apply ..., etc.; 2. [with adjectives] to render ..., to make ..., etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> martellar etc.; acierar etc.; examinar etc.; vulnerar etc.; siccar etc.; duplicar etc.<br> <br> <b>arabe¹ (á-)</b> <i>adj</i> Arab, Arabian, Arabic; <br> <b>cavallo arabe</b> Arabian horse <br> <I>Hence:</i> arabe²-Arabia-arabic, arabismo, arabista, arabesc-arabesco<br> <br> <b>arabe² (á-)</b> <i>n</i> 1. Arab; 2. Arabic<br> <br> <b>arabesc</b> <i>adj</i> [Art] arabesque<br> <br> <b>arabesco</b> <i>n</i> [Art] arabesque<br> <br> <B>Arabia</b> <i>npr</i> Arabia<br> <br> <b>arabic</b> <i>adj</i> Arab, Arabian, Arabic; <br> <b>cifra arabic</b> Arabic number; <br> <b>gumma arabic</b> gum Arabic<br> <br> <b>arabile</b> <i>adj</i> arable<br> <br> <b>arabismo</b> <i>n</i> Arabicism, Arabism, Arabic idiom<br> <br> <b>arabista</b> <i>n</i> Arabist (= student of Arabic language and culture)<br> <br> <b>arachide (-rá-)</b> <i>n</i> 1. [Bot.] Arachis; 2. peanut; <br> <b>oleo de arachide</b> peanut oil <br> <I>Hence:</i> arachidic<br> <br> <b>arachidic</b> <i>adj</i> arachidic; <br> <b>acido arachidic</b> arachidic acid<br> <br> <b>aranea</b> <i>n</i> spider; <br> <b>tela de aranea</b> cobweb, spider web<br> <br> <b>arar</b> <i>v</i> to plow <br> <I>Hence:</i> arabile; arator; aratori; aratura<br> <br> <b>arator</b> <i>n</i> plower, plowman<br> <br> <b>aratori</b> <i>adj</i> agricultural, farming<br> <br> <b>aratro</b> <i>n</i> plow<br> <br> <b>aratura</b> <i>n</i> 1. (act of) plowing; 2. plowed field<br> <br> <b>arbitrage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> 1. arbitration, arbitrament; 2. [Bank. etc.] arbitrage<br> <br> <b>arbitramento</b> <i>n</i> arbitration, arbitrament<br> <br> <b>arbitrar</b> <i>v</i> to arbitrate<br> <br> <b>arbitrari</b> <i>adj</i> arbitrary<br> <br> <b>arbitrarietate</b> <i>n</i> arbitrariness<br> <br> <b>arbitration</b> <i>n</i> arbitration<br> <br> <b>arbitrator</b> <i>n</i> arbitrator<br> <br> <b>arbitro (á-)</b> <i>n</i> arbiter; <i>also:</i> umpire <br> <I>Hence:</i> arbitrari-arbitrarietate; arbitrar-arbitrage, arbitramento, arbitration, arbitrator<br> <br> <b>arbore</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] tree; <br> <b>arbore genealogic</b> family tree, genealogical tree <br> <I>Hence:</i> arboreto; arboretto; arborista; arboree; arborescer-arborescente-arborescentia; arborisar-arborisation, arborisate<br> <br> <b>arboree</b> <i>adj</i> arboreal, tree<br> <br> <b>arborescente</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>arborescer</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> [Bot.] arborescent (= of treelike growth)<br> <br> <b>arborescentia</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] arborescence<br> <br> <b>arborescer</b> <i>v</i> [Bot.] to arboresce, grow into a tree<br> <br> <b>arboreto</b> <i>n</i> grove; <i>also:</i> arboretum<br> <br> <b>arboretto</b> <i>n</i> small tree<br> <br> <b>arborisar</b> <i>v</i> to give a treelike appearance to, arborize<br> <br> <b>arborisate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>arborisar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> [Mineral.] dendritic<br> <br> <b>arborisation</b> <i>n</i> arborization; <i>also:</i> [Mineral.; Anat.; etc.]<br> <br> <b>arborista</b> <i>n</i> arborist<br> <br> <b>arbusto</b> <i>n</i> shrub, bush<br> <br> <b>arca</b> <i>n</i> ark <br> <I>Hence:</i> arcan &<br> <br> <b>arcada</b> <i>n</i> 1. archway; 2. arcade<br> <br> <B>Arcadia</b> <i>npr</i> Arcadia <br> <I>Hence:</i> arcadian<br> <br> <b>arcadian</b> <i>adj</i> Arcadian<br> <br> <b>arcan</b> <i>adj</i> secret, mysterious <br> <I>Hence:</i> arcano<br> <br> <b>arcano</b> <i>n</i> secret, mystery<br> <br> <b>arcar</b> <i>v</i> to arch (1. to cause to arch or curve; 2. to furnish with arches)<br> <br> <b>arch-¹</b> [occurring in compounds] I. -arch-, -arch (= rule, ruling, ruler, etc.); II. archi-, arche-, arch- (1. chief, principal, leading; 2. primitive, original, archetypal) <br> <I>Hence:</i> anarch- &; archetypo etc.; archiduce etc.; archipresbytero etc.; architrave etc.; hierarcha etc.; patriarcha etc.; syriarcha etc.; tetrarcha etc.; pentarchia etc.; archonte; exarch- &; oligarch- etc.; monarch- etc.<br> <br> <b>arch-²</b> <i>see also</i> <b>arco</b><br> <br> <b>archa-</b> <i>see</i> <b>arche-</b><br> <br> <b>archaic (-áic)</b> <i>adj</i> archaic<br> <br> <b>archaisar</b> <i>v</i> to archaize<br> <br> <b>archaismo (-ísmo)</b> <i>n</i> archaism<br> <br> <b>archaista (-ísta)</b> <i>n</i> archaist<br> <br> <b>archangelo (-án-)</b> <i>n</i> archangel<br> <br> <b>arche-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] archaeo-, archae- (= old) <br> <I>Hence:</i> archaic; archaisar-archaismo, archaista; archeologo etc.<br> <br> <b>archeologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> archaeology<br> <br> <b>archeologic</b> <i>adj</i> archaeological<br> <br> <b>archeologo (-ólo-)</b> <i>n</i> archaeologist <br> <I>Hence:</i> archeologia; archeologic<br> <br> <b>archero</b> <i>n</i> archer<br> <br> <b>archetto</b> <i>n</i> (violin) bow<br> <br> <b>archetypo (-é-)</b> <i>n</i> archetype<br> <br> <b>archidiacono (-diá-)</b> <i>n</i> archdeacon<br> <br> <b>archiducal</b> <i>adj</i> archducal<br> <br> <b>archiducato</b> <i>n</i> archduchy<br> <br> <b>archiduce</b> <i>n</i> archduke <br> <I>Hence:</i> archiducato; archiduchessa; archiducal<br> <br> <b>archiduchessa</b> <i>n</i> archduchess<br> <br> <b>archiepiscopal</b> <i>adj</i> archiepiscopal<br> <br> <b>archiepiscopato</b> <i>n</i> archiepiscopate; <i>also:</i> archbishopric<br> <br> <b>archiepiscopo (-ís-)</b> <i>n</i> archbishop <br> <I>Hence:</i> archiepiscopato; archiepiscopal<br> <br> <B>Archimedes (-mé-)</b> <i>npr</i> Archimedes; <br> <b>principio de Archimedes</b> Archimedean principle, Archimedes’ principle; <br> <b>vite de Archimedes</b> Archimedean screw, Archimedes’ screw<br> <br> <b>archipelago (-pé-)</b> <i>n</i> archipelago<br> <br> <b>archipresbytero (-bí-)</b> <i>n</i> archpriest<br> <br> <b>archiprestre</b> <i>n</i> archpriest<br> <br> <b>architect-</b> <i>see</i> <b>architecton-</b><br> <br> <b>architecto</b> <i>n</i> architect<br> <br> <b>architecton-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives] architecton- (= architect) <br> <I>Hence:</i> architectonic; architectonica; architecto-architectura<br> <br> <b>architectonic</b> <i>adj</i> architectonic (= architectural; also: constructive)<br> <br> <b>architectonica</b> <i>n</i> architectonics (= science or principles of architecture)<br> <br> <b>architectura</b> <i>n</i> architecture<br> <br> <b>architrave</b> <i>n</i> [Arch.] architrave<br> <br> <b>archival</b> <i>adj</i> archival<br> <br> <b>archivamento</b> <i>n</i> (action of) filing in archives<br> <br> <b>archivar</b> <i>v</i> to file in archives<br> <br> <b>archivista</b> <i>n</i> archivist<br> <br> <b>archivo</b> <i>n</i> archive <br> <I>Hence:</i> archivista; archival; archivar-archivamento<br> <br> <b>archivolta</b> <i>n</i> archivolt<br> <br> <b>archonte</b> <i>n</i> [Gr. Hist.] archon<br> <br> <b>arcion</b> <i>n</i> saddlebow<br> <br> <b>arco</b> <i>n</i> I. arc; II. arch; III. bow (1. weapon for shooting arrows; 2. rod for playing the violin, etc.); <br> <b>arco triumphal</b> or <b>de triumpho</b> triumphal arch <br> <I>Hence:</i> arcada; archero; archetto; arcion; arcar; archivolta etc.; arcoballista etc.<br> <br> <b>arcoballista</b> <i>n</i> crossbow<br> <br> <b>arct-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] arct- (= bear) <br> <I>Hence:</i> arctic-antarctic, holarctic etc.<br> <br> <b>arctic</b> <i>adj</i> arctic; <br> <b>polo arctic</b> arctic pole, north pole; <br> <b>circulo arctic</b> arctic circle; <br> <B>Oceano Arctic</b> Arctic (Ocean)<br> <br> <B>Arcturo</b> <i>npr</i> [Astron.] Arcturus<br> <br> <b>ardente</b> I. <i>ppr</i> of <b>arder</b>; II. <i>adj</i> ardent (1. burning; 2. fervent)<br> <br> <b>arder</b> <i>v</i> to burn (1. to be on fire; 2. to cause to be consumed by fire) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ardente; ardimento; ardor-ardorose; arditura<br> <br> <b>ardesia</b> <i>n</i> slate (1. [Mineral.]; 2. roofing slate; 3. writing slate) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ardesiero; ardesiera; ardesiose<br> <br> <b>ardesiera</b> <i>n</i> slate quarry<br> <br> <b>ardesiero</b> <i>n</i> slate worker; slate-quarry owner<br> <br> <b>ardesiose</b> <i>adj</i> slate, slaty<br> <br> <b>ardimento</b> <i>n</i> burning (1. being on fire; 2. causing to be consumed by fire)<br> <br> <b>arditura</b> <i>n</i> burn (= hurt, injury, or effect caused by burning)<br> <br> <b>ardor</b> <i>n</i> ardor (1. fierce heat; 2. fervor)<br> <br> <b>ardorose</b> <i>adj</i> ardent, ardurous<br> <br> <b>ardue</b> <i>adj</i> arduous (1. steep; 2. difficult to achieve) <br> <I>Hence:</i> arduitate<br> <br> <b>arduitate</b> <i>n</i> arduousness<br> <br> <b>area</b> <i>n</i> area (1. clear space within a building; 2. surface extent)<br> <br> <b>arena</b> <i>n</i> I. sand; II. arena (1. place of combat; 2. [Med.] gravel) <br> <I>Hence:</i> arenari-arenario; arenero; arenacee; arenose-arenositate; arenar-arenamento<br> <br> <b>arenacee</b> <i>adj</i> sandy, arenaceous<br> <br> <b>arenamento</b> <i>n</i> stranding, grounding<br> <br> <b>arenar</b> <i>v</i> I. to sand (1. to cover with sand; 2. to rub with sand); II. to strand, run aground<br> <br> <b>arenari</b> <i>adj</i> (of) sand; <br> <b>petra arenari</b> sandstone<br> <br> <b>arenario</b> <i>n</i> sandpit<br> <br> <b>arenero</b> <i>n</i> dealer in sand<br> <br> <b>arenose</b> <i>adj</i> sandy, gravelly; gritty<br> <br> <b>arenositate</b> <i>n</i> sandiness, gravelliness; grittiness<br> <br> <b>areopagita</b> <i>n</i> [Gr. Hist.] Areopagite<br> <br> <B>Areopago (-ó-)</b> [Gr. Hist.] Areopagus <br> <I>Hence:</i> areopagita<br> <br> <B>Ares (á-)</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Ares<br> <br> <b>argentano</b> <i>n</i> argentan, German silver<br> <br> <b>argentar</b> <i>v</i> to silver, cover or plate with silver<br> <br> <b>argentate</b> <i>adj</i> argentate<br> <br> <b>argentator</b> <i>n</i> silverer, silver plater<br> <br> <b>argentee</b> <i>adj</i> silvery (= silver-colored)<br> <br> <b>argenteria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> silver plate<br> <br> <b>argentero</b> <i>n</i> silversmith<br> <br> <b>argentifere</b> <i>adj</i> argentiferous, yielding silver<br> <br> <b>argentin</b> adj. I. silvery, argentine (1. silvercolored; 2. silver-toned); II. Argentine<br> <br> <B>Argentina¹</b> <i>npr</i> Argentina<br> <br> <b>argentina²</b> <i>n</i> [Zool.] argentine<br> <br> <b>argentino</b> <i>n</i> Argentine, Argentino<br> <br> <b>argento</b> <i>n</i> silver; <br> <b>argento vive</b> quicksilver, mercury <br> <I>Hence:</i> argentano; argentero; argenteria; argentee; argentifere; argentin-argentino, argentina, Argentina; argentose; argentar-argentator, argentate, disargentar<br> <br> <b>argentose</b> <i>adj</i> containing silver, argentous<br> <br> <b>argilla</b> <i>n</i> clay, argil <br> <I>Hence:</i> argillaria; argillose<br> <br> <b>argillaria</b> <i>n</i> clay-pit<br> <br> <b>argillose</b> <i>adj</i> clayey<br> <br> <B>Argo</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Argo <br> <I>Hence:</i> Argonauta etc.<br> <br> <b>argon (ár-)</b> <i>n</i> [(Chem.] argon<br> <br> <B>Argonauta</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Argonaut; <br> <b>argonauta</b> 1. pioneer, explorer etc.; 2. [Zool.] argonaut<br> <br> <b>argot [F]</b> <i>n</i> argot; <i>also:</i> slang <br> <I>Hence:</i> argotic<br> <br> <b>argotic</b> <i>adj</i> argotic; <i>also:</i> slangy (as in “a slangy expression”)<br> <br> <b>arguer</b> <i>v</i> 1. to argue (= to offer arguments for or against); 2. to show, make clear; 3. to infer <br> <I>Hence:</i> argumento &; arguibile; argute &<br> <br> <b>arguibile</b> <i>adj</i> arguable, debatable<br> <br> <b>argumentar</b> <i>v</i> to argue (= to offer arguments for or against)<br> <br> <b>argumentation</b> <i>n</i> argumentation<br> <br> <b>argumentative</b> <i>adj</i> 1. [Lit.] expository, giving the argument of; 2. argumentative (= containing a process of reasoning)<br> <br> <b>argumento</b> <i>n</i> argument (1. reason offered in proof; 2. summary) <br> <I>Hence:</i> argumentar-argumentation, argumentative<br> <br> <b>argute</b> <i>adj</i> 1. clear (to the ear); shrill, piercing; 2. keen, quick-witted, subtle <br> <I>Hence:</i> argutia-argutiose, argutiar<br> <br> <b>argutia</b> <i>n</i> 1. quick-wittedness; subtlety; 2. quibble, cavil; 3. witticism<br> <br> <b>argutiar</b> <i>v</i> to quibble, cavil<br> <br> <b>argutiose</b> <i>adj</i> quibbling, caviling<br> <br> <b>argyranthe</b> <i>adj</i> argyranthous<br> <br> <b>argyric</b> <i>adj</i> argyric<br> <br> <b>argyrite</b> <i>n</i> [Mineral.] argyrite<br> <br> <b>argyro-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] argyro-, argyr- (= silver) <br> <I>Hence:</i> argyrite; argyric; argyroneta etc.; argyranthe etc.; lithargyro etc.<br> <br> <b>argyroneta</b> <i>n</i> [Zool.] Argyroneta, water spider<br> <br> <b>-ari</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with nouns] -ary (= pertaining to ..., consisting of ..., etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> -ario; legendari etc.; cotonari etc.; sanitari etc.; nonagenari etc.<br> <br> <b>aria [I]</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] aria <br> <I>Hence:</i> arietta; ariose-arioso<br> <br> <B>Ariadna</b> <i>nprf</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Ariadne; <br> <b>filo de Ariadna</b> Ariadne’s clew<br> <br> <b>aride (á-)</b> <i>adj</i> arid <br> <I>Hence:</i> ariditate<br> <br> <b>ariditate</b> <i>n</i> aridity<br> <br> <B>Aries (á-)</b> <i>npr</i> [Astron.] Aries, Ram<br> <br> <b>arietar</b> <i>v</i> to ram<br> <br> <b>arietari</b> <i>adj</i> ram, ram’s (= of a ram or battering ram)<br> <br> <b>arietation</b> <i>n</i> ramming, arietation<br> <br> <b>ariete</b> <i>n</i> 1. ram; 2. battering ram; <i>also:</i> [Rom. Antiq.] aries; <br> <b>ariete hydraulic</b> hydraulic ram; <br> <B>Ariete</b> [Astron.] Aries, Ram <br> <I>Hence:</i> arietari; arietar-arietation<br> <br> <b>arietta</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] arietta<br> <br> <b>-ario¹</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with nouns] -ary, -arian, -aire (= person concerned with ... or characterized by ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> missionario etc.; pensionario etc.; millionario etc.<br> <br> <b>-ario²</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with nouns] -ary, -arium (1. collection of ...; 2. place containing ... or place containing a collection of ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aquario etc.; aviario etc.; granario etc.<br> <br> <b>ariose</b> <i>adj</i> [Mus.] ariose, arioso<br> <br> <b>arioso</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] arioso<br> <br> <b>arist-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in compounds] aristo-, arist- (= best) <br> <I>Hence:</i> aristocrate etc.; aristocratia etc.; aristocratic etc.<br> <br> <b>aristocrate (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> aristocrat<br> <br> <b>aristocratia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> aristocracy<br> <br> <b>aristocratic</b> <i>adj</i> aristocratic<br> <br> <B>Aristotele</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Philos.] Aristotle <br> <I>Hence:</i> aristotelismo; aristotelic<br> <br> <b>aristotelic</b> <i>adj</i> Aristotelian<br> <br> <b>aristotelismo</b> <i>n</i> Aristotelianism<br> <br> <b>arithme-</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives]<br> <br> <b>arithmetic</b> <i>adj</i> arithmetic, arithmetical<br> <br> <b>arithmetica</b> <i>n</i> arithmetic; <br> <b>arithmetica superior</b> higher arithmetic<br> <br> <b>arithmetico</b> <i>n</i> arithmetician<br> <br> <b>arithmo-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] arithmo-, arithm- (= number) <br> <I>Hence:</i> arithme-arithmetic-arithmetico, arithmetica; arithmometro etc.; arithmomantia etc.; logarithmo etc.<br> <br> <b>arithmomantia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> arithmomancy<br> <br> <b>arithmometro (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> arithmometer<br> <br> <B>Arlequin</b> <i>npr</i> Harlequin; <br> <b>arlequin</b> harlequin, buffoon <br> <I>Hence:</i> arlequinada<br> <br> <b>arlequinada</b> <i>n</i> harlequinade; <i>also:</i> buffoonery<br> <br> <b>arma</b> <i>n</i> arm (1. weapon; 2. branch of the military service); <br> <b>armas blanc</b> side-arms; <br> <b>armas de foco</b> fire-arms; <br> <b>homine de armas</b> man-at-arms; <br> <b>prender le armas</b> to take up arms; <br> <b>armas</b> [Her.] arms <br> <I>Hence:</i> armero; armar-armamento, armatura, armea, disarmar-disarmamento, rearmar-rearmamento; armistitio etc.; armipotente etc.<br> <br> <b>armamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. armament (= equipment with arms); 2. commissioning (of a ship)<br> <br> <b>armar</b> <i>v</i> to arm (1. to supply with weapons; 2. to equip, fit out); <br> <b>armar un persona cavallero</b> to dub someone a knight; <br> <b>armar se de patientia</b> to exercise patience<br> <br> <b>armario</b> <i>n</i> wardrobe, cupboard<br> <br> <b>armatura</b> <i>n</i> 1. armor; 2. [Magnet., Elec.] armature; 3. frame, framework<br> <br> <b>armea (-éa)</b> <i>n</i> army; <br> <b>armea aeree</b> air force<br> <br> <B>Armenia</b> <i>npr</i> Armenia <br> <I>Hence:</i> armeniaca; armenie-armenio<br> <br> <b>armeniaca (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> apricot<br> <br> <b>armenie</b> <i>adj</i> Armenian<br> <br> <b>armenio¹</b> <i>n</i> Armenian (1. Armenian language; 2. inhabitant of Armenia)<br> <br> <b>armenio²</b> <i>n</i> ermine (1. the animal “ermine”; 2. ermine fur)<br> <br> <b>armero</b> <i>n</i> armorer (1. manufacturer of arms; 2. official in charge of armament or arms)<br> <br> <b>armipotente</b> <i>adj</i> armipotent<br> <br> <b>armistitio</b> <i>n</i> armistice<br> <br> <b>aroma [-ma/-mat-]</b> <i>n</i> aroma <br> <I>Hence:</i> aromatic; aromatisar-aromatisation<br> <br> <b>aromat-</b> <i>see</i> <b>aroma</b><br> <br> <b>aromate (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> aroma <br> <I>Hence:</i> aromatic; aromatisar-aromatisation<br> <br> <b>aromatic</b> <i>adj</i> aromatic, fragrant<br> <br> <b>aromatisar</b> <i>v</i> to aromatize<br> <br> <b>aromatisation</b> <i>n</i> aromatization<br> <br> <b>arpeggio [I]</b> <i>n</i> [Mus.] arpeggio<br> <br> <b>arrangiamento (-ja-)</b> <i>n</i> arrangement (1. order; 2. preparation, plan)<br> <br> <b>arrangiar (-ja-)</b> <i>v</i> to arrange (1. to set in order; 2. to contrive; 3. to settle, straighten out); <br> <b>arrangiar se</b> to manage, get along <br> <I>Hence:</i> arrangiamento<br> <br> <b>arrentar</b> <i>v</i> to rent or let (for hire)<br> <br> <b>arrestar</b> <i>v</i> to arrest (1. to stop, bring to a standstill; 2. to seize (someone) by legal authority) <br> <I>Hence:</i> arresto; arrestation<br> <br> <b>arrestation</b> <i>n</i> 1. arresting, stopping (= bringing to a standstill); 2. arrest (= act of seizing someone by legal authority)<br> <br> <b>arresto</b> <i>n</i> 1. arresting, stopping (= bringing to a standstill); 2. arrest (= apprehension by legal authority)<br> <br> <b>arretrar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to draw backwards; 2. to delay; <br> <b>arretrar se</b> 1. to withdraw, draw (oneself) back; 2. to be behindhand or in arrears<br> <br> <b>arretrate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>arretrar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> behindhand, in arrears; <br> <b>pagamento arretrate</b> overdue payment; <br> <b>soldo arretrate</b> [Mil.] back pay<br> <br> <b>arretrato</b> <i>n</i> arrears<br> <br> <b>arrha</b> <i>n</i> [Law] earnest, earnest money<br> <br> <b>arrivar</b> <i>v</i> to arrive <br> <I>Hence:</i> arrivismo; arrivista; arrivata<br> <br> <b>arrivata</b> <i>n</i> arrival<br> <br> <b>arrivismo</b> <i>n</i> unscrupulous ambition<br> <br> <b>arrivista</b> <i>n</i> (social) climber<br> <br> <b>arrogante</b> <i>adj</i> arrogant<br> <br> <b>arrogantia</b> <i>n</i> arrogance<br> <br> <b>arrogar</b> <i>v</i> to arrogate (1. [Rom. Law] to adrogate; 2. to claim as one’s own); <br> <b>arrogar se</b> to arrogate to oneself <br> <I>Hence:</i> arrogante-arrogantia; arrogation<br> <br> <b>arrogation</b> <i>n</i> arrogation (1. act of making exorbitant claims; 2. [Rom. Law])<br> <br> <b>arrotundar</b> <i>v</i> to round, make round<br> <br> <b>arrugar</b> <i>v</i> to wrinkle, crease; <br> <b>arrugar le fronte</b> to frown<br> <br> <b>arsen-</b> <i>see</i> <b>arsenico</b><br> <br> <b>arsenal</b> <i>n</i> 1. dockyard; 2. arsenal<br> <br> <b>arsenical</b> <i>adj</i> arsenical; [Chem.] arsenic<br> <br> <b>arsenico</b> <i>n</i> arsenic <br> <I>Hence:</i> arsenical; arsenite; arsenium; arseniose-arseniophosphato etc.<br> <br> <b>arsenio-</b> <i>see</i> <b>arseniose</b><br> <br> <b>arseniophosphato</b> <i>n</i> arseniophosphate<br> <br> <b>arseniose</b> <i>adj</i> arsenious<br> <br> <b>arseniosulfato</b> <i>n</i> arseniosulfate<br> <br> <b>arsenite</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] arsenite<br> <br> <b>arsenium (-sé-)</b> <i>n</i> arsenium, arsenic<br> <br> <b>arte</b> <i>n</i> art (1. “fine art”; 2. skill); <br> <b>opera de arte</b> work of art; <br> <b>artes liberal</b> liberal arts; <br> <b>belle artes</b> fine arts <br> <I>Hence:</i> artisano; artista-artistic; artifice etc.; artefacto etc.<br> <br> <b>artefacto</b> <i>n</i> artifact, man-made product<br> <br> <b>arteria</b> <i>n</i> artery <br> <I>Hence:</i> arterial; arteriosclerosis etc.; arteriotomia etc.<br> <br> <b>arterial</b> <i>adj</i> arterial; <br> <b>sanguine arterial</b> arterial blood; <br> <b>pression arterial</b> blood pressure<br> <br> <b>arteriosclerosis (-ósis)</b> <i>n</i> arteriosclerosis<br> <br> <b>arteriotomia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> arteriotomy<br> <br> <b>arthritic</b> <i>adj</i> [Pathol.] arthritic<br> <br> <b>arthritis (-ítis)</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] arthritis<br> <br> <b>arthritismo</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] arthritism<br> <br> <b>arthro-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] arthro- (= joint) <br> <I>Hence:</i> arthritis-arthritismo, arthritic; arthropode etc.<br> <br> <b>arthropode (-ró-)</b> <i>adj</i> arthropod <br> <I>Hence:</i> arthropodo<br> <br> <b>arthropodo (-ró-)</b> <i>n</i> arthropod; arthropodos [Zool.] Arthropoda<br> <br> <b>artichoc</b> <i>n</i> artichoke<br> <br> <b>articulabile</b> <i>adj</i> pronounceable (that can be articulated)<br> <br> <b>articular¹</b> <i>adj</i> articular<br> <br> <b>articular²</b> <i>v</i> to articulate (1. to form, move in, a joint; 2. to speak distinctly)<br> <br> <b>articulate</b> <i>adj</i> articulate (1. jointed; 2. uttered in distinct syllables)<br> <br> <b>articulation</b> <i>n</i> articulation (1. [Anat.] joint; 2. enunciation)<br> <br> <b>articulista</b> <i>n</i> writer of articles<br> <br> <b>articulo</b> <i>n</i> I. [Anat.] joint; II. article (1. paragraph, section; 2. “article in a magazine, newspaper, etc.); 3. “article of merchandise”; 4. [Gram]); <br> <b>articulo de fide</b> article of faith; <br> <b>articulo de fundo</b> editorial, leading article; <br> <b>articulo definite (indefinite)</b> definite (indefinite) article <br> <I>Hence:</i> articulista; articular¹; articular²-articulabile-inarticulabile, articulation, articulate-inarticulate, multiarticulate etc., multarticulate etc.; disarticular-disarticulation<br> <br> <b>artifice (-tí-)</b> <i>n</i> artificer (= skilled or artistic worker) <br> <I>Hence:</i> artificio-artificial, artificiose<br> <br> <b>artificial</b> <i>adj</i> artificial; <br> <b>seta artificial</b> rayon<br> <br> <b>artificio</b> <i>n</i> artifice, trick; <br> <b>foco de artificio</b> fireworks<br> <br> <b>artificiose</b> <i>adj</i> artful, crafty<br> <br> <b>artillar</b> <i>v</i> to arm (= to equip with artillery) <br> <I>Hence:</i> artilleria-artillerista<br> <br> <b>artilleria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> artillery; ordnance, gunnery; <br> <b>artilleria de campania</b> field artillery; <br> <b>artilleria a cavallo</b> horse artillery<br> <br> <b>artillerista</b> <i>n</i> artilleryman<br> <br> <b>artisano</b> <i>n</i> artisan<br> <br> <b>artista</b> <i>n</i> artist<br> <br> <b>artistic</b> <i>adj</i> artistic<br> <br> <B>Arya [Skr.]</b> <i>n</i> Arya, Aryan <br> <I>Hence:</i> aryan-aryano<br> <br> <b>aryan</b> <i>adj</i> Aryan (1. Indo-Iranian; 2. Indo-European)<br> <br> <b>aryano</b> <i>n</i> Aryan (1. Indo-Iranian; 2. Indo-European)<br> <br> <b>asbesto</b> <i>n</i> asbestos<br> <br> <b>ascendente</b> <i>n</i> 1. ancestor; 2. ascendant, ascendancy<br> <br> <b>ascendentia</b> <i>n</i> ancestry (= ancestral lineage)<br> <br> <b>ascender [-scend-/-scens-]</b> <i>v</i> to ascend <br> <I>Hence:</i> ascendente-ascendentia; ascension-ascensional, ascensionista; ascensor<br> <br> <b>ascens-</b> <i>see</i> <b>ascender</b><br> <br> <b>ascension</b> <i>n</i> ascent, ascension; <br> <b>le Ascension</b> the Ascension<br> <br> <b>ascensional</b> <i>adj</i> ascensional<br> <br> <b>ascensionista</b> <i>n</i> mountain climber, ascensionist<br> <br> <b>ascensor</b> <i>n</i> elevator, lift<br> <br> <b>ascese</b> <i>n</i> ascetic practice; asceticism<br> <br> <b>asceta</b> <i>n</i> ascetic <br> <I>Hence:</i> ascetismo; ascetic; ascetica<br> <br> <b>ascetic</b> <i>adj</i> ascetic, ascetical<br> <br> <b>ascetica</b> <i>n</i> ascetics; ascetical theology<br> <br> <b>ascetismo</b> <i>n</i> asceticism<br> <br> <b>asclepiadaceas</b> <i>npl</i> [Bot.] Asclepiadaceae<br> <br> <b>asclepiades (-í-)</b> <i>npl</i> [Bot.] Asclepias<br> <br> <B>Asclepio</b> <i>nprm</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Asclepius <br> <I>Hence:</i> asclepiades-asclepiadaceas<br> <br> <b>ascolta</b> <i>n</i> 1. listening, hearing; 2. eavesdropping; 3. listening place or post<br> <br> <b>ascoltamento</b> <i>n</i> listening<br> <br> <b>ascoltar</b> <i>v</i> to listen to (1. to hearken to; 2. to mind, heed) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ascolta; ascoltamento; ascoltator<br> <br> <b>ascoltator</b> <i>n</i> listener<br> <br> <b>ascriber [-scrib-/-script-]</b> <i>v</i> to ascribe, attribute <br> <I>Hence:</i> ascription<br> <br> <b>ascript-</b> <i>see</i> <b>ascriber</b><br> <br> <b>ascription</b> <i>n</i> ascription<br> <br> <b>asepsis</b> <i>n</i> asepsis<br> <br> <b>aseptic</b> <i>adj</i> aseptic<br> <br> <b>aseptico</b> <i>n</i> aseptic<br> <br> <b>asexual</b> <i>adj</i> asexual, sexless<br> <br> <B>Asia</b> <i>npr</i> Asia (1. Roman Province in Asia Minor; 2. the continent Asia); <br> <B>Asia Minor</b> Asia Minor <br> <I>Hence:</i> asiatic-asiatico; Australasia etc.<br> <br> <b>asiatic</b> <i>adj</i> Asiatic (1. pertaining to Asia; 2. [Rhet.] florid, ornate)<br> <br> <b>asiatico</b> <i>n</i> Asiatic<br> <br> <b>asineria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> 1. asininity; 2. asinine act<br> <br> <b>asinero</b> <i>n</i> donkey driver<br> <br> <b>asinin</b> <i>adj</i> asinine<br> <br> <b>asininitate</b> <i>n</i> asininity<br> <br> <b>asino (á-)</b> <i>n</i> donkey, ass <br> <I>Hence:</i> asinero; asineria; asinin-asininitate<br> <br> <b>asparago (-pá-)</b> <i>n</i> asparagus; <br> <b>asparago plumose</b> asparagus fern<br> <br> <b>aspect-</b> <i>see</i> <b>aspic-</b><br> <br> <b>aspecto</b> <i>n</i> aspect (1. look, appearance; 2. “one of the aspects of a question”; 3. [Astrol.])<br> <br> <b>asperar</b> <i>v</i> to make rough, roughen<br> <br> <b>aspere (á-)</b> <i>adj</i> rough, harsh <br> <I>Hence:</i> asperitate; asperar-exasperar &<br> <br> <b>asperger [-sperg-/-spers-]</b> <i>v</i> to besprinkle <br> <I>Hence:</i> aspersion; aspersorio<br> <br> <b>asperitate</b> <i>n</i> roughness, harshness, asperity<br> <br> <b>aspers-</b> <i>see</i> <b>asperger</b><br> <br> <b>aspersion</b> <i>n</i> (act of) sprinkling, aspersion<br> <br> <b>aspersorio</b> <i>n</i> [Eccl.] aspergillum<br> <br> <b>asphalto</b> <i>n</i> asphalt<br> <br> <b>aspic [F]</b> <i>n</i> [Cookery] aspic<br> <br> <b>aspic- [-spic-/-spect-]</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> aspecto<br> <br> <b>aspirante</b> <i>n</i> 1. aspirant; 2. [Mil., Nav.] midshipman, cadet, etc.<br> <br> <b>aspirar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to aspire (= to desire earnestly); 2. [Phonet.] to aspirate; 3. to inhale; <br> <b>aspirar a</b> to aspire to <br> <I>Hence:</i> aspirante; aspiration; aspirator<br> <br> <b>aspiration</b> <i>n</i> I. aspiration (1. desire for; 2. [Phonet.] action of aspirating); II. inspiration, inhaling<br> <br> <b>aspirator</b> <i>n</i> 1. [Mech.] aspirator; 2. vacuum cleaner<br> <br> <b>aspirina</b> <i>n</i> aspirin<br> <br> <b>asplenio</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] Asplenium; <i>also:</i> spleenwort<br> <br> <b>assalir [-sal-/-salt-]</b> <i>v</i> to attack, assail <br> <I>Hence:</i> assalto-assaltar-assaltator; assalitor<br> <br> <b>assalitor</b> <i>n</i> attacker, assailant, assailer<br> <br> <b>assalt-</b> <i>see</i> <b>assalir</b><br> <br> <b>assaltar</b> <i>v</i> to attack, assault, assail<br> <br> <b>assaltator</b> <i>n</i> attacker, assaulter, assailant<br> <br> <b>assalto</b> <i>n</i> attack, assault<br> <br> <b>assassinamento</b> <i>n</i> murder(ing), assassinating<br> <br> <b>assassinar</b> <i>v</i> to assassinate, murder<br> <br> <b>assassination</b> <i>n</i> assassination<br> <br> <b>assassinato</b> <i>n</i> murder<br> <br> <b>assassinator</b> <i>n</i> assassin, murderer<br> <br> <b>assassino</b> <i>n</i> 1. Assassin; 2. assassin, murderer; <i>attrib.</i> murderous, killing <br> <I>Hence:</i> assassinar-assassinamento, assassination, assassinator, assassinato<br> <br> <b>assatis (-sá-)</b> <i>adv</i> 1. enough; 2. rather (= fairly, quite)<br> <br> <b>asse</b> <i>n</i> I. [Rom. Antiq.] as; II. ace (1. [Cards, Dice, etc.]; 2. highly skilled person; <i>also:</i> [Aviation])<br> <br> <b>assecurabile</b> <i>adj</i> insurable<br> <br> <b>assecurantia</b> <i>n</i> 1. assurance (= positive statement); 2. [Com.] insurance<br> <br> <b>assecurar</b> <i>v</i> I. to secure (= to make firm or fast); II. to assure (= to state positively); III. [Com.] to insure; <br> <b>assecurar se de un cosa</b> to make sure of, ascertain, something; <br> <b>assecurar se de un persona</b> to lay hold of, apprehend, a person; <br> <b>assecurar se que</b> to make sure that <br> <I>Hence:</i> assecurantia; assecurabile; assecurator; reassecurar-reassecurantia<br> <br> <b>assecurator</b> <i>n</i> insurer, assurer, underwriter<br> <br> <b>assediar</b> <i>v</i> to besiege<br> <br> <b>assediator</b> <i>n</i> besieger<br> <br> <b>assedio</b> <i>n</i> siege (= act of besieging) <br> <I>Hence:</i> assediar-assediator<br> <br> <b>assemblar</b> <i>v</i> to assemble (= to gather or fit together) <br> <I>Hence:</i> assemblea; reassemblar<br> <br> <b>assemblea (-éa)</b> <i>n</i> assembly, meeting<br> <br> <b>assentimento</b> <i>n</i> assent<br> <br> <b>assentir</b> <i>v</i> to assent <br> <I>Hence:</i> assentimento<br> <br> <b>asserer [-ser-/-sert-]</b> <i>v</i> to assert, affirm <br> <I>Hence:</i> assertion; assertive; assertor; assertori<br> <br> <b>assert-</b> <i>see</i> <b>asserer</b><br> <br> <b>assertion</b> <i>n</i> assertion, affirmation<br> <br> <b>assertive</b> <i>adj</i> assertive, affirmative<br> <br> <b>assertor</b> <i>n</i> asserter, assertor<br> <br> <b>assertori</b> <i>adj</i> assertory, affirming<br> <br> <b>assess-</b> <i>see</i> <b>assider</b><br> <br> <b>assessor</b> <i>n</i> assessor (as in “assessor to a judge, magistrate, etc.”)<br> <br> <b>assetar</b> <i>v</i> to make thirsty<br> <br> <b>assetate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>assetar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> thirsty, thirsting<br> <br> <b>asseverar</b> <i>v</i> to affirm positively, asseverate <br> <I>Hence:</i> asseverative<br> <br> <b>asseverative</b> <i>adj</i> asseverating, asseverative<br> <br> <b>[assi] (-sí)</b> <i>adv</i> thus, so; <br> <b>assi . . como</b> as ... as; <br> <b>(un libro) assi (belle)</b> so (beautiful a book), such (a beautiful book) <br> (= <b>si</b>)<br> <br> <b>assider [-sid-/-sess-]</b> <i>v</i> to sit (by or near) <br> <I>Hence:</i> assidue &; assessor<br> <br> <b>assidue</b> <i>adj</i> assiduous <br> <I>Hence:</i> assiduitate<br> <br> <b>assiduitate</b> <i>n</i> assiduity<br> <br> <b>assignabile</b> <i>adj</i> assignable<br> <br> <b>assignar</b> <i>v</i> to assign (1. to allot; 2. to fix, determine) <br> <I>Hence:</i> assignabile; assignation<br> <br> <b>assignation</b> <i>n</i> assignation, assignment (1. act of allotting; 2. [Law] transfer of property, a right, etc.)<br> <br> <b>assimilabile</b> <i>adj</i> assimilable<br> <br> <b>assimilar</b> <i>v</i> I. to assimilate (1. to make like; 2. to absorb); II. to liken, compare <br> <I>Hence:</i> assimilabile; assimilation; assimilative; assimilator; disassimilar &<br> <br> <b>assimilation</b> <i>n</i> I. assimilation (1. action of making like; 2. absorption); II. likening, comparison<br> <br> <b>assimilative</b> <i>adj</i> assimilative<br> <br> <b>assimilator</b> <i>n</i> [Physiol.] assimilator<br> <br> <b>assistente</b> <i>n</i> assistant<br> <br> <b>assistentia</b> <i>n</i> 1. assistance; 2. attendance; <br> <b>assistentia public</b> (poor) relief; <br> <b>assistentia social</b> social welfare<br> <br> <b>assister</b> <i>v</i> to assist, help; <br> <b>assister a</b> to attend, be present at <br> <I>Hence:</i> assistente-assistentia<br> <br> <b>associar</b> <i>v</i> to associate (= to connect, combine) <br> <I>Hence:</i> association; associato; disassociar<br> <br> <b>association</b> <i>n</i> association (1. act of connecting, combining; 2. group of people joined together for some purpose)<br> <br> <b>associato</b> <i>n</i> 1. associate (= business partner); 2. member of an association<br> <br> <b>assonante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>assonar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> assonant<br> <br> <b>assonantia</b> <i>n</i> assonance; <i>also:</i> [Pros.]<br> <br> <b>assonar</b> <i>v</i> to assonate (= to put or be in assonance) <br> <I>Hence:</i> assonante-assonantia<br> <br> <b>assortimento</b> <i>n</i> assortment (= collection of various kinds of goods)<br> <br> <b>assortir</b> <i>v</i> to sort, assort <br> <I>Hence:</i> assortimento<br> <br> <b>assumer [-sum-/-sumpt-]</b> <i>v</i> to assume (= to take to or upon oneself) <br> <I>Hence:</i> assumption; reassumer<br> <br> <b>assumpt-</b> <i>see</i> <b>assumer</b><br> <br> <b>assumption</b> <i>n</i> assumption (1. taking to or upon oneself; 2. [Logic]); <br> <b>le Assumption</b> [Eccl.] the Assumption<br> <br> <b>assurdar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to deafen (= to stun with noise); 2. to mute, muffle<br> <br> <B>Assyria</b> <i>npr</i> Assyria <br> <I>Hence:</i> assyrie-assyrio; assyriologo etc.<br> <br> <b>assyrie</b> <i>adj</i> Assyrian<br> <br> <b>assyrio</b> <i>n</i> Assyrian<br> <br> <b>assyriologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> Assyriology<br> <br> <b>assyriologo (-ólogo)</b> <i>n</i> Assyriologist, Assyriologue <br> <I>Hence:</i> assyriologia<br> <br> <b>astere</b> <i>n</i> I. star (1. heavenly body; 2. starshaped figure, etc.); II. [Bot.] aster <br> <I>Hence:</i> asteria; asterisco; asterismo; asteroide<br> <br> <b>asteria</b> <i>n</i> 1. starfish; 2. asteriated opal<br> <br> <b>asterisco</b> <i>n</i> [Print.] asterisk<br> <br> <b>asterismo</b> <i>n</i> [Astron.] asterism<br> <br> <b>asteroide</b> <i>n</i> [Astron.] asteroid<br> <br> <b>asthen-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in derivatives] asthen- (= weak)<br> <br> <b>asthenia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> asthenia<br> <br> <b>asthenic</b> <i>adj</i> asthenic<br> <br> <b>asthenico</b> <i>n</i> asthenic<br> <br> <b>asthma [-ma/-mat-]</b> <i>n</i> asthma <br> <I>Hence:</i> asthmatic-antiasthmatic; asthmatico<br> <br> <b>asthmat-</b> <i>see</i> <b>asthma</b><br> <br> <b>asthmatic</b> <i>adj</i> asthmatic<br> <br> <b>asthmatico</b> <i>n</i> asthmatic<br> <br> <b>astigmatic</b> <i>adj</i> astigmatic<br> <br> <b>astigmatismo</b> <i>n</i> astigmatism<br> <br> <b>-astra</b> <i>suffixo substantive fem</i> [used with nouns] step- (as in “stepmother”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> matrastra<br> <br> <b>astral</b> <i>adj</i> astral; <br> <b>corpore astral</b> astral body<br> <br> <b>astrict-</b> <i>see</i> <b>astringer</b><br> <br> <b>astriction</b> <i>n</i> astriction<br> <br> <b>astrictive</b> <i>adj</i> astringent, astrictive<br> <br> <b>astringente¹</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>astringer</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> astringent<br> <br> <b>astringente²</b> <i>n</i> astringent<br> <br> <b>astringentia</b> <i>n</i> astringency<br> <br> <b>astringer [-string-/-strict-]</b> <i>v</i> to astringe <br> <I>Hence:</i> astringente-astringentia; astriction; astrictive<br> <br> <b>astro</b> <i>n</i> star (1. heavenly body; 2. starshaped figure, etc.) <br> <I>Hence:</i> astral; disastro &; astrophotographia etc.; astrolatria etc.; astrophysic etc.; astronomo etc.; astrolabio etc.<br> <br> <b>-astro</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with nouns] 1. -aster (= inferior or worthless ...); 2. step- (as in “stepfather”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> -astra; poetastro etc.; patrastro etc.<br> <br> <b>astrolabio</b> <i>n</i> astrolabe<br> <br> <b>astrolatria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> astrolatry<br> <br> <b>astrologia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> astrology<br> <br> <b>astrologic</b> <i>adj</i> astrological<br> <br> <b>astrologo (-tró-)</b> <i>n</i> astrologer <br> <I>Hence:</i> astrologia; astrologic<br> <br> <b>astronomia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> astronomy<br> <br> <b>astronomic</b> <i>adj</i> astronomic, astronomical<br> <br> <b>astronomo (-tró-)</b> <i>n</i> astronomer <br> <I>Hence:</i> astronomia; astronomic<br> <br> <b>astrophotographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> astrophotography <br> <I>Hence:</i> astrophotographic<br> <br> <b>astrophotographic</b> <i>adj</i> astrophotographic<br> <br> <b>astrophysic</b> <i>adj</i> astrophysical <br> <I>Hence:</i> astrophysica<br> <br> <b>astrophysica</b> <i>n</i> astrophysics<br> <br> <b>astute</b> <i>adj</i> astute (1. sagacious; 2. crafty) <br> <I>Hence:</i> astutia<br> <br> <b>astutia</b> <i>n</i> astuteness; <i>also:</i> wiliness, cunning<br> <br> <b>asylo</b> <i>n</i> asylum (1. shelter, refuge; 2. institution for protection or relief); <br> <b>derecto de asylo</b> right of sanctuary; <br> <b>asylo de nocte</b> night-shelter, flop-house<br> <br> <b>asymmetre (-sím-)</b> <i>adj</i> asymmetric, asymmetrical<br> <br> <b>asymmetria (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> asymmetry<br> <br> <b>asymmetric</b> <i>adj</i> asymmetric<br> <br> <b>-ata</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with nouns] -ful (= contents of or quantity contained in one ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> buccata etc.; carrettata etc.; coclearata etc.; furcata etc.<br> <br> <b>atavic</b> <i>adj</i> atavistic<br> <br> <b>atavismo</b> <i>n</i> atavism<br> <br> <b>atavista</b> <i>n</i> atavist<br> <br> <b>atavistic</b> <i>adj</i> atavistic<br> <br> <b>atavo (á-)</b> <i>n</i> forefather, ancestor <br> <I>Hence:</i> atavismo; atavista-atavistic; atavic<br> <br> <b>ataxia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Pathol.] ataxia, ataxy; <br> <b>ataxia locomotor</b> locomotor ataxia<br> <br> <b>-ate</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with nouns] -ate, -ated, -ed (= having a ... or ...s) <br> <I>Hence:</i> litterate etc.; vertebrate etc.; decorate etc.<br> <br> <b>atele (-té-)</b> <i>n</i> spider monkey; Ateles<br> <br> <b>-atelia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in compounds] <br> <I>Hence:</i> philatelia etc.<br> <br> <b>atettar</b> <i>n</i> to give the breast to, suckle<br> <br> <b>athee</b> <i>adj</i> atheist, atheistic; godless <br> <I>Hence:</i> atheismo; atheista; atheo<br> <br> <b>atheismo</b> <i>n</i> atheism<br> <br> <b>atheista</b> <i>n</i> atheist<br> <br> <b>athematic</b> <i>adj</i> athematic; <i>specif.:</i> [Gram., Mus.]<br> <br> <B>Athena</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Athena <br> <I>Hence:</i> Atheneo<br> <br> <B>Athenas (-té-)</b> <i>npr</i> Athens <br> <I>Hence:</i> atheniese<br> <br> <B>Atheneo (-éo)</b> <i>npr</i> Athenaeum (1. [Gr. Hist.]; 2. [Rom. Hist.]); <br> <b>atheneo</b> athenaeum (= meeting place or organization for the study of letters)<br> <br> <b>atheniese</b> <i>adj/n</i> Athenian<br> <br> <b>atheo</b> <i>n</i> atheist<br> <br> <b>athleta</b> <i>n</i> athlete <br> <I>Hence:</i> athletismo; athletic; athletica<br> <br> <b>athletic</b> <i>adj</i> athletic<br> <br> <b>athletica</b> <i>n</i> athletics<br> <br> <b>athletismo</b> <i>n</i> athleticism; athletics<br> <br> <b>athlo-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in compounds] athlo- (= contest) <br> <I>Hence:</i> pentathlo etc.<br> <br> <b>-ation</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>; <i>note:</i> <b>-ation</b> + <b>-ose</b> = <b>-atiose</b>] -ation (= action or result of ...ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> deviation etc.; installation etc.; ventilation etc.<br> <br> <b>-ative</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -ative (1. tending to ...; 2. having the function of ...ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> comparative etc.; cooperative etc.<br> <br> <B>Atlanta</b> <i>npr</i> Atlanta<br> <br> <B>Atlante</b> <i>npr</i> [Gr. Mythol.] Atlas; <br> <b>atlante</b> atlas (1. [Arch.]; 2. [Anat.]) <br> <I>Hence:</i> Atlantida; atlantic; Atlanta<br> <br> <b>atlantic</b> <i>adj</i> Atlantic (as in “Atlantic coast”); <br> <B>Oceano Atlantic</b> or <b>le Atlantico</b> Atlantic Ocean, the Atlantic<br> <br> <B>Atlantida (-lán-)</b> <i>npr</i> Atlantis<br> <br> <B>Atlas (át-)</b> <i>npr</i> 1. [Gr. Mythol.] Atlas; 2. [Geog.] Atlas Mountains; <br> <b>atlas</b> atlas (= book of maps)<br> <br> <b>atmo-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in compounds] atmo- (= steam, vapor) <br> <I>Hence:</i> atmosphera etc...<br> <br> <b>atmosphera</b> <i>n</i> atmosphere<br> <br> <b>atmospheric</b> <i>adj</i> atmospheric, atmospherical<br> <br> <b>-ato</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with titles, designations of rank, etc.] -ate, -dom (= function, status, rank, jurisdiction, period of office, or territory of a ...) <br> <I>Hence:</i> ducato etc.; episcopato etc.; noviciato etc.<br> <br> <b>atollo</b> <i>n</i> atoll<br> <br> <b>atomic</b> <i>adj</i> atomic; <br> <b>peso atomic</b> atomic weight<br> <br> <b>atomicitate</b> <i>n</i> atomicity<br> <br> <b>atomisar</b> <i>v</i> to atomize (= to reduce to atoms)<br> <br> <b>atomismo</b> <i>n</i> [Philos.] atomism<br> <br> <b>atomista</b> <i>n</i> atomist<br> <br> <b>atomistic</b> <i>adj</i> atomistic<br> <br> <b>atomo (á-)</b> <i>n</i> atom <br> <I>Hence:</i> atomismo; atomista-atomistic; atomic-atomicitate, polyatomic etc., pentatomic etc.; atomisar<br> <br> <b>atone</b> <i>adj</i> 1. [Med.] atonic; 2. unstressed <br> <I>Hence:</i> atonia; atonic<br> <br> <b>atonia (-ía)</b> atony (1. [Med.]; 2. [Phonet.])<br> <br> <b>atonic</b> <i>adj</i> atonic (1. [Med.]; 2. [Phonet.])<br> <br> <b>-ator</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -ator, - er (= one who, or that which ...s) <br> <I>Hence:</i> administrator etc.; accelerator etc.<br> <br> <b>-atori</b> <i>suffixo adjective</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -atory (= pertaining to, or serving for, the action of ...ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> -atoria; -atorio; circulatori etc.; inflammatori etc.; preparatori etc.<br> <br> <b>-atoria</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -er (= instrument for ...ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> mangiatoria etc.<br> <br> <b>-atorio</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -atory, -atorium (= place where ...ing is done) <br> <I>Hence:</i> laboratorio etc.; sanatorio etc.<br> <br> <b>[atque]</b> <i>conj</i> and, and also, and even<br> <br> <b>atr-</b> <i>adj</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] atro- (= black) <br> <I>Hence:</i> atrabile etc. ...<br> <br> <b>-atra</b> <i>see</i> <b>-latra</b><br> <br> <b>atrabile (-íle)</b> <i>n</i> atrabile, melancholy (1. [Anc. Med.] black bile; 2. gloom) <br> <I>Hence:</i> atrabiliari<br> <br> <b>atrabili-</b> <i>see</i> <b>atrabile</b><br> <br> <b>atrabiliari</b> <i>adj</i> atrabiliary, melancholic (1. [Med.]; 2. gloomy, depressed in spirit)<br> <br> <b>atroce</b> <i>adj</i> atrocious <br> <I>Hence:</i> atrocitate<br> <br> <b>atrocitate</b> <i>n</i> atrocity (1. horrible wickedness; 2. atrocious deed)<br> <br> <b>atrophe (á-)</b> <i>adj</i> atrophic <br> <I>Hence:</i> atrophia-atrophiar<br> <br> <b>atrophia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> atrophy<br> <br> <b>atrophiar</b> <i>v</i> to atrophy (= to cause to atrophy)<br> <br> <b>attaccabile¹</b> <i>adj</i> attackable, assailable<br> <br> <b>attaccabile²</b> <i>adj</i> attachable<br> <br> <b>attaccamento</b> <i>n</i> attachment (1. action of fastening; 2. affection)<br> <br> <b>attaccar¹</b> <i>v</i> to attack, assail <br> <I>Hence:</i> attacco; attaccabile-inattaccabile; reattaccar<br> <br> <b>attaccar²</b> <i>v</i> to attach, fasten <br> <I>Hence:</i> attaccamento; attaccabile; reattaccar-reattaccamento<br> <br> <b>attacco</b> <i>n</i> attack (1. assault; 2. [Med.])<br> <br> <b>attaché [F]</b> <i>n</i> [Admin.; Dipl., Mil.; etc.] attaché; <br> <b>attaché militar</b> military attaché<br> <br> <b>attemperar</b> <i>v</i> to attemper (1. to temper, moderate by mixture; 2. to accommodate)<br> <br> <b>attendente</b> <i>n</i> attendant (= one attending to someone’s needs)<br> <br> <b>attender [-tend-/-tent-]</b> <i>v</i> 1. to give attention to, attend to; 2. to await, wait for <br> <I>Hence:</i> attendente; attention-inattention; attentive; attente<br> <br> <b>attent-</b> <i>see</i> <b>attender</b><br> <br> <b>attentar</b> <i>v</i> to make a criminal attempt; <br> <b>attentar al vita de un persona</b> to make an attempt on someone‘s life <br> <I>Hence:</i> attentatori; attentato<br> <br> <b>attentato</b> <i>n</i> criminal attempt<br> <br> <b>attentatori</b> <i>adj</i> attacking, making a criminal attempt on<br> <br> <b>attente</b> <i>adj</i> attentive, intent<br> <br> <b>attention</b> <i>n</i> attention (1. careful notice, heed; 2. act of courtesy); <br> <b>prestar attention</b> to pay attention<br> <br> <b>attentive</b> <i>adj</i> attentive (1. intent; 2. courteous)<br> <br> <b>attenuante</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>attenuar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> extenuating; <br> <b>circumstantias attenuante</b> extenuating circumstances<br> <br> <b>attenuar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to attenuate (= to make thin or slender); 2. to extenuate (as in “to extenuate an offense”) <br> <I>Hence:</i> attenuante; attenuation<br> <br> <b>attenuation</b> <i>n</i> attenuation<br> <br> <b>atter- [-ter-/-trit-]</b> <i>v</i> [occurring in derivatives] <br> <I>Hence:</i> attrition, attrite<br> <br> <b>atterrage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> [Aeronaut.] landing<br> <br> <b>atterrar</b> <i>v</i> [Aeronaut.] to land <br> <I>Hence:</i> atterrage<br> <br> <b>attestar</b> <i>v</i> to attest (1. to testify to; 2. to certify) <br> <I>Hence:</i> attestation; attestator<br> <br> <b>attestation</b> <i>n</i> 1. attestation (= attesting, witnessing); 2. certificate, certification<br> <br> <b>attestator</b> <i>n</i> attester, attestant<br> <br> <b>attinger</b> <i>v</i> to attain (= to arrive at, reach) <br> <I>Hence:</i> attingimento<br> <br> <b>attingimento</b> <i>n</i> attainment (= action or process of attaining)<br> <br> <b>attitude</b> <i>n</i> attitude (1. position of the body; 2. way of thinking, acting, or feeling)<br> <br> <b>attract-</b> <i>see</i> <b>attraher</b><br> <br> <b>attraction</b> <i>n</i> attraction; <i>also:</i> [Phys.]; <br> <b>attractiones</b> attractions (= things that delight or attract people)<br> <br> <b>attractive</b> <i>adj</i> attractive (1. [Phys.]; 2. alluring)<br> <br> <b>attractivitate</b> <i>n</i> 1. [Phys.] (force of) attraction; 2. attractiveness<br> <br> <b>attrahente</b> 1. <i>ppr</i> of <b>attraher</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> attractive, attracting<br> <br> <b>attraher [-trah-/-tract-]</b> <i>v</i> to attract (1. to draw to oneself; 2. to allure) <br> <I>Hence:</i> attrahente; attraction; attractive-attractivitate<br> <br> <b>attrappar</b> <i>v</i> to catch, seize<br> <br> <b>attribuer [-tribu-/-tribut-]</b> <i>v</i> 1. to assign, allot; 2. to attribute, ascribe; <br> <b>attribuer se un cosa</b> to arrogate something to oneself <br> <I>Hence:</i> attribution; attributive; attributo<br> <br> <b>attribut-</b> <i>see</i> <b>attribuer</b><br> <br> <b>attribution</b> <i>n</i> attribution<br> <br> <b>attributive</b> <i>adj</i> attributive (1. attributing; 2. [Gram.])<br> <br> <b>attributo</b> <i>n</i> attribute (1. inherent quality; 2. conventional symbol; 3. [Gram.])<br> <br> <b>attristar</b> <i>v</i> to sadden, make sad<br> <br> <b>attrit-</b> <i>see</i> <b>atter-</b><br> <br> <b>attrite</b> <i>adj</i> [Theol.] attrite<br> <br> <b>attrition</b> <i>n</i> attrition; <i>specif.:</i> [Theol.]<br> <br> <b>attruppamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (act of) assembling, gathering; 2. crowd, gathering<br> <br> <b>attruppar</b> <i>v</i> to troup, gather, assemble; <br> <b>attruppar se</b> to flock together, assemble<br> <br> <b>-atura</b> <i>suffixo substantive</i> [used with verbs in <b>-ar</b>] -ature (= action or result of ...ing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> caricatura etc.; creatura etc.; ligatura etc.<br> <br> <b>auction</b> <i>n</i> auction <br> <I>Hence:</i> auctionar-auctionator<br> <br> <b>auctionar</b> <i>v</i> to auction, auctioneer<br> <br> <b>auctionator</b> <i>n</i> auctioneer<br> <br> <b>audace</b> <i>adj</i> audacious, daring <br> <I>Hence:</i> audacia-audaciose<br> <br> <b>audacia</b> <i>n</i> audacity, daring<br> <br> <b>audaciose</b> <i>adj</i> audacious, daring<br> <br> <b>audibile</b> <i>adj</i> audible<br> <br> <b>audibitate</b> <i>n</i> audibility<br> <br> <b>audientia</b> <i>n</i> I. the perception of sounds; II. audience (1. interview with a person of high rank; 2. hearing)<br> <br> <b>audiometro (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> [Acous.] audiometer<br> <br> <b>audir</b> <i>v</i> to hear (= to perceive by the ear) <br> <I>Hence:</i> audientia; audibile-audibilitate, inaudibile; audition; auditive; auditor; auditori; auditorio; inaudite; audito; audita; audiometro etc.<br> <br> <b>audita</b> <i>n</i> audition (= act of hearing)<br> <br> <b>audition</b> <i>n</i> audition (= act of hearing)<br> <br> <b>auditive</b> <i>adj</i> auditory<br> <br> <b>audito</b> <i>n</i> hearing, sense of hearing<br> <br> <b>auditor</b> <i>n</i> auditor, hearer, listener<br> <br> <b>auditori</b> <i>adj</i> auditory<br> <br> <b>auditorio</b> <i>n</i> 1. auditorium, auditory; 2. audience (= assembly of listeners)<br> <br> <b>augmentabile</b> <i>adj</i> augmentable<br> <br> <b>augmentar</b> <i>v</i> to augment, increase; <br> <b>augmentar le precio de un cosa</b> to raise, advance the price of something; <br> <b>augmentar de precio</b> to rise, advance in price<br> <br> <b>augmentation</b> <i>n</i> increase, augmentation<br> <br> <b>augmentative</b> <i>adj</i> [Gram.] augmentative<br> <br> <b>augmentator</b> <i>n</i> augmenter<br> <br> <b>augmento</b> <i>n</i> 1. increase, augmentation; 2. [Gram.] augment <br> <I>Hence:</i> augmentar-augmentabile, augmentation, augmentative, augmentator<br> <br> <b>augurar</b> <i>v</i> to augur (1. to act as augur; 2. to predict, foretell)<br> <br> <b>augure (áugure)</b> <i>n</i> augur (1. [Rom. Hist.]; 2. soothsayer) <br> <I>Hence:</i> augurio; augurar-inaugurar-inauguration, inaugurator<br> <br> <b>augurio</b> <i>n</i> augury (1. art of the augur; 2. omen, sign); <br> <b>de bon augurio</b> auspicious; <br> <b>de mal augurio</b> ominous<br> <br> <B>Augusta</b> <i>nprf</i> Augusta<br> <br> <b>auguste</b> <i>adj</i> august <br> <I>Hence:</i> augusto<br> <br> <b>augustee</b> <i>adj</i> Augustan<br> <br> <b>augustinian</b> <i>adj</i> Augustinian<br> <br> <b>augustinianismo</b> <i>n</i> Augustinianism<br> <br> <b>augustiniano</b> <i>n</i> Augustinian<br> <br> <B>Augustino</b> <i>nprm</i> Augustine; <br> <B>Sancte Augustino</b> St. Augustine <br> <I>Hence:</i> augustinian-augustinianismo, augustiniano<br> <br> <b>augusto¹</b> <i>n</i> (the) august (one); <br> <B>Augusto</b> Augustus (= honorific of Roman emperors)<br> <br> <B>Augusto²</b> <i>nprm</i> Augustus, August; <br> <b>augusto</b> (the month of) August <br> <I>Hence:</i> Augustee; Augustino &; Augusta<br> <br> <b>aulo-</b> <i>n</i> [occurring in derivatives and compounds] aulo- (= flute; pipe) <br> Hence; hydraulic etc. ...<br> <br> <b>aura</b> <i>n</i> aura; <i>specif.:</i> [Pathol.]<br> <br> <b>aural</b> <i>adj</i> aural<br> <br> <b>aurar</b> <i>v</i> to gild; <br> <b>aurar le pillula</b> to gild or sugar the pill<br> <br> <b>aurate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>aurar</b>; 2. golden, gold-colored; <br> <b>juventute aurate</b> <i>jeunesse dorée</i>, gilded youth<br> <br> <b>aure</b> <i>n</i> ear (= organ and faculty of hearing); <br> <b>esser tote aures</b> to be all ears; <br> <b>prestar le aure a</b> to lend an ear to; <br> <b>aure de mure</b> [Bot.] mouse-ear, forget-me-not <br> <I>Hence:</i> auricula; aurista; aural; auriforme etc.<br> <br> <b>auree</b> <i>adj</i> golden<br> <br> <b>aureola (-ré-)</b> <i>n</i> aureole, halo <br> <I>Hence:</i> aureolari; aureolate; aureolar<br> <br> <b>aureolar¹</b> <i>adj</i> halo-like<br> <br> <b>aureolar²</b> <i>v</i> to halo, invest with a halo<br> <br> <b>aureolate</b> <i>adj</i> haloed, invested with a halo<br> <br> <b>au revoir [F]</b> <i>au revoir</i><br> <br> <b>auricula</b> <i>n</i> I. auricle (1. “auricle of the ear”; 2. “auricle of the heart”); II. [Bot.] auricula, bear’s ear; <br> <b>auricula de urso</b> [Bot.] bear’s ear, auricula; <br> <b>auricula de mure</b> [Bot.] mouse-ear, forget-me-not<br> <br> <b>aurifere</b> <i>adj</i> auriferous, gold-bearing<br> <br> <b>aurificar</b> <i>v</i> [Dent.] to fill with gold<br> <br> <b>aurification</b> <i>n</i> [Dent.] (making of a) gold filling<br> <br> <b>aurifice (-rí-)</b> <i>n</i> goldsmith<br> <br> <b>auriforme</b> <i>adj</i> auriform, ear-shaped<br> <br> <b>auripelle</b> <i>n</i> 1. tinsel, foil; 2. sham (= tawdry object)<br> <br> <b>auripigmento</b> <i>n</i> [Chem.] orniment<br> <br> <b>aurista</b> <i>n</i> aurist, otologist (= ear specialist)<br> <br> <b>auro</b> <i>n</i> gold; <br> <b>folio de auro</b> gold foil or leaf; <br> <b>natar in le auro</b> to be rolling in wealth; <br> <b>auro virgine</b> virgin or native gold; <br> <b>pagar in auro</b> to pay in gold; <br> <b>de auro</b> golden, gold (= made of gold); <br> <b>etate de auro</b> golden age <br> <I>Hence:</i> auree; aurifere; aurar-aurate, disaurar; aurifice-aurificar-aurification; auripigmento etc.; auriforme etc.<br> <br> <b>aurora</b> <i>n</i> dawn; <br> <b>aurora boreal</b> northern lights, <i>aurora borealis</i><br> <br> <b>auspice (áu-)</b> <i>n</i> [Hist.] auspex <br> <I>Hence:</i> auspicio<br> <br> <b>auspicio</b> <i>n</i> [Hist.] auspice (= sign or token derived from the observation of birds); <br> <b>auspicios</b> auspices, patronage; <br> <b>sub le auspicios de</b> under the auspices of<br> <br> <b>auster</b> <i>adj</i> austere <br> <I>Hence:</i> austeritate<br> <br> <b>austeritate</b> <i>n</i> austerity, austereness<br> <br> <b>austral</b> <i>adj</i> southern, austral<br> <br> <B>Australasia</b> <i>n</i> Australasia <br> <I>Hence:</i> australasian<br> <br> <b>australasian</b> <i>adj</i> Australasian<br> <br> <B>Australia</b> <i>npr</i> Australia <br> <I>Hence:</i> australian-australiano<br> <br> <b>australian</b> <i>adj</i> Australian<br> <br> <b>australiano</b> <i>n</i> Australian<br> <br> <B>Austria</b> <i>npr</i> Austria <br> <I>Hence:</i> austriac-austriaco<br> <br> <b>austriac (-í-)</b> <i>adj</i> Austrian<br> <br> <b>austriaco (-í-)</b> <i>n</i> Austrian<br> <br> <b>austro</b> <i>n</i> south wind, Auster <br> <I>Hence:</i> austral-Australia &; Australasia etc.<br> <br> <b>[aut]</b> <i>conj</i> or; <br> <b>aut ... aut</b> either ... or <br> (= <b>o</b>)<br> <br> <b>autarchia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> autarchy, self-sufficiency<br> <br> <b>authentic</b> <i>adj</i> authentic <br> <I>Hence:</i> authenticitate; authenticar-authentication; inauthentic-inauthenticitate<br> <br> <b>authenticar</b> <i>v</i> to authenticate (1. to render authentic; 2. to prove authentic)<br> <br> <b>authentication</b> <i>n</i> authentication<br> <br> <b>authenticitate</b> <i>n</i> authenticity<br> <br> <b>auto</b> <i>n</i> auto, motorcar, car <br> <I>Hence:</i> autoista; autodromo etc.; autobus etc.<br> <br> <b>auto-</b> <i>prefixo</i> auto-, aut- (= self) <br> <I>Hence:</i> autobiographia etc.; automobile etc.; autonome etc.<br> <br> <b>autobiographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> autobiography<br> <br> <b>autobiographic</b> <i>adj</i> autobiographic, autobiographical<br> <br> <b>autobus (-bús)</b> <i>n</i> (motor)bus, autobus<br> <br> <b>autocar</b> <i>n</i> motor coach; <i>also:</i> sight-seeing bus, etc.<br> <br> <b>autochthone</b> <i>adj</i> autochthonous <br> <I>Hence:</i> autochthonia; autochthono<br> <br> <b>autochthonia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> autochthony<br> <br> <b>autochthono (-óctono)</b> <i>n</i> autochthon<br> <br> <b>autoclave</b> <i>n</i> pressure cooker, autoclave<br> <br> <b>autocrate (-ó-)</b> <i>n</i> autocrat<br> <br> <b>autocratia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> autocracy<br> <br> <b>autocratic</b> <i>adj</i> autocratic<br> <br> <b>autodafé [P]</b> <i>n</i> auto-da-fé<br> <br> <b>autodidacte</b> <i>adj</i> self-taught <br> <I>Hence:</i> autodidactic; autodidactico<br> <br> <b>autodidactic</b> <i>adj</i> autodidactic<br> <br> <b>autodidacto</b> <i>n</i> autodidact (= one who is self-taught)<br> <br> <b>autodromo</b> (-tó-) <i>n</i> autodrome (= race course for automobiles)<br> <br> <b>autographia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> autography (= art of autographic reproduction)<br> <br> <b>autographiar</b> <i>v</i> to make autographic reproductions, to autograph<br> <br> <b>autographic</b> <i>adj</i> autographic<br> <br> <b>autographo (-tó-)</b> <i>n</i> autograph <br> <I>Hence:</i> autographia-autographiar; autographic; telautographo etc.<br> <br> <b>autogyro</b> <i>n</i> autogiro<br> <br> <b>autoista</b> <i>n</i> autoist<br> <br> <b>automate (-tó-)</b> <i>adj</i> automatous, automatic <br> <I>Hence:</i> automato-automatismo, automatic-automaticitate, automatisar<br> <br> <b>automatic</b> <i>adj</i> automatic<br> <br> <b>automaticitate</b> <i>n</i> automaticity, automatism (= state of being automatic)<br> <br> <b>automatisar</b> <i>v</i> to automatize, render automatic<br> <br> <b>automatismo</b> <i>n</i> automatism<br> <br> <b>automato (-tó-)</b> <i>n</i> automaton<br> <br> <b>automobile¹</b> <i>adj</i> self-propelling, automobile; <br> <b>(vehiculo) automobile</b> motor vehicle <br> <I>Hence:</i> automobilismo; automobilista<br> <br> <b>automobile²</b> <i>n</i> automobile, motor vehicle<br> <br> <b>automobilismo</b> <i>n</i> automobilism<br> <br> <b>automobilista</b> <i>n</i> automobilist, motorist<br> <br> <b>autonome (-tó-)</b> <i>adj</i> autonomous (= self-governing) <br> <I>Hence:</i> autonomia<br> <br> <b>autonomia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> autonomy; self-government<br> <br> <b>autopsia (-ía)</b> <i>n</i> [Med.] autopsy<br> <br> <b>autor</b> <i>n</i> author (1. originator; 2. writer); <br> <b>derectos de autor</b> author’s rights <br> <I>Hence:</i> autorato; autoritate &; autorisar &<br> <br> <b>autorato</b> <i>n</i> authorship<br> <br> <b>autorisabile</b> <i>adj</i> authorizable<br> <br> <b>autorisar</b> <i>v</i> to authorize <br> <I>Hence:</i> autorisabile; autorisation; autorisate<br> <br> <b>autorisate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>autorisar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> authorized<br> <br> <b>autorisation</b> <i>n</i> authorization<br> <br> <b>autoritari</b> <i>adj</i> 1. authoritative, dictatorial; 2. authoritarian<br> <br> <b>autoritarismo</b> <i>n</i> authoritarianism<br> <br> <b>autoritate</b> <i>n</i> authority <br> <I>Hence:</i> autoritari-autoritarismo<br> <br> <b>autostrata</b> <i>n</i> (auto) highway<br> <br> <b>autumnal</b> <i>adj</i> autumnal<br> <br> <b>autumno</b> <i>n</i> autumn, fall <br> <I>Hence:</i> autumnal<br> <br> <b>auxiliar¹</b> <i>adj</i> auxiliary; <br> <b>verbos auxiliar</b> auxiliary verbs<br> <br> <b>auxiliar²</b> <i>v</i> to help, aid<br> <br> <b>auxiliator</b> <i>n</i> helper<br> <br> <b>auxilio</b> <i>n</i> help, aid <br> <I>Hence:</i> auxiliar¹; auxiliar²-auxiliator<br> <br> <b>ava</b> <i>n</i> grandmother<br> <br> <b>aval</b> <i>n</i> [Com.] endorsement, backing (of a bill of exchange) <br> <I>Hence:</i> avalista; avalisar<br> <br> <b>avalanche [F]</b> <i>n</i> avalanche<br> <br> <b>avalisar</b> <i>v</i> [Com.] to endorse, back (a bill of exchange)<br> <br> <b>avalista</b> <i>n</i> [Com.] endorser, backer (of a bill of exchange)<br> <br> <b>avantage (-aje)</b> <i>n</i> advantage; <br> <b>haber le avantage super un persona</b> to have an advantage over someone; <br> <b>prender avantage de un cosa</b> to take advantage of something, to turn to account; <br> <b>dar avantage a un persona</b> to give someone odds <br> <I>Hence:</i> avantagiose; avantagiar; disavantage-disavantagiose<br> <br> <b>avantagiar (-ajar)</b> <i>v</i> to give an advantage to<br> <br> <b>avantagiose (-ajo-)</b> <i>adj</i> advantageous<br> <br> <b>avantal</b> <i>n</i> apron<br> <br> <b>avante</b> <i>adv</i> before (= in front, ahead) <br> <I>Hence:</i> avantage &; avantal; avantiar &<br> <br> <b>avantia</b> <i>n</i> advance (= payment beforehand)<br> <br> <b>avantiamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. advance (= forward motion); 2. advancement (= promotion in rank)<br> <br> <b>avantiar</b> <i>v</i> to advance (1. to move forward; 2. as in “to advance a proposition”; 3. to promote in rank) <br> <I>Hence:</i> avantia; avantiamento; avantiate-avantiata<br> <br> <b>avantiata</b> <i>n</i> [Mil.] outpost, advance guard<br> <br> <b>avantiate</b> I. <i>pp</i> of <b>avantiar</b>; II. <i>adj</i> advanced (1. far on in progress; 2. far on in life, time or course); <br> <b>posto avantiate</b> advanced post<br> <br> <b>avar</b> <i>adj</i> avaricious, miserly <br> <I>Hence:</i> avaritia-avaritiose; avaro<br> <br> <b>avaritia</b> <i>n</i> avarice<br> <br> <b>avaritiose</b> <i>adj</i> avaricious<br> <br> <b>avaro</b> <i>n</i> miser<br> <br> <b>ave¹</b> <i>n</i> bird; <br> <b>ave de appello</b> decoy (bird); <br> <b>aves domestic</b> poultry <br> <I>Hence:</i> aviario-aviarista; avion; aviar &; avicultura etc.; avestruthio etc.; espaventaaves etc.<br> <br> <b>ave²</b> <i>n</i> ave (1. Ave Maria; 2. time of ringing the Ave bell; 3. Ave bead of the rosary)<br> <br> <B>Ave! [L]</b> <i>interj</i> <i>ave!</i>, hail!<br> <br> <b>avellana</b> <i>n</i> hazelnut, filbert <br> <I>Hence:</i> avellaniero<br> <br> <b>avellaniero</b> <i>n</i> hazel (tree)<br> <br> <b>aveller [-vell-/-vuls-]</b> <i>v</i> to tear away, avulse <br> <I>Hence:</i> avulsion<br> <br> <B>Ave Maria [L]</b> <I>Ave Maria</i>, Hail Mary<br> <br> <b>avena</b> <i>n</i> oat, oats<br> <br> <b>aventura</b> <i>n</i> adventure; <br> <b>per aventura</b> by chance; <br> <b>al aventura</b> at random <br> <I>Hence:</i> aventurero; aventurose; aventurar<br> <br> <b>aventurar</b> <i>v</i> to venture, risk<br> <br> <b>aventurero</b> <i>n</i> adventurer<br> <br> <b>aventurose</b> <i>adj</i> adventurous<br> <br> <b>avenue [F]</b> <i>n</i> avenue<br> <br> <b>averar</b> <i>v</i> to aver (= to avouch, verify)<br> <br> <b>avergoniar</b> <i>v</i> to shame, put to shame; to make (feel) ashamed<br> <br> <b>avergoniate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>avergoniar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> ashamed<br> <br> <b>avers-</b> <i>see</i> <b>averter</b><br> <br> <b>aversion</b> <i>n</i> aversion (1. act of averting turning away; 2. strong dislike); <br> <b>haber un aversion a un persona</b> to have an aversion to someone<br> <br> <b>averter [-vert-/-vers-]</b> <i>v</i> to turn away, avert <br> <I>Hence:</i> aversion<br> <br> <b>avestruthio</b> <i>n</i> ostrich; <br> <b>haber un stomacho de avestruthio</b> to have the digestion of an ostrich<br> <br> <b>aviar</b> <i>v</i> to aviate <br> <I>Hence:</i> aviation; aviator; aviatrice<br> <br> <b>aviario</b> <i>n</i> aviary<br> <br> <b>aviarista</b> <i>n</i> aviarist<br> <br> <b>aviation</b> <i>n</i> aviation; <br> <b>base de aviation</b> air base; <br> <b>campo de aviation</b> airfield<br> <br> <b>aviator</b> <i>n</i> aviator<br> <br> <b>aviatrice</b> <i>n</i> aviatrix<br> <br> <b>avicinar</b> <i>v</i> to border upon, neighbor<br> <br> <b>avicultura</b> <i>n</i> aviculture<br> <br> <b>avide (á-)</b> <i>adj</i> avid, greedy <br> <I>Hence:</i> aviditate<br> <br> <b>aviditate</b> <i>n</i> avidity, greed, greediness<br> <br> <b>avinar</b> <i>v</i> -; <br> <b>avinar se</b> to tipple, get drunk <br> <I>Hence:</i> avinate<br> <br> <b>avinate</b> <i>adj</i> drunk, in one’s cups<br> <br> <b>avion</b> <i>n</i> airplane<br> <br> <b>avisar</b> <i>v</i> to advise (1. to give information or notice to; 2. to counsel) <br> <I>Hence:</i> avisate<br> <br> <b>avisate</b> 1. <i>pp</i> of <b>avisar</b>; 2. <i>adj</i> prudent, circumspect; <br> <b>mal avisate</b> ill-advised, imprudent<br> <br> <b>aviso</b> <i>n</i> I. opinion, judgment; II. advice (1. notice; 2. counsel); <br> <b>littera de aviso</b> [Com.] notification of dispatch, letter of advice<br> <br> <b>avivamento</b> <i>n</i> 1. (action of) reviving, vivifying; 2. (action of) heightening (colors)<br> <br> <b>avivar</b> <i>v</i> 1. to revive, vivify; 2. to heighten (colors) <br> <I>Hence:</i> avivamento; reavivar<br> <br> <b>avo</b> <i>n</i> grandfather <br> <I>Hence:</i> avunculo &; atavo &: bisavo etc.: bisava etc.<br> <br> <b>avocatiero</b> <i>n</i> avocado (tree)<br> <br> <b>avocato</b> <i>n</i> avocado, alligator pear <br> <I>Hence:</i> avocatiero<br> <br> <b>avoirdupois [A]</b> <i>n</i> avoirdupois<br> <br> <b>avuls-</b> <i>see</i> <b>aveller</b><br> <br> <b>avulsion</b> <i>n</i> avulsion (= tearing away)<br> <br> <b>avuncular</b> <i>adj</i> avuncular<br> <br> <b>avunculo</b> <i>n</i> uncle <br> <I>Hence:</i> avuncular<br> <br> <b>axe</b> <i>n</i> 1. axis; 2. axle, axletree <br> <I>Hence:</i> axilla &; axial; axungia etc.<br> <br> <b>axial</b> <i>adj</i> axial<br> <br> <b>axilla</b> <i>n</i> 1. armpit, axilla; 2. [Bot.] axil <br> <I>Hence:</i> axillari<br> <br> <b>axillari</b> <i>adj</i> axillary (1. pertaining to the axilla; 2. [Bot.])<br> <br> <b>axioma [-ma/-mat-]</b> <i>n</i> axiom <br> <I>Hence:</i> axiomatic<br> <br> <b>axiomat-</b> <i>see</i> <b>axioma</b><br> <br> <b>axiomatic</b> <i>adj</i> axiomatic<br> <br> <b>axungia</b> <i>n</i> [Pharm.] axunge<br> <br> <b>azalea</b> <i>n</i> [Bot.] azalea<br> <br> <b>azoic</b> <i>adj</i> azoic; <i>also:</i> [Geol.]<br> <br> <B>Azores (-zó-)</b> <i>nprpl</i> Azores<br> <br> <b>azur</b> <i>adj</i> azure; <i>also:</i> blue <br> <I>Hence:</i> azuro-azurato<br> <br> <b>azurato</b> <i>n</i> azure (= color of the clear sky)<br> <br> <b>azuro</b> <i>n</i> azure (= the blue color of the clear sky); <i>also:</i> blue, bluing<br> <br> <b>azyme (á-)</b> <i>adj</i> azymous, unleavened; <br> <b>(festa del) azymos</b> [Jewish Rel.] Feast of Unleavened Bread<br> <br> 953 45 2005-04-13T09:14:51Z Josu Lavin 2 __NOTOC__ <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td width="90%" bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6"> Interlingua-Anglese - Indice </font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td width="90%" bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="2"> <CENTER>''' [[IED_a|A]] - [[IED_b|B]] - [[IED_c|C]] - [[IED_d|D]] - [[IED_e|E]] - [[IED_f|F]] - [[IED_g|G]] - [[IED_h|H]] - [[IED_i|I]] - [[IED_j|J]] - [[IED_k|K]] - [[IED_l|L]] - [[IED_m|M]] - [[IED_n|N]] - [[IED_o|O]] - [[IED_p|P]] - [[IED_q|Q]] - [[IED_r|R]] - [[IED_s|S]] - [[IED_t|T]] - [[IED_u|U]] - [[IED_v|V]] - [[IED_w|W]] - [[IED_x|X]] - [[IED_y|Y]] - [[IED_z|Z]] '''</CENTER> </font> </td> </tr> </table> <big><b>Autores:</b></big><br> Le obra original es le "IED" de 1951: "Interlingua-English, a dictionary of the international language, prepared by the research staff of the International Auxiliary Language Association, under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D. - Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York". <b>Collaboratores technic a Wiktionario:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] *[[User:Wimmer|Pawel Wimmer]] *[[User:Claudio Marcon|Claudio Marcon]] Adde tu nomine supra. 52 2005-04-13T09:20:48Z Josu Lavin 2 __NOTOC__ <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td width="90%" bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6"> Interlingua-Anglese - Indice </font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td width="90%" bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="2"> <CENTER>''' [[IED_a|A]] - [[IED_b|B]] - [[IED_c|C]] - [[IED_d|D]] - [[IED_e|E]] - [[IED_f|F]] - [[IED_g|G]] - [[IED_h|H]] - [[IED_i|I]] - [[IED_j|J]] - [[IED_k|K]] - [[IED_l|L]] - [[IED_m|M]] - [[IED_n|N]] - [[IED_o|O]] - [[IED_p|P]] - [[IED_q|Q]] - [[IED_r|R]] - [[IED_s|S]] - [[IED_t|T]] - [[IED_u|U]] - [[IED_v|V]] - [[IED_w|W]] - [[IED_x|X]] - [[IED_y|Y]] - [[IED_z|Z]] '''</CENTER> </font> </td> </tr> </table> <big><b>Autores:</b></big><br> Le obra original es le [[IED]] de 1951: "Interlingua-English, a dictionary of the international language, prepared by the research staff of the International Auxiliary Language Association, under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D. - Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York". <b>Collaboratores technic a Wiktionario:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] *[[User:Wimmer|Pawel Wimmer]] *[[User:Claudio Marcon|Claudio Marcon]] Adde tu nomine supra. 2029 2005-04-13T13:24:16Z Josu Lavin 2 __NOTOC__ <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td width="90%" bgcolor="#353597"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="6"> Interlingua-Anglese - Indice </font> </td> </tr> </table> <table border="0" width="90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td width="90%" bgcolor="gold"> <font color="#EFE45A" size="2"> <CENTER>''' [[IED_a|A]] - [[IED_b|B]] - [[IED_c|C]] - [[IED_d|D]] - [[IED_e|E]] - [[IED_f|F]] - [[IED_g|G]] - [[IED_h|H]] - [[IED_i|I]] - [[IED_j|J]] - [[IED_k|K]] - [[IED_l|L]] - [[IED_m|M]] - [[IED_n|N]] - [[IED_o|O]] - [[IED_p|P]] - [[IED_q|Q]] - [[IED_r|R]] - [[IED_s|S]] - [[IED_t|T]] - [[IED_u|U]] - [[IED_v|V]] - [[IED_w|W]] - [[IED_x|X]] - [[IED_y|Y]] - [[IED_z|Z]] '''</CENTER> </font> </td> </tr> </table> <big><b>Autores:</b></big><br> Le obra original es le [[IED]]. Nota: Vole ben non facer ulle cambio in illo in iste sito. <b>Collaboratores technic:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine supra. 954 46 2005-04-13T09:15:59Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> <p align="center">a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> <p align="center">Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> <p align="center">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> <p align="center">For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> <p align="center">At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> <p align="center">May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 47 2005-04-13T09:26:18Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> <p align="center">a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> <p align="center">The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> <p align="center">For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> <p align="center">May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 48 2005-04-13T09:27:53Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 49 2005-04-13T09:29:01Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> 1951<br> <b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International, Inc.</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association, Inc.<br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 51 2005-04-13T13:14:59Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association<br> </p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor conducta</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 2030 2005-04-13T13:20:19Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association<br> </p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios e le supervision del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor supervision</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 955 63 2005-04-13T22:28:04Z Josu Lavin 2 <center> <h1>Io Ha un Sonio</h1> per<br> Martin Luther King, Jr.<br> <br> </center> Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. <br> <br> Cinque vintena annos in retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. <br> <br> Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. <br> <br> In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. <br> <br> Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia. Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Iste es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. <br> <br> Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. <br> <br> Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. <br> <br> Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. Denove e denove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabile ligate a nostre libertate. Nos non pote ir sol. <br> <br> E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. Nos non pote retornar. Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos numquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. <br> <br> Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fede que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. <br> <br> Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate. Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero. <br> <br> Io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos, que in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio hodie. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de interposition* e nullification*, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio hodie. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. <br> <br> Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. <br> <br> Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, <br> "Patria mie qu'es, <br> focar del liberes <br> cant' io de te.<br> Pais ubi patres cuba,<br> pais que pel'grinos ama.<br> Que tote monte resona<br> Liberate." <br> <br> E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver. Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire. Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! <br> <br> Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! <br> <br> Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! <br> <br> Ma non solmente illo; que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! <br> <br> Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!<br> <br> Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi. De tote monte, que libertate resona.<br> <br> Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canta spiritual de Negros, "Libere al fin! libere al fin! gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"<br> <br> Notas: *interposition = le credentia que un stato pote inponer su proprie soveranitate inter le populo e le soveranitate del governamento federal.<br> *nullification= le derecto de un stato pro declarar NULL e SIN VALOR ulle lege federal.. <br> 64 2005-04-15T08:43:39Z Josu Lavin 2 <center> <h1>Io Ha un Sonio</h1> per<br> Martin Luther King, Jr.<br> <br> </center> Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. <br> <br> Cinque vintena annos in retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. <br> <br> Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. <br> <br> In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. <br> <br> Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia. Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Iste es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. <br> <br> Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. <br> <br> Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. <br> <br> Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. Denove e denove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabile ligate a nostre libertate. Nos non pote ir sol. <br> <br> E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. Nos non pote retornar. Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos numquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. <br> <br> Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fede que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. <br> <br> Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate. Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero. <br> <br> Io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos, que in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio hodie. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de interposition* e nullification*, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio hodie. <br> <br> Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. <br> <br> Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. <br> <br> Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, <br> "Patria mie qu'es, <br> focar del liberes <br> cant' io de te.<br> Pais ubi patres cuba,<br> pais que pel'grinos ama.<br> Que tote monte resona<br> Liberate." <br> <br> E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver. Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire. Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! <br> <br> Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! <br> <br> Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! <br> <br> Ma non solmente illo; que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! <br> <br> Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!<br> <br> Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi. De tote monte, que libertate resona.<br> <br> Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canta spiritual de Negros, "Libere al fin! libere al fin! gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"<br> <br> Notas: *interposition = le credentia que un stato pote inponer su proprie soveranitate inter le populo e le soveranitate del governamento federal.<br> *nullification= le derecto de un stato pro declarar NULL e SIN VALOR ulle lege federal.. <br> 65 2005-04-15T08:52:27Z Josu Lavin 2 <center> <h1><b>Io Ha un Sonio</b></h1> <b>per</b><br> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> <br> <b>Cinque vintena annos in retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> <br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> <br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> <br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia. Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Iste es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> <br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> <br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> <br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. Denove e denove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabile ligate a nostre libertate. Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> <br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. Nos non pote retornar. Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos numquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> <br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fede que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. </b><br> <br> <b>Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate. Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero. </b><br> <br> <b>Io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos, que in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio hodie. </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de interposition* e nullification*, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio hodie. </b><br> <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> <br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> <br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> <b>"Patria mie qu'es, </b><br> <b>focar del liberes </b><br> <b>cant' io de te.</b><br> <b>Pais ubi patres cuba,</b><br> <b>pais que pel'grinos ama.</b><br> <b>Que tote monte resona</b><br> <b>Liberate." </b><br> <br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver. Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire. Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> <br> <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> <br> <b>Ma non solmente illo; que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> <br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi. De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> <br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canta spiritual de Negros, "Libere al fin! libere al fin! gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b><br> <br> <b></b> <b> 66 2005-04-15T12:51:44Z Josu Lavin 2 <center> <h1><b>Io Ha un Sonio<br> I have a dream</b></h1> <b>per</b><br> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> <br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. <br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. <br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition. <br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." <br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Iste es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children. <br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges. <br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. <br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. Denove e denove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. <br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabile ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone. <br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. <br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back. <br> Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos numquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream."¹ <br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fede que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. <br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."² <br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with. <br> Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. <br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: <br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i> <br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i> <br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i> <br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. <br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that: <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. <br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring. <br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canta spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: <br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i> <br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i> <br> 67 2005-04-15T12:54:08Z Josu Lavin 2 <center> <h1><b>Io Ha un Sonio<br> I Have a Dream</b></h1> <b>per</b><br> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> <br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. <br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. <br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition. <br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." <br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Iste es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children. <br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges. <br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. <br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. Denove e denove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. <br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabile ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone. <br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. <br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back. <br> Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos numquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream."¹ <br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fede que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. <br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."² <br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with. <br> Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. <br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: <br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i> <br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i> <br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i> <br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. <br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that: <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. <br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring. <br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canta spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: <br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i> <br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i> <br> 68 2005-04-15T14:40:31Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Io Ha un Sonio</b><br> <br> I have a Dream</h1> <center> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> <br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. <br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. <br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition. <br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." <br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Iste es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children. <br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges. <br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. <br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. Denove e denove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. <br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabile ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone. <br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. <br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back. <br> Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos numquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream."¹ <br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fede que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. <br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."² <br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with. <br> Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. <br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: <br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i> <br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i> <br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i> <br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. <br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that: <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. <br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring. <br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canta spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: <br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i> <br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i> <br> 119 2005-04-15T16:29:25Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Io Ha un Sonio</b><br> <br> I have a Dream</h1> <center> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> Delivered on the steps at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. on Aigust 28, 1963. <br> <b>Io es felice de reunir me con vos in iste die que passara al historia como le plus grande demonstration per le libertate in le historia de nostre nation.</b><br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. <br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. <br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition. <br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." <br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Iste es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children. <br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges. <br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. <br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. Denove e denove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. <br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabile ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone. <br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. <br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back. <br> <b>Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos numquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream." <br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fede que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. <br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."² <br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with. <br> Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. <br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: <br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i> <br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i> <br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i> <br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. <br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that: <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. <br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring. <br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canta spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: <br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i> <br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i> <br> 120 2005-04-19T23:58:32Z 213.40.67.65 Ortographia e parve errores grammatic <h1 align="center"><b>Io Ha un Sonio</b><br> <br> I have a Dream</h1> <center> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> Delivered on the steps at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. on Aigust 28, 1963. <br> <b>Io es felice de reunir me con vos in iste die que passara al historia como le plus grande demonstration per le libertate in le historia de nostre nation.</b><br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. <br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. <br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition. <br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." <br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Isto es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children. <br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges. <br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. <br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. De nove e de nove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. <br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabilemente ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone. <br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. <br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back. <br> <b>Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream." <br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fide que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. <br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."² <br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with. <br> <b>Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. <br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: <br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i> <br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i> <br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i> <br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. <br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that: <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. <br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring. <br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canto spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: <br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i> <br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i> <br> 121 2005-04-19T23:59:38Z 213.40.67.65 aigust -> august <h1 align="center"><b>Io Ha un Sonio</b><br> <br> I have a Dream</h1> <center> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> Delivered on the steps at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. on August 28, 1963. <br> <b>Io es felice de reunir me con vos in iste die que passara al historia como le plus grande demonstration per le libertate in le historia de nostre nation.</b><br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. <br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. <br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition. <br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." <br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Isto es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children. <br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges. <br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. <br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. De nove e de nove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima. We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. <br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabilemente ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone. <br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. <br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back. <br> <b>Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream." <br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fide que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. <br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today! <br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."² <br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with. <br> <b>Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. <br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: <br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i> <br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i> <br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i> <br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true. <br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that: <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. <br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. <br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring. <br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canto spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: <br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i> <br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i> <br> 122 2005-04-20T00:06:22Z 213.40.67.65 culpa mie <h1 align="center"><b>Io Ha un Sonio</b><br> <br> I have a Dream</h1> <center> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> Delivered on the steps at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. on August 28, 1963.<br> <b>Io es felice de reunir me con vos in iste die que passara al historia como le plus grande demonstration per le libertate in le historia de nostre nation.</b><br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.<br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.<br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.<br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."<br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Isto es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children.<br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.<br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.<br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. De nove e de nove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima.We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force.<br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabilemente ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone.<br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead.<br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back.<br> <b>Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream."<br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fide que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends.<br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal."<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today!<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.<br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today!<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."²<br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with.<br> <b>Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.<br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning:<br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i><br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i><br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i><br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true.<br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire.<br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York.<br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <br> <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that:<br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia.<br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee.<br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi.<br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring.<br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canto spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual:<br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i><br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i><br> 2031 2005-04-20T00:09:45Z 213.40.67.65 de nove, io rumpeva le *formatting <h1 align="center"><b>Io Ha un Sonio</b><br> <br> I have a Dream</h1> <center> <b>Martin Luther King, Jr.</b><br> <br> </center> <b>Pronunciate sur le grados al Monumento Commemorative a Lincoln in Washington D.C. le 28 augusto, 1963. </b><br> Delivered on the steps at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. on August 28, 1963.<br> <b>Io es felice de reunir me con vos in iste die que passara al historia como le plus grande demonstration per le libertate in le historia de nostre nation.</b><br> I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.<br> <b>Cinque vintenas de annos retro, un grande Americano, in cuje umbra symbolic nos sta signava le Proclamation del Emancipation. Iste decreto momentose veniva como le luce de un grande fanal de sperantia a milliones de sclavos negre que le flammas de injustitia fulminante ha desiccate. Illo veniva como un alba joiose al fin del nocte longe de captivitate. </b><br> Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.<br> <b>Ma cento annos plus tarde, nos debe confrontar le facto tragic que le Negro ancora non es libere. Cento annos plus tarde, ancora le manillas de segregation e le catenas de discrimination tristemente stropia le vita del Negro. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro vive sur un insula solitari de povressa in le medio de un oceano vaste de prosperitate material. Cento annos plus tarde, le Negro ancora langue in le angulos de societate american e se trova un exiliato in su proprie pais. Dunque nos ha venite ci hodie pro dramatizar un condition horrific. </b><br> But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.<br> <b>In un senso nos ha venite al capital de nostre nation pro cassar un cheque. Quando le architectos de nostre republica scribeva le parolas magnific del Constitution e del Declaration de Independentia, illes signava un nota promissori al qual cata Americano era devenir un herede. Iste nota era un promissa que al tote homines serea garantite le derectos inalienabile de vita, libertate, e le persecution de felicitate. </b><br> In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."<br> <b>Illo es obvie hodie que America ha fallate a iste nota promissori al minus in reguardo a su citatanos de color. In loco de honorar iste obligation sacre, America ha date le populo negre un mal cheque que ha retornate con le marca "fundos insufficiente." Ma nos refusa a creder que le banca de justitia es fallite. Nos refusa a creder que il ha fundos insufficiente in le grande voltas de occasion de iste nation. Dunque nos ha venite pro cassar iste cheque -- un cheque que dara a nos sur demanda le richessas de libertate e del securitate de justitia.</b> It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. <br> <b>Nos anque ha venite a iste localitate santificate pro rememorar America del urgentia feroce de ora. Isto es nulle tempore pro occupar nos in le luxo de placar nos o pro prender le droga tranquilizante de gradualismo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nos ex le valle obscur e desolate de segregation al cammino illuminate del sol de justitia racial. Ora es le tempore pro aperir le portas de occasion a toto del infantes de Deo. Ora es le tempore pro levar nostre nation ex le arenas mobile de injustitia racial al rocca solide de fraternitate. </b><br> We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children.<br> <b>Illo serea fatal pro le nation a clauder le oculos al urgentia del momento e a subestimar le determination del Negro. Iste estate suffocante de calor del discontento legitime del Negro non passara usque il ha un autumno vigorante de libertate e equalitate. Decenovecentos sexanta tres non es un fin, ma un initio. Istos qui spera que le Negro ha habite besonio de emitter vapor ora sera contente habera un evelia rude si le nation retorna a affaires como usual. Il habera ni reposo ni tranquilitate in America usque le derectos de citatano del Negro se concede. Le trombas de revolta continuera tremer le fundamentos de nostre nation usque le brillante die de justitia emerge. </b><br> It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.<br> <b>Ma il ha qualque cosa que io debe dicer a mi populo qui sta sur le limine calide que duce a in le palatio de justitia. In le processo de ganiar nostre placia legitime nos non debe esser culpa de actos injuste. Que nos non cerca satisfacer nostre sete pro libertate per biber del tassa de acerbitate e odio. </b><br> But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.<br> <b>Nos debe sempre dirige nostre lucta sur le nivello alte de dignitate e disciplina. Nos non debe lassar que nostre protesto creative degenera a in violentia physic. De nove e de nove nos debe levar nos al talias majestatic de incontrar fortia physic con fortia del anima.</b><br> We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force.<br> <b>Le nove militantia meraviliose que ha inglutite le communitate del Negro non debe ducer que nos diffider de tote gentes blanc, pro multo de nostre fratres blanc, como il es evidente per lor presentia ci hodie, ha venite al comprension que lor destino es ligate con nostre destino e lor libertate es inextractabilemente ligate a nostre libertate.</b> The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. <br> <b>Nos non pote ir sol. </b><br> We cannot walk alone.<br> <b>E durante que nos i, nos debe facer le fidantia que nos marchara avante. </b><br> And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead.<br> <b>Nos non pote retornar. </b><br> We cannot turn back.<br> <b>Il ha los qui demanda del devotos de derectos civil, "Quando sera vos contente?" Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que nostre corpores, pesante con le fatiga de viages, non pote ganiar albergo in le moteles del stratas e le hoteles del citates. Nos non pote esser contente durante que le mobilitate basic del Negro es de un ghetto plus parve a un plus grande. Nos nunquam pote esser contente durante que un Negro in Mississippi non pote votar e un Negro in Nove York crede qui ille ha nil pro le qual votar. No, no, nos non son contente, e nos non sera contente usque justitia flue como aquas, rectitude como un rivo potente. </b><br> There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream."<br> <b>Io non so inattentive que alique de vos ha venite ci ex grande provas e tribulationes. Alique de vos ha venite fresc de cellas stricte. Alique de vos ha venite de areas ubi vostre recerca pro libertate lassava vos battite per le tempestas de persecution e stupefacite per le ventos de brutalitate policiari. Vos ha essite le veteranos de suffrentia creative. Continua laborar con le fide que suffrentia sin ganiate es redemptive. Retorna a Mississippi, retorna a Alabama, retorna a Georgia, retorna a Louisiana, retorna al quartieros basse e ghettos de nostre citates del nord, sapiente que de un modo o un altere iste situation pote esser e sera cambiate.</b><br> I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. <br> <b>Que nos non rolar nos in le valle de despero, io dice a vos hodie, mi amicos. </b><br> Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends.<br> <b>E in despecto del difficultates e frustrationes del momento, io ancora ha un sonio. Illo es un sonio radicate profundemente in le sonio american. </b><br> And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die iste nation se eveliara e realizara le ver signification de su credo: "Nos mantene que iste veritates es evidente per se: que tote homines son create equal." </b><br> I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal."<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die sur le collinas rubie de Georgia le filios de previe sclavos e le filios de previe proprietarios de sclavos potera seder se insimul a un tabula de fraternitate. </b><br> I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die mesmo le stato de Mississippi, un stato deserte, suffocante con le calor de injustitia e oppression, se transformara a in un oasis de libertate e justitia. </b><br> I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que mi quatro infantes vivera un die in un nation ubi illes non sera estimate per le color de lor pelle ma per le contento de lor character. </b><br> I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. <br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today!<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die le stato de Alabama, le labios del cuje governator son tosto guttante con le parolas de “[[interposition]]” e “[[nullification]]”, se transformara a in un situation ubi parve pueros nigre e pueras nigre potera junger se le manos con parve pueros blanc e pueras blanc e ir insimul como sorores e fratres. </b><br> I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.<br> <b>Io ha un <i>sonio</i> hodie. </b><br> I have a <i>dream</i> today!<br> <b>Io ha un sonio que un die cata valle se exaltara, cata collina e monte se abbassara, le placias aspere se facera plan, e le placias torte se facera recte, e le gloria del Senior se revelara, e tote carne lo videra insimul. </b><br> I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."²<br> <b>Isto es nostre sperantia. Isto es le fide con le qual io retorna al Sud. </b><br> This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with.<br> <b>Con iste fide nos potera excavar del monte de despero un petra de sperantia. Con iste fide nos potera transformar le discordos tintinnante de nostre nation a in un belle symphonia de fraternitate. Con iste fide nos potera laborar insimul, precar insimul, luctar insimul, vader a prision insimul, levar nos pro libertate insimul, sapiente que nos sera libere un die. </b><br> With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.<br> <b>Isto sera le die quando tote del infantes de Deo potera cantar con un nove signification, </b><br> And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning:<br> <b><i>"Patria mie qu'es, focar del liberes, cant' io de te. </b></i><br> <i>My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. </i><br> <b><i>Pais ubi patres cuba, pais que pel'grinos ama.</b></i><br> <i>Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride, </i><br> <b><i>Que tote monte resona, Liberate." </b></i><br> <i>From every mountainside, let freedom ring! </i><br> <b>E a fin que America deveni un grande nation isto debe devenir ver.</b><br> And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true.<br> <b>Dunque que libertate resona del culmines del collinas de Nove Hampshire.</b><br> And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire.<br> <b>Que libertate resona del montes forte de Nove York. </b><br> Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York.<br> <b>Que libertate resona del Alleghenias altiante de Pennsylvania! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del Roccoses coperite de nive de Colorado! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. <br> <b>Que libertate resona del culmines undante de California! </b><br> Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. <br> <b>Ma non solmente illo:</b><br> But not only that:<br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Petra de Georgia! </b><br> Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia.<br> <b>Que libertate resona de Monte Surveliantia de Tennessee!</b><br> Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee.<br> <b>Que libertate resona de tote collina e tote monticulo del talpa de Mississippi.</b><br> Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi.<br> <b>De tote monte, que libertate resona.</b><br> From every mountainside, let freedom ring.<br> <b>Quando nos lassa que libertate resona, quando nos lassa que illo resona de tote village e tote urbetto, de tote stato e tote citate, nos potera hastar ille die quando tote del infantes de Deo, homines nigre e homines blanc, judeos e gentiles, protestantes e catholiches, potera junger se le manos e canta in le parolas del vetule canto spiritual de Negros: And when this happens, when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual:<br> <i><b>"Libere al fin! libere al fin! </i></b><br> <i>Free at last! free at last!<i><br> <b><i>Gratias Deo omnipotente, nos son libere al fin!"</b></i><br> <i>Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!</i><br> 956 2032 2005-04-13T23:25:37Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><font color="#004080">Declaration de Independentia</font></h1> <h3 align="center"><font color="#004080">del Statos Unite de America, 4 julio 1776</font></h3> <hr> <p align="center">Traduction de Leland Yeager </p> <hr> <p align="center"><tt>IN CONGRESSO, 4 de julio de 1776</tt></p> <p align="center"><tt>UN DECLARATION</tt></p> <p align="center"><tt>Per le REPRESENTANTES del</tt><br> <tt>STATOS UNITE DE AMERICA,<br> In CONGRESSO GENERAL assemblate</tt></p> <p>Quando in le Curso del Eventos human, il deveni necessari pro un Populo dissolver le Bandas Politic que les ha connectite con un altere, e assumer inter le Poteres del Terra, le Position separate e equal al qual le Leges del Natura e del Deo de Natura les da titulo, un decente Respecto al Opiniones del Humanitate require que illes declara le causas que les impelle al Separation. </p> <p>Nos mantene iste Veritates esser evidente per se, que omne Homines es create equal, que illes es dotate per lor Creator con certe Derectos inalienabile, que inter istos es le Vita, le Libertate, e le Recerca del Felicitate--Que pro assecurar iste Derectos, Governamentos es instituite inter Homines, derivante su juste Poteres ab le Consentimento del Governatos, que quandocunque ulle Forma del Governamento deveni destructive de iste Fines, il es le Derecto del Populo alterar lo o abolir lo, e instituer nove Governamento, basante su Fundation super tal Principios, e organisante su Poteres in tal Forma, que les semblara le plus apte a effectuar lor Securitate e Felicitate. </p> <p>Le Prudentia, certo, dictara que Governamentos longe establite non debe esser cambiate pro Causas leve e transiente; e in consequentia tote Experienta ha monstrate, que le Humanitate es plus disposite a sufferir, durante que le Males es sufferibile, que a rectificar isto per abolir le Formas al quales illes es accostumate. Ma, quando un longe Serie de Abusos e Usurpationes, persequente invariabilemente le mesme Objecto, demonstra un Designo a reducer les sub Despotismo absolute, il es lor Derecto, il es lor Deber, quitar se de tal Governamento, e provider nove Guardas pro lor Securitate futur. Tal ha essite le </p> <p>Sufferentia patiente de iste Colonias; e tal es ora le Necessitate que los constringe a alterar lor Systemas anterior de Governamento. Le Historia del Rege actual de Grande-Britannia es un Historia de repetite Damnos e Usurpationes, omnes habente in directe Objecto le Establimento de un Tyrannia absolute super iste Statos. Pro provar isto, que le Factos sia submittite a un Mundo candide. </p> <p>Ille ha refusate su Assentimento, a Leges, le plus salutar e necessari pro le Ben public. </p> <p>Ille ha prohibite su Governatores adoptar Leges de Importantia immediate e urgente, si non suspendite in lor Operation usque su Assentimento sia obtenite; e quando assi </p> <p>suspendite, ille ha negligite completemente attender a illos. </p> <p>Ille ha refusate adoptar altere Leges pro le Accommodation de large Districtos de Populos, a minus que ille Populos relinquerea le Derecto de Representation in le Legislatura, un Derecto inestimabile pro illes, e formidable a Tyrannos solo. </p> <p>Ille ha convocate Corpores Legislative a Locos inusual, non confortabile, e distante ab le Depositorio de lor Documentos Public, pro le sol Objecto de fatigar les a in Conformitate con su Mesuras. </p> <p>Ille ha repetitemente dissolvite Cameras Representative, pro lor opponer con Decision viril su Invasion al Derectos del Populo. </p> <p>Ille ha refusate durante longe Tempore, post tal Dissolutiones, facer eliger alteres; per le qual le Poteres Legislative, incapabile de Annihilation, ha retornate al Populo in general pro lor exercitio; le Stato remanente interim exponite a omne Periculos de Invasion ab le extero, e Convulsiones intra. </p> <p>Ille se ha effortiate impedir le [crescimento del] Population de iste Statos; pro ille Objecto obstruente le Leges pro le Naturalisation de Estranieros; refusante adoptar alteres pro encoragiar lor Migrationes verso hic, e altiante le Conditiones pro nove Appropriationes de Terras. </p> <p>Ille ha obstruite le Administration del Justitia, per refusar su Assentimento a Leges pro establir Poteres Judiciari. </p> <p>Ille ha rendite Judices dependente de su Voler solo, pro le Periodo de su Officios, e le Amonta e Pagamento de lor Salarios. </p> <p>Ille ha erigite un Multitude de nove Officios, e inviate hic Essames de Officieros pro molestar nostre Populo, e devorar lor Substantia. </p> <p>Ille ha mantenite inter nos, in Tempores de Pace, Armeas Permanente, sin le consentimento de nostre Legislaturas. </p> <p>Ille ha affectate render le Militar independente de, esuperior al Poter Civil. </p> <p>Ille ha combinate con alteres pro subjectar nos a un Jurisdiction estranie a nostre Constitution, e non recognoscite per nostre Leges; dante su Assentimento a lor Actos de pretendite Legislation: </p> <p>Pro quartierar grande Corpores de Truppas Armate inter nos: </p> <p>Pro proteger les, per un Judicio imitate, ab Punition pro ulle Assassinatos, que illes commiterea sur le Habitantes de iste Statos: </p> <p>Pro abscinder nostre Commercio con omne Partes del Mundo: </p> <p>Pro imponer Impostos super nos sin nostre Consentimento: </p> <p>Pro privar nos, in plure Casos, del Beneficios de Judicio per Juratos: </p> <p>Pro transportar nos ultra le Mares pro esser judicate pro Delictos pretendite: </p> <p>Pro abolir le Systema libere de Leges Anglese in un Provincia vicin, establir in illo un Governamento arbitrari, e aggrandir su Frontieras, a fin de render lo simul un Exemplo e </p> <p>apte Instrumento pro introducer le misme Governamento absolute in iste Colonias: </p> <p>Pro reprender nostre Chartas, abolir nostre Leges le plus preciose, e alterar fundamentalmente le Formas de nostre Governamentos: </p> <p>Pro suspender nostre proprie Legislaturas, e declarar se ipse investite con Poter a legiferar pro nos in omne Casos qualcunque. </p> <p>Ille ha abdicate Governamento hic, per declarar nos foras de su Protection e facer le Guerra contra nos. </p> <p>Ille ha piliate nostre Mares, devastate nostre Costas, ardite nostre Urbes, e destruite le Vitas de nostre Populo. </p> <p>Ille, a iste Tempore, transporte grande Armeas de Mercenarios estranie pro compler le obras de Morte, Desolation, e Tyrannia, jam comenciate con circumstantias de Cruelitate e Perfidia, a pena equalate in le Epochas plus barbare, e totalmente indigne al Chef de un Nation civilisate. </p> <p>Ille ha constringite nostre Concitatanos prendite Captivo in le alte Mares a portar Armas contra lor Pais, a devenir le Carnifices de lor Amicos e Fratres, o cader ipse a lor Manos. </p> <p>Ille ha excitate Insurrectiones domestic inter nos, e se ha effortiate a adducer contra le Habitantes de nostre Frontieras, le impietose Salvages Indian, cuje note Regula de Guerra, es un indistinguite Destruction, de omne Etates, Sexos e Conditiones. </p> <p>In omne stadio de iste Oppressiones nos ha Petitionate pro Remedio in Terminos le plus humile: On ha respondite a nostre Petitiones repetite solo per Damno repetite. Un Prince, cuje Character es assi marcate per omne acto que pote definir un Tyranno, es inapte esser le Soverano de un Populo libere. </p> <p>Ni ha nos mancate in Attentiones a nostre Fratres Britannic. </p> <p>Nos les ha admonite de Tempore in Tempore del Tentativas per lor Legislatura a extender un Jurisdiction injustificate super nos. Nos les ha rememorate del Circumstantias de nostre Emigration e Colonisation hic. Nos ha appellate a lor native Justitia e Magnanimitate, e nos les ha invocate per le Ligamines de nostre commun Parentela a disdicer iste Usurpationes, que, inevitabilemente interrumperea nostre Connexiones e Correspondentia. Illes anque ha essite surde al Voce de Justitia e Consanguinitate. Nos debe, dunque, acquiescer in le Necessitate, que proclama nostre Separation, e considerar les, como nos considera le resto del Humanitate, Inamicos in Guerra, in Pace, Amicos. </p> <p>Nos, dunque, le Representantes del STATOS UNITE DE AMERICA, in Congresso General, assemblate, appellante al Supreme Judice del Mundo pro le Rectitude de nostre Intentiones, in le Nomine, e per Autoritate del bon Populo de iste Colonias, solemnemente Publica e Declara, Que iste Colonias Unite es, e de Derecto debe esser, Statos Libere e Independente; que illos es absolvite ab tote Deber de Fidelitate al Corona Britannic, e que tote Connexion politic inter illos e le Stato de Grande-Britannia, es e debe esser totalmente dissolvite; e como Statos Libere e Independente, illos ha plen Poter a facer le Guerra, concluder le Pace, contraher Alliantias, establir Commercio, e facer omne altere Actos e Cosas que Statos Independente debe pote per derecto facer. E pro le appoio de iste declaration, con un firme Confidentia in le Protection del Providentia divin, nos mutualmente devota le unes le alteres nostre vitas, nostre Fortunas, e nostre sacre Honor. </p> <p>JOHN HANCOCK, Presidente</p> <p><tt>Attesta.</tt></p> <p><tt>CHARLES THOMSON, Secretario.</tt></p> <hr> <p><i>Le Declaration es un pauc antiquate e incoherente in su capitalisation de parolas e in su punctuation, e anque in alicun casos in le selection de parolas. Pois que le structuras del anglese e interlingua es simile, totevia, iste aspectos un pauc antiquate pote facilemente conservar se in le traduction; e io non vide nulle bon ration pro non conservar los. Le mission de un traductor es, post toto, de traducer le obra original e non de ameliorar lo secundo su proprie capricios. </i>Leland Yeager</p> <hr> 957 53 2005-04-14T10:48:35Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1</b> <b>Influentias Importante del Seculo XIX:</b> Durante le ultime tertie del seculo XIX Europa explodeva con un forte e rapide disveloppamento economic a causa del continuation Revolution Industrial, que sequeva su curso usque le prime annos del seculo XX. Iste progresso economic occurreva irregularmente con alternante periodos de acceleration e depression economic. Il es conveniente divider iste disveloppamento in le historia del civilisation a in le prime e le secunde Revolutiones Industrial. Le prime revolution industrial originava in Anglaterra in le seculo XVIII con le mechanisation del industria textile e le invention del machina de vapor, e postea iste revolution se extendeva al altere paises de Europa e de America, principalmente le Statos Unite. Con le evolution de technicas de mechanisation, un crescente numero de productos antea facite per artisanos nunc se faceva a melior mercato per processos industrial, e le artisanos qui anteriormente los habeva facite se trovava sin empleo. E illes e le population rural circumferente tunc debeva laborar in fabricas industrial, que apparentemente offereva a illes un medio plus secur de ganiar se le vita. Durante le secunde revolution industrial, iste tendentias augmentava. Altere industrias comenciava lor evolution, specialmente le industria chimic, disveloppate principalmente per Germania. Un altere factor importante esseva le disveloppamento de nove formas de energia mechanic, como motores electric e motores de explosion. Le uso del electricitate, que on poteva producer solmente per accumulatores electric in le prime parte del seculo XIX, se limitava al telegrapho. Ma con le invention del dynamo per Gramme in le ultime parte del seculo XIX, on poteva usar motores electric pro cata machina industrial, eliminante le necessitate de complicate e inefficiente systemas de transmission mechanic pro operar los. Le progresso del industria chimic anque produceva meliorationes in le production de aciero e de altere alligatos metallic. Le construction de ferrovias anque esseva un factor potentissime in le disveloppamento economic del secunde revolution industrial. In le ultime parte del seculo XIX, le principal paises europee habeva completate lor retes ferroviari. Le construction de tunnels extendeva iste rete, providente a Francia Switza, e Italia un systema de transportation rapide e unificate. Il anque habeva unes projectos spectacularissime, como le completion in Russia del ferrovia transiberian, un linea de unes 9.900 kilometros que attingeva Vladivostok in 1902. Le application del machina de vapor e postea del motor Diesel al propulsion de naves accelerava le progresso del navigation maritime, que deveniva plus secur con le invention del radiotelegraphia de Marconi. Durante iste periodo, 79% (septanta nove pro cento) del tonnage de transporte esseva de fontes europee e 12% (dece-duo pro cento) de fontes american. Le perfection de motores de explosion faceva practic le uso de automobiles como medio de transportation, e con illos veniva le expansion de un nove systema de autostratas, que faceva plus dense le rete de transportes in le paises industrialisate. Le invention del telephono faceva multo plus facile le communication instante electric, producente plus dense retes de communication commercial, le quales facilitava le consolidation de interprisas commercial. Le industria europee trovava nove consumitores in territorios colonial annexate a Europa durante le secunde medietate del seculo XIX. Inter iste imperios, le plus grande esseva le Imperio Britannic. A causa de omne iste activitates, le valor del commercio international se duplicava in le prime parte del seculo XX. Durante iste periodo, le paises europee dominava le commercio international. Quando le Prime Guerra Mundial comenciava in 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro), 65% (sexanta cinque pro cento) del valor total del exportationes mundial originava in paises europee. Ma le commercio american expandeva de 12% (dece duo pro cento) del total mundial a 39% (trenta nove pro cento). Iste commercio comenciava con condimentos e productos del colonias europee e de Europa mesme. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le importation de minerales e altere materias prime deveniva plus importante. Durante le prime periodo del Revolution Industrial, le paises europee exportava principalmente articulos de consumption. Ma postea deveniva plus importante le exportation de machineria pro le construction de ferrovias e de fabricas in altere paises que se industrialisava. <b>Le Grande Potentias Economic:</b> Anglaterra, que comenciava le prime revolution industrial, esseva le potentia le plus grande durante le seculo XIX. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le angleses habeva tres competitores importante: Germania, Francia, e le Statos Unite. Le Guerra Civil american provocava in le Statos Unite grande progresso economic e industrial, le qual cresceva lentemente ma accelerava durante le ultime decennio del seculo XIX, continuante su curso de acceleration constante durante le seculo XX, formante le base del hegemonia mundial american que comenciava post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Anglaterra, Germania, e Francia esseva le paises le plus potente de Europa, e illos dominava le altere paises europee cuje industria esseva ancora incipiente e cuje production agricole esseva basse e mal planificate. Inter 1890 e 1913 le taxa annual de crescimento brute medie esseva 3,9 in le Statos Untie, 2,9 in Germania, 1,7 in Anglaterra, e 1,4 in Francia. Iste datos nos permitte verificar, de un parte, le progresso spectacular del Statos Unite e, del altere parte, le crescente disveloppamento de Germania, que deveniva le plus grande inter le potentias industrial europee a causa de su production de bonissime aciero, machinas industrial, e un grande varietate de chimicas, relegante Anglaterra al secunde e Francia al tertie position. In despecto del hegemonia industrial de Germania, London continuava su preeminentia economic a causa del prepotentia international del libra sterling. Foras del area euroatlantic, il habeva solmente un pais que se habeva industrialisate bastante pro competer contra le potentias euroamerican: Japon, que ante un medie seculo emergeva de su systema feudal e comenciava un aggressive programma de occidentalisation e industrialisation. Japon non habeva multe capital e ressources natural, ma su population esseva habil- e inteligentissime. Le japoneses se industrialisava in le sectores de armas, transporte maritime, industria pesante, e technologia textile e architectural, imitante le modelos occidental de production. Lor governamento central imponeva forte impostos a su sector rural e los investiva in nove fabricas, que rapidemente produceva resultatos economic spectacular. In 1894 Japon declarava un guerra contra China e lo vinceva. E Japon e Russia voleva occupar Manchuria. Pro resolver iste conflicto, Japon declarava le guerra contra Russia e vinceva le russos in un battalia naval. Iste guerra reduceva le poter del czar russe e indirectemente facilitava le revolution bolshevic. Le paises euroatlantic nunc comprendeva que illos habeva un nove competitor in le Oriente cuje potentia cresceva constantemente. <b>Prosperitate e Miseria inter le Paises Industrialisate:</b> Le systema economic que accompaniava le Revolution Industrial, le capitalismo, continuava le concentration de richessa a in le manos del proprietarios del interprisas commercial e industrial. Iste tendentia cresceva gradualmente in le seculo XIX e accelerava durante le seculo XX. Le proprietarios de iste interprisas voleva augmentar lor profitos al maximo possibile e pagava lor obreros solmente bastante pro mantener les vive in circumstantias miserabile. Lor condition economic sovente non dava a illes accesso al medios de nutrition e hygiene le plus basic. Lor tornos diurnal de labor les debilitava physicamente usque le maladia. Illes non habeva ulle accesso al education. E si illes lo habeva, le demandas physic de lor horas de labor non les permitterea applicar se a lor studios. Mesmo le feminas e le infantes del classes minus privilegiate debeva laborar usque le exhaustion physic pro mantener lor familias in iste circumstantias miserabile. A causa de iste problemas, le obreros del paises industrial essayava defender lor interesses establiente organisationes syndical, que gradualmente se consolidava e organisava grande agitationes social desde 1905. Iste syndicatos non poteva establir se in le sectores economic ubi le conditiones de vita del obreros esseva le pejor, e illes debeva limitar lor actiones politic a sectores ubi le industrialisation esseva le plus concentrate. In Anglaterra e Germania iste syndicatos habeva unes 4.000.000 (quatro million) obreros, un taxa multo superior a illo de Francia, ubi solmente unes 1.000.000 (un million) poteva organisar se in syndicatos. <b>Le Developpamento del Socialismo:</b> Con le organisation syndicatos de obreros, le ideologias pro reorganisar le societate industrial gradualmente cresceva. Le currente le plus importante del socialismo europee habeva su inspiration in le doctrina de Karl Marx, qui, conjunctemente con Friedrich Engels, publicava in 1848 le "Manifesto communiste", que exhortava al obreros de Europa a liberar se con le commando, "Proletarios de omne le mundo, uni vos." In su forma de democracia social, le marxismo deveniva bastante forte pro eliger un solide numero de representantes al parlamentos principal europee--20% (vinti pro cento) in Germania, 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) in Norvega, 20% (vinti pro cento) in Belgio, e 15% (dece-cinque pro cento) in Francia. In Anglaterra le partito laboriste obtineva in 1910 42% (quaranta duo pro cento) del votos popular. In Russia le partito socialdemocrate, fundate in 1898, se divideva in sectores menchevic e bolchevic (1903). Le bolchevicos fomentava un rebellion in 1905, que, conjuncte con le guerra russojaponese, debilitava le governamento czariste. In 1917 (mille nove centos dece septe) illes establiva in Russia le prime regime socialiste del mundo. Le anarchismo, un movimento politic plus radical, voleva eliminar omne organisationes authoritari, includente governamentos de ulle forma. Illes habeva su major influentia in Russia, Francia, Italia, e Espania. Le anarchistas fomentava unes attaccos violente de transcendentia historic in le prime parte del seculo XX. <b>Nationalismo e Imperialismo:</b> Durante le ultime parte del seculo XIX le grande potentias europee, impulsate per lor ambitiones economic, contendeva inter se pro ampliar lor mercatos e procurar fontes secur de materias prime. Fortificate per le ideologia nationaliste del paises europee, illos divideva inter se omne Africa, Asia, e Oceania. Le division de Africa in colonias europee se faceva completemente sin prestar attention al interesses del populationes colonisate e sin considerar differentias ethnic, cultural, o historic inter illos. Multe vices le divisiones geographic del colonias europee produceva frontieras artificial marcate per parallelos e meridianos arbitrari in mappas politic. Ecce le divisiones colonial inter le grande potentias ante le Prime Guerra Mundial: ANGLATERRA, un pais con un territorio de 245.000 (duo centos quaranta cinque mille) kilometros quadrate, habeva in 1914 un imperio de 33.000.000 (trenta tres million) kilometros quadrate diffundite per le cinque continentes, o sia 126 (cento vinti sex) vices plus grande que Anglaterra mesme. Su principal area de expansion esseva Africa e le subcontinente hindustanic. FRANCIA dominava un imperio de unes 10.000.000 (dece million) kilometros quadrate, 20 (vinti) vices plus grande que su territorio national, con 55.000.000 (cinquanta cinque million) habitantes diffundite principalmente in Africa ma anque in Indochina e le insulas del Pacifico. GERMANIA, que habeva comenciate assatis tardivemente a conquerir su proprie colonias proque su cancellero Bismark voleva conquerir solmente territorios europee apud Germania, interprendeva con Wilhelm II un programma mundial de conquesta colonial. Quando comenciava le sexulo XX, Germania habeva colonias in Africa, Asia, e Oceania con un territorio de 2.000.000 (duo million) kilometros quadrate e 8.000.000 (octo milllion) habitantes. HOLLANDA, post occupar le archipelago indonesian, extendeva su dominio a Sumatra e altere territorios insular, attingente un imperio unes 60 (sexanta) vices plus grande que su territorio metropolitan. PORTUGAL manteneva su colonias african, Angola e Moçambique. Portugal voleva unificar ambe territorios, un al este e le altere al west, ma Anglaterra frustrava iste ambition. BELGIO non formava su imperio per initiativas collective national ma per le ambitiones personal de su rege, Leopoldo II, qui creava le ironicamente nominate "Stato Libere del Congo" independente de Belgio ma sub su dominio personal. Ben que le rege assecurava omnes que su intentiones esseva scientific e humanitari, su exploitation de iste territorio immense de 2.500.000 (duo million cinque mille) kilometros quadrate esseva inhuman e diabolic. A causa de criticas international e domestic, ille transfereva iste territorio a su pais in 1908. ESPANIA controlava un territorio extensissime ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in certe partes de Asia, le quales confligeva con illos de altere paises europee, le quales frustrava multes ex iste ambitiones. RUSSIA habeva conquerite un territorio immense circumferente Moscova ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in le sud de Asia usque le frontieras de Afghanistan e Iran. Russia anque voleva le dominio de Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, e China. Iste ambitiones confligeva con illos de altere paises europee. JAPON, le sol nation asian con ambitiones imperialiste, opponeva le penetration del russos a in Manchuria e debilitava le governamento czariste post su guerra con Russia (1904-1905), providente un grande surprisa al governamentos europee. Post establir su dominio sur Corea e qualque insulas in le Pacific, le japoneses poteva satisfacer lor ambitiones colonial usque le Secunde Guerra Mundial. LE STATOS UNITE, que habeva conquerite omne su territorio in le continente nordamerican verso 1890, comenciava un politica de expansion e colonialismo militariste durante le administration de su presidente McKinley (1897-1901), invadente Cuba e provocante con Espania un guerra que le americanos ganiava facilemente. A causa de iste guerra, le Statos Unite exercitava un specie de protectorato sur Cuba e annexava Puerto Rico e le Philippinas. Le governamento statounitese anque conquireva Guam, un parte de Samoa, e le insulas de Hawaii, que eventualmente deveniva le cinquantessime stato american. Pro construer le canal de Panama e controlar le territorio a su latere, le Statos Unite divideva Colombia in duo partes, creante artificialmente un nove stato, Panama, que se submitteva completemente al ambitiones american pro controlar le nove canal inter le oceanos Atlantic e Pacific. 55 2005-04-14T10:51:56Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1</b> <b>Influentias Importante del Seculo XIX:</b> Durante le ultime tertie del seculo XIX Europa explodeva con un forte e rapide disveloppamento economic a causa del continuation Revolution Industrial, que sequeva su curso usque le prime annos del seculo XX. Iste progresso economic occurreva irregularmente con alternante periodos de acceleration e depression economic. Il es conveniente divider iste disveloppamento in le historia del civilisation a in le prime e le secunde Revolutiones Industrial. Le prime revolution industrial originava in Anglaterra in le seculo XVIII con le mechanisation del industria textile e le invention del machina de vapor, e postea iste revolution se extendeva al altere paises de Europa e de America, principalmente le Statos Unite. Con le evolution de technicas de mechanisation, un crescente numero de productos antea facite per artisanos nunc se faceva a melior mercato per processos industrial, e le artisanos qui anteriormente los habeva facite se trovava sin empleo. E illes e le population rural circumferente tunc debeva laborar in fabricas industrial, que apparentemente offereva a illes un medio plus secur de ganiar se le vita. Durante le secunde revolution industrial, iste tendentias augmentava. Altere industrias comenciava lor evolution, specialmente le industria chimic, disveloppate principalmente per Germania. Un altere factor importante esseva le disveloppamento de nove formas de energia mechanic, como motores electric e motores de explosion. Le uso del electricitate, que on poteva producer solmente per accumulatores electric in le prime parte del seculo XIX, se limitava al telegrapho. Ma con le invention del dynamo per Gramme in le ultime parte del seculo XIX, on poteva usar motores electric pro cata machina industrial, eliminante le necessitate de complicate e inefficiente systemas de transmission mechanic pro operar los. Le progresso del industria chimic anque produceva meliorationes in le production de aciero e de altere alligatos metallic. Le construction de ferrovias anque esseva un factor potentissime in le disveloppamento economic del secunde revolution industrial. In le ultime parte del seculo XIX, le principal paises europee habeva completate lor retes ferroviari. Le construction de tunnels extendeva iste rete, providente a Francia Switza, e Italia un systema de transportation rapide e unificate. Il anque habeva unes projectos spectacularissime, como le completion in Russia del ferrovia transiberian, un linea de unes 9.900 kilometros que attingeva Vladivostok in 1902. Le application del machina de vapor e postea del motor Diesel al propulsion de naves accelerava le progresso del navigation maritime, que deveniva plus secur con le invention del radiotelegraphia de Marconi. Durante iste periodo, 79% (septanta nove pro cento) del tonnage de transporte esseva de fontes europee e 12% (dece-duo pro cento) de fontes american. Le perfection de motores de explosion faceva practic le uso de automobiles como medio de transportation, e con illos veniva le expansion de un nove systema de autostratas, que faceva plus dense le rete de transportes in le paises industrialisate. Le invention del telephono faceva multo plus facile le communication instante electric, producente plus dense retes de communication commercial, le quales facilitava le consolidation de interprisas commercial. Le industria europee trovava nove consumitores in territorios colonial annexate a Europa durante le secunde medietate del seculo XIX. Inter iste imperios, le plus grande esseva le Imperio Britannic. A causa de omne iste activitates, le valor del commercio international se duplicava in le prime parte del seculo XX. Durante iste periodo, le paises europee dominava le commercio international. Quando le Prime Guerra Mundial comenciava in 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro), 65% (sexanta cinque pro cento) del valor total del exportationes mundial originava in paises europee. Ma le commercio american expandeva de 12% (dece duo pro cento) del total mundial a 39% (trenta nove pro cento). Iste commercio comenciava con condimentos e productos del colonias europee e de Europa mesme. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le importation de minerales e altere materias prime deveniva plus importante. Durante le prime periodo del Revolution Industrial, le paises europee exportava principalmente articulos de consumption. Ma postea deveniva plus importante le exportation de machineria pro le construction de ferrovias e de fabricas in altere paises que se industrialisava. <b>Le Grande Potentias Economic:</b> Anglaterra, que comenciava le prime revolution industrial, esseva le potentia le plus grande durante le seculo XIX. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le angleses habeva tres competitores importante: Germania, Francia, e le Statos Unite. Le Guerra Civil american provocava in le Statos Unite grande progresso economic e industrial, le qual cresceva lentemente ma accelerava durante le ultime decennio del seculo XIX, continuante su curso de acceleration constante durante le seculo XX, formante le base del hegemonia mundial american que comenciava post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Anglaterra, Germania, e Francia esseva le paises le plus potente de Europa, e illos dominava le altere paises europee cuje industria esseva ancora incipiente e cuje production agricole esseva basse e mal planificate. Inter 1890 e 1913 le taxa annual de crescimento brute medie esseva 3,9 in le Statos Untie, 2,9 in Germania, 1,7 in Anglaterra, e 1,4 in Francia. Iste datos nos permitte verificar, de un parte, le progresso spectacular del Statos Unite e, del altere parte, le crescente disveloppamento de Germania, que deveniva le plus grande inter le potentias industrial europee a causa de su production de bonissime aciero, machinas industrial, e un grande varietate de chimicas, relegante Anglaterra al secunde e Francia al tertie position. In despecto del hegemonia industrial de Germania, London continuava su preeminentia economic a causa del prepotentia international del libra sterling. Foras del area euroatlantic, il habeva solmente un pais que se habeva industrialisate bastante pro competer contra le potentias euroamerican: Japon, que ante un medie seculo emergeva de su systema feudal e comenciava un aggressive programma de occidentalisation e industrialisation. Japon non habeva multe capital e ressources natural, ma su population esseva habil- e inteligentissime. Le japoneses se industrialisava in le sectores de armas, transporte maritime, industria pesante, e technologia textile e architectural, imitante le modelos occidental de production. Lor governamento central imponeva forte impostos a su sector rural e los investiva in nove fabricas, que rapidemente produceva resultatos economic spectacular. In 1894 Japon declarava un guerra contra China e lo vinceva. E Japon e Russia voleva occupar Manchuria. Pro resolver iste conflicto, Japon declarava le guerra contra Russia e vinceva le russos in un battalia naval. Iste guerra reduceva le poter del czar russe e indirectemente facilitava le revolution bolshevic. Le paises euroatlantic nunc comprendeva que illos habeva un nove competitor in le Oriente cuje potentia cresceva constantemente. <b>Prosperitate e Miseria inter le Paises Industrialisate:</b> Le systema economic que accompaniava le Revolution Industrial, le capitalismo, continuava le concentration de richessa a in le manos del proprietarios del interprisas commercial e industrial. Iste tendentia cresceva gradualmente in le seculo XIX e accelerava durante le seculo XX. Le proprietarios de iste interprisas voleva augmentar lor profitos al maximo possibile e pagava lor obreros solmente bastante pro mantener les vive in circumstantias miserabile. Lor condition economic sovente non dava a illes accesso al medios de nutrition e hygiene le plus basic. Lor tornos diurnal de labor les debilitava physicamente usque le maladia. Illes non habeva ulle accesso al education. E si illes lo habeva, le demandas physic de lor horas de labor non les permitterea applicar se a lor studios. Mesmo le feminas e le infantes del classes minus privilegiate debeva laborar usque le exhaustion physic pro mantener lor familias in iste circumstantias miserabile. A causa de iste problemas, le obreros del paises industrial essayava defender lor interesses establiente organisationes syndical, que gradualmente se consolidava e organisava grande agitationes social desde 1905. Iste syndicatos non poteva establir se in le sectores economic ubi le conditiones de vita del obreros esseva le pejor, e illes debeva limitar lor actiones politic a sectores ubi le industrialisation esseva le plus concentrate. In Anglaterra e Germania iste syndicatos habeva unes 4.000.000 (quatro million) obreros, un taxa multo superior a illo de Francia, ubi solmente unes 1.000.000 (un million) poteva organisar se in syndicatos. <b>Le Developpamento del Socialismo:</b> Con le organisation syndicatos de obreros, le ideologias pro reorganisar le societate industrial gradualmente cresceva. Le currente le plus importante del socialismo europee habeva su inspiration in le doctrina de Karl Marx, qui, conjunctemente con Friedrich Engels, publicava in 1848 le "Manifesto communiste", que exhortava al obreros de Europa a liberar se con le commando, "Proletarios de omne le mundo, uni vos." In su forma de democracia social, le marxismo deveniva bastante forte pro eliger un solide numero de representantes al parlamentos principal europee--20% (vinti pro cento) in Germania, 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) in Norvega, 20% (vinti pro cento) in Belgio, e 15% (dece-cinque pro cento) in Francia. In Anglaterra le partito laboriste obtineva in 1910 42% (quaranta duo pro cento) del votos popular. In Russia le partito socialdemocrate, fundate in 1898, se divideva in sectores menchevic e bolchevic (1903). Le bolchevicos fomentava un rebellion in 1905, que, conjuncte con le guerra russojaponese, debilitava le governamento czariste. In 1917 (mille nove centos dece septe) illes establiva in Russia le prime regime socialiste del mundo. Le anarchismo, un movimento politic plus radical, voleva eliminar omne organisationes authoritari, includente governamentos de ulle forma. Illes habeva su major influentia in Russia, Francia, Italia, e Espania. Le anarchistas fomentava unes attaccos violente de transcendentia historic in le prime parte del seculo XX. <b>Nationalismo e Imperialismo:</b> Durante le ultime parte del seculo XIX le grande potentias europee, impulsate per lor ambitiones economic, contendeva inter se pro ampliar lor mercatos e procurar fontes secur de materias prime. Fortificate per le ideologia nationaliste del paises europee, illos divideva inter se omne Africa, Asia, e Oceania. Le division de Africa in colonias europee se faceva completemente sin prestar attention al interesses del populationes colonisate e sin considerar differentias ethnic, cultural, o historic inter illos. Multe vices le divisiones geographic del colonias europee produceva frontieras artificial marcate per parallelos e meridianos arbitrari in mappas politic. Ecce le divisiones colonial inter le grande potentias ante le Prime Guerra Mundial: ANGLATERRA, un pais con un territorio de 245.000 (duo centos quaranta cinque mille) kilometros quadrate, habeva in 1914 un imperio de 33.000.000 (trenta tres million) kilometros quadrate diffundite per le cinque continentes, o sia 126 (cento vinti sex) vices plus grande que Anglaterra mesme. Su principal area de expansion esseva Africa e le subcontinente hindustanic. FRANCIA dominava un imperio de unes 10.000.000 (dece million) kilometros quadrate, 20 (vinti) vices plus grande que su territorio national, con 55.000.000 (cinquanta cinque million) habitantes diffundite principalmente in Africa ma anque in Indochina e le insulas del Pacifico. GERMANIA, que habeva comenciate assatis tardivemente a conquerir su proprie colonias proque su cancellero Bismark voleva conquerir solmente territorios europee apud Germania, interprendeva con Wilhelm II un programma mundial de conquesta colonial. Quando comenciava le sexulo XX, Germania habeva colonias in Africa, Asia, e Oceania con un territorio de 2.000.000 (duo million) kilometros quadrate e 8.000.000 (octo milllion) habitantes. HOLLANDA, post occupar le archipelago indonesian, extendeva su dominio a Sumatra e altere territorios insular, attingente un imperio unes 60 (sexanta) vices plus grande que su territorio metropolitan. PORTUGAL manteneva su colonias african, Angola e Moçambique. Portugal voleva unificar ambe territorios, un al este e le altere al west, ma Anglaterra frustrava iste ambition. BELGIO non formava su imperio per initiativas collective national ma per le ambitiones personal de su rege, Leopoldo II, qui creava le ironicamente nominate "Stato Libere del Congo" independente de Belgio ma sub su dominio personal. Ben que le rege assecurava omnes que su intentiones esseva scientific e humanitari, su exploitation de iste territorio immense de 2.500.000 (duo million cinque mille) kilometros quadrate esseva inhuman e diabolic. A causa de criticas international e domestic, ille transfereva iste territorio a su pais in 1908. ESPANIA controlava un territorio extensissime ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in certe partes de Asia, le quales confligeva con illos de altere paises europee, le quales frustrava multes ex iste ambitiones. RUSSIA habeva conquerite un territorio immense circumferente Moscova ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in le sud de Asia usque le frontieras de Afghanistan e Iran. Russia anque voleva le dominio de Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, e China. Iste ambitiones confligeva con illos de altere paises europee. JAPON, le sol nation asian con ambitiones imperialiste, opponeva le penetration del russos a in Manchuria e debilitava le governamento czariste post su guerra con Russia (1904-1905), providente un grande surprisa al governamentos europee. Post establir su dominio sur Corea e qualque insulas in le Pacific, le japoneses poteva satisfacer lor ambitiones colonial usque le Secunde Guerra Mundial. LE STATOS UNITE, que habeva conquerite omne su territorio in le continente nordamerican verso 1890, comenciava un politica de expansion e colonialismo militariste durante le administration de su presidente McKinley (1897-1901), invadente Cuba e provocante con Espania un guerra que le americanos ganiava facilemente. A causa de iste guerra, le Statos Unite exercitava un specie de protectorato sur Cuba e annexava Puerto Rico e le Philippinas. Le governamento statounitese anque conquireva Guam, un parte de Samoa, e le insulas de Hawaii, que eventualmente deveniva le cinquantessime stato american. Pro construer le canal de Panama e controlar le territorio a su latere, le Statos Unite divideva Colombia in duo partes, creante artificialmente un nove stato, Panama, que se submitteva completemente al ambitiones american pro controlar le nove canal inter le oceanos Atlantic e Pacific. [[ENGLISH]]: [[Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1]] 2033 2005-04-14T10:58:32Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1</b> <b>Influentias Importante del Seculo XIX:</b> Durante le ultime tertie del seculo XIX Europa explodeva con un forte e rapide disveloppamento economic a causa del continuation Revolution Industrial, que sequeva su curso usque le prime annos del seculo XX. Iste progresso economic occurreva irregularmente con alternante periodos de acceleration e depression economic. Il es conveniente divider iste disveloppamento in le historia del civilisation a in le prime e le secunde Revolutiones Industrial. Le prime revolution industrial originava in Anglaterra in le seculo XVIII con le mechanisation del industria textile e le invention del machina de vapor, e postea iste revolution se extendeva al altere paises de Europa e de America, principalmente le Statos Unite. Con le evolution de technicas de mechanisation, un crescente numero de productos antea facite per artisanos nunc se faceva a melior mercato per processos industrial, e le artisanos qui anteriormente los habeva facite se trovava sin empleo. E illes e le population rural circumferente tunc debeva laborar in fabricas industrial, que apparentemente offereva a illes un medio plus secur de ganiar se le vita. Durante le secunde revolution industrial, iste tendentias augmentava. Altere industrias comenciava lor evolution, specialmente le industria chimic, disveloppate principalmente per Germania. Un altere factor importante esseva le disveloppamento de nove formas de energia mechanic, como motores electric e motores de explosion. Le uso del electricitate, que on poteva producer solmente per accumulatores electric in le prime parte del seculo XIX, se limitava al telegrapho. Ma con le invention del dynamo per Gramme in le ultime parte del seculo XIX, on poteva usar motores electric pro cata machina industrial, eliminante le necessitate de complicate e inefficiente systemas de transmission mechanic pro operar los. Le progresso del industria chimic anque produceva meliorationes in le production de aciero e de altere alligatos metallic. Le construction de ferrovias anque esseva un factor potentissime in le disveloppamento economic del secunde revolution industrial. In le ultime parte del seculo XIX, le principal paises europee habeva completate lor retes ferroviari. Le construction de tunnels extendeva iste rete, providente a Francia Switza, e Italia un systema de transportation rapide e unificate. Il anque habeva unes projectos spectacularissime, como le completion in Russia del ferrovia transiberian, un linea de unes 9.900 kilometros que attingeva Vladivostok in 1902. Le application del machina de vapor e postea del motor Diesel al propulsion de naves accelerava le progresso del navigation maritime, que deveniva plus secur con le invention del radiotelegraphia de Marconi. Durante iste periodo, 79% (septanta nove pro cento) del tonnage de transporte esseva de fontes europee e 12% (dece-duo pro cento) de fontes american. Le perfection de motores de explosion faceva practic le uso de automobiles como medio de transportation, e con illos veniva le expansion de un nove systema de autostratas, que faceva plus dense le rete de transportes in le paises industrialisate. Le invention del telephono faceva multo plus facile le communication instante electric, producente plus dense retes de communication commercial, le quales facilitava le consolidation de interprisas commercial. Le industria europee trovava nove consumitores in territorios colonial annexate a Europa durante le secunde medietate del seculo XIX. Inter iste imperios, le plus grande esseva le Imperio Britannic. A causa de omne iste activitates, le valor del commercio international se duplicava in le prime parte del seculo XX. Durante iste periodo, le paises europee dominava le commercio international. Quando le Prime Guerra Mundial comenciava in 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro), 65% (sexanta cinque pro cento) del valor total del exportationes mundial originava in paises europee. Ma le commercio american expandeva de 12% (dece duo pro cento) del total mundial a 39% (trenta nove pro cento). Iste commercio comenciava con condimentos e productos del colonias europee e de Europa mesme. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le importation de minerales e altere materias prime deveniva plus importante. Durante le prime periodo del Revolution Industrial, le paises europee exportava principalmente articulos de consumption. Ma postea deveniva plus importante le exportation de machineria pro le construction de ferrovias e de fabricas in altere paises que se industrialisava. <b>Le Grande Potentias Economic:</b> Anglaterra, que comenciava le prime revolution industrial, esseva le potentia le plus grande durante le seculo XIX. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le angleses habeva tres competitores importante: Germania, Francia, e le Statos Unite. Le Guerra Civil american provocava in le Statos Unite grande progresso economic e industrial, le qual cresceva lentemente ma accelerava durante le ultime decennio del seculo XIX, continuante su curso de acceleration constante durante le seculo XX, formante le base del hegemonia mundial american que comenciava post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Anglaterra, Germania, e Francia esseva le paises le plus potente de Europa, e illos dominava le altere paises europee cuje industria esseva ancora incipiente e cuje production agricole esseva basse e mal planificate. Inter 1890 e 1913 le taxa annual de crescimento brute medie esseva 3,9 in le Statos Untie, 2,9 in Germania, 1,7 in Anglaterra, e 1,4 in Francia. Iste datos nos permitte verificar, de un parte, le progresso spectacular del Statos Unite e, del altere parte, le crescente disveloppamento de Germania, que deveniva le plus grande inter le potentias industrial europee a causa de su production de bonissime aciero, machinas industrial, e un grande varietate de chimicas, relegante Anglaterra al secunde e Francia al tertie position. In despecto del hegemonia industrial de Germania, London continuava su preeminentia economic a causa del prepotentia international del libra sterling. Foras del area euroatlantic, il habeva solmente un pais que se habeva industrialisate bastante pro competer contra le potentias euroamerican: Japon, que ante un medie seculo emergeva de su systema feudal e comenciava un aggressive programma de occidentalisation e industrialisation. Japon non habeva multe capital e ressources natural, ma su population esseva habil- e inteligentissime. Le japoneses se industrialisava in le sectores de armas, transporte maritime, industria pesante, e technologia textile e architectural, imitante le modelos occidental de production. Lor governamento central imponeva forte impostos a su sector rural e los investiva in nove fabricas, que rapidemente produceva resultatos economic spectacular. In 1894 Japon declarava un guerra contra China e lo vinceva. E Japon e Russia voleva occupar Manchuria. Pro resolver iste conflicto, Japon declarava le guerra contra Russia e vinceva le russos in un battalia naval. Iste guerra reduceva le poter del czar russe e indirectemente facilitava le revolution bolshevic. Le paises euroatlantic nunc comprendeva que illos habeva un nove competitor in le Oriente cuje potentia cresceva constantemente. <b>Prosperitate e Miseria inter le Paises Industrialisate:</b> Le systema economic que accompaniava le Revolution Industrial, le capitalismo, continuava le concentration de richessa a in le manos del proprietarios del interprisas commercial e industrial. Iste tendentia cresceva gradualmente in le seculo XIX e accelerava durante le seculo XX. Le proprietarios de iste interprisas voleva augmentar lor profitos al maximo possibile e pagava lor obreros solmente bastante pro mantener les vive in circumstantias miserabile. Lor condition economic sovente non dava a illes accesso al medios de nutrition e hygiene le plus basic. Lor tornos diurnal de labor les debilitava physicamente usque le maladia. Illes non habeva ulle accesso al education. E si illes lo habeva, le demandas physic de lor horas de labor non les permitterea applicar se a lor studios. Mesmo le feminas e le infantes del classes minus privilegiate debeva laborar usque le exhaustion physic pro mantener lor familias in iste circumstantias miserabile. A causa de iste problemas, le obreros del paises industrial essayava defender lor interesses establiente organisationes syndical, que gradualmente se consolidava e organisava grande agitationes social desde 1905. Iste syndicatos non poteva establir se in le sectores economic ubi le conditiones de vita del obreros esseva le pejor, e illes debeva limitar lor actiones politic a sectores ubi le industrialisation esseva le plus concentrate. In Anglaterra e Germania iste syndicatos habeva unes 4.000.000 (quatro million) obreros, un taxa multo superior a illo de Francia, ubi solmente unes 1.000.000 (un million) poteva organisar se in syndicatos. <b>Le Developpamento del Socialismo:</b> Con le organisation syndicatos de obreros, le ideologias pro reorganisar le societate industrial gradualmente cresceva. Le currente le plus importante del socialismo europee habeva su inspiration in le doctrina de Karl Marx, qui, conjunctemente con Friedrich Engels, publicava in 1848 le "Manifesto communiste", que exhortava al obreros de Europa a liberar se con le commando, "Proletarios de omne le mundo, uni vos." In su forma de democracia social, le marxismo deveniva bastante forte pro eliger un solide numero de representantes al parlamentos principal europee--20% (vinti pro cento) in Germania, 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) in Norvega, 20% (vinti pro cento) in Belgio, e 15% (dece-cinque pro cento) in Francia. In Anglaterra le partito laboriste obtineva in 1910 42% (quaranta duo pro cento) del votos popular. In Russia le partito socialdemocrate, fundate in 1898, se divideva in sectores menchevic e bolchevic (1903). Le bolchevicos fomentava un rebellion in 1905, que, conjuncte con le guerra russojaponese, debilitava le governamento czariste. In 1917 (mille nove centos dece septe) illes establiva in Russia le prime regime socialiste del mundo. Le anarchismo, un movimento politic plus radical, voleva eliminar omne organisationes authoritari, includente governamentos de ulle forma. Illes habeva su major influentia in Russia, Francia, Italia, e Espania. Le anarchistas fomentava unes attaccos violente de transcendentia historic in le prime parte del seculo XX. <b>Nationalismo e Imperialismo:</b> Durante le ultime parte del seculo XIX le grande potentias europee, impulsate per lor ambitiones economic, contendeva inter se pro ampliar lor mercatos e procurar fontes secur de materias prime. Fortificate per le ideologia nationaliste del paises europee, illos divideva inter se omne Africa, Asia, e Oceania. Le division de Africa in colonias europee se faceva completemente sin prestar attention al interesses del populationes colonisate e sin considerar differentias ethnic, cultural, o historic inter illos. Multe vices le divisiones geographic del colonias europee produceva frontieras artificial marcate per parallelos e meridianos arbitrari in mappas politic. <b>Ecce le divisiones colonial inter le grande potentias ante le Prime Guerra Mundial:</b> ANGLATERRA, un pais con un territorio de 245.000 (duo centos quaranta cinque mille) kilometros quadrate, habeva in 1914 un imperio de 33.000.000 (trenta tres million) kilometros quadrate diffundite per le cinque continentes, o sia 126 (cento vinti sex) vices plus grande que Anglaterra mesme. Su principal area de expansion esseva Africa e le subcontinente hindustanic. FRANCIA dominava un imperio de unes 10.000.000 (dece million) kilometros quadrate, 20 (vinti) vices plus grande que su territorio national, con 55.000.000 (cinquanta cinque million) habitantes diffundite principalmente in Africa ma anque in Indochina e le insulas del Pacifico. GERMANIA, que habeva comenciate assatis tardivemente a conquerir su proprie colonias proque su cancellero Bismark voleva conquerir solmente territorios europee apud Germania, interprendeva con Wilhelm II un programma mundial de conquesta colonial. Quando comenciava le sexulo XX, Germania habeva colonias in Africa, Asia, e Oceania con un territorio de 2.000.000 (duo million) kilometros quadrate e 8.000.000 (octo milllion) habitantes. HOLLANDA, post occupar le archipelago indonesian, extendeva su dominio a Sumatra e altere territorios insular, attingente un imperio unes 60 (sexanta) vices plus grande que su territorio metropolitan. PORTUGAL manteneva su colonias african, Angola e Moçambique. Portugal voleva unificar ambe territorios, un al este e le altere al west, ma Anglaterra frustrava iste ambition. BELGIO non formava su imperio per initiativas collective national ma per le ambitiones personal de su rege, Leopoldo II, qui creava le ironicamente nominate "Stato Libere del Congo" independente de Belgio ma sub su dominio personal. Ben que le rege assecurava omnes que su intentiones esseva scientific e humanitari, su exploitation de iste territorio immense de 2.500.000 (duo million cinque mille) kilometros quadrate esseva inhuman e diabolic. A causa de criticas international e domestic, ille transfereva iste territorio a su pais in 1908. ESPANIA controlava un territorio extensissime ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in certe partes de Asia, le quales confligeva con illos de altere paises europee, le quales frustrava multes ex iste ambitiones. RUSSIA habeva conquerite un territorio immense circumferente Moscova ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in le sud de Asia usque le frontieras de Afghanistan e Iran. Russia anque voleva le dominio de Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, e China. Iste ambitiones confligeva con illos de altere paises europee. JAPON, le sol nation asian con ambitiones imperialiste, opponeva le penetration del russos a in Manchuria e debilitava le governamento czariste post su guerra con Russia (1904-1905), providente un grande surprisa al governamentos europee. Post establir su dominio sur Corea e qualque insulas in le Pacific, le japoneses poteva satisfacer lor ambitiones colonial usque le Secunde Guerra Mundial. LE STATOS UNITE, que habeva conquerite omne su territorio in le continente nordamerican verso 1890, comenciava un politica de expansion e colonialismo militariste durante le administration de su presidente McKinley (1897-1901), invadente Cuba e provocante con Espania un guerra que le americanos ganiava facilemente. A causa de iste guerra, le Statos Unite exercitava un specie de protectorato sur Cuba e annexava Puerto Rico e le Philippinas. Le governamento statounitese anque conquireva Guam, un parte de Samoa, e le insulas de Hawaii, que eventualmente deveniva le cinquantessime stato american. Pro construer le canal de Panama e controlar le territorio a su latere, le Statos Unite divideva Colombia in duo partes, creante artificialmente un nove stato, Panama, que se submitteva completemente al ambitiones american pro controlar le nove canal inter le oceanos Atlantic e Pacific. [[ENGLISH]]: [[Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1]] 958 54 2005-04-14T10:55:15Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1</b> <b>Important Influences from the Nineteenth Century:</b> During the last third of the Nineteenth Century Europe exploded into strong and rapid economic development because of the continuing Industrial Revolution, which kept on going until the first years of the Twentieth Century. This economic progress occurred irregularly with alternating periods of acceleration and economic depression (boom and bust). It is convenient to divide this unique period in the history of human civilization into the first and second industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution originated in England in the Eighteenth Century with the mechanization of the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine, and afterwards it was extended to the other parts of Europe and America, principally the United States. With the evolution of techniques of mechanization, a growing number of products previously made by artisans were now made more cheaply by industrial processes, and the artisans who had previously made them found themselves without work. Both they and the surrounding rural population then had to work in industrial factories, which appeared to offer them a more secure way of making a living. During the second industrial revolution these tendencies increased. Other idustries started evolving, especially the chemical industry, developed principally by Germany. Another important factor was the development of new forms of mechanical energy, such as electric motors and internal combustion engines. The use of electricity, which could be produced only with batteries in the first part of the Nineteenth Century, had been limited to the telegraph. But with the invention of the dynamo by Gramme in the last part of the Nineteenth Century it was possible to use electric motors for every industrial machine and eliminate the need for complicated and inefficient systems of mechanical transmission to operate them. Progress in the chemical industry also produced improvements in the production of steel and of other metallic alloys. The construction of railroads was also a very powerful factor in the economic development of the second industrial revolution. In the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the principal European countries had completed their railroad networks. The construction of tunnels extended these networks, providing France, Switzerland, and Italy with a rapid and unified system of transportation. There were also some very spectacular projects, such as the completion in Russia of the Transiberian Railroad, a line some 9.900 kilometers long that reached Vladivistok in 1902. The application of steam and afterward diesel engines to the propulsion of ships accelerated progress in maritime navigation, which became safer with the invention of radiotelegraphy by Marconi. During this period, 79% (seventy-nine percent) of the tonnage transported was from European and 12% (twelve percent) from American sources. The perfection of internal-combustion engines made practical the use of automobiles as a medium of transportation, and with them came the expansion of a new system of roads, which provided even denser transportation networks for the industrialized countries. The invention of the telephone made much easier instant electric communication, producing denser commercial communication networks, which facilitated the consolidation of commercial enterprises. European industry found new consumers in colonial territories annexed to Europe during the second half of the Nineteenth Century. Among these empires, the biggest was the British Empire. Because of all these activiites, the value of international commerce doubled in the first part of the Twentieth Century. During this period, European countries dominated international commerce. When the First World War started in 1914 (nineteen fourteen) 65% (sixty-five percent) of the total value of world exports originated in European countries. But American commerce expanded from 12% (twelve percent) of the world total to 39% (thirty-nine percent). This commerce started with condiments and products of the European colonies and of Europe itself. But when the Twentieth Century started, importing minerals and other raw materials became more important. During the first period of the Industrial Revolution, the European countries exported principally articles for consumption. But afterwards the exportation of machinery for the construction of railroads and factories in other industrializing countries became more important. [[The Great Economic Powers:]] England, which started the first industrial revolution, was the greatest power in the world during the Nineteenth Century. But when the Twentieth Century started, the English had three important competitors: Germany, France, and the United States. The American Civil War provoked in the United States great economic progress, which grew slowly but accelerated during the last ten years of the Nineteenth Century, laying the foundation of world-wide American hegemony after the Second World War. England, Germany and France were the most powerful countries of Europe, and they dominated the other European countries whose industry was still at its beginning stages and whose agricultural production was low and badly planned. Between 1890 and 1913 the annual gross-national-product growth rate was 3.9 (three point nine) in the United States, 2.9 (two point nine) in Germany, 1.7 (one point seven) in England, and 1.4 (one point four) in France. These figures allow us to verify, on the one hand, the spectacular progress of the United States and, on the other hand, the growing development of Germany, which became the largest among the great European industrial powers because of its production of really good steel, industrial machinery, and a wide variety of chemicals, relegating England to and France to third place. Despite the industrial leadership of Germany, London continued its economic pre-eminence because of the world dominance of the pound sterling. Outside the Euro-Atlantic area, there was only one country that had industrialized enough to be able to compete with the Euro-American powers: Japan, which a half century earlier emerged from its feudal system and started an aggressive program of occidentalization and industrialization. Japan did not have much capital or many natural resources, but its population was very skilled and intelligent. The Japanese became industrialized in the sectors manufacturing arms, marine shipping, heavy industry, and textile and architectural technology, imitating occidental models of production. The central government levied heavy taxes on its rural sector and invested them in new factories, which quickly produced spectacular economic results. In 1894 Japan declared war against China and conquered it. Both Japan and Russia wanted to occupy Manchuria. To resolve this conflict, Japan declared war against Russia and defeated the Russians in a naval battle. This war reduced the power of the Russian Czar and indirectly contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. The Euro-Atlantic countries now realized that they had a new competitor in the Orient whose power was constantly growing. [[Prosperity and Misery among the Industrialized States:]] The economic system that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, continued concentrating wealth into the hands of the owners of commercial and industrial enterprises. This tendency grew gradually in the Nineteenth Century and accelerated during the Twentieth Century. The proprietors of these enterprises wanted to increase their profits as much as possible and paid their workers only enough to keep them alive in miserable circumstances. Their economic condition often did not give them access to even the most basic food and hygiene products. Their shifts at work weakened them physically to the point of illness. They did not have any access to education. And if they had it, the physical demands of their hours at work would not enable them to apply themselves to their studies. Even women and children of the less privileged classes had to work to the point of physical exhaustion to maintain their familes in these miserable circumstances. Because of these problems, the workers of the industrial countries tried to defend their interests by establishing labor unions, which gradually united and organized large demonstrations starting in 1905 (nineteen-oh-five). These unions were not able to establish themselves in the economic sectors where working conditions were at their worst, and they had to limit their political action to sectors where industrialization was most heavily concentrated. In England and Germany these unions had some 4,000,000 (four million) members, a much higher number than in France, where only about 1,000,000 (one million) were able to organize themselves into unions. [[The Development of Socialism:]] Along with the organization of labor unions, ideologies for reorganizing industrial society kept on gradually growing. The most important current of European socialism had its inspiration in the doctrine of Karl Marx, who, together with Friedrich Engels, published in 1848 the "Communist Manifesto," which urged the workers of Europe to liberate themselves with the command, "Workers of the world unite!" In its form of social democracy, Marxism became strong enough to elect a solid number of representatives to the principal European parliaments--20% (twenty percent) in Germany, 25% (twenty-five percent) in in Norway, 20% (twenty percent) in Belgium, and 15% (fifteen percent) in France. In England the Labor Party drew 42% (forty-two percent) of the popular vote in 1910. In Russia the socialdemocratic parties, founded in 1898 (eighteen ninety-eight) split up into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in (1903 [nineteen-oh-three]). The Bolsheviks organized a rebellion in 1905, which, together with the Russo-Japonese War, weakened the Czarist government. In 1917 (nineteen seventeen) they established in Russia the first socialist regime in the world. Anarchism, a more radical political movement, wanted to eliminate all authoritarian organizations, including governments in any form. They had their greatest influence in Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The anarchists organized some violent attacks of historical importance in the first part of the Twentieth Century. [[Nationalism and Imperialism:]] During the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the great European powers, driven by their economic ambitions, competed among themselves to enlarge their markets and obtain secure sources of raw materials. Fortified by the nationalist ideology of the European countries, they divided among themselves all of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The division of Africa into European colonies was accomplished completely without paying attention to the interests of the colonized populations and without regard to ethnic, cultural, or historic differences among them. Often the geographic divisions of the European colonies produced artificial borders marked by arbitrary parallels and meridians on political maps. [[Here are the colonial divisions among the great powers before the First World War:]] ENGLAND, a country with a territory of only 245,000 (two hundred forty-five thousand) square kilometers, had in 1914 an empire of 33,000,000 (thirty-three million) square kilometers spread througout the five continents--in other words 126 (one hundred twenty-six) times the size of England itself. Its princpal area of expansion was Africa and the Indian subcontinent. FRANCE controlled an empire of some 10,000,000 (ten million) square kilometers, twenty times larger than its national territory, with 55,000,000 (fifty-five million) inhabitants, principally in Africa but also in Indochina and the Pacific islands. GERMANY, which had started its colonial expansion rather late because Bismark wanted to conquer only European territories around Germany, undertook with Wilhelm II a policy of colonial conquest throughout the world. At the beginning of the Twentieth Century, Germany had colonies in Africa, Asia, and Oceania with a territory of 2,000,000 (two million) square kilometers and 8,000,000 (eight million) inhabitants. HOLLAND, after occupying the Indonesian archipelago, extended its reach to Sumatra and other island territories, attaining an empire about sixty times larger than its metropolitan territory. PORTUGAL maintained its African colonies, Angola and Mozambique. Portugal wanted to unite both territories, one at the east and the other at the west, but England frustrated this ambition. BELGIUM did not develop its empire by collective national initiatives but through the personal ambitions of its king, Leopold II, who created the ironically named "Free State of the Congo" independent of Belgium but under his personal control. Though the king assured everyone that his ambitions were scientific and humanitarian, his exploitation of this immense territory of 2,500,000 (two million five hundred thousand) square kilometers was inhumane and diabolic. Because of international criticism, he transferred this territory to his country in 1908 (nineteen-oh-eight). SPAIN controlled a very extensive territory but also had colonial ambitions in certain parts of Asia, which conflicted with the ones held by other European countries, which frustrated many of these ambitions. RUSSIA had conquered an immense territory surrounding Moscow but also had colonial ambitions in the south of Asia up to the borders of Afghanistan and Iran. Russia also wanted to control Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China. These ambitions conflicted with those of other European countries. JAPAN, the only Asian nation with imperialist ambitions, opposed the penetration of the Russians into Manchuria and weakened the Czarist government after its war with Russia (1904-1905 [from ninteen-oh-four to ninteen-oh-five]), providing a big surprise to the European governments. After establishing its dominance over Korea and some islands in the Pacific, the Japanese were able to satisfy their colonial ambitions up to the Second World War. THE UNITED STATES, which had conquered all its territory on the American continent toward 1890 (eighteen ninety), started a policy of expansion and militaristic colonialism during the McKinley administration (1897-1901 [from eighteen ninety-seven to nineteen-oh-one]), invading Cuba and leading Spain into a war that the Americans easily won. Because of this war, the United States exercised a sort of protectorate over Cuba and annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The American government also conquered Guam, a part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands, which eventually became the fiftieth state of the United States. To construct the Panama Canal and control the territory on its sides, the United States divided Colombia into two parts, artificially creating a new state, Panama, which submitted completely to American ambitions to control the new canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. [[INTERLINGUA]]: [[Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1]] 2034 2005-04-14T10:57:25Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1</b> <b>Important Influences from the Nineteenth Century:</b> During the last third of the Nineteenth Century Europe exploded into strong and rapid economic development because of the continuing Industrial Revolution, which kept on going until the first years of the Twentieth Century. This economic progress occurred irregularly with alternating periods of acceleration and economic depression (boom and bust). It is convenient to divide this unique period in the history of human civilization into the first and second industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution originated in England in the Eighteenth Century with the mechanization of the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine, and afterwards it was extended to the other parts of Europe and America, principally the United States. With the evolution of techniques of mechanization, a growing number of products previously made by artisans were now made more cheaply by industrial processes, and the artisans who had previously made them found themselves without work. Both they and the surrounding rural population then had to work in industrial factories, which appeared to offer them a more secure way of making a living. During the second industrial revolution these tendencies increased. Other idustries started evolving, especially the chemical industry, developed principally by Germany. Another important factor was the development of new forms of mechanical energy, such as electric motors and internal combustion engines. The use of electricity, which could be produced only with batteries in the first part of the Nineteenth Century, had been limited to the telegraph. But with the invention of the dynamo by Gramme in the last part of the Nineteenth Century it was possible to use electric motors for every industrial machine and eliminate the need for complicated and inefficient systems of mechanical transmission to operate them. Progress in the chemical industry also produced improvements in the production of steel and of other metallic alloys. The construction of railroads was also a very powerful factor in the economic development of the second industrial revolution. In the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the principal European countries had completed their railroad networks. The construction of tunnels extended these networks, providing France, Switzerland, and Italy with a rapid and unified system of transportation. There were also some very spectacular projects, such as the completion in Russia of the Transiberian Railroad, a line some 9.900 kilometers long that reached Vladivistok in 1902. The application of steam and afterward diesel engines to the propulsion of ships accelerated progress in maritime navigation, which became safer with the invention of radiotelegraphy by Marconi. During this period, 79% (seventy-nine percent) of the tonnage transported was from European and 12% (twelve percent) from American sources. The perfection of internal-combustion engines made practical the use of automobiles as a medium of transportation, and with them came the expansion of a new system of roads, which provided even denser transportation networks for the industrialized countries. The invention of the telephone made much easier instant electric communication, producing denser commercial communication networks, which facilitated the consolidation of commercial enterprises. European industry found new consumers in colonial territories annexed to Europe during the second half of the Nineteenth Century. Among these empires, the biggest was the British Empire. Because of all these activiites, the value of international commerce doubled in the first part of the Twentieth Century. During this period, European countries dominated international commerce. When the First World War started in 1914 (nineteen fourteen) 65% (sixty-five percent) of the total value of world exports originated in European countries. But American commerce expanded from 12% (twelve percent) of the world total to 39% (thirty-nine percent). This commerce started with condiments and products of the European colonies and of Europe itself. But when the Twentieth Century started, importing minerals and other raw materials became more important. During the first period of the Industrial Revolution, the European countries exported principally articles for consumption. But afterwards the exportation of machinery for the construction of railroads and factories in other industrializing countries became more important. <b>The Great Economic Powers:</b> England, which started the first industrial revolution, was the greatest power in the world during the Nineteenth Century. But when the Twentieth Century started, the English had three important competitors: Germany, France, and the United States. The American Civil War provoked in the United States great economic progress, which grew slowly but accelerated during the last ten years of the Nineteenth Century, laying the foundation of world-wide American hegemony after the Second World War. England, Germany and France were the most powerful countries of Europe, and they dominated the other European countries whose industry was still at its beginning stages and whose agricultural production was low and badly planned. Between 1890 and 1913 the annual gross-national-product growth rate was 3.9 (three point nine) in the United States, 2.9 (two point nine) in Germany, 1.7 (one point seven) in England, and 1.4 (one point four) in France. These figures allow us to verify, on the one hand, the spectacular progress of the United States and, on the other hand, the growing development of Germany, which became the largest among the great European industrial powers because of its production of really good steel, industrial machinery, and a wide variety of chemicals, relegating England to and France to third place. Despite the industrial leadership of Germany, London continued its economic pre-eminence because of the world dominance of the pound sterling. Outside the Euro-Atlantic area, there was only one country that had industrialized enough to be able to compete with the Euro-American powers: Japan, which a half century earlier emerged from its feudal system and started an aggressive program of occidentalization and industrialization. Japan did not have much capital or many natural resources, but its population was very skilled and intelligent. The Japanese became industrialized in the sectors manufacturing arms, marine shipping, heavy industry, and textile and architectural technology, imitating occidental models of production. The central government levied heavy taxes on its rural sector and invested them in new factories, which quickly produced spectacular economic results. In 1894 Japan declared war against China and conquered it. Both Japan and Russia wanted to occupy Manchuria. To resolve this conflict, Japan declared war against Russia and defeated the Russians in a naval battle. This war reduced the power of the Russian Czar and indirectly contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. The Euro-Atlantic countries now realized that they had a new competitor in the Orient whose power was constantly growing. <b>Prosperity and Misery among the Industrialized States:</b> The economic system that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, continued concentrating wealth into the hands of the owners of commercial and industrial enterprises. This tendency grew gradually in the Nineteenth Century and accelerated during the Twentieth Century. The proprietors of these enterprises wanted to increase their profits as much as possible and paid their workers only enough to keep them alive in miserable circumstances. Their economic condition often did not give them access to even the most basic food and hygiene products. Their shifts at work weakened them physically to the point of illness. They did not have any access to education. And if they had it, the physical demands of their hours at work would not enable them to apply themselves to their studies. Even women and children of the less privileged classes had to work to the point of physical exhaustion to maintain their familes in these miserable circumstances. Because of these problems, the workers of the industrial countries tried to defend their interests by establishing labor unions, which gradually united and organized large demonstrations starting in 1905 (nineteen-oh-five). These unions were not able to establish themselves in the economic sectors where working conditions were at their worst, and they had to limit their political action to sectors where industrialization was most heavily concentrated. In England and Germany these unions had some 4,000,000 (four million) members, a much higher number than in France, where only about 1,000,000 (one million) were able to organize themselves into unions. <b>The Development of Socialism:</b> Along with the organization of labor unions, ideologies for reorganizing industrial society kept on gradually growing. The most important current of European socialism had its inspiration in the doctrine of Karl Marx, who, together with Friedrich Engels, published in 1848 the "Communist Manifesto," which urged the workers of Europe to liberate themselves with the command, "Workers of the world unite!" In its form of social democracy, Marxism became strong enough to elect a solid number of representatives to the principal European parliaments--20% (twenty percent) in Germany, 25% (twenty-five percent) in in Norway, 20% (twenty percent) in Belgium, and 15% (fifteen percent) in France. In England the Labor Party drew 42% (forty-two percent) of the popular vote in 1910. In Russia the socialdemocratic parties, founded in 1898 (eighteen ninety-eight) split up into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in (1903 [nineteen-oh-three]). The Bolsheviks organized a rebellion in 1905, which, together with the Russo-Japonese War, weakened the Czarist government. In 1917 (nineteen seventeen) they established in Russia the first socialist regime in the world. Anarchism, a more radical political movement, wanted to eliminate all authoritarian organizations, including governments in any form. They had their greatest influence in Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The anarchists organized some violent attacks of historical importance in the first part of the Twentieth Century. <b>Nationalism and Imperialism:</b> During the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the great European powers, driven by their economic ambitions, competed among themselves to enlarge their markets and obtain secure sources of raw materials. Fortified by the nationalist ideology of the European countries, they divided among themselves all of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The division of Africa into European colonies was accomplished completely without paying attention to the interests of the colonized populations and without regard to ethnic, cultural, or historic differences among them. Often the geographic divisions of the European colonies produced artificial borders marked by arbitrary parallels and meridians on political maps. <b>Here are the colonial divisions among the great powers before the First World War:<b> ENGLAND, a country with a territory of only 245,000 (two hundred forty-five thousand) square kilometers, had in 1914 an empire of 33,000,000 (thirty-three million) square kilometers spread througout the five continents--in other words 126 (one hundred twenty-six) times the size of England itself. Its princpal area of expansion was Africa and the Indian subcontinent. FRANCE controlled an empire of some 10,000,000 (ten million) square kilometers, twenty times larger than its national territory, with 55,000,000 (fifty-five million) inhabitants, principally in Africa but also in Indochina and the Pacific islands. GERMANY, which had started its colonial expansion rather late because Bismark wanted to conquer only European territories around Germany, undertook with Wilhelm II a policy of colonial conquest throughout the world. At the beginning of the Twentieth Century, Germany had colonies in Africa, Asia, and Oceania with a territory of 2,000,000 (two million) square kilometers and 8,000,000 (eight million) inhabitants. HOLLAND, after occupying the Indonesian archipelago, extended its reach to Sumatra and other island territories, attaining an empire about sixty times larger than its metropolitan territory. PORTUGAL maintained its African colonies, Angola and Mozambique. Portugal wanted to unite both territories, one at the east and the other at the west, but England frustrated this ambition. BELGIUM did not develop its empire by collective national initiatives but through the personal ambitions of its king, Leopold II, who created the ironically named "Free State of the Congo" independent of Belgium but under his personal control. Though the king assured everyone that his ambitions were scientific and humanitarian, his exploitation of this immense territory of 2,500,000 (two million five hundred thousand) square kilometers was inhumane and diabolic. Because of international criticism, he transferred this territory to his country in 1908 (nineteen-oh-eight). SPAIN controlled a very extensive territory but also had colonial ambitions in certain parts of Asia, which conflicted with the ones held by other European countries, which frustrated many of these ambitions. RUSSIA had conquered an immense territory surrounding Moscow but also had colonial ambitions in the south of Asia up to the borders of Afghanistan and Iran. Russia also wanted to control Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China. These ambitions conflicted with those of other European countries. JAPAN, the only Asian nation with imperialist ambitions, opposed the penetration of the Russians into Manchuria and weakened the Czarist government after its war with Russia (1904-1905 [from ninteen-oh-four to ninteen-oh-five]), providing a big surprise to the European governments. After establishing its dominance over Korea and some islands in the Pacific, the Japanese were able to satisfy their colonial ambitions up to the Second World War. THE UNITED STATES, which had conquered all its territory on the American continent toward 1890 (eighteen ninety), started a policy of expansion and militaristic colonialism during the McKinley administration (1897-1901 [from eighteen ninety-seven to nineteen-oh-one]), invading Cuba and leading Spain into a war that the Americans easily won. Because of this war, the United States exercised a sort of protectorate over Cuba and annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The American government also conquered Guam, a part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands, which eventually became the fiftieth state of the United States. To construct the Panama Canal and control the territory on its sides, the United States divided Colombia into two parts, artificially creating a new state, Panama, which submitted completely to American ambitions to control the new canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. [[INTERLINGUA]]: [[Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1]] 959 57 2005-04-14T12:51:50Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> ENGLISH </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 58 2005-04-14T12:53:00Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> <b>Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1</b> <b>Important Influences from the Nineteenth Century:</b> During the last third of the Nineteenth Century Europe exploded into strong and rapid economic development because of the continuing Industrial Revolution, which kept on going until the first years of the Twentieth Century. This economic progress occurred irregularly with alternating periods of acceleration and economic depression (boom and bust). It is convenient to divide this unique period in the history of human civilization into the first and second industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution originated in England in the Eighteenth Century with the mechanization of the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine, and afterwards it was extended to the other parts of Europe and America, principally the United States. With the evolution of techniques of mechanization, a growing number of products previously made by artisans were now made more cheaply by industrial processes, and the artisans who had previously made them found themselves without work. Both they and the surrounding rural population then had to work in industrial factories, which appeared to offer them a more secure way of making a living. During the second industrial revolution these tendencies increased. Other idustries started evolving, especially the chemical industry, developed principally by Germany. Another important factor was the development of new forms of mechanical energy, such as electric motors and internal combustion engines. The use of electricity, which could be produced only with batteries in the first part of the Nineteenth Century, had been limited to the telegraph. But with the invention of the dynamo by Gramme in the last part of the Nineteenth Century it was possible to use electric motors for every industrial machine and eliminate the need for complicated and inefficient systems of mechanical transmission to operate them. Progress in the chemical industry also produced improvements in the production of steel and of other metallic alloys. The construction of railroads was also a very powerful factor in the economic development of the second industrial revolution. In the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the principal European countries had completed their railroad networks. The construction of tunnels extended these networks, providing France, Switzerland, and Italy with a rapid and unified system of transportation. There were also some very spectacular projects, such as the completion in Russia of the Transiberian Railroad, a line some 9.900 kilometers long that reached Vladivistok in 1902. The application of steam and afterward diesel engines to the propulsion of ships accelerated progress in maritime navigation, which became safer with the invention of radiotelegraphy by Marconi. During this period, 79% (seventy-nine percent) of the tonnage transported was from European and 12% (twelve percent) from American sources. The perfection of internal-combustion engines made practical the use of automobiles as a medium of transportation, and with them came the expansion of a new system of roads, which provided even denser transportation networks for the industrialized countries. The invention of the telephone made much easier instant electric communication, producing denser commercial communication networks, which facilitated the consolidation of commercial enterprises. European industry found new consumers in colonial territories annexed to Europe during the second half of the Nineteenth Century. Among these empires, the biggest was the British Empire. Because of all these activiites, the value of international commerce doubled in the first part of the Twentieth Century. During this period, European countries dominated international commerce. When the First World War started in 1914 (nineteen fourteen) 65% (sixty-five percent) of the total value of world exports originated in European countries. But American commerce expanded from 12% (twelve percent) of the world total to 39% (thirty-nine percent). This commerce started with condiments and products of the European colonies and of Europe itself. But when the Twentieth Century started, importing minerals and other raw materials became more important. During the first period of the Industrial Revolution, the European countries exported principally articles for consumption. But afterwards the exportation of machinery for the construction of railroads and factories in other industrializing countries became more important. <b>The Great Economic Powers:</b> England, which started the first industrial revolution, was the greatest power in the world during the Nineteenth Century. But when the Twentieth Century started, the English had three important competitors: Germany, France, and the United States. The American Civil War provoked in the United States great economic progress, which grew slowly but accelerated during the last ten years of the Nineteenth Century, laying the foundation of world-wide American hegemony after the Second World War. England, Germany and France were the most powerful countries of Europe, and they dominated the other European countries whose industry was still at its beginning stages and whose agricultural production was low and badly planned. Between 1890 and 1913 the annual gross-national-product growth rate was 3.9 (three point nine) in the United States, 2.9 (two point nine) in Germany, 1.7 (one point seven) in England, and 1.4 (one point four) in France. These figures allow us to verify, on the one hand, the spectacular progress of the United States and, on the other hand, the growing development of Germany, which became the largest among the great European industrial powers because of its production of really good steel, industrial machinery, and a wide variety of chemicals, relegating England to and France to third place. Despite the industrial leadership of Germany, London continued its economic pre-eminence because of the world dominance of the pound sterling. Outside the Euro-Atlantic area, there was only one country that had industrialized enough to be able to compete with the Euro-American powers: Japan, which a half century earlier emerged from its feudal system and started an aggressive program of occidentalization and industrialization. Japan did not have much capital or many natural resources, but its population was very skilled and intelligent. The Japanese became industrialized in the sectors manufacturing arms, marine shipping, heavy industry, and textile and architectural technology, imitating occidental models of production. The central government levied heavy taxes on its rural sector and invested them in new factories, which quickly produced spectacular economic results. In 1894 Japan declared war against China and conquered it. Both Japan and Russia wanted to occupy Manchuria. To resolve this conflict, Japan declared war against Russia and defeated the Russians in a naval battle. This war reduced the power of the Russian Czar and indirectly contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. The Euro-Atlantic countries now realized that they had a new competitor in the Orient whose power was constantly growing. <b>Prosperity and Misery among the Industrialized States:</b> The economic system that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, continued concentrating wealth into the hands of the owners of commercial and industrial enterprises. This tendency grew gradually in the Nineteenth Century and accelerated during the Twentieth Century. The proprietors of these enterprises wanted to increase their profits as much as possible and paid their workers only enough to keep them alive in miserable circumstances. Their economic condition often did not give them access to even the most basic food and hygiene products. Their shifts at work weakened them physically to the point of illness. They did not have any access to education. And if they had it, the physical demands of their hours at work would not enable them to apply themselves to their studies. Even women and children of the less privileged classes had to work to the point of physical exhaustion to maintain their familes in these miserable circumstances. Because of these problems, the workers of the industrial countries tried to defend their interests by establishing labor unions, which gradually united and organized large demonstrations starting in 1905 (nineteen-oh-five). These unions were not able to establish themselves in the economic sectors where working conditions were at their worst, and they had to limit their political action to sectors where industrialization was most heavily concentrated. In England and Germany these unions had some 4,000,000 (four million) members, a much higher number than in France, where only about 1,000,000 (one million) were able to organize themselves into unions. <b>The Development of Socialism:</b> Along with the organization of labor unions, ideologies for reorganizing industrial society kept on gradually growing. The most important current of European socialism had its inspiration in the doctrine of Karl Marx, who, together with Friedrich Engels, published in 1848 the "Communist Manifesto," which urged the workers of Europe to liberate themselves with the command, "Workers of the world unite!" In its form of social democracy, Marxism became strong enough to elect a solid number of representatives to the principal European parliaments--20% (twenty percent) in Germany, 25% (twenty-five percent) in in Norway, 20% (twenty percent) in Belgium, and 15% (fifteen percent) in France. In England the Labor Party drew 42% (forty-two percent) of the popular vote in 1910. In Russia the socialdemocratic parties, founded in 1898 (eighteen ninety-eight) split up into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in (1903 [nineteen-oh-three]). The Bolsheviks organized a rebellion in 1905, which, together with the Russo-Japonese War, weakened the Czarist government. In 1917 (nineteen seventeen) they established in Russia the first socialist regime in the world. Anarchism, a more radical political movement, wanted to eliminate all authoritarian organizations, including governments in any form. They had their greatest influence in Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The anarchists organized some violent attacks of historical importance in the first part of the Twentieth Century. <b>Nationalism and Imperialism:</b> During the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the great European powers, driven by their economic ambitions, competed among themselves to enlarge their markets and obtain secure sources of raw materials. Fortified by the nationalist ideology of the European countries, they divided among themselves all of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The division of Africa into European colonies was accomplished completely without paying attention to the interests of the colonized populations and without regard to ethnic, cultural, or historic differences among them. Often the geographic divisions of the European colonies produced artificial borders marked by arbitrary parallels and meridians on political maps. <b>Here are the colonial divisions among the great powers before the First World War:<b> ENGLAND, a country with a territory of only 245,000 (two hundred forty-five thousand) square kilometers, had in 1914 an empire of 33,000,000 (thirty-three million) square kilometers spread througout the five continents--in other words 126 (one hundred twenty-six) times the size of England itself. Its princpal area of expansion was Africa and the Indian subcontinent. FRANCE controlled an empire of some 10,000,000 (ten million) square kilometers, twenty times larger than its national territory, with 55,000,000 (fifty-five million) inhabitants, principally in Africa but also in Indochina and the Pacific islands. GERMANY, which had started its colonial expansion rather late because Bismark wanted to conquer only European territories around Germany, undertook with Wilhelm II a policy of colonial conquest throughout the world. At the beginning of the Twentieth Century, Germany had colonies in Africa, Asia, and Oceania with a territory of 2,000,000 (two million) square kilometers and 8,000,000 (eight million) inhabitants. HOLLAND, after occupying the Indonesian archipelago, extended its reach to Sumatra and other island territories, attaining an empire about sixty times larger than its metropolitan territory. PORTUGAL maintained its African colonies, Angola and Mozambique. Portugal wanted to unite both territories, one at the east and the other at the west, but England frustrated this ambition. BELGIUM did not develop its empire by collective national initiatives but through the personal ambitions of its king, Leopold II, who created the ironically named "Free State of the Congo" independent of Belgium but under his personal control. Though the king assured everyone that his ambitions were scientific and humanitarian, his exploitation of this immense territory of 2,500,000 (two million five hundred thousand) square kilometers was inhumane and diabolic. Because of international criticism, he transferred this territory to his country in 1908 (nineteen-oh-eight). SPAIN controlled a very extensive territory but also had colonial ambitions in certain parts of Asia, which conflicted with the ones held by other European countries, which frustrated many of these ambitions. RUSSIA had conquered an immense territory surrounding Moscow but also had colonial ambitions in the south of Asia up to the borders of Afghanistan and Iran. Russia also wanted to control Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China. These ambitions conflicted with those of other European countries. JAPAN, the only Asian nation with imperialist ambitions, opposed the penetration of the Russians into Manchuria and weakened the Czarist government after its war with Russia (1904-1905 [from ninteen-oh-four to ninteen-oh-five]), providing a big surprise to the European governments. After establishing its dominance over Korea and some islands in the Pacific, the Japanese were able to satisfy their colonial ambitions up to the Second World War. THE UNITED STATES, which had conquered all its territory on the American continent toward 1890 (eighteen ninety), started a policy of expansion and militaristic colonialism during the McKinley administration (1897-1901 [from eighteen ninety-seven to nineteen-oh-one]), invading Cuba and leading Spain into a war that the Americans easily won. Because of this war, the United States exercised a sort of protectorate over Cuba and annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The American government also conquered Guam, a part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands, which eventually became the fiftieth state of the United States. To construct the Panama Canal and control the territory on its sides, the United States divided Colombia into two parts, artificially creating a new state, Panama, which submitted completely to American ambitions to control the new canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. [[INTERLINGUA]]: [[Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1]] </strong></td><td><strong> INTERLINGUA </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 59 2005-04-14T12:54:33Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> <b>Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1</b> <b>Important Influences from the Nineteenth Century:</b> During the last third of the Nineteenth Century Europe exploded into strong and rapid economic development because of the continuing Industrial Revolution, which kept on going until the first years of the Twentieth Century. This economic progress occurred irregularly with alternating periods of acceleration and economic depression (boom and bust). It is convenient to divide this unique period in the history of human civilization into the first and second industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution originated in England in the Eighteenth Century with the mechanization of the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine, and afterwards it was extended to the other parts of Europe and America, principally the United States. With the evolution of techniques of mechanization, a growing number of products previously made by artisans were now made more cheaply by industrial processes, and the artisans who had previously made them found themselves without work. Both they and the surrounding rural population then had to work in industrial factories, which appeared to offer them a more secure way of making a living. During the second industrial revolution these tendencies increased. Other idustries started evolving, especially the chemical industry, developed principally by Germany. Another important factor was the development of new forms of mechanical energy, such as electric motors and internal combustion engines. The use of electricity, which could be produced only with batteries in the first part of the Nineteenth Century, had been limited to the telegraph. But with the invention of the dynamo by Gramme in the last part of the Nineteenth Century it was possible to use electric motors for every industrial machine and eliminate the need for complicated and inefficient systems of mechanical transmission to operate them. Progress in the chemical industry also produced improvements in the production of steel and of other metallic alloys. The construction of railroads was also a very powerful factor in the economic development of the second industrial revolution. In the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the principal European countries had completed their railroad networks. The construction of tunnels extended these networks, providing France, Switzerland, and Italy with a rapid and unified system of transportation. There were also some very spectacular projects, such as the completion in Russia of the Transiberian Railroad, a line some 9.900 kilometers long that reached Vladivistok in 1902. The application of steam and afterward diesel engines to the propulsion of ships accelerated progress in maritime navigation, which became safer with the invention of radiotelegraphy by Marconi. During this period, 79% (seventy-nine percent) of the tonnage transported was from European and 12% (twelve percent) from American sources. The perfection of internal-combustion engines made practical the use of automobiles as a medium of transportation, and with them came the expansion of a new system of roads, which provided even denser transportation networks for the industrialized countries. The invention of the telephone made much easier instant electric communication, producing denser commercial communication networks, which facilitated the consolidation of commercial enterprises. European industry found new consumers in colonial territories annexed to Europe during the second half of the Nineteenth Century. Among these empires, the biggest was the British Empire. Because of all these activiites, the value of international commerce doubled in the first part of the Twentieth Century. During this period, European countries dominated international commerce. When the First World War started in 1914 (nineteen fourteen) 65% (sixty-five percent) of the total value of world exports originated in European countries. But American commerce expanded from 12% (twelve percent) of the world total to 39% (thirty-nine percent). This commerce started with condiments and products of the European colonies and of Europe itself. But when the Twentieth Century started, importing minerals and other raw materials became more important. During the first period of the Industrial Revolution, the European countries exported principally articles for consumption. But afterwards the exportation of machinery for the construction of railroads and factories in other industrializing countries became more important. <b>The Great Economic Powers:</b> England, which started the first industrial revolution, was the greatest power in the world during the Nineteenth Century. But when the Twentieth Century started, the English had three important competitors: Germany, France, and the United States. The American Civil War provoked in the United States great economic progress, which grew slowly but accelerated during the last ten years of the Nineteenth Century, laying the foundation of world-wide American hegemony after the Second World War. England, Germany and France were the most powerful countries of Europe, and they dominated the other European countries whose industry was still at its beginning stages and whose agricultural production was low and badly planned. Between 1890 and 1913 the annual gross-national-product growth rate was 3.9 (three point nine) in the United States, 2.9 (two point nine) in Germany, 1.7 (one point seven) in England, and 1.4 (one point four) in France. These figures allow us to verify, on the one hand, the spectacular progress of the United States and, on the other hand, the growing development of Germany, which became the largest among the great European industrial powers because of its production of really good steel, industrial machinery, and a wide variety of chemicals, relegating England to and France to third place. Despite the industrial leadership of Germany, London continued its economic pre-eminence because of the world dominance of the pound sterling. Outside the Euro-Atlantic area, there was only one country that had industrialized enough to be able to compete with the Euro-American powers: Japan, which a half century earlier emerged from its feudal system and started an aggressive program of occidentalization and industrialization. Japan did not have much capital or many natural resources, but its population was very skilled and intelligent. The Japanese became industrialized in the sectors manufacturing arms, marine shipping, heavy industry, and textile and architectural technology, imitating occidental models of production. The central government levied heavy taxes on its rural sector and invested them in new factories, which quickly produced spectacular economic results. In 1894 Japan declared war against China and conquered it. Both Japan and Russia wanted to occupy Manchuria. To resolve this conflict, Japan declared war against Russia and defeated the Russians in a naval battle. This war reduced the power of the Russian Czar and indirectly contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. The Euro-Atlantic countries now realized that they had a new competitor in the Orient whose power was constantly growing. <b>Prosperity and Misery among the Industrialized States:</b> The economic system that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, continued concentrating wealth into the hands of the owners of commercial and industrial enterprises. This tendency grew gradually in the Nineteenth Century and accelerated during the Twentieth Century. The proprietors of these enterprises wanted to increase their profits as much as possible and paid their workers only enough to keep them alive in miserable circumstances. Their economic condition often did not give them access to even the most basic food and hygiene products. Their shifts at work weakened them physically to the point of illness. They did not have any access to education. And if they had it, the physical demands of their hours at work would not enable them to apply themselves to their studies. Even women and children of the less privileged classes had to work to the point of physical exhaustion to maintain their familes in these miserable circumstances. Because of these problems, the workers of the industrial countries tried to defend their interests by establishing labor unions, which gradually united and organized large demonstrations starting in 1905 (nineteen-oh-five). These unions were not able to establish themselves in the economic sectors where working conditions were at their worst, and they had to limit their political action to sectors where industrialization was most heavily concentrated. In England and Germany these unions had some 4,000,000 (four million) members, a much higher number than in France, where only about 1,000,000 (one million) were able to organize themselves into unions. <b>The Development of Socialism:</b> Along with the organization of labor unions, ideologies for reorganizing industrial society kept on gradually growing. The most important current of European socialism had its inspiration in the doctrine of Karl Marx, who, together with Friedrich Engels, published in 1848 the "Communist Manifesto," which urged the workers of Europe to liberate themselves with the command, "Workers of the world unite!" In its form of social democracy, Marxism became strong enough to elect a solid number of representatives to the principal European parliaments--20% (twenty percent) in Germany, 25% (twenty-five percent) in in Norway, 20% (twenty percent) in Belgium, and 15% (fifteen percent) in France. In England the Labor Party drew 42% (forty-two percent) of the popular vote in 1910. In Russia the socialdemocratic parties, founded in 1898 (eighteen ninety-eight) split up into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in (1903 [nineteen-oh-three]). The Bolsheviks organized a rebellion in 1905, which, together with the Russo-Japonese War, weakened the Czarist government. In 1917 (nineteen seventeen) they established in Russia the first socialist regime in the world. Anarchism, a more radical political movement, wanted to eliminate all authoritarian organizations, including governments in any form. They had their greatest influence in Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The anarchists organized some violent attacks of historical importance in the first part of the Twentieth Century. <b>Nationalism and Imperialism:</b> During the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the great European powers, driven by their economic ambitions, competed among themselves to enlarge their markets and obtain secure sources of raw materials. Fortified by the nationalist ideology of the European countries, they divided among themselves all of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The division of Africa into European colonies was accomplished completely without paying attention to the interests of the colonized populations and without regard to ethnic, cultural, or historic differences among them. Often the geographic divisions of the European colonies produced artificial borders marked by arbitrary parallels and meridians on political maps. <b>Here are the colonial divisions among the great powers before the First World War:<b> ENGLAND, a country with a territory of only 245,000 (two hundred forty-five thousand) square kilometers, had in 1914 an empire of 33,000,000 (thirty-three million) square kilometers spread througout the five continents--in other words 126 (one hundred twenty-six) times the size of England itself. Its princpal area of expansion was Africa and the Indian subcontinent. FRANCE controlled an empire of some 10,000,000 (ten million) square kilometers, twenty times larger than its national territory, with 55,000,000 (fifty-five million) inhabitants, principally in Africa but also in Indochina and the Pacific islands. GERMANY, which had started its colonial expansion rather late because Bismark wanted to conquer only European territories around Germany, undertook with Wilhelm II a policy of colonial conquest throughout the world. At the beginning of the Twentieth Century, Germany had colonies in Africa, Asia, and Oceania with a territory of 2,000,000 (two million) square kilometers and 8,000,000 (eight million) inhabitants. HOLLAND, after occupying the Indonesian archipelago, extended its reach to Sumatra and other island territories, attaining an empire about sixty times larger than its metropolitan territory. PORTUGAL maintained its African colonies, Angola and Mozambique. Portugal wanted to unite both territories, one at the east and the other at the west, but England frustrated this ambition. BELGIUM did not develop its empire by collective national initiatives but through the personal ambitions of its king, Leopold II, who created the ironically named "Free State of the Congo" independent of Belgium but under his personal control. Though the king assured everyone that his ambitions were scientific and humanitarian, his exploitation of this immense territory of 2,500,000 (two million five hundred thousand) square kilometers was inhumane and diabolic. Because of international criticism, he transferred this territory to his country in 1908 (nineteen-oh-eight). SPAIN controlled a very extensive territory but also had colonial ambitions in certain parts of Asia, which conflicted with the ones held by other European countries, which frustrated many of these ambitions. RUSSIA had conquered an immense territory surrounding Moscow but also had colonial ambitions in the south of Asia up to the borders of Afghanistan and Iran. Russia also wanted to control Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China. These ambitions conflicted with those of other European countries. JAPAN, the only Asian nation with imperialist ambitions, opposed the penetration of the Russians into Manchuria and weakened the Czarist government after its war with Russia (1904-1905 [from ninteen-oh-four to ninteen-oh-five]), providing a big surprise to the European governments. After establishing its dominance over Korea and some islands in the Pacific, the Japanese were able to satisfy their colonial ambitions up to the Second World War. THE UNITED STATES, which had conquered all its territory on the American continent toward 1890 (eighteen ninety), started a policy of expansion and militaristic colonialism during the McKinley administration (1897-1901 [from eighteen ninety-seven to nineteen-oh-one]), invading Cuba and leading Spain into a war that the Americans easily won. Because of this war, the United States exercised a sort of protectorate over Cuba and annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The American government also conquered Guam, a part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands, which eventually became the fiftieth state of the United States. To construct the Panama Canal and control the territory on its sides, the United States divided Colombia into two parts, artificially creating a new state, Panama, which submitted completely to American ambitions to control the new canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. [[INTERLINGUA]]: [[Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1]] </strong></td><td><strong> <b>Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1</b> <b>Influentias Importante del Seculo XIX:</b> Durante le ultime tertie del seculo XIX Europa explodeva con un forte e rapide disveloppamento economic a causa del continuation Revolution Industrial, que sequeva su curso usque le prime annos del seculo XX. Iste progresso economic occurreva irregularmente con alternante periodos de acceleration e depression economic. Il es conveniente divider iste disveloppamento in le historia del civilisation a in le prime e le secunde Revolutiones Industrial. Le prime revolution industrial originava in Anglaterra in le seculo XVIII con le mechanisation del industria textile e le invention del machina de vapor, e postea iste revolution se extendeva al altere paises de Europa e de America, principalmente le Statos Unite. Con le evolution de technicas de mechanisation, un crescente numero de productos antea facite per artisanos nunc se faceva a melior mercato per processos industrial, e le artisanos qui anteriormente los habeva facite se trovava sin empleo. E illes e le population rural circumferente tunc debeva laborar in fabricas industrial, que apparentemente offereva a illes un medio plus secur de ganiar se le vita. Durante le secunde revolution industrial, iste tendentias augmentava. Altere industrias comenciava lor evolution, specialmente le industria chimic, disveloppate principalmente per Germania. Un altere factor importante esseva le disveloppamento de nove formas de energia mechanic, como motores electric e motores de explosion. Le uso del electricitate, que on poteva producer solmente per accumulatores electric in le prime parte del seculo XIX, se limitava al telegrapho. Ma con le invention del dynamo per Gramme in le ultime parte del seculo XIX, on poteva usar motores electric pro cata machina industrial, eliminante le necessitate de complicate e inefficiente systemas de transmission mechanic pro operar los. Le progresso del industria chimic anque produceva meliorationes in le production de aciero e de altere alligatos metallic. Le construction de ferrovias anque esseva un factor potentissime in le disveloppamento economic del secunde revolution industrial. In le ultime parte del seculo XIX, le principal paises europee habeva completate lor retes ferroviari. Le construction de tunnels extendeva iste rete, providente a Francia Switza, e Italia un systema de transportation rapide e unificate. Il anque habeva unes projectos spectacularissime, como le completion in Russia del ferrovia transiberian, un linea de unes 9.900 kilometros que attingeva Vladivostok in 1902. Le application del machina de vapor e postea del motor Diesel al propulsion de naves accelerava le progresso del navigation maritime, que deveniva plus secur con le invention del radiotelegraphia de Marconi. Durante iste periodo, 79% (septanta nove pro cento) del tonnage de transporte esseva de fontes europee e 12% (dece-duo pro cento) de fontes american. Le perfection de motores de explosion faceva practic le uso de automobiles como medio de transportation, e con illos veniva le expansion de un nove systema de autostratas, que faceva plus dense le rete de transportes in le paises industrialisate. Le invention del telephono faceva multo plus facile le communication instante electric, producente plus dense retes de communication commercial, le quales facilitava le consolidation de interprisas commercial. Le industria europee trovava nove consumitores in territorios colonial annexate a Europa durante le secunde medietate del seculo XIX. Inter iste imperios, le plus grande esseva le Imperio Britannic. A causa de omne iste activitates, le valor del commercio international se duplicava in le prime parte del seculo XX. Durante iste periodo, le paises europee dominava le commercio international. Quando le Prime Guerra Mundial comenciava in 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro), 65% (sexanta cinque pro cento) del valor total del exportationes mundial originava in paises europee. Ma le commercio american expandeva de 12% (dece duo pro cento) del total mundial a 39% (trenta nove pro cento). Iste commercio comenciava con condimentos e productos del colonias europee e de Europa mesme. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le importation de minerales e altere materias prime deveniva plus importante. Durante le prime periodo del Revolution Industrial, le paises europee exportava principalmente articulos de consumption. Ma postea deveniva plus importante le exportation de machineria pro le construction de ferrovias e de fabricas in altere paises que se industrialisava. <b>Le Grande Potentias Economic:</b> Anglaterra, que comenciava le prime revolution industrial, esseva le potentia le plus grande durante le seculo XIX. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le angleses habeva tres competitores importante: Germania, Francia, e le Statos Unite. Le Guerra Civil american provocava in le Statos Unite grande progresso economic e industrial, le qual cresceva lentemente ma accelerava durante le ultime decennio del seculo XIX, continuante su curso de acceleration constante durante le seculo XX, formante le base del hegemonia mundial american que comenciava post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Anglaterra, Germania, e Francia esseva le paises le plus potente de Europa, e illos dominava le altere paises europee cuje industria esseva ancora incipiente e cuje production agricole esseva basse e mal planificate. Inter 1890 e 1913 le taxa annual de crescimento brute medie esseva 3,9 in le Statos Untie, 2,9 in Germania, 1,7 in Anglaterra, e 1,4 in Francia. Iste datos nos permitte verificar, de un parte, le progresso spectacular del Statos Unite e, del altere parte, le crescente disveloppamento de Germania, que deveniva le plus grande inter le potentias industrial europee a causa de su production de bonissime aciero, machinas industrial, e un grande varietate de chimicas, relegante Anglaterra al secunde e Francia al tertie position. In despecto del hegemonia industrial de Germania, London continuava su preeminentia economic a causa del prepotentia international del libra sterling. Foras del area euroatlantic, il habeva solmente un pais que se habeva industrialisate bastante pro competer contra le potentias euroamerican: Japon, que ante un medie seculo emergeva de su systema feudal e comenciava un aggressive programma de occidentalisation e industrialisation. Japon non habeva multe capital e ressources natural, ma su population esseva habil- e inteligentissime. Le japoneses se industrialisava in le sectores de armas, transporte maritime, industria pesante, e technologia textile e architectural, imitante le modelos occidental de production. Lor governamento central imponeva forte impostos a su sector rural e los investiva in nove fabricas, que rapidemente produceva resultatos economic spectacular. In 1894 Japon declarava un guerra contra China e lo vinceva. E Japon e Russia voleva occupar Manchuria. Pro resolver iste conflicto, Japon declarava le guerra contra Russia e vinceva le russos in un battalia naval. Iste guerra reduceva le poter del czar russe e indirectemente facilitava le revolution bolshevic. Le paises euroatlantic nunc comprendeva que illos habeva un nove competitor in le Oriente cuje potentia cresceva constantemente. <b>Prosperitate e Miseria inter le Paises Industrialisate:</b> Le systema economic que accompaniava le Revolution Industrial, le capitalismo, continuava le concentration de richessa a in le manos del proprietarios del interprisas commercial e industrial. Iste tendentia cresceva gradualmente in le seculo XIX e accelerava durante le seculo XX. Le proprietarios de iste interprisas voleva augmentar lor profitos al maximo possibile e pagava lor obreros solmente bastante pro mantener les vive in circumstantias miserabile. Lor condition economic sovente non dava a illes accesso al medios de nutrition e hygiene le plus basic. Lor tornos diurnal de labor les debilitava physicamente usque le maladia. Illes non habeva ulle accesso al education. E si illes lo habeva, le demandas physic de lor horas de labor non les permitterea applicar se a lor studios. Mesmo le feminas e le infantes del classes minus privilegiate debeva laborar usque le exhaustion physic pro mantener lor familias in iste circumstantias miserabile. A causa de iste problemas, le obreros del paises industrial essayava defender lor interesses establiente organisationes syndical, que gradualmente se consolidava e organisava grande agitationes social desde 1905. Iste syndicatos non poteva establir se in le sectores economic ubi le conditiones de vita del obreros esseva le pejor, e illes debeva limitar lor actiones politic a sectores ubi le industrialisation esseva le plus concentrate. In Anglaterra e Germania iste syndicatos habeva unes 4.000.000 (quatro million) obreros, un taxa multo superior a illo de Francia, ubi solmente unes 1.000.000 (un million) poteva organisar se in syndicatos. <b>Le Developpamento del Socialismo:</b> Con le organisation syndicatos de obreros, le ideologias pro reorganisar le societate industrial gradualmente cresceva. Le currente le plus importante del socialismo europee habeva su inspiration in le doctrina de Karl Marx, qui, conjunctemente con Friedrich Engels, publicava in 1848 le "Manifesto communiste", que exhortava al obreros de Europa a liberar se con le commando, "Proletarios de omne le mundo, uni vos." In su forma de democracia social, le marxismo deveniva bastante forte pro eliger un solide numero de representantes al parlamentos principal europee--20% (vinti pro cento) in Germania, 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) in Norvega, 20% (vinti pro cento) in Belgio, e 15% (dece-cinque pro cento) in Francia. In Anglaterra le partito laboriste obtineva in 1910 42% (quaranta duo pro cento) del votos popular. In Russia le partito socialdemocrate, fundate in 1898, se divideva in sectores menchevic e bolchevic (1903). Le bolchevicos fomentava un rebellion in 1905, que, conjuncte con le guerra russojaponese, debilitava le governamento czariste. In 1917 (mille nove centos dece septe) illes establiva in Russia le prime regime socialiste del mundo. Le anarchismo, un movimento politic plus radical, voleva eliminar omne organisationes authoritari, includente governamentos de ulle forma. Illes habeva su major influentia in Russia, Francia, Italia, e Espania. Le anarchistas fomentava unes attaccos violente de transcendentia historic in le prime parte del seculo XX. <b>Nationalismo e Imperialismo:</b> Durante le ultime parte del seculo XIX le grande potentias europee, impulsate per lor ambitiones economic, contendeva inter se pro ampliar lor mercatos e procurar fontes secur de materias prime. Fortificate per le ideologia nationaliste del paises europee, illos divideva inter se omne Africa, Asia, e Oceania. Le division de Africa in colonias europee se faceva completemente sin prestar attention al interesses del populationes colonisate e sin considerar differentias ethnic, cultural, o historic inter illos. Multe vices le divisiones geographic del colonias europee produceva frontieras artificial marcate per parallelos e meridianos arbitrari in mappas politic. <b>Ecce le divisiones colonial inter le grande potentias ante le Prime Guerra Mundial:</b> ANGLATERRA, un pais con un territorio de 245.000 (duo centos quaranta cinque mille) kilometros quadrate, habeva in 1914 un imperio de 33.000.000 (trenta tres million) kilometros quadrate diffundite per le cinque continentes, o sia 126 (cento vinti sex) vices plus grande que Anglaterra mesme. Su principal area de expansion esseva Africa e le subcontinente hindustanic. FRANCIA dominava un imperio de unes 10.000.000 (dece million) kilometros quadrate, 20 (vinti) vices plus grande que su territorio national, con 55.000.000 (cinquanta cinque million) habitantes diffundite principalmente in Africa ma anque in Indochina e le insulas del Pacifico. GERMANIA, que habeva comenciate assatis tardivemente a conquerir su proprie colonias proque su cancellero Bismark voleva conquerir solmente territorios europee apud Germania, interprendeva con Wilhelm II un programma mundial de conquesta colonial. Quando comenciava le sexulo XX, Germania habeva colonias in Africa, Asia, e Oceania con un territorio de 2.000.000 (duo million) kilometros quadrate e 8.000.000 (octo milllion) habitantes. HOLLANDA, post occupar le archipelago indonesian, extendeva su dominio a Sumatra e altere territorios insular, attingente un imperio unes 60 (sexanta) vices plus grande que su territorio metropolitan. PORTUGAL manteneva su colonias african, Angola e Moçambique. Portugal voleva unificar ambe territorios, un al este e le altere al west, ma Anglaterra frustrava iste ambition. BELGIO non formava su imperio per initiativas collective national ma per le ambitiones personal de su rege, Leopoldo II, qui creava le ironicamente nominate "Stato Libere del Congo" independente de Belgio ma sub su dominio personal. Ben que le rege assecurava omnes que su intentiones esseva scientific e humanitari, su exploitation de iste territorio immense de 2.500.000 (duo million cinque mille) kilometros quadrate esseva inhuman e diabolic. A causa de criticas international e domestic, ille transfereva iste territorio a su pais in 1908. ESPANIA controlava un territorio extensissime ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in certe partes de Asia, le quales confligeva con illos de altere paises europee, le quales frustrava multes ex iste ambitiones. RUSSIA habeva conquerite un territorio immense circumferente Moscova ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in le sud de Asia usque le frontieras de Afghanistan e Iran. Russia anque voleva le dominio de Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, e China. Iste ambitiones confligeva con illos de altere paises europee. JAPON, le sol nation asian con ambitiones imperialiste, opponeva le penetration del russos a in Manchuria e debilitava le governamento czariste post su guerra con Russia (1904-1905), providente un grande surprisa al governamentos europee. Post establir su dominio sur Corea e qualque insulas in le Pacific, le japoneses poteva satisfacer lor ambitiones colonial usque le Secunde Guerra Mundial. LE STATOS UNITE, que habeva conquerite omne su territorio in le continente nordamerican verso 1890, comenciava un politica de expansion e colonialismo militariste durante le administration de su presidente McKinley (1897-1901), invadente Cuba e provocante con Espania un guerra que le americanos ganiava facilemente. A causa de iste guerra, le Statos Unite exercitava un specie de protectorato sur Cuba e annexava Puerto Rico e le Philippinas. Le governamento statounitese anque conquireva Guam, un parte de Samoa, e le insulas de Hawaii, que eventualmente deveniva le cinquantessime stato american. Pro construer le canal de Panama e controlar le territorio a su latere, le Statos Unite divideva Colombia in duo partes, creante artificialmente un nove stato, Panama, que se submitteva completemente al ambitiones american pro controlar le nove canal inter le oceanos Atlantic e Pacific. [[ENGLISH]]: [[Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1]] </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 61 2005-04-14T12:55:51Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> <b>Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1</b> <b>Important Influences from the Nineteenth Century:</b> During the last third of the Nineteenth Century Europe exploded into strong and rapid economic development because of the continuing Industrial Revolution, which kept on going until the first years of the Twentieth Century. This economic progress occurred irregularly with alternating periods of acceleration and economic depression (boom and bust). It is convenient to divide this unique period in the history of human civilization into the first and second industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution originated in England in the Eighteenth Century with the mechanization of the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine, and afterwards it was extended to the other parts of Europe and America, principally the United States. With the evolution of techniques of mechanization, a growing number of products previously made by artisans were now made more cheaply by industrial processes, and the artisans who had previously made them found themselves without work. Both they and the surrounding rural population then had to work in industrial factories, which appeared to offer them a more secure way of making a living. During the second industrial revolution these tendencies increased. Other idustries started evolving, especially the chemical industry, developed principally by Germany. Another important factor was the development of new forms of mechanical energy, such as electric motors and internal combustion engines. The use of electricity, which could be produced only with batteries in the first part of the Nineteenth Century, had been limited to the telegraph. But with the invention of the dynamo by Gramme in the last part of the Nineteenth Century it was possible to use electric motors for every industrial machine and eliminate the need for complicated and inefficient systems of mechanical transmission to operate them. Progress in the chemical industry also produced improvements in the production of steel and of other metallic alloys. The construction of railroads was also a very powerful factor in the economic development of the second industrial revolution. In the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the principal European countries had completed their railroad networks. The construction of tunnels extended these networks, providing France, Switzerland, and Italy with a rapid and unified system of transportation. There were also some very spectacular projects, such as the completion in Russia of the Transiberian Railroad, a line some 9.900 kilometers long that reached Vladivistok in 1902. The application of steam and afterward diesel engines to the propulsion of ships accelerated progress in maritime navigation, which became safer with the invention of radiotelegraphy by Marconi. During this period, 79% (seventy-nine percent) of the tonnage transported was from European and 12% (twelve percent) from American sources. The perfection of internal-combustion engines made practical the use of automobiles as a medium of transportation, and with them came the expansion of a new system of roads, which provided even denser transportation networks for the industrialized countries. The invention of the telephone made much easier instant electric communication, producing denser commercial communication networks, which facilitated the consolidation of commercial enterprises. European industry found new consumers in colonial territories annexed to Europe during the second half of the Nineteenth Century. Among these empires, the biggest was the British Empire. Because of all these activiites, the value of international commerce doubled in the first part of the Twentieth Century. During this period, European countries dominated international commerce. When the First World War started in 1914 (nineteen fourteen) 65% (sixty-five percent) of the total value of world exports originated in European countries. But American commerce expanded from 12% (twelve percent) of the world total to 39% (thirty-nine percent). This commerce started with condiments and products of the European colonies and of Europe itself. But when the Twentieth Century started, importing minerals and other raw materials became more important. During the first period of the Industrial Revolution, the European countries exported principally articles for consumption. But afterwards the exportation of machinery for the construction of railroads and factories in other industrializing countries became more important. <b>The Great Economic Powers:</b> England, which started the first industrial revolution, was the greatest power in the world during the Nineteenth Century. But when the Twentieth Century started, the English had three important competitors: Germany, France, and the United States. The American Civil War provoked in the United States great economic progress, which grew slowly but accelerated during the last ten years of the Nineteenth Century, laying the foundation of world-wide American hegemony after the Second World War. England, Germany and France were the most powerful countries of Europe, and they dominated the other European countries whose industry was still at its beginning stages and whose agricultural production was low and badly planned. Between 1890 and 1913 the annual gross-national-product growth rate was 3.9 (three point nine) in the United States, 2.9 (two point nine) in Germany, 1.7 (one point seven) in England, and 1.4 (one point four) in France. These figures allow us to verify, on the one hand, the spectacular progress of the United States and, on the other hand, the growing development of Germany, which became the largest among the great European industrial powers because of its production of really good steel, industrial machinery, and a wide variety of chemicals, relegating England to and France to third place. Despite the industrial leadership of Germany, London continued its economic pre-eminence because of the world dominance of the pound sterling. Outside the Euro-Atlantic area, there was only one country that had industrialized enough to be able to compete with the Euro-American powers: Japan, which a half century earlier emerged from its feudal system and started an aggressive program of occidentalization and industrialization. Japan did not have much capital or many natural resources, but its population was very skilled and intelligent. The Japanese became industrialized in the sectors manufacturing arms, marine shipping, heavy industry, and textile and architectural technology, imitating occidental models of production. The central government levied heavy taxes on its rural sector and invested them in new factories, which quickly produced spectacular economic results. In 1894 Japan declared war against China and conquered it. Both Japan and Russia wanted to occupy Manchuria. To resolve this conflict, Japan declared war against Russia and defeated the Russians in a naval battle. This war reduced the power of the Russian Czar and indirectly contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. The Euro-Atlantic countries now realized that they had a new competitor in the Orient whose power was constantly growing. <b>Prosperity and Misery among the Industrialized States:</b> The economic system that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, continued concentrating wealth into the hands of the owners of commercial and industrial enterprises. This tendency grew gradually in the Nineteenth Century and accelerated during the Twentieth Century. The proprietors of these enterprises wanted to increase their profits as much as possible and paid their workers only enough to keep them alive in miserable circumstances. Their economic condition often did not give them access to even the most basic food and hygiene products. Their shifts at work weakened them physically to the point of illness. They did not have any access to education. And if they had it, the physical demands of their hours at work would not enable them to apply themselves to their studies. Even women and children of the less privileged classes had to work to the point of physical exhaustion to maintain their familes in these miserable circumstances. Because of these problems, the workers of the industrial countries tried to defend their interests by establishing labor unions, which gradually united and organized large demonstrations starting in 1905 (nineteen-oh-five). These unions were not able to establish themselves in the economic sectors where working conditions were at their worst, and they had to limit their political action to sectors where industrialization was most heavily concentrated. In England and Germany these unions had some 4,000,000 (four million) members, a much higher number than in France, where only about 1,000,000 (one million) were able to organize themselves into unions. <b>The Development of Socialism:</b> Along with the organization of labor unions, ideologies for reorganizing industrial society kept on gradually growing. The most important current of European socialism had its inspiration in the doctrine of Karl Marx, who, together with Friedrich Engels, published in 1848 the "Communist Manifesto," which urged the workers of Europe to liberate themselves with the command, "Workers of the world unite!" In its form of social democracy, Marxism became strong enough to elect a solid number of representatives to the principal European parliaments--20% (twenty percent) in Germany, 25% (twenty-five percent) in in Norway, 20% (twenty percent) in Belgium, and 15% (fifteen percent) in France. In England the Labor Party drew 42% (forty-two percent) of the popular vote in 1910. In Russia the socialdemocratic parties, founded in 1898 (eighteen ninety-eight) split up into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in (1903 [nineteen-oh-three]). The Bolsheviks organized a rebellion in 1905, which, together with the Russo-Japonese War, weakened the Czarist government. In 1917 (nineteen seventeen) they established in Russia the first socialist regime in the world. Anarchism, a more radical political movement, wanted to eliminate all authoritarian organizations, including governments in any form. They had their greatest influence in Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The anarchists organized some violent attacks of historical importance in the first part of the Twentieth Century. <b>Nationalism and Imperialism:</b> During the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the great European powers, driven by their economic ambitions, competed among themselves to enlarge their markets and obtain secure sources of raw materials. Fortified by the nationalist ideology of the European countries, they divided among themselves all of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The division of Africa into European colonies was accomplished completely without paying attention to the interests of the colonized populations and without regard to ethnic, cultural, or historic differences among them. Often the geographic divisions of the European colonies produced artificial borders marked by arbitrary parallels and meridians on political maps. <b>Here are the colonial divisions among the great powers before the First World War:<b> ENGLAND, a country with a territory of only 245,000 (two hundred forty-five thousand) square kilometers, had in 1914 an empire of 33,000,000 (thirty-three million) square kilometers spread througout the five continents--in other words 126 (one hundred twenty-six) times the size of England itself. Its princpal area of expansion was Africa and the Indian subcontinent. FRANCE controlled an empire of some 10,000,000 (ten million) square kilometers, twenty times larger than its national territory, with 55,000,000 (fifty-five million) inhabitants, principally in Africa but also in Indochina and the Pacific islands. GERMANY, which had started its colonial expansion rather late because Bismark wanted to conquer only European territories around Germany, undertook with Wilhelm II a policy of colonial conquest throughout the world. At the beginning of the Twentieth Century, Germany had colonies in Africa, Asia, and Oceania with a territory of 2,000,000 (two million) square kilometers and 8,000,000 (eight million) inhabitants. HOLLAND, after occupying the Indonesian archipelago, extended its reach to Sumatra and other island territories, attaining an empire about sixty times larger than its metropolitan territory. PORTUGAL maintained its African colonies, Angola and Mozambique. Portugal wanted to unite both territories, one at the east and the other at the west, but England frustrated this ambition. BELGIUM did not develop its empire by collective national initiatives but through the personal ambitions of its king, Leopold II, who created the ironically named "Free State of the Congo" independent of Belgium but under his personal control. Though the king assured everyone that his ambitions were scientific and humanitarian, his exploitation of this immense territory of 2,500,000 (two million five hundred thousand) square kilometers was inhumane and diabolic. Because of international criticism, he transferred this territory to his country in 1908 (nineteen-oh-eight). SPAIN controlled a very extensive territory but also had colonial ambitions in certain parts of Asia, which conflicted with the ones held by other European countries, which frustrated many of these ambitions. RUSSIA had conquered an immense territory surrounding Moscow but also had colonial ambitions in the south of Asia up to the borders of Afghanistan and Iran. Russia also wanted to control Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China. These ambitions conflicted with those of other European countries. JAPAN, the only Asian nation with imperialist ambitions, opposed the penetration of the Russians into Manchuria and weakened the Czarist government after its war with Russia (1904-1905 [from ninteen-oh-four to ninteen-oh-five]), providing a big surprise to the European governments. After establishing its dominance over Korea and some islands in the Pacific, the Japanese were able to satisfy their colonial ambitions up to the Second World War. THE UNITED STATES, which had conquered all its territory on the American continent toward 1890 (eighteen ninety), started a policy of expansion and militaristic colonialism during the McKinley administration (1897-1901 [from eighteen ninety-seven to nineteen-oh-one]), invading Cuba and leading Spain into a war that the Americans easily won. Because of this war, the United States exercised a sort of protectorate over Cuba and annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The American government also conquered Guam, a part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands, which eventually became the fiftieth state of the United States. To construct the Panama Canal and control the territory on its sides, the United States divided Colombia into two parts, artificially creating a new state, Panama, which submitted completely to American ambitions to control the new canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. [[INTERLINGUA]]: [[Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1]] </strong></td><td><strong> <b>Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1</b> <b>Influentias Importante del Seculo XIX:</b> Durante le ultime tertie del seculo XIX Europa explodeva con un forte e rapide disveloppamento economic a causa del continuation Revolution Industrial, que sequeva su curso usque le prime annos del seculo XX. Iste progresso economic occurreva irregularmente con alternante periodos de acceleration e depression economic. Il es conveniente divider iste disveloppamento in le historia del civilisation a in le prime e le secunde Revolutiones Industrial. Le prime revolution industrial originava in Anglaterra in le seculo XVIII con le mechanisation del industria textile e le invention del machina de vapor, e postea iste revolution se extendeva al altere paises de Europa e de America, principalmente le Statos Unite. Con le evolution de technicas de mechanisation, un crescente numero de productos antea facite per artisanos nunc se faceva a melior mercato per processos industrial, e le artisanos qui anteriormente los habeva facite se trovava sin empleo. E illes e le population rural circumferente tunc debeva laborar in fabricas industrial, que apparentemente offereva a illes un medio plus secur de ganiar se le vita. Durante le secunde revolution industrial, iste tendentias augmentava. Altere industrias comenciava lor evolution, specialmente le industria chimic, disveloppate principalmente per Germania. Un altere factor importante esseva le disveloppamento de nove formas de energia mechanic, como motores electric e motores de explosion. Le uso del electricitate, que on poteva producer solmente per accumulatores electric in le prime parte del seculo XIX, se limitava al telegrapho. Ma con le invention del dynamo per Gramme in le ultime parte del seculo XIX, on poteva usar motores electric pro cata machina industrial, eliminante le necessitate de complicate e inefficiente systemas de transmission mechanic pro operar los. Le progresso del industria chimic anque produceva meliorationes in le production de aciero e de altere alligatos metallic. Le construction de ferrovias anque esseva un factor potentissime in le disveloppamento economic del secunde revolution industrial. In le ultime parte del seculo XIX, le principal paises europee habeva completate lor retes ferroviari. Le construction de tunnels extendeva iste rete, providente a Francia Switza, e Italia un systema de transportation rapide e unificate. Il anque habeva unes projectos spectacularissime, como le completion in Russia del ferrovia transiberian, un linea de unes 9.900 kilometros que attingeva Vladivostok in 1902. Le application del machina de vapor e postea del motor Diesel al propulsion de naves accelerava le progresso del navigation maritime, que deveniva plus secur con le invention del radiotelegraphia de Marconi. Durante iste periodo, 79% (septanta nove pro cento) del tonnage de transporte esseva de fontes europee e 12% (dece-duo pro cento) de fontes american. Le perfection de motores de explosion faceva practic le uso de automobiles como medio de transportation, e con illos veniva le expansion de un nove systema de autostratas, que faceva plus dense le rete de transportes in le paises industrialisate. Le invention del telephono faceva multo plus facile le communication instante electric, producente plus dense retes de communication commercial, le quales facilitava le consolidation de interprisas commercial. Le industria europee trovava nove consumitores in territorios colonial annexate a Europa durante le secunde medietate del seculo XIX. Inter iste imperios, le plus grande esseva le Imperio Britannic. A causa de omne iste activitates, le valor del commercio international se duplicava in le prime parte del seculo XX. Durante iste periodo, le paises europee dominava le commercio international. Quando le Prime Guerra Mundial comenciava in 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro), 65% (sexanta cinque pro cento) del valor total del exportationes mundial originava in paises europee. Ma le commercio american expandeva de 12% (dece duo pro cento) del total mundial a 39% (trenta nove pro cento). Iste commercio comenciava con condimentos e productos del colonias europee e de Europa mesme. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le importation de minerales e altere materias prime deveniva plus importante. Durante le prime periodo del Revolution Industrial, le paises europee exportava principalmente articulos de consumption. Ma postea deveniva plus importante le exportation de machineria pro le construction de ferrovias e de fabricas in altere paises que se industrialisava. <b>Le Grande Potentias Economic:</b> Anglaterra, que comenciava le prime revolution industrial, esseva le potentia le plus grande durante le seculo XIX. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le angleses habeva tres competitores importante: Germania, Francia, e le Statos Unite. Le Guerra Civil american provocava in le Statos Unite grande progresso economic e industrial, le qual cresceva lentemente ma accelerava durante le ultime decennio del seculo XIX, continuante su curso de acceleration constante durante le seculo XX, formante le base del hegemonia mundial american que comenciava post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Anglaterra, Germania, e Francia esseva le paises le plus potente de Europa, e illos dominava le altere paises europee cuje industria esseva ancora incipiente e cuje production agricole esseva basse e mal planificate. Inter 1890 e 1913 le taxa annual de crescimento brute medie esseva 3,9 in le Statos Untie, 2,9 in Germania, 1,7 in Anglaterra, e 1,4 in Francia. Iste datos nos permitte verificar, de un parte, le progresso spectacular del Statos Unite e, del altere parte, le crescente disveloppamento de Germania, que deveniva le plus grande inter le potentias industrial europee a causa de su production de bonissime aciero, machinas industrial, e un grande varietate de chimicas, relegante Anglaterra al secunde e Francia al tertie position. In despecto del hegemonia industrial de Germania, London continuava su preeminentia economic a causa del prepotentia international del libra sterling. Foras del area euroatlantic, il habeva solmente un pais que se habeva industrialisate bastante pro competer contra le potentias euroamerican: Japon, que ante un medie seculo emergeva de su systema feudal e comenciava un aggressive programma de occidentalisation e industrialisation. Japon non habeva multe capital e ressources natural, ma su population esseva habil- e inteligentissime. Le japoneses se industrialisava in le sectores de armas, transporte maritime, industria pesante, e technologia textile e architectural, imitante le modelos occidental de production. Lor governamento central imponeva forte impostos a su sector rural e los investiva in nove fabricas, que rapidemente produceva resultatos economic spectacular. In 1894 Japon declarava un guerra contra China e lo vinceva. E Japon e Russia voleva occupar Manchuria. Pro resolver iste conflicto, Japon declarava le guerra contra Russia e vinceva le russos in un battalia naval. Iste guerra reduceva le poter del czar russe e indirectemente facilitava le revolution bolshevic. Le paises euroatlantic nunc comprendeva que illos habeva un nove competitor in le Oriente cuje potentia cresceva constantemente. <b>Prosperitate e Miseria inter le Paises Industrialisate:</b> Le systema economic que accompaniava le Revolution Industrial, le capitalismo, continuava le concentration de richessa a in le manos del proprietarios del interprisas commercial e industrial. Iste tendentia cresceva gradualmente in le seculo XIX e accelerava durante le seculo XX. Le proprietarios de iste interprisas voleva augmentar lor profitos al maximo possibile e pagava lor obreros solmente bastante pro mantener les vive in circumstantias miserabile. Lor condition economic sovente non dava a illes accesso al medios de nutrition e hygiene le plus basic. Lor tornos diurnal de labor les debilitava physicamente usque le maladia. Illes non habeva ulle accesso al education. E si illes lo habeva, le demandas physic de lor horas de labor non les permitterea applicar se a lor studios. Mesmo le feminas e le infantes del classes minus privilegiate debeva laborar usque le exhaustion physic pro mantener lor familias in iste circumstantias miserabile. A causa de iste problemas, le obreros del paises industrial essayava defender lor interesses establiente organisationes syndical, que gradualmente se consolidava e organisava grande agitationes social desde 1905. Iste syndicatos non poteva establir se in le sectores economic ubi le conditiones de vita del obreros esseva le pejor, e illes debeva limitar lor actiones politic a sectores ubi le industrialisation esseva le plus concentrate. In Anglaterra e Germania iste syndicatos habeva unes 4.000.000 (quatro million) obreros, un taxa multo superior a illo de Francia, ubi solmente unes 1.000.000 (un million) poteva organisar se in syndicatos. <b>Le Developpamento del Socialismo:</b> Con le organisation syndicatos de obreros, le ideologias pro reorganisar le societate industrial gradualmente cresceva. Le currente le plus importante del socialismo europee habeva su inspiration in le doctrina de Karl Marx, qui, conjunctemente con Friedrich Engels, publicava in 1848 le "Manifesto communiste", que exhortava al obreros de Europa a liberar se con le commando, "Proletarios de omne le mundo, uni vos." In su forma de democracia social, le marxismo deveniva bastante forte pro eliger un solide numero de representantes al parlamentos principal europee--20% (vinti pro cento) in Germania, 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) in Norvega, 20% (vinti pro cento) in Belgio, e 15% (dece-cinque pro cento) in Francia. In Anglaterra le partito laboriste obtineva in 1910 42% (quaranta duo pro cento) del votos popular. In Russia le partito socialdemocrate, fundate in 1898, se divideva in sectores menchevic e bolchevic (1903). Le bolchevicos fomentava un rebellion in 1905, que, conjuncte con le guerra russojaponese, debilitava le governamento czariste. In 1917 (mille nove centos dece septe) illes establiva in Russia le prime regime socialiste del mundo. Le anarchismo, un movimento politic plus radical, voleva eliminar omne organisationes authoritari, includente governamentos de ulle forma. Illes habeva su major influentia in Russia, Francia, Italia, e Espania. Le anarchistas fomentava unes attaccos violente de transcendentia historic in le prime parte del seculo XX. <b>Nationalismo e Imperialismo:</b> Durante le ultime parte del seculo XIX le grande potentias europee, impulsate per lor ambitiones economic, contendeva inter se pro ampliar lor mercatos e procurar fontes secur de materias prime. Fortificate per le ideologia nationaliste del paises europee, illos divideva inter se omne Africa, Asia, e Oceania. Le division de Africa in colonias europee se faceva completemente sin prestar attention al interesses del populationes colonisate e sin considerar differentias ethnic, cultural, o historic inter illos. Multe vices le divisiones geographic del colonias europee produceva frontieras artificial marcate per parallelos e meridianos arbitrari in mappas politic. <b>Ecce le divisiones colonial inter le grande potentias ante le Prime Guerra Mundial:</b> ANGLATERRA, un pais con un territorio de 245.000 (duo centos quaranta cinque mille) kilometros quadrate, habeva in 1914 un imperio de 33.000.000 (trenta tres million) kilometros quadrate diffundite per le cinque continentes, o sia 126 (cento vinti sex) vices plus grande que Anglaterra mesme. Su principal area de expansion esseva Africa e le subcontinente hindustanic. FRANCIA dominava un imperio de unes 10.000.000 (dece million) kilometros quadrate, 20 (vinti) vices plus grande que su territorio national, con 55.000.000 (cinquanta cinque million) habitantes diffundite principalmente in Africa ma anque in Indochina e le insulas del Pacifico. GERMANIA, que habeva comenciate assatis tardivemente a conquerir su proprie colonias proque su cancellero Bismark voleva conquerir solmente territorios europee apud Germania, interprendeva con Wilhelm II un programma mundial de conquesta colonial. Quando comenciava le sexulo XX, Germania habeva colonias in Africa, Asia, e Oceania con un territorio de 2.000.000 (duo million) kilometros quadrate e 8.000.000 (octo milllion) habitantes. HOLLANDA, post occupar le archipelago indonesian, extendeva su dominio a Sumatra e altere territorios insular, attingente un imperio unes 60 (sexanta) vices plus grande que su territorio metropolitan. PORTUGAL manteneva su colonias african, Angola e Moçambique. Portugal voleva unificar ambe territorios, un al este e le altere al west, ma Anglaterra frustrava iste ambition. BELGIO non formava su imperio per initiativas collective national ma per le ambitiones personal de su rege, Leopoldo II, qui creava le ironicamente nominate "Stato Libere del Congo" independente de Belgio ma sub su dominio personal. Ben que le rege assecurava omnes que su intentiones esseva scientific e humanitari, su exploitation de iste territorio immense de 2.500.000 (duo million cinque mille) kilometros quadrate esseva inhuman e diabolic. A causa de criticas international e domestic, ille transfereva iste territorio a su pais in 1908. ESPANIA controlava un territorio extensissime ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in certe partes de Asia, le quales confligeva con illos de altere paises europee, le quales frustrava multes ex iste ambitiones. RUSSIA habeva conquerite un territorio immense circumferente Moscova ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in le sud de Asia usque le frontieras de Afghanistan e Iran. Russia anque voleva le dominio de Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, e China. Iste ambitiones confligeva con illos de altere paises europee. JAPON, le sol nation asian con ambitiones imperialiste, opponeva le penetration del russos a in Manchuria e debilitava le governamento czariste post su guerra con Russia (1904-1905), providente un grande surprisa al governamentos europee. Post establir su dominio sur Corea e qualque insulas in le Pacific, le japoneses poteva satisfacer lor ambitiones colonial usque le Secunde Guerra Mundial. LE STATOS UNITE, que habeva conquerite omne su territorio in le continente nordamerican verso 1890, comenciava un politica de expansion e colonialismo militariste durante le administration de su presidente McKinley (1897-1901), invadente Cuba e provocante con Espania un guerra que le americanos ganiava facilemente. A causa de iste guerra, le Statos Unite exercitava un specie de protectorato sur Cuba e annexava Puerto Rico e le Philippinas. Le governamento statounitese anque conquireva Guam, un parte de Samoa, e le insulas de Hawaii, que eventualmente deveniva le cinquantessime stato american. Pro construer le canal de Panama e controlar le territorio a su latere, le Statos Unite divideva Colombia in duo partes, creante artificialmente un nove stato, Panama, que se submitteva completemente al ambitiones american pro controlar le nove canal inter le oceanos Atlantic e Pacific. [[ENGLISH]]: [[Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1]] </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 62 2005-04-14T18:15:59Z 83.195.53.181 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> <b>Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1</b> <b>Important Influences from the Nineteenth Century:</b> During the last third of the Nineteenth Century Europe exploded into strong and rapid economic development because of the continuing Industrial Revolution, which kept on going until the first years of the Twentieth Century. This economic progress occurred irregularly with alternating periods of acceleration and economic depression (boom and bust). It is convenient to divide this unique period in the history of human civilization into the first and second industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution originated in England in the Eighteenth Century with the mechanization of the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine, and afterwards it was extended to the other parts of Europe and America, principally the United States. With the evolution of techniques of mechanization, a growing number of products previously made by artisans were now made more cheaply by industrial processes, and the artisans who had previously made them found themselves without work. Both they and the surrounding rural population then had to work in industrial factories, which appeared to offer them a more secure way of making a living. During the second industrial revolution these tendencies increased. Other idustries started evolving, especially the chemical industry, developed principally by Germany. Another important factor was the development of new forms of mechanical energy, such as electric motors and internal combustion engines. The use of electricity, which could be produced only with batteries in the first part of the Nineteenth Century, had been limited to the telegraph. But with the invention of the dynamo by Gramme in the last part of the Nineteenth Century it was possible to use electric motors for every industrial machine and eliminate the need for complicated and inefficient systems of mechanical transmission to operate them. Progress in the chemical industry also produced improvements in the production of steel and of other metallic alloys. The construction of railroads was also a very powerful factor in the economic development of the second industrial revolution. In the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the principal European countries had completed their railroad networks. The construction of tunnels extended these networks, providing France, Switzerland, and Italy with a rapid and unified system of transportation. There were also some very spectacular projects, such as the completion in Russia of the Transiberian Railroad, a line some 9.900 kilometers long that reached Vladivistok in 1902. The application of steam and afterward diesel engines to the propulsion of ships accelerated progress in maritime navigation, which became safer with the invention of radiotelegraphy by Marconi. During this period, 79% (seventy-nine percent) of the tonnage transported was from European and 12% (twelve percent) from American sources. The perfection of internal-combustion engines made practical the use of automobiles as a medium of transportation, and with them came the expansion of a new system of roads, which provided even denser transportation networks for the industrialized countries. The invention of the telephone made much easier instant electric communication, producing denser commercial communication networks, which facilitated the consolidation of commercial enterprises. European industry found new consumers in colonial territories annexed to Europe during the second half of the Nineteenth Century. Among these empires, the biggest was the British Empire. Because of all these activiites, the value of international commerce doubled in the first part of the Twentieth Century. During this period, European countries dominated international commerce. When the First World War started in 1914 (nineteen fourteen) 65% (sixty-five percent) of the total value of world exports originated in European countries. But American commerce expanded from 12% (twelve percent) of the world total to 39% (thirty-nine percent). This commerce started with condiments and products of the European colonies and of Europe itself. But when the Twentieth Century started, importing minerals and other raw materials became more important. During the first period of the Industrial Revolution, the European countries exported principally articles for consumption. But afterwards the exportation of machinery for the construction of railroads and factories in other industrializing countries became more important. <b>The Great Economic Powers:</b> England, which started the first industrial revolution, was the greatest power in the world during the Nineteenth Century. But when the Twentieth Century started, the English had three important competitors: Germany, France, and the United States. The American Civil War provoked in the United States great economic progress, which grew slowly but accelerated during the last ten years of the Nineteenth Century, laying the foundation of world-wide American hegemony after the Second World War. England, Germany and France were the most powerful countries of Europe, and they dominated the other European countries whose industry was still at its beginning stages and whose agricultural production was low and badly planned. Between 1890 and 1913 the annual gross-national-product growth rate was 3.9 (three point nine) in the United States, 2.9 (two point nine) in Germany, 1.7 (one point seven) in England, and 1.4 (one point four) in France. These figures allow us to verify, on the one hand, the spectacular progress of the United States and, on the other hand, the growing development of Germany, which became the largest among the great European industrial powers because of its production of really good steel, industrial machinery, and a wide variety of chemicals, relegating England to and France to third place. Despite the industrial leadership of Germany, London continued its economic pre-eminence because of the world dominance of the pound sterling. Outside the Euro-Atlantic area, there was only one country that had industrialized enough to be able to compete with the Euro-American powers: Japan, which a half century earlier emerged from its feudal system and started an aggressive program of occidentalization and industrialization. Japan did not have much capital or many natural resources, but its population was very skilled and intelligent. The Japanese became industrialized in the sectors manufacturing arms, marine shipping, heavy industry, and textile and architectural technology, imitating occidental models of production. The central government levied heavy taxes on its rural sector and invested them in new factories, which quickly produced spectacular economic results. In 1894 Japan declared war against China and conquered it. Both Japan and Russia wanted to occupy Manchuria. To resolve this conflict, Japan declared war against Russia and defeated the Russians in a naval battle. This war reduced the power of the Russian Czar and indirectly contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. The Euro-Atlantic countries now realized that they had a new competitor in the Orient whose power was constantly growing. <b>Prosperity and Misery among the Industrialized States:</b> The economic system that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, continued concentrating wealth into the hands of the owners of commercial and industrial enterprises. This tendency grew gradually in the Nineteenth Century and accelerated during the Twentieth Century. The proprietors of these enterprises wanted to increase their profits as much as possible and paid their workers only enough to keep them alive in miserable circumstances. Their economic condition often did not give them access to even the most basic food and hygiene products. Their shifts at work weakened them physically to the point of illness. They did not have any access to education. And if they had it, the physical demands of their hours at work would not enable them to apply themselves to their studies. Even women and children of the less privileged classes had to work to the point of physical exhaustion to maintain their familes in these miserable circumstances. Because of these problems, the workers of the industrial countries tried to defend their interests by establishing labor unions, which gradually united and organized large demonstrations starting in 1905 (nineteen-oh-five). These unions were not able to establish themselves in the economic sectors where working conditions were at their worst, and they had to limit their political action to sectors where industrialization was most heavily concentrated. In England and Germany these unions had some 4,000,000 (four million) members, a much higher number than in France, where only about 1,000,000 (one million) were able to organize themselves into unions. <b>The Development of Socialism:</b> Along with the organization of labor unions, ideologies for reorganizing industrial society kept on gradually growing. The most important current of European socialism had its inspiration in the doctrine of Karl Marx, who, together with Friedrich Engels, published in 1848 the "Communist Manifesto," which urged the workers of Europe to liberate themselves with the command, "Workers of the world unite!" In its form of social democracy, Marxism became strong enough to elect a solid number of representatives to the principal European parliaments--20% (twenty percent) in Germany, 25% (twenty-five percent) in in Norway, 20% (twenty percent) in Belgium, and 15% (fifteen percent) in France. In England the Labor Party drew 42% (forty-two percent) of the popular vote in 1910. In Russia the socialdemocratic parties, founded in 1898 (eighteen ninety-eight) split up into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in (1903 [nineteen-oh-three]). The Bolsheviks organized a rebellion in 1905, which, together with the Russo-Japonese War, weakened the Czarist government. In 1917 (nineteen seventeen) they established in Russia the first socialist regime in the world. Anarchism, a more radical political movement, wanted to eliminate all authoritarian organizations, including governments in any form. They had their greatest influence in Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The anarchists organized some violent attacks of historical importance in the first part of the Twentieth Century. <b>Nationalism and Imperialism:</b> During the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the great European powers, driven by their economic ambitions, competed among themselves to enlarge their markets and obtain secure sources of raw materials. Fortified by the nationalist ideology of the European countries, they divided among themselves all of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The division of Africa into European colonies was accomplished completely without paying attention to the interests of the colonized populations and without regard to ethnic, cultural, or historic differences among them. Often the geographic divisions of the European colonies produced artificial borders marked by arbitrary parallels and meridians on political maps. <b>Here are the colonial divisions among the great powers before the First World War:<b> ENGLAND, a country with a territory of only 245,000 (two hundred forty-five thousand) square kilometers, had in 1914 an empire of 33,000,000 (thirty-three million) square kilometers spread througout the five continents--in other words 126 (one hundred twenty-six) times the size of England itself. Its princpal area of expansion was Africa and the Indian subcontinent. FRANCE controlled an empire of some 10,000,000 (ten million) square kilometers, twenty times larger than its national territory, with 55,000,000 (fifty-five million) inhabitants, principally in Africa but also in Indochina and the Pacific islands. GERMANY, which had started its colonial expansion rather late because Bismark wanted to conquer only European territories around Germany, undertook with Wilhelm II a policy of colonial conquest throughout the world. At the beginning of the Twentieth Century, Germany had colonies in Africa, Asia, and Oceania with a territory of 2,000,000 (two million) square kilometers and 8,000,000 (eight million) inhabitants. HOLLAND, after occupying the Indonesian archipelago, extended its reach to Sumatra and other island territories, attaining an empire about sixty times larger than its metropolitan territory. PORTUGAL maintained its African colonies, Angola and Mozambique. Portugal wanted to unite both territories, one at the east and the other at the west, but England frustrated this ambition. BELGIUM did not develop its empire by collective national initiatives but through the personal ambitions of its king, Leopold II, who created the ironically named "Free State of the Congo" independent of Belgium but under his personal control. Though the king assured everyone that his ambitions were scientific and humanitarian, his exploitation of this immense territory of 2,500,000 (two million five hundred thousand) square kilometers was inhumane and diabolic. Because of international criticism, he transferred this territory to his country in 1908 (nineteen-oh-eight). SPAIN controlled a very extensive territory but also had colonial ambitions in certain parts of Asia, which conflicted with the ones held by other European countries, which frustrated many of these ambitions. RUSSIA had conquered an immense territory surrounding Moscow but also had colonial ambitions in the south of Asia up to the borders of Afghanistan and Iran. Russia also wanted to control Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China. These ambitions conflicted with those of other European countries. JAPAN, the only Asian nation with imperialist ambitions, opposed the penetration of the Russians into Manchuria and weakened the Czarist government after its war with Russia (1904-1905 [from ninteen-oh-four to ninteen-oh-five]), providing a big surprise to the European governments. After establishing its dominance over Korea and some islands in the Pacific, the Japanese were able to satisfy their colonial ambitions up to the Second World War. THE UNITED STATES, which had conquered all its territory on the American continent toward 1890 (eighteen ninety), started a policy of expansion and militaristic colonialism during the McKinley administration (1897-1901 [from eighteen ninety-seven to nineteen-oh-one]), invading Cuba and leading Spain into a war that the Americans easily won. Because of this war, the United States exercised a sort of protectorate over Cuba and annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The American government also conquered Guam, a part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands, which eventually became the fiftieth state of the United States. To construct the Panama Canal and control the territory on its sides, the United States divided Colombia into two parts, artificially creating a new state, Panama, which submitted completely to American ambitions to control the new canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. [[INTERLINGUA]]: [[Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1]] </strong></td><td><strong> <b>Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1</b> <b>Influentias Importante del Seculo XIX:</b> Durante le ultime tertie del seculo XIX Europa explodeva con un forte e rapide disveloppamento economic a causa del continuation Revolution Industrial, que sequeva su curso usque le prime annos del seculo XX. Iste progresso economic occurreva irregularmente con alternante periodos de acceleration e depression economic. Il es conveniente divider iste disveloppamento in le historia del civilisation a in le prime e le secunde Revolutiones Industrial. Le prime revolution industrial originava in Anglaterra in le seculo XVIII con le mechanisation del industria textile e le invention del machina de vapor, e postea iste revolution se extendeva al altere paises de Europa e de America, principalmente le Statos Unite. Con le evolution de technicas de mechanisation, un crescente numero de productos antea facite per artisanos nunc se faceva a melior mercato per processos industrial, e le artisanos qui anteriormente los habeva facite se trovava sin empleo. E illes e le population rural circumferente tunc debeva laborar in fabricas industrial, que apparentemente offereva a illes un medio plus secur de ganiar se le vita. Durante le secunde revolution industrial, iste tendentias augmentava. Altere industrias comenciava lor evolution, specialmente le industria chimic, disveloppate principalmente per Germania. Un altere factor importante esseva le disveloppamento de nove formas de energia mechanic, como motores electric e motores de explosion. Le uso del electricitate, que on poteva producer solmente per accumulatores electric in le prime parte del seculo XIX, se limitava al telegrapho. Ma con le invention del dynamo per Gramme in le ultime parte del seculo XIX, on poteva usar motores electric pro cata machina industrial, eliminante le necessitate de complicate e inefficiente systemas de transmission mechanic pro operar los. Le progresso del industria chimic anque produceva meliorationes in le production de aciero e de altere alligatos metallic. Le construction de ferrovias anque esseva un factor potentissime in le disveloppamento economic del secunde revolution industrial. In le ultime parte del seculo XIX, le principal paises europee habeva completate lor retes ferroviari. Le construction de tunnels extendeva iste rete, providente a Francia Switza, e Italia un systema de transportation rapide e unificate. Il anque habeva unes projectos spectacularissime, como le completion in Russia del ferrovia transiberian, un linea de unes 9.900 kilometros que attingeva Vladivostok in 1902. Le application del machina de vapor e postea del motor Diesel al propulsion de naves accelerava le progresso del navigation maritime, que deveniva plus secur con le invention del radiotelegraphia de Marconi. Durante iste periodo, 79% (septanta nove pro cento) del tonnage de transporte esseva de fontes europee e 12% (dece-duo pro cento) de fontes american. Le perfection de motores de explosion faceva practic le uso de automobiles como medio de transportation, e con illos veniva le expansion de un nove systema de autostratas, que faceva plus dense le rete de transportes in le paises industrialisate. Le invention del telephono faceva multo plus facile le communication instante electric, producente plus dense retes de communication commercial, le quales facilitava le consolidation de interprisas commercial. Le industria europee trovava nove consumitores in territorios colonial annexate a Europa durante le secunde medietate del seculo XIX. Inter iste imperios, le plus grande esseva le Imperio Britannic. A causa de omne iste activitates, le valor del commercio international se duplicava in le prime parte del seculo XX. Durante iste periodo, le paises europee dominava le commercio international. Quando le Prime Guerra Mundial comenciava in 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro), 65% (sexanta cinque pro cento) del valor total del exportationes mundial originava in paises europee. Ma le commercio american expandeva de 12% (dece duo pro cento) del total mundial a 39% (trenta nove pro cento). Iste commercio comenciava con condimentos e productos del colonias europee e de Europa mesme. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le importation de minerales e altere materias prime deveniva plus importante. Durante le prime periodo del Revolution Industrial, le paises europee exportava principalmente articulos de consumption. Ma postea deveniva plus importante le exportation de machineria pro le construction de ferrovias e de fabricas in altere paises que se industrialisava. <b>Le Grande Potentias Economic:</b> Anglaterra, que comenciava le prime revolution industrial, esseva le potentia le plus grande durante le seculo XIX. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le angleses habeva tres competitores importante: Germania, Francia, e le Statos Unite. Le Guerra Civil american provocava in le Statos Unite grande progresso economic e industrial, le qual cresceva lentemente ma accelerava durante le ultime decennio del seculo XIX, continuante su curso de acceleration constante durante le seculo XX, formante le base del hegemonia mundial del Statos Unite que comenciava post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Anglaterra, Germania, e Francia esseva le paises le plus potente de Europa, e illos dominava le altere paises europee cuje industria esseva ancora incipiente e cuje production agricole esseva basse e mal planificate. Inter 1890 e 1913 le taxa annual de crescimento brute medie esseva 3,9 in le Statos Untie, 2,9 in Germania, 1,7 in Anglaterra, e 1,4 in Francia. Iste datos nos permitte verificar, de un parte, le progresso spectacular del Statos Unite e, del altere parte, le crescente disveloppamento de Germania, que deveniva le plus grande inter le potentias industrial europee a causa de su production de bonissime aciero, machinas industrial, e un grande varietate de chimicas, relegante Anglaterra al secunde e Francia al tertie position. In despecto del hegemonia industrial de Germania, London continuava su preeminentia economic a causa del prepotentia international del libra sterling. Foras del area euroatlantic, il habeva solmente un pais que se habeva industrialisate bastante pro competer contra le potentias euroamerican: Japon, que ante un medie seculo emergeva de su systema feudal e comenciava un aggressive programma de occidentalisation e industrialisation. Japon non habeva multe capital e ressources natural, ma su population esseva habil- e inteligentissime. Le japoneses se industrialisava in le sectores de armas, transporte maritime, industria pesante, e technologia textile e architectural, imitante le modelos occidental de production. Lor governamento central imponeva forte impostos a su sector rural e los investiva in nove fabricas, que rapidemente produceva resultatos economic spectacular. In 1894 Japon declarava un guerra contra China e lo vinceva. E Japon e Russia voleva occupar Manchuria. Pro resolver iste conflicto, Japon declarava le guerra contra Russia e vinceva le russos in un battalia naval. Iste guerra reduceva le poter del czar russe e indirectemente facilitava le revolution bolshevic. Le paises euroatlantic nunc comprendeva que illos habeva un nove competitor in le Oriente cuje potentia cresceva constantemente. <b>Prosperitate e Miseria inter le Paises Industrialisate:</b> Le systema economic que accompaniava le Revolution Industrial, le capitalismo, continuava le concentration de richessa a in le manos del proprietarios del interprisas commercial e industrial. Iste tendentia cresceva gradualmente in le seculo XIX e accelerava durante le seculo XX. Le proprietarios de iste interprisas voleva augmentar lor profitos al maximo possibile e pagava lor obreros solmente bastante pro mantener les vive in circumstantias miserabile. Lor condition economic sovente non dava a illes accesso al medios de nutrition e hygiene le plus basic. Lor tornos diurnal de labor les debilitava physicamente usque le maladia. Illes non habeva ulle accesso al education. E si illes lo habeva, le demandas physic de lor horas de labor non les permitterea applicar se a lor studios. Mesmo le feminas e le infantes del classes minus privilegiate debeva laborar usque le exhaustion physic pro mantener lor familias in iste circumstantias miserabile. A causa de iste problemas, le obreros del paises industrial essayava defender lor interesses establiente organisationes syndical, que gradualmente se consolidava e organisava grande agitationes social desde 1905. Iste syndicatos non poteva establir se in le sectores economic ubi le conditiones de vita del obreros esseva le pejor, e illes debeva limitar lor actiones politic a sectores ubi le industrialisation esseva le plus concentrate. In Anglaterra e Germania iste syndicatos habeva unes 4.000.000 (quatro million) obreros, un taxa multo superior a illo de Francia, ubi solmente unes 1.000.000 (un million) poteva organisar se in syndicatos. <b>Le Developpamento del Socialismo:</b> Con le organisation syndicatos de obreros, le ideologias pro reorganisar le societate industrial gradualmente cresceva. Le currente le plus importante del socialismo europee habeva su inspiration in le doctrina de Karl Marx, qui, conjunctemente con Friedrich Engels, publicava in 1848 le "Manifesto communiste", que exhortava al obreros de Europa a liberar se con le commando, "Proletarios de omne le mundo, uni vos." In su forma de democracia social, le marxismo deveniva bastante forte pro eliger un solide numero de representantes al parlamentos principal europee--20% (vinti pro cento) in Germania, 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) in Norvega, 20% (vinti pro cento) in Belgio, e 15% (dece-cinque pro cento) in Francia. In Anglaterra le partito laboriste obtineva in 1910 42% (quaranta duo pro cento) del votos popular. In Russia le partito socialdemocrate, fundate in 1898, se divideva in sectores menchevic e bolchevic (1903). Le bolchevicos fomentava un rebellion in 1905, que, conjuncte con le guerra russojaponese, debilitava le governamento czariste. In 1917 (mille nove centos dece septe) illes establiva in Russia le prime regime socialiste del mundo. Le anarchismo, un movimento politic plus radical, voleva eliminar omne organisationes authoritari, includente governamentos de ulle forma. Illes habeva su major influentia in Russia, Francia, Italia, e Espania. Le anarchistas fomentava unes attaccos violente de transcendentia historic in le prime parte del seculo XX. <b>Nationalismo e Imperialismo:</b> Durante le ultime parte del seculo XIX le grande potentias europee, impulsate per lor ambitiones economic, contendeva inter se pro ampliar lor mercatos e procurar fontes secur de materias prime. Fortificate per le ideologia nationaliste del paises europee, illos divideva inter se omne Africa, Asia, e Oceania. Le division de Africa in colonias europee se faceva completemente sin prestar attention al interesses del populationes colonisate e sin considerar differentias ethnic, cultural, o historic inter illos. Multe vices le divisiones geographic del colonias europee produceva frontieras artificial marcate per parallelos e meridianos arbitrari in mappas politic. <b>Ecce le divisiones colonial inter le grande potentias ante le Prime Guerra Mundial:</b> ANGLATERRA, un pais con un territorio de 245.000 (duo centos quaranta cinque mille) kilometros quadrate, habeva in 1914 un imperio de 33.000.000 (trenta tres million) kilometros quadrate diffundite per le cinque continentes, o sia 126 (cento vinti sex) vices plus grande que Anglaterra mesme. Su principal area de expansion esseva Africa e le subcontinente hindustanic. FRANCIA dominava un imperio de unes 10.000.000 (dece million) kilometros quadrate, 20 (vinti) vices plus grande que su territorio national, con 55.000.000 (cinquanta cinque million) habitantes diffundite principalmente in Africa ma anque in Indochina e le insulas del Pacifico. GERMANIA, que habeva comenciate assatis tardivemente a conquerir su proprie colonias proque su cancellero Bismark voleva conquerir solmente territorios europee apud Germania, interprendeva con Wilhelm II un programma mundial de conquesta colonial. Quando comenciava le sexulo XX, Germania habeva colonias in Africa, Asia, e Oceania con un territorio de 2.000.000 (duo million) kilometros quadrate e 8.000.000 (octo milllion) habitantes. HOLLANDA, post occupar le archipelago indonesian, extendeva su dominio a Sumatra e altere territorios insular, attingente un imperio unes 60 (sexanta) vices plus grande que su territorio metropolitan. PORTUGAL manteneva su colonias african, Angola e Moçambique. Portugal voleva unificar ambe territorios, un al este e le altere al west, ma Anglaterra frustrava iste ambition. BELGIO non formava su imperio per initiativas collective national ma per le ambitiones personal de su rege, Leopoldo II, qui creava le ironicamente nominate "Stato Libere del Congo" independente de Belgio ma sub su dominio personal. Ben que le rege assecurava omnes que su intentiones esseva scientific e humanitari, su exploitation de iste territorio immense de 2.500.000 (duo million cinque mille) kilometros quadrate esseva inhuman e diabolic. A causa de criticas international e domestic, ille transfereva iste territorio a su pais in 1908. ESPANIA controlava un territorio extensissime ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in certe partes de Asia, le quales confligeva con illos de altere paises europee, le quales frustrava multes ex iste ambitiones. RUSSIA habeva conquerite un territorio immense circumferente Moscova ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in le sud de Asia usque le frontieras de Afghanistan e Iran. Russia anque voleva le dominio de Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, e China. Iste ambitiones confligeva con illos de altere paises europee. JAPON, le sol nation asian con ambitiones imperialiste, opponeva le penetration del russos a in Manchuria e debilitava le governamento czariste post su guerra con Russia (1904-1905), providente un grande surprisa al governamentos europee. Post establir su dominio sur Corea e qualque insulas in le Pacific, le japoneses poteva satisfacer lor ambitiones colonial usque le Secunde Guerra Mundial. LE STATOS UNITE, que habeva conquerite omne su territorio in le continente nordamerican verso 1890, comenciava un politica de expansion e colonialismo militariste durante le administration de su presidente McKinley (1897-1901), invadente Cuba e provocante con Espania un guerra que le Statos Unite ganiava facilemente. A causa de iste guerra, le Statos Unite exercitava un specie de protectorato sur Cuba e annexava Puerto Rico e le Philippinas. Le governamento statounitese anque conquireva Guam, un parte de Samoa, e le insulas de Hawaii, que eventualmente deveniva le cinquantessime stato del Statos Unites. Pro construer le canal de Panama e controlar le territorio a su latere, le Statos Unite divideva Colombia in duo partes, creante artificialmente un nove stato, Panama, que se submitteva completemente al ambitiones statouniteses pro controlar le nove canal inter le oceanos Atlantic e Pacific. [[ENGLISH]]: [[Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1]] </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 2035 2005-04-14T18:17:52Z 83.195.53.181 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> <b>Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1</b> <b>Important Influences from the Nineteenth Century:</b> During the last third of the Nineteenth Century Europe exploded into strong and rapid economic development because of the continuing Industrial Revolution, which kept on going until the first years of the Twentieth Century. This economic progress occurred irregularly with alternating periods of acceleration and economic depression (boom and bust). It is convenient to divide this unique period in the history of human civilization into the first and second industrial revolutions. The first industrial revolution originated in England in the Eighteenth Century with the mechanization of the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine, and afterwards it was extended to the other parts of Europe and America, principally the United States. With the evolution of techniques of mechanization, a growing number of products previously made by artisans were now made more cheaply by industrial processes, and the artisans who had previously made them found themselves without work. Both they and the surrounding rural population then had to work in industrial factories, which appeared to offer them a more secure way of making a living. During the second industrial revolution these tendencies increased. Other idustries started evolving, especially the chemical industry, developed principally by Germany. Another important factor was the development of new forms of mechanical energy, such as electric motors and internal combustion engines. The use of electricity, which could be produced only with batteries in the first part of the Nineteenth Century, had been limited to the telegraph. But with the invention of the dynamo by Gramme in the last part of the Nineteenth Century it was possible to use electric motors for every industrial machine and eliminate the need for complicated and inefficient systems of mechanical transmission to operate them. Progress in the chemical industry also produced improvements in the production of steel and of other metallic alloys. The construction of railroads was also a very powerful factor in the economic development of the second industrial revolution. In the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the principal European countries had completed their railroad networks. The construction of tunnels extended these networks, providing France, Switzerland, and Italy with a rapid and unified system of transportation. There were also some very spectacular projects, such as the completion in Russia of the Transiberian Railroad, a line some 9.900 kilometers long that reached Vladivistok in 1902. The application of steam and afterward diesel engines to the propulsion of ships accelerated progress in maritime navigation, which became safer with the invention of radiotelegraphy by Marconi. During this period, 79% (seventy-nine percent) of the tonnage transported was from European and 12% (twelve percent) from American sources. The perfection of internal-combustion engines made practical the use of automobiles as a medium of transportation, and with them came the expansion of a new system of roads, which provided even denser transportation networks for the industrialized countries. The invention of the telephone made much easier instant electric communication, producing denser commercial communication networks, which facilitated the consolidation of commercial enterprises. European industry found new consumers in colonial territories annexed to Europe during the second half of the Nineteenth Century. Among these empires, the biggest was the British Empire. Because of all these activiites, the value of international commerce doubled in the first part of the Twentieth Century. During this period, European countries dominated international commerce. When the First World War started in 1914 (nineteen fourteen) 65% (sixty-five percent) of the total value of world exports originated in European countries. But American commerce expanded from 12% (twelve percent) of the world total to 39% (thirty-nine percent). This commerce started with condiments and products of the European colonies and of Europe itself. But when the Twentieth Century started, importing minerals and other raw materials became more important. During the first period of the Industrial Revolution, the European countries exported principally articles for consumption. But afterwards the exportation of machinery for the construction of railroads and factories in other industrializing countries became more important. <b>The Great Economic Powers:</b> England, which started the first industrial revolution, was the greatest power in the world during the Nineteenth Century. But when the Twentieth Century started, the English had three important competitors: Germany, France, and the United States. The American Civil War provoked in the United States great economic progress, which grew slowly but accelerated during the last ten years of the Nineteenth Century, laying the foundation of world-wide American hegemony after the Second World War. England, Germany and France were the most powerful countries of Europe, and they dominated the other European countries whose industry was still at its beginning stages and whose agricultural production was low and badly planned. Between 1890 and 1913 the annual gross-national-product growth rate was 3.9 (three point nine) in the United States, 2.9 (two point nine) in Germany, 1.7 (one point seven) in England, and 1.4 (one point four) in France. These figures allow us to verify, on the one hand, the spectacular progress of the United States and, on the other hand, the growing development of Germany, which became the largest among the great European industrial powers because of its production of really good steel, industrial machinery, and a wide variety of chemicals, relegating England to and France to third place. Despite the industrial leadership of Germany, London continued its economic pre-eminence because of the world dominance of the pound sterling. Outside the Euro-Atlantic area, there was only one country that had industrialized enough to be able to compete with the Euro-American powers: Japan, which a half century earlier emerged from its feudal system and started an aggressive program of occidentalization and industrialization. Japan did not have much capital or many natural resources, but its population was very skilled and intelligent. The Japanese became industrialized in the sectors manufacturing arms, marine shipping, heavy industry, and textile and architectural technology, imitating occidental models of production. The central government levied heavy taxes on its rural sector and invested them in new factories, which quickly produced spectacular economic results. In 1894 Japan declared war against China and conquered it. Both Japan and Russia wanted to occupy Manchuria. To resolve this conflict, Japan declared war against Russia and defeated the Russians in a naval battle. This war reduced the power of the Russian Czar and indirectly contributed to the Bolshevik revolution. The Euro-Atlantic countries now realized that they had a new competitor in the Orient whose power was constantly growing. <b>Prosperity and Misery among the Industrialized States:</b> The economic system that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, continued concentrating wealth into the hands of the owners of commercial and industrial enterprises. This tendency grew gradually in the Nineteenth Century and accelerated during the Twentieth Century. The proprietors of these enterprises wanted to increase their profits as much as possible and paid their workers only enough to keep them alive in miserable circumstances. Their economic condition often did not give them access to even the most basic food and hygiene products. Their shifts at work weakened them physically to the point of illness. They did not have any access to education. And if they had it, the physical demands of their hours at work would not enable them to apply themselves to their studies. Even women and children of the less privileged classes had to work to the point of physical exhaustion to maintain their familes in these miserable circumstances. Because of these problems, the workers of the industrial countries tried to defend their interests by establishing labor unions, which gradually united and organized large demonstrations starting in 1905 (nineteen-oh-five). These unions were not able to establish themselves in the economic sectors where working conditions were at their worst, and they had to limit their political action to sectors where industrialization was most heavily concentrated. In England and Germany these unions had some 4,000,000 (four million) members, a much higher number than in France, where only about 1,000,000 (one million) were able to organize themselves into unions. <b>The Development of Socialism:</b> Along with the organization of labor unions, ideologies for reorganizing industrial society kept on gradually growing. The most important current of European socialism had its inspiration in the doctrine of Karl Marx, who, together with Friedrich Engels, published in 1848 the "Communist Manifesto," which urged the workers of Europe to liberate themselves with the command, "Workers of the world unite!" In its form of social democracy, Marxism became strong enough to elect a solid number of representatives to the principal European parliaments--20% (twenty percent) in Germany, 25% (twenty-five percent) in in Norway, 20% (twenty percent) in Belgium, and 15% (fifteen percent) in France. In England the Labor Party drew 42% (forty-two percent) of the popular vote in 1910. In Russia the socialdemocratic parties, founded in 1898 (eighteen ninety-eight) split up into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in (1903 [nineteen-oh-three]). The Bolsheviks organized a rebellion in 1905, which, together with the Russo-Japonese War, weakened the Czarist government. In 1917 (nineteen seventeen) they established in Russia the first socialist regime in the world. Anarchism, a more radical political movement, wanted to eliminate all authoritarian organizations, including governments in any form. They had their greatest influence in Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The anarchists organized some violent attacks of historical importance in the first part of the Twentieth Century. <b>Nationalism and Imperialism:</b> During the last part of the Nineteenth Century, the great European powers, driven by their economic ambitions, competed among themselves to enlarge their markets and obtain secure sources of raw materials. Fortified by the nationalist ideology of the European countries, they divided among themselves all of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The division of Africa into European colonies was accomplished completely without paying attention to the interests of the colonized populations and without regard to ethnic, cultural, or historic differences among them. Often the geographic divisions of the European colonies produced artificial borders marked by arbitrary parallels and meridians on political maps. <b>Here are the colonial divisions among the great powers before the First World War:<b> ENGLAND, a country with a territory of only 245,000 (two hundred forty-five thousand) square kilometers, had in 1914 an empire of 33,000,000 (thirty-three million) square kilometers spread througout the five continents--in other words 126 (one hundred twenty-six) times the size of England itself. Its princpal area of expansion was Africa and the Indian subcontinent. FRANCE controlled an empire of some 10,000,000 (ten million) square kilometers, twenty times larger than its national territory, with 55,000,000 (fifty-five million) inhabitants, principally in Africa but also in Indochina and the Pacific islands. GERMANY, which had started its colonial expansion rather late because Bismark wanted to conquer only European territories around Germany, undertook with Wilhelm II a policy of colonial conquest throughout the world. At the beginning of the Twentieth Century, Germany had colonies in Africa, Asia, and Oceania with a territory of 2,000,000 (two million) square kilometers and 8,000,000 (eight million) inhabitants. HOLLAND, after occupying the Indonesian archipelago, extended its reach to Sumatra and other island territories, attaining an empire about sixty times larger than its metropolitan territory. PORTUGAL maintained its African colonies, Angola and Mozambique. Portugal wanted to unite both territories, one at the east and the other at the west, but England frustrated this ambition. BELGIUM did not develop its empire by collective national initiatives but through the personal ambitions of its king, Leopold II, who created the ironically named "Free State of the Congo" independent of Belgium but under his personal control. Though the king assured everyone that his ambitions were scientific and humanitarian, his exploitation of this immense territory of 2,500,000 (two million five hundred thousand) square kilometers was inhumane and diabolic. Because of international criticism, he transferred this territory to his country in 1908 (nineteen-oh-eight). SPAIN controlled a very extensive territory but also had colonial ambitions in certain parts of Asia, which conflicted with the ones held by other European countries, which frustrated many of these ambitions. RUSSIA had conquered an immense territory surrounding Moscow but also had colonial ambitions in the south of Asia up to the borders of Afghanistan and Iran. Russia also wanted to control Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China. These ambitions conflicted with those of other European countries. JAPAN, the only Asian nation with imperialist ambitions, opposed the penetration of the Russians into Manchuria and weakened the Czarist government after its war with Russia (1904-1905 [from ninteen-oh-four to ninteen-oh-five]), providing a big surprise to the European governments. After establishing its dominance over Korea and some islands in the Pacific, the Japanese were able to satisfy their colonial ambitions up to the Second World War. THE UNITED STATES, which had conquered all its territory on the American continent toward 1890 (eighteen ninety), started a policy of expansion and militaristic colonialism during the McKinley administration (1897-1901 [from eighteen ninety-seven to nineteen-oh-one]), invading Cuba and leading Spain into a war that the Americans easily won. Because of this war, the United States exercised a sort of protectorate over Cuba and annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The American government also conquered Guam, a part of Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands, which eventually became the fiftieth state of the United States. To construct the Panama Canal and control the territory on its sides, the United States divided Colombia into two parts, artificially creating a new state, Panama, which submitted completely to American ambitions to control the new canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. [[INTERLINGUA]]: [[Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1]] </strong></td><td><strong> <b>Notas sur le historia del seculo XX, Parte 1</b> <b>Influentias Importante del Seculo XIX:</b> Durante le ultime tertie del seculo XIX Europa explodeva con un forte e rapide disveloppamento economic a causa del continuation Revolution Industrial, que sequeva su curso usque le prime annos del seculo XX. Iste progresso economic occurreva irregularmente con alternante periodos de acceleration e depression economic. Il es conveniente divider iste disveloppamento in le historia del civilisation a in le prime e le secunde Revolutiones Industrial. Le prime revolution industrial originava in Anglaterra in le seculo XVIII con le mechanisation del industria textile e le invention del machina de vapor, e postea iste revolution se extendeva al altere paises de Europa e de America, principalmente le Statos Unite. Con le evolution de technicas de mechanisation, un crescente numero de productos antea facite per artisanos nunc se faceva a melior mercato per processos industrial, e le artisanos qui anteriormente los habeva facite se trovava sin empleo. E illes e le population rural circumferente tunc debeva laborar in fabricas industrial, que apparentemente offereva a illes un medio plus secur de ganiar se le vita. Durante le secunde revolution industrial, iste tendentias augmentava. Altere industrias comenciava lor evolution, specialmente le industria chimic, disveloppate principalmente per Germania. Un altere factor importante esseva le disveloppamento de nove formas de energia mechanic, como motores electric e motores de explosion. Le uso del electricitate, que on poteva producer solmente per accumulatores electric in le prime parte del seculo XIX, se limitava al telegrapho. Ma con le invention del dynamo per Gramme in le ultime parte del seculo XIX, on poteva usar motores electric pro cata machina industrial, eliminante le necessitate de complicate e inefficiente systemas de transmission mechanic pro operar los. Le progresso del industria chimic anque produceva meliorationes in le production de aciero e de altere alligatos metallic. Le construction de ferrovias anque esseva un factor potentissime in le disveloppamento economic del secunde revolution industrial. In le ultime parte del seculo XIX, le principal paises europee habeva completate lor retes ferroviari. Le construction de tunnels extendeva iste rete, providente a Francia Switza, e Italia un systema de transportation rapide e unificate. Il anque habeva unes projectos spectacularissime, como le completion in Russia del ferrovia transiberian, un linea de unes 9.900 kilometros que attingeva Vladivostok in 1902. Le application del machina de vapor e postea del motor Diesel al propulsion de naves accelerava le progresso del navigation maritime, que deveniva plus secur con le invention del radiotelegraphia de Marconi. Durante iste periodo, 79% (septanta nove pro cento) del tonnage de transporte esseva de fontes europee e 12% (dece-duo pro cento) de fontes american. Le perfection de motores de explosion faceva practic le uso de automobiles como medio de transportation, e con illos veniva le expansion de un nove systema de autostratas, que faceva plus dense le rete de transportes in le paises industrialisate. Le invention del telephono faceva multo plus facile le communication instante electric, producente plus dense retes de communication commercial, le quales facilitava le consolidation de interprisas commercial. Le industria europee trovava nove consumitores in territorios colonial annexate a Europa durante le secunde medietate del seculo XIX. Inter iste imperios, le plus grande esseva le Imperio Britannic. A causa de omne iste activitates, le valor del commercio international se duplicava in le prime parte del seculo XX. Durante iste periodo, le paises europee dominava le commercio international. Quando le Prime Guerra Mundial comenciava in 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro), 65% (sexanta cinque pro cento) del valor total del exportationes mundial originava in paises europee. Ma le commercio american expandeva de 12% (dece duo pro cento) del total mundial a 39% (trenta nove pro cento). Iste commercio comenciava con condimentos e productos del colonias europee e de Europa mesme. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le importation de minerales e altere materias prime deveniva plus importante. Durante le prime periodo del Revolution Industrial, le paises europee exportava principalmente articulos de consumption. Ma postea deveniva plus importante le exportation de machineria pro le construction de ferrovias e de fabricas in altere paises que se industrialisava. <b>Le Grande Potentias Economic:</b> Anglaterra, que comenciava le prime revolution industrial, esseva le potentia le plus grande durante le seculo XIX. Ma quando le seculo XX comenciava, le angleses habeva tres competitores importante: Germania, Francia, e le Statos Unite. Le Guerra Civil american provocava in le Statos Unite grande progresso economic e industrial, le qual cresceva lentemente ma accelerava durante le ultime decennio del seculo XIX, continuante su curso de acceleration constante durante le seculo XX, formante le base del hegemonia mundial del Statos Unite que comenciava post le Secunde Guerra Mundial. Anglaterra, Germania, e Francia esseva le paises le plus potente de Europa, e illos dominava le altere paises europee cuje industria esseva ancora incipiente e cuje production agricole esseva basse e mal planificate. Inter 1890 e 1913 le taxa annual de crescimento brute medie esseva 3,9 in le Statos Untie, 2,9 in Germania, 1,7 in Anglaterra, e 1,4 in Francia. Iste datos nos permitte verificar, de un parte, le progresso spectacular del Statos Unite e, del altere parte, le crescente disveloppamento de Germania, que deveniva le plus grande inter le potentias industrial europee a causa de su production de bonissime aciero, machinas industrial, e un grande varietate de chimicas, relegante Anglaterra al secunde e Francia al tertie position. In despecto del hegemonia industrial de Germania, London continuava su preeminentia economic a causa del prepotentia international del libra sterling. Foras del area euroatlantic, il habeva solmente un pais que se habeva industrialisate bastante pro competer contra le potentias euroamerican: Japon, que ante un medie seculo emergeva de su systema feudal e comenciava un aggressive programma de occidentalisation e industrialisation. Japon non habeva multe capital e ressources natural, ma su population esseva habil- e inteligentissime. Le japoneses se industrialisava in le sectores de armas, transporte maritime, industria pesante, e technologia textile e architectural, imitante le modelos occidental de production. Lor governamento central imponeva forte impostos a su sector rural e los investiva in nove fabricas, que rapidemente produceva resultatos economic spectacular. In 1894 Japon declarava un guerra contra China e lo vinceva. E Japon e Russia voleva occupar Manchuria. Pro resolver iste conflicto, Japon declarava le guerra contra Russia e vinceva le russos in un battalia naval. Iste guerra reduceva le poter del czar russe e indirectemente facilitava le revolution bolshevic. Le paises euroatlantic nunc comprendeva que illos habeva un nove competitor in le Oriente cuje potentia cresceva constantemente. <b>Prosperitate e Miseria inter le Paises Industrialisate:</b> Le systema economic que accompaniava le Revolution Industrial, le capitalismo, continuava le concentration de richessa a in le manos del proprietarios del interprisas commercial e industrial. Iste tendentia cresceva gradualmente in le seculo XIX e accelerava durante le seculo XX. Le proprietarios de iste interprisas voleva augmentar lor profitos al maximo possibile e pagava lor obreros solmente bastante pro mantener les vive in circumstantias miserabile. Lor condition economic sovente non dava a illes accesso al medios de nutrition e hygiene le plus basic. Lor tornos diurnal de labor les debilitava physicamente usque le maladia. Illes non habeva ulle accesso al education. E si illes lo habeva, le demandas physic de lor horas de labor non les permitterea applicar se a lor studios. Mesmo le feminas e le infantes del classes minus privilegiate debeva laborar usque le exhaustion physic pro mantener lor familias in iste circumstantias miserabile. A causa de iste problemas, le obreros del paises industrial essayava defender lor interesses establiente organisationes syndical, que gradualmente se consolidava e organisava grande agitationes social desde 1905. Iste syndicatos non poteva establir se in le sectores economic ubi le conditiones de vita del obreros esseva le pejor, e illes debeva limitar lor actiones politic a sectores ubi le industrialisation esseva le plus concentrate. In Anglaterra e Germania iste syndicatos habeva unes 4.000.000 (quatro million) obreros, un taxa multo superior a illo de Francia, ubi solmente unes 1.000.000 (un million) poteva organisar se in syndicatos. <b>Le Developpamento del Socialismo:</b> Con le organisation syndicatos de obreros, le ideologias pro reorganisar le societate industrial gradualmente cresceva. Le currente le plus importante del socialismo europee habeva su inspiration in le doctrina de Karl Marx, qui, conjunctemente con Friedrich Engels, publicava in 1848 le "Manifesto communiste", que exhortava al obreros de Europa a liberar se con le commando, "Proletarios de omne le mundo, uni vos." In su forma de democracia social, le marxismo deveniva bastante forte pro eliger un solide numero de representantes al parlamentos principal europee--20% (vinti pro cento) in Germania, 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) in Norvega, 20% (vinti pro cento) in Belgio, e 15% (dece-cinque pro cento) in Francia. In Anglaterra le partito laboriste obtineva in 1910 42% (quaranta duo pro cento) del votos popular. In Russia le partito socialdemocrate, fundate in 1898, se divideva in sectores menchevic e bolchevic (1903). Le bolchevicos fomentava un rebellion in 1905, que, conjuncte con le guerra russojaponese, debilitava le governamento czariste. In 1917 (mille nove centos dece septe) illes establiva in Russia le prime regime socialiste del mundo. Le anarchismo, un movimento politic plus radical, voleva eliminar omne organisationes authoritari, includente governamentos de ulle forma. Illes habeva su major influentia in Russia, Francia, Italia, e Espania. Le anarchistas fomentava unes attaccos violente de transcendentia historic in le prime parte del seculo XX. <b>Nationalismo e Imperialismo:</b> Durante le ultime parte del seculo XIX le grande potentias europee, impulsate per lor ambitiones economic, contendeva inter se pro ampliar lor mercatos e procurar fontes secur de materias prime. Fortificate per le ideologia nationaliste del paises europee, illos divideva inter se omne Africa, Asia, e Oceania. Le division de Africa in colonias europee se faceva completemente sin prestar attention al interesses del populationes colonisate e sin considerar differentias ethnic, cultural, o historic inter illos. Multe vices le divisiones geographic del colonias europee produceva frontieras artificial marcate per parallelos e meridianos arbitrari in mappas politic. <b>Ecce le divisiones colonial inter le grande potentias ante le Prime Guerra Mundial:</b> ANGLATERRA, un pais con un territorio de 245.000 (duo centos quaranta cinque mille) kilometros quadrate, habeva in 1914 un imperio de 33.000.000 (trenta tres million) kilometros quadrate diffundite per le cinque continentes, o sia 126 (cento vinti sex) vices plus grande que Anglaterra mesme. Su principal area de expansion esseva Africa e le subcontinente hindustanic. FRANCIA dominava un imperio de unes 10.000.000 (dece million) kilometros quadrate, 20 (vinti) vices plus grande que su territorio national, con 55.000.000 (cinquanta cinque million) habitantes diffundite principalmente in Africa ma anque in Indochina e le insulas del Pacifico. GERMANIA, que habeva comenciate assatis tardivemente a conquerir su proprie colonias proque su cancellero Bismark voleva conquerir solmente territorios europee apud Germania, interprendeva con Wilhelm II un programma mundial de conquesta colonial. Quando comenciava le sexulo XX, Germania habeva colonias in Africa, Asia, e Oceania con un territorio de 2.000.000 (duo million) kilometros quadrate e 8.000.000 (octo milllion) habitantes. HOLLANDA, post occupar le archipelago indonesian, extendeva su dominio a Sumatra e altere territorios insular, attingente un imperio unes 60 (sexanta) vices plus grande que su territorio metropolitan. PORTUGAL manteneva su colonias african, Angola e Moçambique. Portugal voleva unificar ambe territorios, un al este e le altere al west, ma Anglaterra frustrava iste ambition. BELGIO non formava su imperio per initiativas collective national ma per le ambitiones personal de su rege, Leopoldo II, qui creava le ironicamente nominate "Stato Libere del Congo" independente de Belgio ma sub su dominio personal. Ben que le rege assecurava omnes que su intentiones esseva scientific e humanitari, su exploitation de iste territorio immense de 2.500.000 (duo million cinque mille) kilometros quadrate esseva inhuman e diabolic. A causa de criticas international e domestic, ille transfereva iste territorio a su pais in 1908. ESPANIA controlava un territorio extensissime ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in certe partes de Asia, le quales confligeva con illos de altere paises europee, le quales frustrava multes ex iste ambitiones. RUSSIA habeva conquerite un territorio immense circumferente Moscova ma anque habeva ambitiones colonial in le sud de Asia usque le frontieras de Afghanistan e Iran. Russia anque voleva le dominio de Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, e China. Iste ambitiones confligeva con illos de altere paises europee. JAPON, le sol nation asian con ambitiones imperialiste, opponeva le penetration del russos a in Manchuria e debilitava le governamento czariste post su guerra con Russia (1904-1905), providente un grande surprisa al governamentos europee. Post establir su dominio sur Corea e qualque insulas in le Pacific, le japoneses poteva satisfacer lor ambitiones colonial usque le Secunde Guerra Mundial. LE STATOS UNITE, que habeva conquerite omne su territorio in le continente nordamerican verso 1890, comenciava un politica de expansion e colonialismo militariste durante le administration de su presidente McKinley (1897-1901), invadente Cuba e provocante con Espania un guerra que le Statos Unite ganiava facilemente. A causa de iste guerra, le Statos Unite exercitava un specie de protectorato sur Cuba e annexava Puerto Rico e le Philippinas. Le governamento statounitese anque conquireva Guam, un parte de Samoa, e le insulas de Hawaii, que eventualmente deveniva le cinquantessime stato del Statos Unites. Pro construer le canal de Panama e controlar le territorio a su latere, le Statos Unite divideva Colombia in duo partes, creante artificialmente un nove stato, Panama, que se submitteva completemente al ambitiones statounitese pro controlar le nove canal inter le oceanos Atlantic e Pacific. [[ENGLISH]]: [[Notes on the history of the Twentieth Century, Part 1]] </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 960 2036 2005-04-14T23:23:28Z Josu Lavin 2 A deler in le futuro KURSO DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA IDO CURSO DE LA LENGUA INTERNACIONAL IDO EN ESPAÑOL INTRODUCCIÓN CURSO DE IDO EN ESPAÑOL Supongo que no resultará difícil averiguar cuál es el objetivo de este curso. He decidido hacer una recopilación de cursos en Ido y no en Esperanto o en otros aspirantes a lengua internacional por varias razones, a saber: * Ido es mucho más simple que Esperanto, lo cual es obvio hasta para un esperantista. * Las demás lenguas internacionales no cuentan con la difusión que posee el Esperanto y dado que Ido es muy parecido a Esperanto, resulta casi directo pasar de uno a otro. * La forma en que se construyen las frases y, en general, la forma en que trabaja Ido es muy parecida a las lenguas naturales, en contra de lo que parece Esperanto. Aún así, como es fácil deducir, es necesario aprender vocabulario (como en todo idioma que se pretenda aprender), aunque en Ido cada palabra que se aprende vale, como mínimo, por veinte (ya veremos cómo se consigue esto). * Después de informarme sobre todos los idiomas internacionales propuestos (interlingua y esperanto principalmente), gracias a la red, he llegado a la conclusión (espero que usted también) de que Ido es más simple, más completo y más atractivo. En cualquier caso, los motivos alegados pueden quedar muy bonitos, pero lo que realmente interesa es que este idioma sea efectivamente aquello que todo el mundo puede usar, esto es, que podamos definitivamente hablar de una lengua internacional con mayúsculas. No me gustaría caer en el mismo fallo que el resto de personas que defienden su propuesta de idioma internacional. Así, no voy a intentar ridiculizar el resto de idiomas; en su lugar, le animo a que se documente sobre todos los idiomas que hayan sido propuestos y decida usted mismo cuál es el mejor (¿un esperantista podría sugerirle esto?). Seguro que llega a la misma conclusión que yo, porque también me informé en su día. Una frase muy apropiada es: "Ya que voy a aprender un idioma internacional, que sea el más fácil". Con esta recopilación de cursos pretendo dar la posibilidad a todos los hispanohablantes de encontrar una referencia idiomática muy interesante en donde poder aprender un idioma que será muy pronto una realidad internacional. Además, no sólo está dirigido el curso a las personas que quieren aprender Ido, sino también a las que vienen de emplear otros idiomas internacionales propuestos que resultan ser más complicados de lo que inicialmente parecía... Tiempo ha, se me ocurrió crear mi propio idioma. Sin embargo, era complicado crear algo nuevo partiendo de cero. Así, preferí consultar la red y buscar ayuda, consiguiendo lo que ahora tengo: una traducción de varios artículos recopilados de la página oficial de Ido o de otros lugares en donde se habla sobre Ido. Por ello, quiero hacer notar que muchos de los datos que aquí aparecen son traducciones al español de los diversos documentos disponibles o accesibles desde la página oficial de Ido. Bien es cierto que los documentos estaban pensados para angloparlantes, con lo que ha sido necesaria una ligera adaptación de contenidos. El curso se ha estructurado de forma que la dificultad sea incremental. Se ha seguido la misma estructura que el curso de Ido "IDO FOR ALL" (más abajo se especifica con más detalle en nombre de los creadores), porque es un curso muy fácil de seguir, con muchos ejemplos y muy completo. También le he añadido cosas propias de nuestro idioma, algunos textos de otros cursos y he intentado suprimir algún que otro comentario que sólo sirve para los angloparlantes... El curso se divide en tres grandes bloques: nivel básico (lecciones 0 a 12), nivel intermedio (lecciones 13 a 20) y nivel avanzado (lecciones 21 a 30). También se añaden dos apéndices (lecciones 31 y 32). Con respecto a las lecciones 21 a 30 y los apéndices, decir que todavía no están disponibles (depende del creador del curso "Ido for all" que todavía no los ha hecho, así que hay que esperar un poco...). Si se te ocurre alguna forma de facilitar el aprendizaje de alguna parte del idioma o te inventas una forma distinta de explicar algo que te costó trabajo comprender, añádelo sin miedo a este documento. Cuanto más fácil de leer sea, mejor. Igualmente, si quieres traducirlo a cualquier otro idioma, cambiar las fuentes, añadir gráficos, etc., ¡hazlo!. No me gustaría dejar de mencionar a una gran persona que me ha ayudado a aprender Ido permitiéndome tener acceso a un curso del idioma internacional: José García. Aclarar que algunas partes de este documento también han sido tomadas de ese "mikra kurso". Antes de comenzar, he aquí un listado de los artículos, personas o direcciones consultadas: * James Chandler (se han tomado las lecciones 1 a 15 que pone a disposición en su página). * "Complete Manual of the Auxiliary Language Ido" por L. de Beaufront. * "Gramática del Idioma Mundial Ido" por Juan Luis de Nadal y de Quadras en colaboración con Francisco Ballester Galés (Sociedad Idista Española). * "IDO FOR ALL" by Niklas ApGawain + P.D. Hugon + J.L. Moore + L. de Beaufront. Revised by an Idiotist (B.Y.T) with material from various sources. Revizota da zeloza Idisti per materii de diversa fonti nun tradukata aden la Rusa da Sro Sergey BELITZKY. Laborinta/anta Idisti por ica lernolibro - ultre B.Y.T.(^_^ Idiotisto) - Hans STUIFBERGEN : Frank KASPER : Stephen L. RICE (Kapabla Logli ed USAano). * "Pequeño curso de la lengua internacional IDO" por Patricio Martinez Martin. IMPORTANTE: Si alguien ha sido omitido en los créditos, por favor, comuníquemelo. Entiéndase que con estos ficheros no pretendo ganar dinero ni obtener beneficio alguno. Lo que intento es servir de ayuda a aquellos que deseen aprender Ido. Sin enrollarme más, espero que resulte de agrado para aquellos que quieren aprender Ido y, sobre todo, que no tenga muchos errores (espero que entre todos los idistas consigamos tener un documento lo más completo posible...). Cualquier actualización o notificación respecto del curso saldrá en la siguiente página: http://es.geocities.com/lamashino También podrás conseguir el curso y preguntar cualquier duda sobre sus contenidos o sobre la lengua Ido, en el foro idoespanyol: http://es.groups.yahoo.com/group/idoespanyol/ Primera versión: Abril - 2000. Primera revisión: Marzo - 2001. Segunda revisión: Noviembre - 2001. Tercera revisión: Marzo - Abril - 2002. Segunda versión: Junio - Julio - 2003. EL AUTOR José Miguel - La Mashino. Si quieres contactar conmigo o enviar cualquier comentario, mi dirección de correo es la siguiente: lamashino@hotmail.com AGRADECIMIENTOS Algunas de las personas a las que tengo que agradecer su ayuda son: * José García: por informarme sobre cómo conseguir información sobre Ido. * Hans Stuifbergen: por su desinteresada ayuda en la resolución de tantas y tantas dudas que he tenido... y por contactar con otros idistas para que leyesen y revisasen este curso. * Eduardo Rodi: por sus sugerencias para el curso y por haber sido la primera persona en corregir el curso. * Al foro idoespanyol http://es.groups.yahoo.com/group/idoespanyol/ por su labor en la segunda versión del curso. * Y a todos los demás idistas... NOTACIÓN DURANTE EL CURSO Algunas indicaciones sobre el formato o color de los textos del curso: Para los textos en Ido: Ka vu deziras lernar Ido? Para la traducción en español o castellano: ¿Desea aprender Ido? Para un comentario o consejo: Comentario o consejo. Para algún dato de interés: Negrita o dato de interés. El objetivo de emplear distintos colores es clarificar los ejemplos y el texto en su conjunto, ya que tantas letras terminan por confundir. EN EL FUTURO... Tal vez en se añadan dibujos, gráficos y sonidos para que resulte más entretenida la lectura. Con tantos cambios de color se incrementa el tamaño del fichero, aunque creo que lo mejor es que todo quede lo más claro posible. Si a alguien no le gustan los colores, que me lo diga y puedo proporcionarle una versión sin colores (aunque sería mucho más aburrida ...). Así, ¡ya no tienes excusa para no aprender Ido! :-). Si tienes algunas sugerencia o has encontrado algún error, no dudes en mandarme un correo. Intentaré responderte lo más rápidamente posible :-). ÍNDICE 0. Lección Cero Alfabeto y pronunciación. Diptongos. Acentuación. Ejercicios. 1. Lección Uno Sustantivos y artículo. Tiempo verbal de presente. Conversación. Ejercicios. 2. Lección Dos La negación. Derivación. Adjetivos. Ejercicios. 3. Lección Tres Preguntas. Plural. Algunos colores. Algunos animales. Tiempo verbal de imperativo. Ejercicios. 4. Lección Cuatro Afijos. El género. Posesión. Cantidad. Comidas. Ejercicios. 5. Lección Cinco Pronombres personales. Pronombres reflexivos. Tiempo verbal de pasado. Algunos afijos. Adverbios. Ejercicios. 6. Lección Seis Pronombres interrogativos. Números. Afijos. Adjetivos con matices. La familia. Ejercicios. 7. Lección Siete El tiempo verbal de futuro. Más números. Más afijos. Medios de transporte. Ejercicios. 8. Lección Ocho Números ordinales. Los meses. Las fechas. Más afijos. Las ropas.Más sobre pronombres interrogativos. Personas. Ejercicios. 9. Lección Nueve Un afijo. Los tres tipos de infinitivo. Títulos. En la casa. El cuerpo. Ejercicios. 10. Lección Diez Pronombres y adjetivos posesivos. El tiempo verbal condicional. Grados del adjetivo y del adverbio. Edificios. Más afijos. Ejercicios. 11. Lección Once Días de la semana. La hora. Pronombres relativos. Países. Pensar. Ejercicios. 12. Lección Doce Negación en verbos auxiliares. Más afijos. La hora. Resumen de relativos. El tiempo atmosférico. Ejercicios. 13. Lección Trece Pronombres demostrativos. Repaso de pronombres posesivos. Pronombre "lo". Más afijos. Ejercicios. 14. Lección Catorce Números Ordinales. Participios. Ejercicios. 15. Lección Quince Tiempos perfectos. Condicional. Participio de futuro. Formas enfáticas. Más afijos. Ejercicios. 11. Lección Dieciseis La terminación de acusativo. La voz pasiva y tiempos perfectos. Preposición "de". Más afijos. Ejercicios. 17. Lección Diecisiete Más sobre la terminación de acusativo. Preposiciones. Conjunciones. Más afijos. Ejercicios. 18. Lección Dieciocho Pronombres indefinidos. Más afijos. Ejercicios. 19. Lección Diecinueve Textos para leer y traducir. 20. Lección Veinte Textos para leer y traducir. LECCIÓN CERO ALFABETO Y PRONUNCIACIÓN El alfabeto en Ido está compuesto de 26 letras: 5 vocales: a e i o u. 21 consonantes: b c d f g h j k l m n p q r s t v w x y z. En Ido no existe ningún tipo de tilde. En esta primera parte se colocará una tilde en la sílaba en que recae el acento para ayudar. Las letras se nombran con la ayuda de la vocal "e". La pronunciación de las letras se muestra a continuación: Letras Nombre Se pronuncian como en: A a alma B bé beber C cé tsetsé (mosca africana) CH ché cheque D dé dedo E e este F fé fecha G gé gato, nunca la g de gente H hé h aspirada, suave, como en inglés "to have" I i isla J jé je (yo en francés); jersei (jersey en catalán); la "ll" argentina K ké queso (sonido k) L lé lección M mé memoria N né negocio O o oso P pé peseta Q qué cuello, cuento, cueva (grupo "ku") R ré cara (nunca como en perro, aún siendo la letra inicial) S sé semana SH shé chemin (camino en francés), suena como la x catalana en xiular, la sh inglesa en shake o xeito en gallego T té tener U u uva V vé es el sonido "v" fricativo como en el portugués vinho o como en valeur en francés W wé la vocal "u" como en inglés when X xé xenofobia (suena ksenofobia) Y yé yeso Z zé zero (cero en francés y en catalán). Una s sonora. Todas las consonantes y vocales se pronunciarán como aquí se han visto, independientemente de en qué lugar aparezcan. El único conflicto que puede haber al escribir directamente lo que oyes está en las letras "qu" y "k". La solución es sencilla: se emplea la "q" siempre que le sigan las dos vocales juntas siguientes: ua ue ui uo, es decir, cuando se tenga: qua que qui quo. En el resto de casos se emplea "k". DIPTONGOS Los diptongos que hay en Ido son: eu, au (Nemónico: Europa, Áureo). Al pronunciar hay que considerar a las dos vocales como si fueran una sola, con lo que ambas recibirán el acento (en la práctica se suele acortar la pronunciación de la "u"; la idea es intentar mezclar las dos vocales en una sola): laute. ACENTUACIÓN Las sílabas en Ido se reconocen de la misma forma que en español o castellano. Las reglas para colocar el acento en las palabras son las siguientes, aplicadas sin excepción: 1) Todas las palabras en Ido llevan el acento en la penúltima sílaba: libro, simpla, apud, granda, pardono, avertas, mashino, trovebla. 2) Los infinitivos de los verbos acaban siempre en -ar, -ir, -or y sobre esta terminación recae el acento: trovar, parolar, studiar, parolir, manjor. Se hace para conseguir mayor claridad en el habla. 3) En las palabras polisilábicas, una i o una u inmediatamente antes de una vocal nunca recibe el acento, con lo que recaerá (por la regla 1) en la anterior sílaba: studias, linguo. (OJO: esta regla NO se aplica a los infinitivos de los verbos: studiar). 4) Recuerda los diptongos eu au: se consideran una sola vocal. Para adquirir velocidad al leer, lo mejor es empezar poco a poco. Por ello, pronuncia al principio las sílabas por separado y después intenta juntarlas formando palabras. Para la letra "C", puedes dividir el sonido en sus dos letras "T" y "S", quedando así: leciono - let-sióno. Lo importante es pronunciar bien desde el principio; la velocidad ya vendrá con la práctica. Y lo que más debes hacer es PRONUNCIAR EN VOZ ALTA (es la única forma de hablar un idioma correctamente). EJERCICIOS Determina sobre qué sílaba recae el acento, separa en sílabas y pronuncia en voz alta, hasta hacerlo con soltura, las siguientes palabras en Ido: cerebro, gardeno, gento, havar, homo, Japonia, januaro, jurnalo, jenar, shirmar, shuo, shultro, shinko, wisto, razar, kazerno, cizo, zero, Roma, Rusia, revuo, richa, quar, quoto, querko, quinteko, kapo, kesto, kisar, kurar, libro, domo, tablo, strado, propago, horlojo, chapelo, parapluvo, sekretario, fabrikerio, inteligenta, laboratorio, kafeo, familio, laute. ce-ré-bro, gar-dé-no, gén-to, ha-vár, hó-mo, Ja-pó-nia, ja-nu-á-ro, jur-ná-lo, je-nár, shir-már, shú-o, shúl-tro, shín-ko, wís-to, ra-zár, ka-zér-no, cí-zo, zé-ro, Ró-ma, Rú-sia, ré-vuo, rí-cha, quár (nótese aquí que "qu" es una letra), quó-to, quér-ko, quin-té-ko, ká-po, kés-to, ki-sár, ku-rár, lí-bro, dó-mo, tá-blo, strá-do, pro-pá-go, hor-ló-jo, cha-pé-lo, pa-ra-plú-vo, se-kre-tá-rio, fa-bri-ké-rio, in-te-li-gén-ta, la-bo-ra-tó-rio, ka-fé-o, fa-mí-lio, láú-te (nunca la-ú-te, porque "au" es diptongo). TRADUCCIÓN: cerebro, jardín, gente, tener, hombre, Japón, enero, periódico, molestar, resguardar, zapato, hombro, jamón, juego de naipes, afeitar, cuartel, tijeras, cero, Roma, Rusia, revista, rico /a, cuatro, cuota, roble, quinteto, cabeza, cajón, besar, correr, libro, casa, mesa, calle, propaganda, reloj, sombrero, paraguas, secretario/a, fábrica, inteligente, laboratorio, café, familia, en voz alta. Pronuncia las siguientes frases: Ka vu ja lernas la nova linguo internaciona? ka vu ja lér-nas la nó-va lín-guo in-ter-na-tsi-ó-na? ¿Ya estás aprendiendo la nueva lengua internacional? Me komencis studiar ol ante kelka dii, Me ko-mén-tsis stu-diár ol án-te kél-ka dí-i, Comencé a estudiarla hace unos pocos días, e me trovas ke ol esas vere tre facila. e me tró-vas ke ol és-as vé-re tre fa-tsí-la, y comprobé que es verdaderamente muy fácil. Omna-die me lektas texto dum un horo; óm-na-dí-e me lék-tas téx-to dum un hó-ro; Todos los días leo un texto durante una hora; me sempre lektas laute. me sém-pre lék-tas láú-te siempre leo en voz alta. Ka vu komprenas to? ka vu kom-pré-nas to? ¿Comprende eso? LECCIÓN UNO SUSTANTIVOS Y ARTÍCULO Un sustantivo se usa para poder referirse a algo que puedes ver, oír, tocar, pensar, etc. Como habrás notado, todos los sustantivos acaban en -o, con lo que ya sabes cómo localizar un sustantivo en una frase. Veamos algunos nombres: hundo un perro domo una casa pomo una manzana animalo un animal frukto una fruta libro un libro Como puedes ver, en Ido no existe artículo indeterminado (un, una, unos, unas). Ya verás que nunca se produce confusión. Ahora, vamos a trabajar con el verbo esar (ser, estar) y vamos a conjugarlo en presente, obteniendo esas (soy, eres, es, somos, sois, son): Hundo esas animalo Un perro es un animal Pomo esas frukto Una manzana es una fruta Como la forma "esas" se emplea muchas veces, se suele abreviar a es. Cualquiera de las dos formas es válida. Para formar el plural de los sustantivos, cambia la -o por una -i: libri unos libros amiki unos /as amigos /as En Ido no existe género (sólo las palabras como viro - hombre, varón, muliero - mujer, y unas pocas más): ¡no tienes que diferenciar entre masculino y femenino!. Además, sólo hay un artículo: la, que es el determinado y el mismo para todos los géneros y números. Por tanto, se traduce por el, la, los, las. El artículo indeterminado un, una, unos, unas, como ya dijimos, no existe en Ido, con lo que si no se especifica ningún artículo se sobreentiende el indeterminado: la hundo el perro la domo la casa la hundi los perros la domi las casas Para poder completar un poco el significado de los sustantivos, vamos a utilizar los adjetivos (palabras que describen a los sustantivos). Todos los adjetivos acaban en "-a"; los puedes poner antes o después del sustantivo y no concuerdan ni en género ni en número con él: dolca dulce bela bello /a, bonito /a, hermoso /a mikra pequeño /a kelka un /unos poco /os floro flor La bela flori esas sur la tablo Las bellas flores están sobre la mesa La pomi esas dolca hike Las manzanas son dulces aquí La libri esas en la domo e kelka hundi esas hike Los libros están en la casa y unos pocos perros están aquí La granda hundi Los grandes perros La domo bela La casa hermosa /bonita /bella EL TIEMPO VERBAL DE PRESENTE Antes, veamos unas pocas palabras útiles: en en sur sobre (posición de algo /alguien) e/ed y ("ed" se suele usar cuando la siguiente palabra comienza por vocal) hike aquí La hundi esas en la domo Los perros están en la casa La pomo esas sur la tablo La manzana está sobre la mesa La libri esas hike Los libros están aquí El infinitivo de los verbos en Ido acaba siempre en "-ar". Para formar el presente se usa la terminación "-as". Estas dos cosas se aplican sin excepción a todos los verbos; así que, ¡no hay verbos irregulares!. El tiempo presente se usa cuando la acción expresada por el verbo sucede ahora, en este mismo instante de tiempo: havar tener ludar jugar esar ser, estar sidar estar sentado amar amar prenar coger, tomar, asir dicar decir lektar leer finar finalizar, acabar irar ir La patro lektas la libro El padre lee el libro La hundo prenas la pomo El perro coge la manzana La kato sidas sur la bela tablo El gato está sentado sobre la hermosa mesa La kato ludas kun la hundo El gato juega con el perro La granda domo esas bela La gran casa es hermosa La mondo esas bela e granda El mundo es grande y hermoso En Ido no existe diferencia entre el presente (yo como) y el presente continuo (yo estoy comiendo), ya que, en realidad, las dos acciones tienen lugar en el presente (hay idiomas que no hacen distinción entre estas dos formas, con lo que en Ido se ha optado por lo más fácil). Esta característica deberás tenerla en cuenta, sobre todo cuando traduzcas de español a Ido. CONVERSACIÓN Para acabar la primera lección vamos a ver algunas frases muy útiles para hablar con un idista: Bona matino! ¡Buenos días! ("buena mañana") Bona jorno! ¡Buen día! Quale tu standas? ¿Cómo estás? Tre bone, danko Muy bien, gracias Yes/No Sí /No Quale tu nomesas? ¿Cómo te llamas? (es igual que en español) Me nomesas José Me llamo José Con todo esto ya podemos hacer algunas frases sencillas. Todo lo que pensaste que podía mejorarse cuando aprendes un idioma está plasmado en Ido de la forma más sencilla, internacional y asequible posible. Para ir cogiendo práctica, seguidamente se propone una relación de ejercicios básicos. EJERCICIOS VOCABULARIO - VORTARO (ejercicio 1): buxo caja tu tú /te /a ti domo casa yuno adolescente /joven gardeno jardín yunulo chico hundo perro yunino chica kato gato en en muso ratón sub debajo de tablo mesa sur sobre es soy, eres, es, somos, sois, son la el /la /los /las me yo /me /a mí Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. María es una chica 1. María es yunino ("yuno" si no quieres distinguir sexo) 2. Carlos es un chico 2. Carlos es yunulo ("yuno" si no quieres distinguir sexo) 3. La casa está en el jardín 3. La domo es en la gardeno 4. Estoy en el jardín 4. Me es en la gardeno 5. Estoy en la casa 5. Me es en la domo 6. Estás en la casa 6. Tu es en la domo 7. Estás debajo de la mesa 7. Tu es sub la tablo 8. Un perro está sobre la mesa en la casa 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo 9. Rex es un perro 9. Rex es hundo 10. Guillermo es un gato 10. Guillermo es kato 11. El perro está en la casa 11. La hundo es en la domo 12. El gato está sobre la mesa 12. La kato es sur la tablo 13. La caja está debajo de la mesa 13. La buxo es sub la tablo 14. El gato está sobre la caja 14. La kato es sur la buxo 15. El ratón está en la casa 15. La muso es en la domo 16. El ratón está en la caja 16. La muso es en la buxo 17. El ratón está debajo de la mesa 17. La muso es sub la tablo VORTARO (ejercicio 2): drinkar beber tushar tocar havar tener aquo agua lektar leer fenestro ventana manjar comer lakto leche prizar apreciar, estimar pordo puerta promenar caminar, pasearse stulo silla regardar mirar, dirigir la mirada a tablo mesa Traduce de español a Ido y viceversa: 1. Tengo un perro 1. Me havas hundo 2. Veo el perro 2. Me vidas la hundo 3. El perro me ve 3. La hundo vidas me 4. Aprecio el perro 4. Me prizas la hundo 5. Me gusta la leche 5. Me prizas lakto 6. El perro tiene la leche 6. La hundo havas la lakto 7. El gato bebe la leche 7. La kato drinkas la lakto 8. Tú estas bebiendo la leche 8. Tu drinkas la lakto 9. Tengo la manzana 9. Me havas la pomo 10. Me estoy comiendo la manzana 10. Me manjas la pomo 11. El /la chico /a se está comiendo la manzana 11. La yuno manjas la pomo 12. Estoy mirando al ratón 12. Me regardas la muso 13. El ratón ve el agua 13. La muso vidas la aquo 14. El ratón se está comiendo el libro 14. La muso manjas la libro 15. El libro está sobre la mesa 15. La libro es sur la tablo 16. Tú lees el libro 16. Tu lektas la libro 17. Tú estás leyendo el libro 17. Tu lektas la libro 18. El gato me mira 18. La kato regardas me 19. El gato mira (a) la puerta 19. La kato regardas la pordo 20. Usted está tocando la puerta 20. Vu tushas la pordo 21. El gato está tocando la ventana 21. La kato tushas la fenestro 22. Estoy tocando la ventana 22. Me tushas la fenestro 23. Me estoy paseando por /en el jardín 23. Me promenas en la gardeno 24. Tú y el perro os estáis paseando por /en el jardín 24. Tu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno 25. La mesa y la silla están en la casa 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo VORTARO (exerco 3): drinkajo bebida olda viejo, anciano Floro flor regardar mirar, dirigir la mirada a kavalo caballo Tablo mesa prizar apreciar, gustar blua azul manjajo comida granda grande por para mikra Pequeño /a muro muro, pared Reda rojo plado plato donde se come Yuna joven Taso taza Anke también dormar dormir Hike aquí komprar comprar Mea mi, mío /a habitar vivir tua tu, tuyo /a parolar hablar anciena antiguo, viejo - NO de edad pozar poner, colocar adhike aquí, indicando el movimiento /acción de colocar aquí adsur sobre, indicando el movimiento /acción de colocar sobre) Traduce de español a Ido (puedes practicar traduciendo al contrario): 1. Estás aprendiendo Ido 1. Tu lernas Ido 2. Hablas Ido 2. Tu parolas Ido 3. Estoy aprendiendo Ido 3. Me lernas Ido 4. Hablo Ido 4. Me parolas Ido 5. Tengo una casa bonita 5. Me havas bela domo 6. Mi casa es grande 6. Mea domo es granda 7. La casa es grande 7. La domo es granda 8. Vivo aquí 8. Me habitas hike 9. Duermo en el jardín 9. Me dormas en la gardeno 10. Mi perro es viejo 10. Mea hundo es olda 11. Mi perro también vive aquí 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike 12. El perro duerme en mi pequeño jardín 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno 13. El pequeño gato mira al gran perro 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo 14. Vives en una bonita casa 14. Tu habitas en bela domo 15. Duermes en una mesa bonita 15. Tu dormas sur la bela tablo 16. El gato duerme debajo de la bella flor 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro 17. El caballo es viejo 17. La kavalo es olda 18. El pequeño caballo es joven 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna 19. Al joven caballo le gusta /aprecia la bebida 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo 20. Estás comprando comida para el caballo 20. Tu kompras manjajo por la kavalo 21. Compro comida aquí 21. Me kompras manjajo hike 22. Pongo tu plato aquí 22. Me pozas tua plado adhike 23. El plato es rojo 23. La plado es reda 24. Estoy poniendo comida sobre /en el plato 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado 25. El viejo ratón se come la comida 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo 26. Una bebida está en la taza pequeña 26. Drinkajo es en la taso mikra 27. La taza azul está sobre la mesa 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo 28. Ves el ratón en la taza 28. Tu vidas la muso en la taso 29. Tu leche está también en la taza 29. Tua lakto es anke en la taso 30. Estoy poniendo el libro sobre /en el muro 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro Lee en voz alta todas las palabras y frases que has visto en esta lección hasta hacerlo fluidamente. Haz lo mismo en todas las lecciones que siguen. Piensa en Ido en las cosas que conoces: Toca la puerta y dítelo a ti mismo, "Me tushas la pordo"; lee un libro y di "Me lektas libro"; y así sucesivamente incluyendo todas las palabras que has aprendido. Practica la conversación (última parte de la lección). Este ejercicio lo puedes repetir siempre que aparezcan nuevas conversaciones. LECCIÓN DOS LA NEGACIÓN Para negar las oraciones se usa el adverbio "ne": Tu ne havas la nova pano Tú no tienes el nuevo pan Me ne mustas irar adibe No debo ir allí Me ne mustas facar to No debo hacer eso También tenemos la negación rotunda "no": No, me ne havas pano No, yo no tengo pan No, me ne iras hodie No, yo no voy hoy * Nótese que "ne" siempre se coloca antes de la palabra a la que niega (en este caso un verbo). * En Ido sólo se niega una vez, no dos veces como en algunas frases del español, a saber: "No tengo ningún pan - Me ne havas pano". * "ne" siempre acompaña a otra palabra (a la que niega mientras que "no"no acompaña a ninguna palabra. DERIVACIÓN A partir del adjetivo (que ya sabemos que termina en -a) se puede formar un sustantivo (que termina en -o conservando el significado: bona bueno bono hombre bueno, un bueno yuna joven yuno un joven, una chica/o joven acesora accesorio, secundario acesoro un accesorio O al contrario: oro oro ora dorado, hecho de oro ADJETIVOS En los adjetivos se puede eliminar la "-a" final siempre que suene y se entienda correctamente: bona bon yuna yun acesora acesor Veamos otra conversación entre Pedro y María: P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Pedro. Quale vu nomesas? M: Me nomesas María. P: Til rivido, María! M: Til rivido, Pedro! EJERCICIOS VORTARO (exerco 1): prizar gustar, apreciar, valorar regardar mirar a promenar caminar, pasear lektar leer olda viejo plado plato donde comer domo casa buxo caja manjar comer(se) kavalo caballo manjajo comida lakto leche parolar hablar drinkar beber habitar vivir (en un lugar) kato gato lernar aprender por estudio Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. Soy, no soy 1. <!doctype html public "-//w3c//dtd html 4.0 transitional//en">Me es, me ne es 2. Tengo, no tengo 2. Me havas, me ne havas 3. Veo, no veo 3. Me vidas, me ne vidas 4. Me gusta, no me gusta 4. Me prizas, me ne prizas 5. Estoy caminando, no estoy caminando 5. Me promenas, me ne promenas 6. No soy viejo 6. Me ne es olda 7. No te veo 7. Me ne vidas tu 8. No me ves 8. Tu ne vidas me 9. No me gusta la casa 9. Me ne prizas la domo 10. No me estoy comiendo la comida 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo 11. El perro no habla Ido 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido 12. No vives en Málaga 12. Tu ne habitas en Málaga 13. El perro no está aprendiendo Ido 13. La hundo ne lernas Ido 14. María no vive en Madrid 14. María ne habitas en Madrid 15. No estás mirando a María 15. Tu ne regardas María 16. Tú no estás leyendo el libro 16. Tu ne lektas la libro 17. El plato no está en la casa 17. La plado ne esas en la domo 18. El perro no está mirando al caballo 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo 19. El gato no está durmiendo en la caja 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo 20. El/la joven no bebe la leche 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto VORTARO (para ejercicio 2): anke también magra delgado, magro bruna marrón muso ratón chasar cazar nun ahora do por tanto, así ofte a menudo dop detrás de, después (en el lugar, en el espacio) por para ek fuera (de) pozar poner, colocar felica feliz sama misma feroca feroz strado calle fisho pez, pesca tre muy foresto selva, bosque trista triste gardeno jardín tua tu (posesión) gazoneyo césped vidar ver grosa grueso (no espeso), gordo, fuerte, robusto Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. Félix es un delgado gato viejo 1. Félix es magra olda kato 2. Él vive detrás de tu casa en el bosque 2. Il habitas dop tua domo en la foresto 3. A menudo camina en mi gran jardín 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno 4. A menudo duerme sobre mi césped 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazoneyo 5. Hoy Félix está cazando un ratón gordo y marrón 5. Hodie Félix chasas grosa bruna muso 6. Hoy Félix no tiene comida 6. Hodie Félix ne havas manjajo 7. Está muy triste 7. Il es tre trista 8. Por tanto, puse un pescado para él sobre un plato en el jardín 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno 9. Ahora Félix está muy feliz 9. Nun Félix es tre felica 10. María ve a Félix 10. María vidas Félix 11. A ella no le gusta Félix y lo caza fuera de mi jardín 11. El ne prizas Félix e chasas il ek mea gardeno 12. Félix está en la calle 12. Félix es sur la strado 13. Rex es un perro feroz 13. Rex es feroca hundo 14. Él también ve a Félix 14. Il anke vidas Felix 15. Rex lo caza 15. Rex chasas il Observa con atención esta conversación. No te preocupes si no entiendes algo, ya que todo lo que necesitas saber sobre gramática ya se verá en posteriores lecciones: ¡Buenos días! Bona matino! ¡Buen día! Bona jorno! ¿Cómo se llama usted? Quale vu nomesas? Me llamo Pedro Me nomesas Pedro ¿Cómo está usted? Quale vu standas? Muy bien Tre bone ¡Gracias! Me dankas! ¿Estás cansado? Ka tu esas fatigita? ¡En absoluto! Tote ne! ("no del todo") Sí, un poquito Yes, kelkete No, señor No, sioro Si me permite/le ruego Me pregas Estoy hambriento Me hungras ¿Estás sediento? Ka tu durstas? Dame un vaso Donez a me glaso Una taza de té Taso de teo ¿Desea usted...? Ka vu deziras...? Nada que objetar/no me opongo Me ne objecionas No importa Ne importas LECCIÓN TRES PREGUNTAS Hasta ahora sólo hemos visto oraciones enunciativas, pero ¿cómo podemos hacer preguntas?. La solución adoptada en Ido es bien sencilla: colocar la palabra introductora de pregunta ka/kad antes de toda la frase (similar a sustituir el signo "¿" por ka/kad): Ka li esas hike hodie? ¿Están ellos aquí hoy? Ka vu havas la blua libro? ¿Tiene usted el libro azul? Ka vu kredas? ¿Cree usted? Ka vu komprenas? ¿Entiende usted? NOTA: En aquellas palabras en que se da a elegir entre dos opciones, se toma, como norma frecuente, la forma sin consonante (p. ej.: "e") cuando la siguiente palabra comienza por consonante y la forma con "d" al final (p. ej. : "ed") cuando comienza por vocal. En cualquier caso, esta regla no es obligatoria (facilita la pronunciación hablada de la lengua con lo que al principio puedes obviarla. A los hispanohablantes nos resulta chocante usar una palabra introductora, pero hay que tener en cuenta que esta solución es un compromiso entre lo que hacemos los que hablamos español y lo que hacen, por ejemplo, los que hablan inglés al preguntar. Veamos algunas palabras que se emplean para hacer preguntas en Ido (mejor no las uses, porque hay algunos detalles que hay que ver antes de trabajar con ellas...): quo/qui qué, lo cual, referido a objeto/s (singular/plural) qua/qui qué, quién, referido a persona/as (singular/plural) qua cuál ube dónde kande cuándo quanta cuánto, cuántos pro quo por qué quale cómo Ube vu lojas? ¿Dónde vive usted? Ube ni iras? ¿Dónde vamos? Qua venas kun ni? ¿Quién viene con nosotros? Nótese que en las preguntas que ya poseen una partícula interrogativa (qua, ube, kande, etc.) no se coloca la partícula ka/kad. No te preocupes si ves que resultan un poco complicados al principio o si no está muy claro su uso. Tan sólo las hemos mencionado para que te vayas familiarizando con ellas. Las iremos viendo con más detalle en sucesivas lecciones. PLURAL El plural en los sustantivos ya se vio en la lección 1 (se forma cambiando la "o" final por una "i" sin excepciones). El adjetivo es invariable si va acompañado de un sustantivo, pero si no dispone de uno, se convierte en un sustantivo (se sustantiviza) y, por tanto, puede tomar el plural igual que un sustantivo: blanka hundi perros blancos nigra kavali caballos negros La blanki e la nigri los blancos y los negros No debe resultar muy sorprendente, puesto que es lo mismo que se hace en español en similares situaciones. Existe un artículo más que se encarga de marcar el plural cuando no existe otro signo que lo especifique. Se trata de "le": le yes e le no los síes y los noes blanka hundi perros blancos nigra kavali caballos negros le blanka e le nigra los blancos y los negros (forma alternativa a la vista antes) le blanka los blancos o las blancas le nigra los negros o las negras ALGUNOS COLORES Veamos algunos colores: blanka blanco purpura púrpura blua azul oranjea naranja bruna marrón reda rojo flava amarillo rozea rosa griza gris verda verde nigra negro violea violeta ALGUNOS ANIMALES Y algunos animales (recuérdese que se pueden referir tanto a machos como a hembras y que para formar la palabra masculina y femenina hay que añadir los sufijos -ul,-in respectivamente): anado pato krokodilo cocodrilo bovo vaca/toro leopardo leopardo cervo ciervo leono león elefanto elefante muso ratón gorilo gorila mutono oveja hano gallo/gallina porko cerdo puerco hundo perro tigro tigre kamelo camello simio mono kato gato urso oso kapro cabra volfo lobo kavalo caballo TIEMPO VERBAL DE IMPERATIVO El imperativo es la forma del verbo que se emplea para dar instrucciones o para ordenar. Anteriormente habíamos visto el presente (que terminaba en -as) y para formar el imperativo tan sólo hay que añadir la terminación "-ez": Drinkez! ¡Bebed! Manjez! ¡Comed! Irez a tua chambro! ¡Vete a tu habitación! EJERCICIOS VORTARO (exerco 1): a/ad a, hacia no no (rotundo) arboro árbol parko parque bona bueno/a policisto policía (persona) blanka blanco ponto puente bruna marrón rivero río ibe allí portar llevar, traer, portar irar ir ucelo pájaro jupo falda venar venir mala malo/a yes sí nigra negro Traduce de español a Ido y de Ido a español: 1. Soy, ¿soy? 1. Me es, Ka me es? 2. Él es, ¿es él? 2. Il es, Kad il es? 3. Tú tienes, ¿Tienes tú? 3. Tu havas, Ka tu havas? 4. ¿Soy bueno? No 4. Ka me es bona? No 5. ¿Eres hermoso/a? Sí 5. Ka tu es bela? Yes 6. ¿Está María llevando una falda bonita? 6. Ka María portas bela jupo? 7. Sí, ella está llevando una falda bonita y blanca 7. Yes, el portas bela blanka jupo 8. ¿Está el policía en el parque? 8. Ka la policisto es en la parko? 9. ¿Está él en el parque? 9. Kad il es en la parko? 10. No, él no está aquí hoy 10. No, il ne es hike hodie 11. ¿Tienes un perro negro? 11. Ka tu havas nigra hundo? 12. No, tengo un perro marrón 12. No, me havas bruna hundo 13. ¿Él está bebiendo. ¿Está él bebiendo? 13. Il drinkas. Kad il drinkas? 14. ¿Tienes un gato? 14. Ka tu havas kato? 15. Sí, tengo un gato blanco 15. Yes, me havas blanka kato 16. ¿Viene ella? 16. Kad el venas? 17. No, ella va al puente 17. No, el iras a la ponto 18. ¿Está bebiendo el pájaro? 18. Ka la ucelo drinkas? 19. ¿Está el pájaro sobre el puente? 19. Ka la ucelo es sur la ponto? 20. No, eso/ello no está allí 20. No, ol ne es ibe 21. Ella está comiendo. ¿Está ella comiendo? 21. El manjas. Kad el manjas? 22. ¿Está ella comiendo pescado? 22. Kad el manjas fisho? 23. ¿Está el pez en el agua? 23. Ka la fisho es en la aquo? 24. Sí, está en el agua y el perro también 24. Yes, ol es en la aquo, e la hundo anke Traduce de español a Ido y viceversa (repaso del empleo del plural): 1. Un gato, unos gatos, una mesa, unas mesas 1. Kato, kati, tablo, tabli 2. Veo el gato 2. Me vidas la kato 3. Usted ve los gatos 3. Vu vidas la kati 4. Los gatos están sobre las mesas 4. La kati es sur la tabli 5. El gato está durmiendo detrás de las flores 5. La kato dormas dop la flori 6. Los libros son negros 6. La libri es nigra 7. ¿A él le gustan la manzanas? 7. Kad il prizas pomi? 8. Los parques son bonitos 8. La parki es bela 9. A María le gustan las faldas blancas 9. María prizas blanka jupi 10. ¿Tiene una bonita falda? 10. Ka vu havas bela jupo? 11. Los peces están en el agua. 11. La fishi es en la aquo 12. Los policías no están gordos 12. La policisti ne es grosa 13. Los policías cazan a los jóvenes 13. La policisti chasas la yuni 14. Los ratones cazan al gato 14. La musi chasas la kato 15. Los pájaros están en los árboles 15. La uceli es en la arbori 16. Los pájaros están sobre los puentes 16. La uceli es sur la ponti 17. ¿Están los jóvenes en los árboles? 17. Ka la yuni es en la arbori? 18. Los caballos están bebiendo el agua 18. La kavali drinkas la aquo 19. Las flores están en la taza sobre la mesa 19. La flori es en la taso sur la tablo VORTARO (para ejercicio 3): danko gracias kafeerio cafetería dezirar desear, querer kuko pastel, bollo, torta durstar tener sed pregar rogar, pedir por favor hungrar tener hambre yen he aquí glaso vaso pekunio dinero glaso de lakto vaso de leche semblar ke... parecer que... Observa la siguiente conversación en la cafetería (Konversado en la kafeerio) y tradúcela de español a ido y a la inversa: P: ¡Buenos días, María!, ¿Cómo estás? M: ¡Buenos días, Pedro!, Estoy bien, gracias. ¿Y tú? P: Muy bien, gracias. ¿Tienes sed? M: Sí, tengo sed. ¿Dónde está la cafetería? P: ¡He aquí la cafetería!, ¿Deseas una taza de café? M: No, gracias. Deseo una vaso de leche, por favor P: ¿Tienes hambre? M: Sí, tengo hambre P: ¿Deseas un pastel? M: Sí, por favor. Me gustan los pasteles P: Hm...María... Parece que no tengo mi dinero...... Tienes.....dinero? P: Bon jorno, María! Quale tu standas? M: Bon jorno, Pedro! Me standas bone, danko. E tu? P: Tre bone, danko. Ka tu durstas? M: Yes, me durstas. Ube esas la kafeerio? P: Yen la kafeerio! Ka tu deziras taso de kafeo? M: No, danko. Me deziras glaso de lakto, me pregas. P: Ka tu hungras? M: Yes, me hungras. P: Ka tu deziras kuko? M: Yes, me pregas. Me prizas kuki. P: Hm...María... Semblas ke me ne havas mea pekunii... Ka tu havas.....pekunio? Responde estas preguntas comunes (se ofrece un ejemplo): 1. Quale vu nomesas? Me nomesas Jóse Pérez 2. Quale vu standas? Me standas tre bone 3. Ka vu ofte drinkas lakto? Yes, me tre ofte drinkas lakto 4. Ka vu havas bela domo? Yes, me havas bela ma (pero) mikra domo 5. Ka vu havas gardeno? Yes, me havas mikra gardeno 6. Ka vu havas kato? No, me ne havas un 7. Ka vu prizas kati? No, me ne prizas kati 8. Ka vu havas granda hundo? No, me nek (ni, tampoco) prizas hundo 9. Ka vu es en la parko? Yes, me es en la parko 10. Ka vu hungras? Yes, me es grosa e sempre hungras 11. Ka vu prizas kafeo? Yes, me tre prizas kafeo 12. Ka vu durstas? No, me ne durstas ma me hungras 13. Ka vu deziras kuko? Yes, me multe deziras kuko 14. Ka vu es bona? Yes, me es tre bona segun (según) me (según yo sé) 15. Ka vu prizas blanka musi? No, no, me ne prizas musi VORTARO (para ejercicio 5): apertar abrir sideskar sentarse donar dar staceskar levantarse (de una silla, p.ej.) irar ir kafeo café klozar cerrar tushar tocar pozar poner, colocar krayono lápiz levar alzar, levantar, coger adsur sobre, indicando el movimiento/acción de colocar sobre) Traduce de español a Ido: 1. ¡Levantaos! 1. Staceskez! 2. ¡Sentaos! 2. Sideskez! 3. ¡Abre la caja! 3. Apertez la buxo! 4. ¡Cómete la manzana! 4. Manjez la pomo! 5. ¡Abre el libro! 5. Apertez la libro! 6. ¡Abre la puerta! 6. Apertez la pordo! 7. ¡Cierra el libro! 7. Klozez la libro! 8. ¡Cierra la ventana! 8. Klozez la fenestro! 9. ¡Toca la silla! 9. Tushez la stulo! 10. ¡Toca la ventana! 10. Tushez la fenestro! 11. ¡Bébase su café! 11. Drinkez vua kafeo! 12. ¡Coge el libro! 12. Levez la libro! 13. ¡Levanta la silla! 13. Levez la stulo! 14. ¡Coge el lápiz! 14. Levez la krayono! 15. ¡Dame el libro! 15. Donez la libro a me! 16. ¡Pon la taza sobre la mesa! 16. Pozez la taso adsur la tablo! 17. ¡Pon el plato sobre la silla! 17. Pozez la plado adsur la stulo! 18. ¡Pon el lápiz sobre la mesa! 18. Pozez la krayono adsur la tablo! 19. ¡Pon el libro y el lápiz sobre la silla! 19. Pozez la libro e la krayono adsur la stulo! LECCIÓN CUATRO AFIJOS A estas alturas podrías pensar que has aprendido poco vocabulario, pero Ido posee una característica que lo convierte en un idioma potente para formar nuevas palabras a partir de las ya existentes. Para ello recurre al uso de afijos, esto es, partículas que se colocan delante o detrás del radical de una palabra modificando el significado inicial de ella. Los que se colocan delante de la raíz se llaman prefijos y los que se colocan detrás, sufijos. Además, puedes colocar tantos afijos en una palabra como desees, aunque, claro está, no es conveniente que la palabra resultante sea ilegible... EL GÉNERO Por ejemplo, la mayoría de las palabras en Ido poseen género neutro: kuzo primo o prima doktoro doctor o doctora frato hermano o hermana Pero ¿cómo obtener la forma masculina y femenina?. Ido emplea el sufijo "-ul-" para la forma masculina y "-in-" para la femenina Nemónico: -ul- viene de "maskula" (masculino) -in- viene de "femina" (femenino) Así, kuzino es prima, fratulo es hermano y fratino es hermana. Nótese que el sufijo se coloca entre la raíz de la palabra y la -o final (como sería lógico esperar puesto que lo que se obtiene es un sustantivo). Hay algunas excepciones, ya que hay palabras que se usan mucho y poseen una forma especial. Tal es el caso de patro -padre, matro -madre y genitoro/i -padre y madre/padres (como en "tus padres deben venir a esta reunión..."). Veamos más ejemplos: filio hijo o hija sekretario secretario o secretaria filiulo hijo sekretariulo secretario filiino hija sekretariino secretaria kuzulo primo doktorulo doctor kuzino prima doktorino doctora Cuando es necesario, el prefijo "ge-" indica género común (los dos sexos juntos): geavi abuelos y abuelas gefilii hijos e hijas Excepto "padres" que no es "gepatri", sino, como ya mencionamos, "genitori". Importante: El género no se suele indicar explícitamente en Ido, al contrario que sucede en español donde todas las palabras tienen género. Por tanto, emplea "-ul" y "-in" cuando quieras diferenciar claramente el sexo de una persona o de una animal: no emplees los afijos innecesariamente. POSESIÓN Para indicar posesión o pertenencia en español existe una forma muy fácil de conseguirlo. Por ejemplo, si Pedro posee un libro diremos "el libro de Pedro" o si mi esposa tiene un gato me referiré a él como "el gato de mi esposa". Como no podía ser menos, en Ido se emplea esta forma tan sencilla de expresar posesión, aunque se usa la palabra "di" en lugar de "de": la libro di Pedro el libro de Pedro la kato di mea spozino el gato de mi esposa CANTIDAD En Ido también existe otra palabra que se traduce por "de", aunque se emplea para indicar cantidad ("di" es sólo para posesión). Por ejemplo: "una taza de café" es una cantidad de café (no una taza que pertenece al café) "una pila de libros" es una cantidad de libros (no una pila que pertenece a los libros) Por tanto, para indicar cantidad se emplea la palabra "de"; así, tendremos: taso de kafeo stoko de libri Ten mucho cuidad de no confundir "de" con "di". Es cuestión de practicar un poco. Veamos algunos ejemplos más: una taza de té taso de teo la taza de té la taso de teo las flores de María la flori di María una caja de manzanas buxo de pomi una taza de café taso de kafeo un vaso de leche glaso de lakto un vaso de agua glaso de aquo una botella de vino botelo de vino un bote de leche botelo de lakto una familia de doctores familio de mediki las tazas de café de los dentistas la tasi de kafeo di la dentisti COMIDAS Para poder aumentar nuestro vocabulario veamos algunas palabras para comidas: butro manteca pano pan fabo haba pipro pimienta fisho pescado pizo guisante flor-kaulo coliflor rosto-pano tostada fromajo queso salo sal karno carne sauco salsa karoto zanahoria karno-sauco salsa de carne ovo huevo sociso salchicha kaulo col sukro azúcar konfitajo mermelada, confitura supo sopa kukombro pepino tarto tarta latugo lechuga terpomo patata margarino margarina tomato tomate mustardo mostaza torto pastel onyono cebolla vinagro vinagre Observa con detalle la siguiente conversación (algunas palabras ya se verán con más detalle en sucesivas lecciones): Dame un tenedor Donez a me forketo No tengo ninguna cuchara Me ne havas kuliero Este cuchillo no está afilado Ta kultelo ne esas akuta Pásame la sal Pasigez a me la salo ¿Podría pasarme el pan? Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? Lléveme una botella de cerveza negra Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro ¿Desea un vaso de cerveza inglesa? Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? Sólo bebo agua Me drinkas nur aquo ¿Es abstemio? Kad vu esas nealkoholisto? ¿Desea ensalada? Kad vu deziras salado? Aquí está una hermosa lechuga Yen bela latugo ¿Toma aceite y vinagre? Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? Aquí está la pimienta y la sal Yen la pipro e la salo EJERCICIOS VORTARO (exerco 1): avan delante de mediko médico che en casa/lugar de trabajo de staciono estación (de tren, autobuses) butiko tienda musino ratón hembra dentisto dentista musulo ratón macho familio familia nur solamente, sólo frukto fruta preferar preferir karno carne ruro campo, campiña karno-vendisto carnicero spozino esposa hundulo perro - macho spozulo esposo katino gata urbo población, ciudad, urbe kavalino yegua vendar vender kavalulo caballo vendisto vendedor kirko iglesia yunino chica ma pero yunulo chico mea mi, mío/a Traduce de español a Ido y viceversa (género): 1. María es una chica 1. María es yunino 2. Carlos es un chico 2. Carlos es yunulo 3. Él tiene un perro (macho) 3. Il havas hundulo 4. Una manzana es una fruta 4. Pomo es frukto 5. Solamente estoy comprando una gata 5. Me nur kompras katino 6. A menudo voy a la ciudad 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo 7. A menudo voy al dentista 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto 8. El carnicero vende carne 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno 9. Juan está en la consulta del doctor 9. Juan es che la mediko 10. Yo no compro eso en la consulta del doctor 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko 11. Su esposo se llama José 11. Vua spozulo nomesas José 12. Mi esposa va a las tiendas 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki 13. Hoy Ana va a las tiendas 13. Hodie Ana iras a la butiki 14. Ella está comprando carne para la familia 14. El kompras karno por la familio 15. La yegua no está en el campo 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. 16. Él está vendiendo el caballo en la ciudad 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. 17. A Pablo le gusta la carne, pero Antonio prefiere el pescado 17. Pablo prizas karno, ma Antonio preferas fisho. 18. No compro mi pescado en la frutería 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. 19. La iglesia está en la ciudad en frente de la estación 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. 20. Estoy comprando un ratón hembra blanco y un ratón macho marrón para ti 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por tu. Traduce de español a Ido y al contrario (posesión): 1. El perro de María 1. La hundo di María 2. La casa de Pedro 2. La domo di Pedro 3. El gato de la chica 3. La kato di la yunino 4. La carne del gato 4. La karno di la kato 5. La carne del perro 5. La karno di la hundo 6. El gato de María 6. La kato di María 7. El libro de María 7. La libro di María 8. La taza de mi esposo 8. La taso di mea spozulo 9. La familia del chico 9. La familio di la yunuli 10. La comida de la familia 10. La manjajo di la familio 11. El perro del chico 11. La hundo di la yunulo 12. La familia del doctor 12. La familio di la mediko 13. La casa del profesor 13. La domo di la instruktisto 14. Las chicas de este colegio 14. La yunini di ca skolo 15. El gato de Felipe 15. La kato di Felipe VORTARO (exerco 3): adube a/hacia donde (indicando movimiento) ol esto, ello neutro, (referido a objeto) askoltar escuchar a instruktar enseñar, instruir atraktiva atractivo/a instruktisto profesor biro cerveza skolo escuela bone bien (adverbio) teo té botelo botella vino vino do así, por tanto ca este, esta (adjetivo) li ellos/ellas (plural de ilu ,elu, olu) Traduce de español a Ido y de Ido a español: 1. Ellos/as enseñan bien 1. Li instruktas bone 2. Ella está mirando al chico 2. El regardas yunulo 3. Ella está mirando una botella 3. El regardas botelo 4. Ellos/as son unos chicos muy malos 4. Li es tre mala yuni 5. El chico tiene una botella de cerveza 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro 6. Los profesores de esta escuela son buenos 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona 7. Ésta es la botella de cerveza del profesor 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto 8. El chico y la chica están bebiendo la cerveza 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro 9. Ellos/as no escuchan y, por tanto, no aprenden 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas 10. La atractiva chica no escucha al mal profesor 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto Intenta traducir la siguiente conversación: P: ¡Buenas tardes, María!, ¿cómo estás hoy? M: Estoy bien, gracias. ¿Cómo estás tú? P: Muy bien, gracias M: ¿Dónde vamos? P: Vamos a la "taberna" (donde se bebe). La taberna se llama el Cerdo Negro Mis amigos dicen que es una muy buena taberna M: No sé dónde está el Cerdo Negro. ¿Dónde está, Pedro? P: Está detrás de la casa del señor Juan, el dentista M: Yo casi nunca (raramente) voy a esa calle P: Oh, yo voy a menudo a esa calle, y a menudo bebo cerveza en el Cerdo Negro. ¡Ah! ¡Aquí está!. ¿Deseas cerveza, María? M: ¿Tienes dinero? P: ¡Oh, sí!. Hoy tengo dinero M: Por tanto, deseo un vaso de cerveza P: Bon vespero, María! Quale tu standas hodie? M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale tu standas? P: Tre bone, danko. M: Adube ni iras? - (¿Adónde vamos?) P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Pedro? P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Juan, la dentisto. M: Me rare iras a ta strado. P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka tu deziras biro, María? M: Ka tu havas pekunio? P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro LECCIÓN CINCO PRONOMBRES PERSONALES Los pronombres personales se han ido viendo a lo largo del curso. Son los típicos "yo", "tú", "ella", etc. En Ido son muy fáciles y tienen la ventaja de que la misma forma sirve para actuar como sujeto, complemento directo y complemento indirecto (el uso como complemento directo e indirecto ya lo veremos más adelante; en cualquier caso, si no te acuerdas de qué es eso, no te preocupes, no hace falta saberlo). Son los siguientes: Singular me yo, me vu usted (se suele usar para trato formal) tu tú, te: más informal que "vu" lu él, ella, ello, lo, la (sirve para referirse a los tres géneros al mismo tiempo) il, ilu él, lo (sólo masculino) el, elu ella, la (sólo femenino) ol, olu (referido a cosas, neutro) él/ella/ello, lo/la Plural ni nosotros, nos vi vosotros, os li ellos, ellas, los, las ili ellos, los (masculino) eli ellas, las (femenino) oli ellos, los (neutro) Impersonal on, onu uno, se, la gente, ellos (persona indefinida, impersonal) Veamos algunos comentarios: * Las formas cortas como il, el, ol son equivalentes a ilu, elu, olu. * El disponer de un pronombre para referirse a las tres personas al mismo tiempo (lu, li) es muy útil en frases como: Si el lector desea más detalles, consulte (él o ella: lu) la página XXX. * El pronombre tu se emplea para mostrar afecto hacia la persona referida, con lo que se suele usar sólo en circunstancias especiales: a) entre la familia; b) entre amigos cercanos; c) al referirse a niños pequeños; d) quizás al referirse a un animal de compañía. En general, empléelo de la misma forma que en español. * El pronombre vu es la forma general para referirse a la segunda persona. Se emplea en todos los casos en que no se puede usar tu. * Nótese que la forma plural de tu y vu es vi para los dos casos. * El pronombre impersonal on, onu (ambas formas son válidas) se suele traducir por el pronombre impersonal "se" o por "uno", aunque depende de la frase. Siempre va delante del verbo. Se emplea cuando no se desea concretar el sujeto. Veamos algunos ejemplos: On manjas por vivar Se come para vivir On dicez to quon on volas Se dice lo que se quiere On povas ridar e kantar Se puede reír y cantar On vidas la steli On marchas lente On manjas pano Uno ve las estrellas Se anda despacio Uno/se come pan PRONOMBRES REFLEXIVOS El pronombre reflexivo para la tercera persona es "su", que significa a él mismo, a ella misma, a ello mismo, a ellos/as mismos (sólo para la tercera persona y tanto para el plural como para el singular): Il lavas su Él se lava (a sí mismo) Li lavas su Ellos/as se lavan (a sí mismos) Il dicas ke su standas malada Él dice que está enfermo (él mismo) Ili ed eli lavas su per verda sapono Ellos y ellas se lavan con jabón verde Para las demás personas se emplean los pronombres personales antes vistos, aunque funcionando como complemento directo (nada más fácil): Me lavas me Yo me lavo (a mí mismo) Tu lavas tu Tú te lavas (a ti mismo) Esto último puedes entenderlo fácilmente. La frase "Me lavas" significa "Yo lavo"; por tanto, para decir que "Yo (me) lavo a mí (complemento directo)" se dice "Me lavas me", que traducido literalmente quiere decir "Yo lavo a yo". EL TIEMPO VERBAL DE PASADO En las anteriores lecciones se ha usado el tiempo de presente con la terminación "-as" que indica que la acción está teniendo lugar ahora. El pasado se forma con la terminación "-is": El kantis Ella cantó, ella ha cantado, ella estuvo cantando Me manjis Yo comí, yo he comido, yo estuve comiendo Ni venis hiere Llegamos ayer La doktorino prenis la jurnalo La doctora cogió el periódico El pasado se emplea para referirse a cualquier acción que ha sucedido o que estuvo sucediendo en el pasado y, por tanto, puede ser traducido en español de formas diversas. Así, dependiendo del contexto, se podría traducir "me venis" por "yo llegué" o "yo he llegado" o "yo estuve llegando". Puedes pensar que todos los matices que se consiguen en español con el empleo de estas tres formas (en realidad también disponemos del pretérito imperfecto "yo cantaba", aunque no se suele emplear al traducir porque indica que la acción no está terminada, lo cual, en Ido no se puede expresar con el pasado simple) no están contemplados en el pasado simple. Sin embargo, sólo en contadas ocasiones sucederá esto y, para tales casos, existen otras formas de referirse al pasado que ya veremos en lecciones posteriores. En cualquier caso, la terminación "-is" es la forma más sencilla y conveniente de expresar el pasado. En la lección 9 veremos con más detalle el empleo de los tres infinitivos que, a priori, pueden asustar a más de uno. Sin embargo, ya veremos que son fáciles de emplear. Ahora sólo veremos la forma para el presente y el pasado. El infinitivo de presente de los verbos acaba en "-ar" (recayendo el acento en la última sílaba): kredar creer donar dar manjar comer El infinitivo de pasado acaba en "-ir" (acentuado): kredir haber creído donir haber dado manjir haber comido Nótese que para recordar la terminación sólo debes acordarte de que el presente acaba en "-as" y el pasado en "-is". ALGUNOS AFIJOS A continuación se listan algunos afijos (recuerde que se añaden a la raíz de la palabra, es decir, que en "skribar" la raíz es "skrib"): "-er-" - Alguien que normalmente hace algo, aficionado. También se emplea para animales o cosas que se caracterizan por una acción habitual: voyajero viajante fumar fumar (es el mismo infinitivo del español) fumero fumador fotografero fotógrafo aficionado reptero reptil remorkero remolcador "-ist-" - Alguien que hace algo de forma profesional. También indica pertenencia a una corriente de pensamiento/idea: koquisto cocinero instruktisto profesor skribisto escritor artisto artista dentisto dentista fotografisto fotógrafo profesional komunisto comunista socialisto socialista idealisto idealista idisto alguien que usa Ido ("idista") "-ism-" - Sistema, doctrina, grupo: socialismo socialismo Katolikismo Catolicismo "-an-" - Miembro de una comunidad, país, ciudad o cuerpo: partisano partisano Parisano Parisino Kanadano Canadiense societano miembro de una sociedad "-ier-" - Algo o alguien que se caracteriza por. También, en algunas palabras significa "que guarda", "mantiene": pomiero manzano roziero rosal milioniero millonario sigariero boquilla (donde se guardan los cigarros) plumiero lapicero "-id-" - Descendiente de, continuador: Izraelido Israelita rejido infante, hijo del rey "bo-" - Parentesco por matrimonio: bopatro suegro bomatro suegra bofilio yerno o nuera Como ya hemos mencionado a lo largo del curso, los sustantivos son neutros, con lo que para formar el masculino y el femenino debemos emplear los sufijos "-ul" o "-in", respectivamente. Al principio no había restricciones a esta regla, sin embargo se consideró conveniente añadir al idioma una o dos palabras muy comunes que sólo tienen un género (ya las hemos visto): patro padre matro madre viro hombre, varón muliero mujer ADVERBIOS Los adverbios son palabras que describen de alguna forma cómo, cuando o dónde se produce, produjo o producirá un hecho. Si tomamos el ejemplo "él trabajó", se podría decir "él trabajó" + "bien" o "mal" o "a menudo" o "rápidamente", y así sucesivamente. En español algunos adverbios acaban en "-mente", pero no todos. Sin embargo, los adverbios en Ido acaban siempre en -e. Además, se pueden formar a partir de los adjetivos cambiando la terminación -a por la terminación -e: dolce dulcemente rapide rápidamente facile fácilmente klare claramente bele bellamente vere verdaderamente Il skribas bele Él escribe bellamente Ni kuras tre rapide Nosotros corremos muy rápidamente (rápido) Hay también algunos adverbios que no son construidos a partir de adjetivos, pero que son muy útiles y se usan frecuentemente. Muchos los hemos visto ya, como por ejemplo: ibe allí anke también ante antes avane en frente (derivada de avan - en frente de) tre muy La granda domo esas ibe, e la butiko anke La gran casa está allí y la tienda también Las conjunciones y preposiciones en Ido no poseen una terminación específica, pero son fáciles de diferenciar por el uso que se les da. Así, tenemos algunas más como: o/od o ma pero También lo son en, sur, e/ed, hike. EJERCICIOS Traduce estas frases de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. Ella compra un libro en la tienda, pero él compra un periódico 1. El kompras libro en la butiko, ma il kompras jurnalo 2. ¿Está bien? 2. Ka vu standas bona? 3. Soy dentista 3. Me es dentisto 4. Usted es doctor/a 4. Vu es mediko 5. Eres hermoso/a 5. Tu es bela 6. Ello está en la casa 6. Ol es en la domo 7. Son buenos/as doctores/as 7. Li es bona mediki 8. Él tiene un/a bueno/a amigo/a 8. Il havas bona amiko 9. Estamos leyendo tus libros 9. Ni lektas tua libri 10. Ella aprecia las flores hermosas 10. El prizas la bela flori 11. Ellos están cazando los caballos 11. Li chasas la kavali VORTARO (por (para) exerco 2): vidar ver batelo bote sur es la preposición "sobre" maro mar kurar correr rivero río povar poder komprar comprar pano pan urbo ciudad komprenar comprender nun ahora trovar encontrar simpla simple automobilo automóvil havar tener di de, preposición (posesión) sordida sucio tradukar traducir frazo frase lernar aprender por el estudio volar querer Traduce de Ido a español las siguientes frases: 1. Vemos un hermoso bote sobre/en el mar 1. Ni vidas bela batelo sur la maro 2. Su perro es muy grande 2. Vua hundo esas tre granda 3. Ellos y ellas corren rápidamente al río 3. Li kuras rapide a la rivero 4. Vosotros/ustedes pueden comprar pan en la ciudad 4. Vi povas komprar pano en la urbo 5. Ahora comprendo, y encuentro que Ido es verdaderamente simple 5. Me komprenas nun, e me trovas ke Ido esas vere simpla 6. Tengo un perro rápido y bonito en mi casa 6. Me havas rapida e bela hundo en mea domo 7. Mi automóvil es rápido y grande 7. Mea automobilo esas rapida e granda 8. Mi perro está sobre la mesa 8. Mea hundo esas sur la tablo Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. Tengo un gran perro 1. Me havas granda hundo 2. La mesa de mi amigo es muy bonita 2. La tablo di mea amiko es/esas tre bela 3. Mi automóvil está muy sucio 3. Mea automobilo es/esas tre sordida 4. Ahora puedo traducir frases 4. Nun me povas tradukar frazi 5. Hoy comprendo Ido y quiero aprenderlo 5. Hodie me komprenas Ido e me volas lernar ol VORTARO (por exerco 4): parolar hablar ta ese, esa, aquel, aquella ja ya hiere ayer linguo lengua nur solamente internaciona internacional biro cerveza komencar comenzar evar tener edad studiar estudiar yaro año kelka un/os poco/s restar restar, quedar, permanecer dio día dum mientras, durante ante antes - referido a tiempo naskar nacer, venir al mundo nun ahora ibe allí trovar hallar, encontrar shak-ludero jugador de ajedrez ke que - conjunción amegar encantar vere verdaderamente voyajado acto de viajar viro hombre vizitar visitar hungrar tener hambre habitar vivir, habitar forketo tenedor Traduce de español a Ido y viceversa las siguientes frases: 1. ¿Tú hablaste? 1. Ka tu parolis? 2. ¿Ya aprendes la nueva lengua internacional? 2. Ka tu ja lernas la nova linguo internaciona? 3. Comencé a estudiarlo hace unos pocos días 3. Me komencis studiar ol kelka dii ante nun 4. Encuentro que es verdaderamente muy fácil 4. Me trovis ke ol esas vere tre facila 5. El hombre que habló 5. La viro qua parolis 6. Tengo hambre 6. Me hungras 7. Dame un tenedor 7. Donez a me forketo 8. ¿Ese es tu libro? 8. Ka ta esas tua libro? 9. La madre de mi amigo fue a Londres ayer 9. La matro di mea amiko iris a London hiere 10. Yo sólo bebo agua o cerveza. 10. Me drinkas nur aquo o biro 11. ¿Cuántos años tiene usted? 11. Quante vu evas? 12. Tengo 23 años 12. Me evas duadek-e-tri yari 13. ¿Está a menudo enfermo? 13. Ka vu standas ofte malada? 14. Debo estar en la casa durante dos días 14. Me mustis restar en la domo dum du dii 15. Nací allí 15. Me naskis ibe 16. ¿Eres un jugador de ajedrez? 16. Ka tu esas shak-ludero? 17. Nos encanta viajar 17. Ni amegas voyajado 18. Ellos/ellas visitaron Francia y Alemania 18. Li vizitis Francia e Germania 19. Vivo en una gran ciudad y ella (la ciudad) es muy bella 19. Me habitas en granda urbego, e ol esas tre bela VORTARO (por exerco 5): ek fuera de pro a causa de, por fabrikerio fábrica querar ir en busca de, buscar fantomo fantasma restar restar, quedar, permanecer foresto bosque tro demasiado/a heme en casa wiskio whisky malada enfermo nam porque, pues, puesto que, en efecto multa mucho/s pro ke porque nova nuevo/a Traduce de español a Ido: 1. Soy, fui, tengo, tuve 1. Me es, me esis, me havas, me havis 2. Estamos yendo, fuimos 2. Ni iras, ni iris 3. Él estuvo yendo, él fue, yo voy, yo fui 3. Il iris, il iris, me iras, me iris 4. Yo visité, él ha visitado 4. Me vizitis, il vizitis 5. Él comió, estoy comiendo, ella trabaja 5. Il manjis, me manjas, el laboras 6. Ella estuvo trabajando, El perro bebió 6. El laboris, la hundo drinkis 7. Él tuvo un gran pastel 7. Il havis granda kuko 8. Yo también bebí whisky 8. Me anke drinkis wiskio 9. Ellos leyeron muchos libros 9. Li lektis multa libri 10. Fui al bosque 10. Me iris a la foresto 11. Visité la fábrica 11. Me vizitis la fabrikerio 12. Fui a la nueva taberna 12. Me iris a la nova drinkerio 13. Estaba bebiendo whisky (el perro) 13. Ol drinkis wiskio 14. Fuimos hacia el jardín 14. Ni iris aden la gardeno 15. Bebí demasiado (y mucho) whisky 15. Me drinkis tro multa wiskio 16. El nuevo profesor os vio 16. La nova instruktisto vidis vi 17. Caminé fuera de la ciudad 17. Me promenis ek la urbo 18. El doctor estuvo en casa 18. La mediko estis heme 19. Mi perro fue en busca del doctor 19. Mea hundo queris la mediko 20. En el bosque vi un fantasma 20. En la foresto me vidis fantomo 21. Ella trabajó en la fábrica a menudo 21. El ofte laboris en la fabrikerio 22. Estuve enfermo a causa del whisky 22. Me standis malada pro la wiskio 23. Pero el doctor estuvo también enfermo y no vino 23. Ma la mediko standis anke malada ed il ne venis VORTARO (por exerco 6): ante nun hace (que hace tiempo, antes de ahora) letro carta fine finalmente omna-die todos los días horo hora pose después, más tarde ja ya saluto saludo kelka un/os/as poco/s/as sempre siempre komprenar comprender, entender skribar escribir kordiala cordial texto texto kurta corto/a traduko traducción laute en voz alta (adverbio) trovar hallar, encontrar lernar aprender dum durante, mientras ye preposición sin significado concreto: tradúcela según el contexto Traduce la siguiente carta en ambos sentidos: Carta: Sobre una lengua internacional: ¿Está ya aprendiendo la nueva lengua internacional? Comencé a estudiarla hace unos pocos días, e encuentro que es verdaderamente muy fácil. Todos los días leo un texto durante una hora; siempre leo en voz alta. Después hago una corta traducción y finalmente escribo una carta en la nueva lengua. ¿La entiende?. Con un cordial saludo, su amigo. Letro: Pri linguo internaciona (sobre lengua internacional): Ka vu ja lernas la nova linguo internaciona? Me komencis studiar ol ye kelka dii ante nun, e me trovas ke ol esas vere tre facila. Omna-die me lektas texto dum un horo; me sempre lektas laute. Pose me facas kurta traduko e fine me skribas letro en la nova linguo. Ka vu komprenas to? Kun kordiala saluto, Vua amiko. VORTARO (por exerco 7): chambro cuarto, habitación ma pero desneta sucio/a neta limpio dormo-chambro dormitorio netigar limpiar facar hacer nia nuestro/a fakte de hecho nun ahora heme en casa nur solamente hemo hogar plastiko plástico kande cuando puero niño de 7 a 15 años koquar cocinar restar restar, quedar, permanecer koquero cocinero shuo zapato laborar trabajar shu-fabrikerio fábrica de zapatos ledro cuero tota todo Traduce el texto siguiente en ambos sentidos: Mi Madre: Mi madre se queda en el hogar. Ella trabaja en el hogar. Ella limpia las habitaciones. Yo soy limpio, pero mi hermano es muy sucio. Así, mi madre a menudo limpia nuestro dormitorio. De hecho, mi madre limpia toda la casa. Ella también cocina para nosotros. Ella es muy buena cocinera. Cuando era niño, ella trabajó en la fábrica de zapatos. Ella hizo zapatos de cuero y de plástico. Ahora ella no trabaja en la fábrica, pero trabaja solamente para nosotros. Ella es una muy buena madre. Mea Matro: Mea matro restas heme. El laboras en la hemo. El netigas la chambri. Me es neta, ma mea fratulo es tre desneta. Do mea matro ofte netigas nia dormo-chambro. Fakte mea matro netigas la tota domo. El anke koquas por ni. El es tre bon koquero. Kande me esis puero, el laboris en la shu-fabrikerio. El facis shui ek ledro e plastiko. Nun el ne laboras en la fabrikerio ma el laboras nur por ni. El es tre bona matro. VORTARO (por exerco 8): rapida rápido/a multa mucho/a/os/as ecelanta excelente multe mucho adverbio) ecelante excelentemente treno tren Traduce el texto siguiente en ambos sentidos: 1. Él trabaja bien 1. Il laboras bone 2. Él enseña mal 2. Il instruktas male 3. El niño es bueno 3. La puero es bona 4. El profesor es malo 4. La instruktisto es mala 5. El tren fue rápidamente 5. La treno iris rapide 6. Ella cocina excelentemente 6. El koquas ecelante 7. Ellos aprecian (gustar) los pasteles mucho 7. Li multe prizas kuki 8. Vimos el rápido tren 8. Ni vidis la rapida treno 9. La cocinera es excelente 9. La koquisto es ecelanta 10. Él tiene muchos amigos 10. Il havas multa amiki VORTARO (por exerco 9): alumeto cerilla monato mes butiko tienda obliviar olvidar butikisto dependiente/a de una tienda pagar pagar certe ciertamente paketo paquete chanco suerte pro a causa de, por desfortunoza desafortunado pro quo por qué fino fin quon lo que helpar ayudar sempre siempre hiere ayer servar servir, atender kliento cliente sigareto cigarrillo kun con, en compañia de vakanco vacación matino mañana vetero tiempo atmosférico merkato mercado ye esta preposición se puede traducir por lo que quede bien Traduce la siguiente conversación (algunos elementos como "quon" ya se verán en lecciones posteriores): Conversación: En la tienda (B=Dependiente, M=María): B: ¡Buenos días, María!. ¿Qué desea? M: ¡Buenos días, señor Juan!. Deseo un paquete de cigarrillos y una caja de cerillas para mi madre, y también una botella de leche. B: ¿Paga ahora o al final del mes? M: Yo no pago ahora. Olvidé mi dinero. De hecho, Pedro lo tiene, y está en el mercado. ¿La señora Ana no le ayuda hoy? B: No, ella tiene vacaciones. Fue ayer a Londres. M: Ciertamente tiene buena suerte. El tiempo es hermoso/bueno. ¿Por qué no fue con ella? B: Por la tienda. Me quedo aquí y sirvo/atiendo los clientes. M: Los dependientes son muy desafortunados. B: Sí, siempre trabajamos. Konversado: En la butiko (B=Butikisto, M=María): B: Bon matino, María! Quon vu deziras? M: Bon matino, Sioro Juan! Me deziras paketo de sigareto e buxo de alumeti por mea matro, ed anke botelo de lakto. B: Ka vu pagas nun o ye la fino di la monato? M: Me ne pagas nun. Me obliviis mea pekunio. Fakte, Pedro havas ol, ed il es en la merkato. Ka Sioro Ana ne helpas vu hodie? B: No, el havas vakanco. El iris hiere a London. M: El certe havas bona chanco. La vetero es bela. Pro quo vu ne iris kun el? B: Pro la butiko. Me restas hike e servas la klienti. M: Butikisti es tre desfortunoza. B: Yes, ni sempre laboras. LECCIÓN SEIS PRONOMBRES INTERROGATIVOS Quizás algunas de las palabras que más se emplean en la conversación son los pronombres relativos e interrogativos. Como todos sabemos, en español estos pronombres son pocos, puesto que una misma palabra posee muchos significados (pensemos en "que"). En Ido tenemos el pequeño inconveniente de que no se puede simplificar tanto, con lo que hay que añadir algunos más, aunque no hay que alarmarse, puesto que todos se emplean de forma clara y lógica. Sólo con practicar unas pocas frases adquirirás práctica rápidamente. Comencemos por ver algunas frases comunes: Qua regardas me? ¿Quién me mira? Qua venas ibe? ¿Quién viene ahí? Qua amas il? ¿Quién lo ama? Con estos ejemplos puedes ver que "qua" significa "quién" (nótese que "qua" actúa como sujeto de la oración). Además, si sabemos que puede haber más de una persona, usaremos "qui", de forma similar a como empleamos "quiénes". Qui regardas me? ¿Quiénes me miran? Qui kantas en la teraso? ¿Quiénes cantan en la terraza? Qui amas il? ¿Quiénes lo aman? Lo que hemos visto sirve para las personas, pero en el caso de que nos refiramos a un objeto, persona o cosa desconocida (cualquier cosa o persona no determinado), emplearemos "quo" (se traducirá por "qué"): Quo es en la buxo? ¿Qué está/hay en la caja? Quo mankas hike? ¿Qué falta aquí? Quo eventis? ¿Qué sucedió? Adviértase que en Ido no es necesario cambiar el orden de la frase al preguntar como sucede en la pregunta "¿Quién es él?". En Ido se puede decir "Quo il es?" o "Quo es il?". Emplea una u otra forma según quieras. Es bueno que nos vayamos acostumbrando a hacer referencia a la "biblia" de Ido ("Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza") y en ella se dice lo siguiente: * "Qua" y su plural "Qui" se emplean al referirse a cualquier cosa o persona determinada (se conoce o se tiene una ligera idea de lo que puede ser). * "Quo" se emplea para referirse a cualquier cosa indeterminada (no se conoce) y, por tanto, no tiene plural, ya que si no se sabe lo que es, ¿cómo podemos saber si son varios?. Además, puede referirse también a una persona, puesto que si decimos "Quo falis? - ¿Qué cayó?", puede que cayera una persona o un objeto. A continuación tienes un pequeño cuadro resumen: Qua/Qui Persona(s) o cosa(s) determinada(s) Quo Cosa o hecho indeterminado Para preguntar por un lugar se emplea "ube" (hay más palabras para preguntar, aunque ya se verán): Ube tu habitas? ¿Dónde vives? NÚMEROS Veamos cómo contar del cero al diez: zero, un, du, tri, quar, kin, sis, sep, ok, non, dek. Con objeto de que no nos sorprenda, el verbo "esar" también se usa con el significado del verbo "haber" refiriéndose a existencia: "Hay tres manzanas sobre la mesa". Nótese que en este caso no se especifica ningún sujeto: Esas sis pomi en la gardeno Hay seis manzanas en el jardín. Veamos algunas frases sencillas (puedes intentar traducirlas): Tengo diez gatos Me havas dek kati Tengo un hermano Me havas un fratulo Nueve chicas me visitaron Non yunini vizitis me Mi hermano vio tres pájaros Mea fratulo vidis tri uceli ¿Quién tiene dos botellas de cerveza? Qua havas du boteli de biro? El perro se está comiendo cinco pasteles La hundo manjas kin kuki Ella no está comprando seis manzanas El ne kompras sis pomi Tenemos sólo cuatro zapatos limpios Ni havas nur quar neta shui ¿Hay/Están siete flores en el jardín? Ka sep flori es en la gardeno? La casa de María no tiene ocho ventanas La domo di María ne havas ok fenestri ALGUNOS AFIJOS Veamos un poco más acerca de la construcción de palabras (vortifado): "-ey-" - Lugar o espacio dedicado a algún objeto o acción. Se emplea en la construcción de muchas palabras comunes: pregeyo oratorio (pregar: orar) koqueyo cocina tombeyo cementerio kavaleyo establo hundeyo perrera viteyo viñedo También se emplea para otras palabras de naturaleza más general: lerneyo aula, clase (lugar donde enseñar) lojeyo lugar donde alojarse dormeyo dormitorio El significado de este sufijo es muy amplio, con lo que en muchos casos es preferible emplear palabras específicas para evitar confusiones: universitato universidad skolo escuela, en vez de lerneyo katedralo catedral kirko iglesia, en vez de pregeyo "-uy-" - Receptáculo, utensilio para guardar líquidos o cosas menudas: inkuyo tintero kafeuyo caja para el café (nunca cafetera) teuyo caja para el té (nunca tetera) sigaruyo donde guardar cigarros, cigarrera, petaca NOTA: kafe-krucho - cafetera, te-krucho - tetera "-i-" - Dominio o radio de acción: dukio ducado komtio condado episkopio obispado "-ed-" - Que contiene, lo que cabe en: bokedo bocado, lo que cabe o contiene la boca pinchedo un trago manuedo lo que cabe o contiene la mano El empleo de algunos verbos puede causar cierta confusión, aunque sólo es cuestión de ver cómo se emplean. En Ido disponemos del verbo "rezidar" (residir) que posee un significado muy genérico para indicar que se "reside" en un lugar concreto. Si queremos especificar más, podemos emplear alguno de los dos siguientes: lojar - vivir por un período de tiempo limitado (en la casa de otra persona, temporalmente, etc.). En español se dice "alojarse" y así lo traduciré. habitar - vivir permanentemente (en tu propia casa, etc.). Lo traduciré por "vivir" simplemente. Las siguientes frases son autoexplicativas: On lojas tempe (kurte) che altra persono od en gasteyo. Se vive temporalmente (brevemente) en la casa de otra persona o en un lugar donde hospedarse. On habitas permanente en propra o fixa domo. Se vive permanentemente en la propia o en una casa fija. On habitas urbo, che amiko, parento, en apartamento, en chambro, e.c. Se vive en una ciudad, en casa de un amigo, de un pariente, en un apartamento, en una habitación, etcétera. Observa atentamente la siguiente diferencia entre preposiciones ("dum" significa "mientras, durante"): Me manjis dum la nokto Comí durante la noche (a lo largo de toda la noche) Me manjis en la nokto Comí durante la noche (en una o más ocasiones distintas durante la noche) CONSEJO: Emplea "dum" donde quede bien la sustitución de "durante" por "a lo largo de". La conjunción "o/od" es la "o" del español. Recuerda que la forma "od" se emplea normalmente cuando la siguiente palabra comienza con vocal y la "o" cuando empieza con una consonante. ADJETIVOS CON MATICES Veamos ahora un poco más de construcción de palabras (vortifado). En este caso nos centraremos en adjetivos con matices (adjektivi kun nuanci), aunque también se pueden aplicar a cualquier tipo de palabra: "-al-" - Forma adjetivos con el sentido de "perteneciente a", "relativo (a)": universala universal racionala racional gramatikala gramatical nacionala nacional "-oz-" - Significa "lleno de", "que contiene", "rico en", "que hay": poroza poroso/a sabloza arenoso/a kurajoza animoso/a, valiente famoza fomoso/a nuboza nuboso, nublado "-em-" - Significa "inclinado a", "propenso": babilema hablador ociema perezoso/a laborema laborioso/a, asiduo studiema estudioso/a "-ik-" - Significa "carente de", "que sufre de", "enfermo de": artritiko artrítico alkoholiko alcohólico (paciente) kordiiko cardíaco anemiko anémico ftiziiko tísico "-atr-" - Significa "semejante", "similar a", "afín": sponjatra esponjoso haratra aspecto de pelo verdatra verdoso lanatra aspecto de lana, lanoso "-e-" - Significa "que tiene el aspecto o color de": rozea rosado violea violáceo musea color de ratón blankea blanquinoso LA FAMILIA A continuación veremos las palabras más comunes relacionadas con la familia (familio): avo abuelo/abuela fratino hermana avino abuela fratulo hermano avulo abuelo nepoto nieto/nieta patro padre nepotino nieta matro madre nepotulo nieto genitoro padres (los dos) onklo tío/tía parento pariente onklino tía spozo esposo/esposa onklulo tío spozino esposa kuzo primo/prima spozulo esposo kuzino prima filio hijo/hija kuzulo primo filiino hija nevo sobrino/sobrina filiulo hijo nevino sobrina gefilii hijo(s) e hija(s) nevulo sobrino frato hermano/hermana EJERCICIOS Escribe las siguientes preguntas en Ido y viceversa: 1. ¿Quién es él? 1. Qua il esas? 2. ¿Quién estuvo enfermo? 2. Qua standis malada? 3. ¿Qué hay/está en el jardín? 3. Quo es en la gardeno? 4. ¿Quién hizo el trabajo de Jorge? 4. Qua facis la laboro di George? 5. ¿Quién ama el viejo caballo/yegua? 5. Qua amas la olda kavalo? 6. ¿Qué se está comiendo mis manzanas? 6. Quo manjas mea pomi? 7. ¿Quiénes vinieron aquí con el perro? 7. Qui venis hike kun la hundo? 8. ¿Quiénes aprenden Ido en la escuela? 8. Qui lernas Ido en la skolo? 9. ¿Quiénes fueron al colegio con unos ratones blancos? 9. Qui iris a la skolo kun blanka musi? 10. ¿Quién visita a los amigos del viejo dependiente? 10. Qua vizitas la amiki di la olda butikisti? VORTARO (por exerco 2): laborar trabajar trovar encontrar, hallar sidar estar sentado Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. La taberna es tu lugar de trabajo 1. La drinkerio es tua laboreyo 2. Los niños están en el establo 2. La pueri es en la kavaleyo 3. Mi perro no vive en una perrera 3. Mea hundo ne habitas en hundeyo 4. Tenemos un estanque para los peces en nuestro jardín 4. Ni havas fisheyo en nia gardeno 5. La casa tiene una bonita cocina 5. La domo havas bela koqueyo 6. Los niños comen en el comedor (donde se come) 6. La yuni manjas en la manjeyo 7. Ella no encontró un asiento 7. El ne trovis sideyo 8. Mi casa es la residencia de muchos ratones 8. Mea domo es la rezideyo di multa musi 9. Ellos/as no encontraron un bebedero para los caballos/yeguas 9. Li ne trovis drinkeyo por la kavali 10. Ellos no tienen un dormitorio en la escuela 10. Li ne havas dormeyo en la skolo VORTARO (por exerco 3): armeo ejército posdimezo tarde, después del mediodía automobilo coche, automóvil soldato soldado biciklo bicicleta vespero tarde, velada divenar hacerse, volverse, llegar a ser ipsa mismo (yo/tú mismo) dormeyo dormitorio lito cama, lecho konduktar conducir milito guerra grandega enorme nokto noche kamionisto camionero pri acerca de, sobre kamiono camión dum durante, a lo largo de pos luego, después sen sin Traduce la siguiente conversación: Mi Padre: Mi padre fue soldado durante/a lo largo de la guerra. En el ejército él aprendió sobre automóviles y camiones. Él condujo camiones. Después de la guerra se hizo camionero. Él ahora conduce enormes camiones. Conduce durante la mañana y la tarde. A menudo conduce camiones durante la tarde-noche y la noche sin dormir. Cuando fui niño a menudo fui con él en el camión. Nosotros visitamos muchas ciudades. Durante la noche dormíamos sobre una cama en el camión o en un dormitorio/lugar de descanso para camioneros. Yo mismo no conduzco un automóvil. Soy demasiado joven. Tengo una bicicleta. Mea Patro: Mea patro esis soldato dum la milito. En la armeo il lernis pri automobili e kamioni. Il konduktis kamioni. Pos la milito il divenis kamionisto. Il nun konduktas grandega kamioni. Il konduktas dum la matino e dum la posdimezo. Ofte il konduktas kamioni dum la vespero e la nokto sen dormar. Kande me esis puero me ofte iris kun il en la kamiono. Ni vizitis multa urbi. Dum la nokto ni dormis sur lito en la kamiono od en dormeyo por kamionisti. Me ipsa ne konduktas automobilo. Me es tro yuna. Me havas biciklo. VORTARO (por exerci 4, 5 e 6): aparar aparecer plura varios/as autuno otoño printempo primavera brilar brillar somero verano ca este/a stelo estrella dop detrás de suno sol desaparar desaparecer tante tan horizonto horizonte ucelo pájaro jorno día, jornada (no la noche) uzar usar kantar cantar varma caliente, caluroso kolda frío/a venar venir kovrilo manta, tapa vintro invierno lana de lana sama ... kam mismo ... que luno luna quale como nepluse no más Traduce las siguientes preguntas en ambos sentidos: 1. ¿Qué hay/está aquí? 1. Quo es hike? 2. ¿Quién vive aquí? 2. Qua habitas hike? 3. ¿Dónde está mi cama? 3. Ube mea lito esas? 4. ¿Dónde está tu gato? 4. Ube tua kato es? 5. ¿Qué está en el camión? 5. Quo es en la kamiono? 6. ¿Quiénes son ustedes? 6. Qui vi esas? 7. ¿Quiénes son ellos? 7. Qui li es? 8. ¿Quién tiene unos enormes zapatos? 8. Qua havas grandega shui? 9. ¿Quién se aloja en el jardín? 9. Qua lojas en la gardeno? 10. ¿Quiénes tienen las bicicletas rojas? 10. Qui havas la reda bicikli? Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. Cuatro calurosas noches 1. Quar varma nokti 2. Nueve pájaros marrones 2. Non bruna uceli 3. Después de tres tardes-noche 3. Pos tri vesperi 4. Diez enormes madres 4. Dek grandega matri 5. Seis estrellas están brillando 5. Sis steli brilas 6. Ocho mantas de lana 6. Ok kovrili lana 7. Las mismas siete mantas 7. La sama sep kovrili 8. Dos soldados enfermos vivieron aquí 8. Du soldati malada rezidis hike 9. Cinco caballos/yeguas durmieron en este lecho 9. Kin kavali dormis en ca lito 10. Un fiero gato viejo estuvo debajo de la cama 10. Un feroca kato olda esis sub la lito Traduce el siguiente texto: Buenas noches: Durante el día el sol brilla. En la tarde-noche el sol desaparece detrás del horizonte. Los pájaros no cantan más. Ellos encuentran un lugar para dormir en los árboles y duermen. La noche viene. En la noche la luna aparece y las estrellas brillan. En la noche me voy a una cama y leo un libro durante una hora antes de dormir. Tengo una enorme cama que qua está en mi dormitorio. Mi habitación no es caliente durante la primavera y uso cinco mantas. Durante el verano el tiempo es caluroso y mi habitación no es fría. Uso solamente una manta. En el otoño el tiempo se vuelve frío. Uso muchas mantas. Uso seis mantas de lana. Durante el invierno el tiempo es tan frío que uso diez mantas, y mis dos grandes perros duermen en la misma cama que la mía. Bona Nokto: Dum la jorno la suno brilas. En la vespero la suno desaparas dop la horizonto. La uceli nepluse kantas. Li trovas dormeyo en la arbori e li dormas. La nokto venas. En la nokto la luno aparas e la steli brilas. En la nokto me iras a lito e lektas libro dum un horo ante dormar (antes de caer dormido). Me havas grandega lito qua es en mea dormo-chambro. Mea chambro ne es varma dum la printempo e me uzas kin kovrili. Dum la somero la vetero es varma e mea chambro ne es kolda. Me uzas nur un kovrilo. En la autuno la vetero divenas kolda. Me uzas plura kovrili. Me uzas sis lana kovrili. Dum la vintro la vetero es tante kolda ke me uzas dek kovrili, e mea du granda hundi dormas en la sama lito kam la mea (quale me). LECCIÓN SIETE EL TIEMPO VERBAL DE FUTURO El tiempo futuro se usa para indicar que algo sucederá. El futuro se forma con la terminación "-os": Me iros Iré Ni vidos Veremos Ube eli iros morge? ¿Dónde irán ellas mañana? Eli iros ibe morge Ellas irán allí mañana Dependiendo del contexto "me venos" se podría traducir como "yo iré" o como "yo voy a ir". MÁS NÚMEROS En la lección ya aprendiste los números del cero al diez. A continuación veremos los que nos faltaron para completar todos: 0 - zero 14 - dek e quar 70 - sepadek 1 - un 15 - dek e kin 80 - okadek 2 - du 16 - dek e sis 90 - nonadek 3 - tri 17 - dek e sep 99 - nonadek e non 4 - quar 18 - dek e ok 100 - cent 5 - kin 19 - dek e non 101 - cent e un 6 - sis 20 - duadek 124 - cent e duadek e quar 7 - sep 21 - duadek e un 200 - duacent 8 - ok 22 - duadek e du 400 - quaracent 9 - non 23 - duadek e tri 1000 - mil 10 - dek 30 - triadek 2000 - duamil 11 - dek e un 40 - quaradek 3700 - triamil e sepacent 12 - dek e du 50 - kinadek 1.000.000 - miliono 13 - dek e tri 60 - sisadek Date cuenta de que "-a-" se usa para "multiplicar" números y "-e-" se usa para "sumarlos". También puedes ver que cuando se usa la "a" se juntan las palabras y cuando se usa la "e" se separan (algunas veces puedes verlas separadas por guiones con objeto de dejar más claro qué es un número). El sistema de numeración es decimal. Así, el número 124 es "cent e duadek e quar", que, literalmente, se traduce por "cien y veinte y cuatro". Así, por ejemplo, 556 (cinco veces cien y cinco veces diez y seis) es "kinacent e kinadek e sis". Para los miles y los millones se trabaja igual. MÁS AFIJOS Veamos más afijos: "-il-" - Instrumento encargado de hacer lo que expresa la raíz de la palabra: pektar peinar pektilo peine skribar escribir skribilo algo para escribir: lápiz, bolígrafo, etc. brosar cepillar brosilo cepillo plugar arar plugilo arado pafar tirar, disparar pafilo arma de fuego barar obstruir barilo barrera fotografar fotografiar fotografilo cámara fotográfica Adviértase que hay nombres de instrumentos que ya poseen en Ido una palabra especial: klefo - tecla, llave, martelo - martillo. A partir de estas palabras se pueden formar sus verbos equivalentes mediante la adición del sufijo "-ag" que significa "actuar según indique la raíz": klefagar - cerrar con llave, martelagar - martillear. Como puede observar fácilmente los sufijos permiten muchas veces encontrar una palabra aproximada cuando la correcta no se sabe o no se recuerda (obviamente lo mejor es emplear la que corresponda en cada caso). Veamos algunos ejemplos de esto: VORTARO (por la exempli): mixar mezclar ludar jugar tranchar cortar apertar abrir brosar cepillar natar nadar fotografar fotografiar cuchillo tranchilo mezclador mixilo cepillo brosilo cámara fotográfica fotografilo aleta de un pez natilo juguete ludilo asa de una puerta apertilo cualquier cosa para nadar natilo MEDIOS DE TRANSPORTE Aquí tenemos un pequeño listado de algunos medios de transporte: aero-navo aeronave kamiono camión aeroplano aeroplano lokomotivo locomotora auto(mobilo) coche, automóvil motorbiciklo motocicleta balonego globo navo navío, buque, nave batelo bote omnibuso autobús biciklo bicicleta spaco-navo nave espacial dilijenco diligencia submerso-navo submarino furgono furgoneta, furgón treno tren fuzeo cohete vagono vagón helikoptero helicóptero EJERCICIOS VORTARO (por exerco 1): armoro armario juar gozar, disfrutar audar oír klimar trepar, encaramarse batar golpear, batir, pegar klimero trepador, escalador dansar danzar, bailar kolino colina dansisto bailador/a monto montaña, monte dop detrás, después morge mañana fumar fumar vilajo pueblo gustar gustar, degustar Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. Soy, fui, seré 1. Me esas, Me esis, Me esos 2. Tienes, tuviste, tendrás 2. Tu havas, Tu havis, Tu havos 3. Él está mirando, estuvo mirando, mirará 3. Il regardas, Il regardis, Il regardos 4. Bailas bien 4. Tu dansas bone 5. El coche es grande 5. La automobilo es granda 6. Te batiré/golpearé 6. Me batos tu 7. Le ayudaré (a él) 7. Me helpos il / Me helpos ad il 8. No estoy fumando 8. Me ne fumas 9. ¿Comerás hoy? 9. Ka tu manjos hodie? 10. El trepador vendrá 10. La klimero venos 11. ¿Bailaremos mañana? 11. Ka ni dansos morge? 12. Degustaré el pastel 12. Me gustos la kuko 13. Disfrutarás la cerveza 13. Tu juos la biro 14. El profesor estuvo fumando 14. La instruktisto fumis 15. Llegaré a ser un dentista 15. Me divenos dentisto 16. El tiempo es caluroso hoy 16. La vetero es varma hodie 17. ¿Nos fumaremos un cigarrillo? 17. Ka ni fumos sigareto? 18. El perro de Felipe oyó a la chica 18. La hundo di Felipe audis la yunino 19. Los pájaros cantarán mañana 19. La uceli kantos morge 20. El profesor no les oyó 20. La instruktisto ne audis li 21. Él no golpeará al pequeño perro 21. Il ne batos la mikra hundo 22. El bailador no bailará hoy 22. La dansisto ne dansos hodie 23. Él puso la comida en el armario 23. Il pozis la manjajo aden la armoro 24. El ratón gordo se comerá la manzana 24. La muso grosa manjos la pomo 25. ¡El cerdo no dormirá en mi cama! 25. La porko ne dormos en mea lito! 26. El camionero beberá el whisky 26. La kamionisto drinkos la wiskio 27. El fantasma no aparecerá durante el día 27. La fantomo ne aparos dum la jorno 28. El joven escalador ayudó al viejo soldado 28. La yuna klimero helpis (a) la olda soldato 29. Ella no trepará la colina detrás de la villa 29. El ne klimos la kolino dop la vilajo 30. El escalador escalará la montaña durante la noche 30. La klimero klimos la monto dum la nokto VORTARO (exerco 2): amorar amar lampo lámpara, luz banano plátano, banana letro carta ca este/a (adjetivo) letro-portisto cartero disko disco lia suyos/as, de ellos/as durstoza sediento/a onklino tía forketo tenedor pantalono pantalón klaso clase pendar colgar, suspender, pender gorilo gorila per por medio de, con hungroza hambriento plafono techo, cielo raso kantisto cantante planko-sulo suelo infanto niño (menor de 7 años) ta ese/a, aquel/lla kopiuro copia tir-kesto cajón, gaveta kuliero cuchara sua su/sus kultelo cuchillo NOTAS: (1) "Amorar" significa "amar" (el afecto que un hombre y una mujer sienten el uno por el otro). También existe el verbo "amar" que indica el afecto que una madre siente por sus hijos, o una hermana por un hermano, etc. (2) "Per" se emplea con el sentido de "por medio de", se puede traducir por varias preposiciones en español: Il batis me per bastono - Me golpeó con un bastón No debe confundirse con "kun" que significa "con" con el sentido de "en compañía de": Il iris kun el a la parko - Él fue con ella al parque Algunas veces "con" equivale a otra preposición en Ido: Havez pacienteso a me - Tenga paciencia conmigo Traduce de español a Ido y viceversa: 1. Veinte caballos/yeguas 1. Duadek kavali 2. Treinta niños 2. Triadek infanti 3. Cien cuchillos 3. Cent kulteli 4. Cuarenta y cuatro cartas 4. Quaradek e quar letri 5. Cincuenta y ocho cucharas 5. Kinadek e ok kulieri 6. Sesenta y tres copias 6. Sisadek e tri kopiuri 7. Noventa y un gorilas 7. Nonadek e un gorili 8. Mi madre tiene dieciséis gatos 8. Mea matro havas dek e sis kati 9. Su (de ellos) profesor tiene ochenta discos 9. Lia instruktisto havas okadek diski 10. Mi tía tiene setenta y un flores 10. Mea onklino havas sepadek e un flori 11. Mañana escribiré doce cartas 11. Morge me skribos dek e du letri 12. El gorila de mi tía se comió quince plátanos 12. La gorilo di mea onklino manjis dek e kin banani 13. Los treinta soldados durmieron en el suelo 13. La triadek soldati dormis sur la planko-sulo 14. Treinta y seis lámparas cuelgan del techo 14. Triadek e sis lampi pendis de la plafono 15. Setenta y seis carteros sedientos trabajan en esa ciudad 15. En ta urbo laboras sepadek e sis durstoza letro-portisti 16. Los cuarenta cuchillos estuvieron en el cajón de esta mesa 16. La quaradek kulteli esis en la tir-kesto di ca tablo 17. Hoy los niños de esta clase fumaron veinte cigarrillos 17. Hodie la yuni di ca klaso fumis duadek sigareti 18. Mi joven hermana encontró ciento dos tenedores en el armario 18. Mea yuna fratino trovis cent e du forketi en la armoro 19. Los novecientos noventa y nueve niños hambrientos golpearon la mesa con sus cucharas 19. La nonacent e nonadek e non hungroza infanti batis la tablo per sua kulieri 20. Los dos cantantes vendieron doscientas mil copias de su nuevo disco, "Te quiero" 20. La du kantisti vendis duacenta-mil kopiuri de sua nova disko, 'Me amoras tu' VORTARO (por exerco 3): chokolado chocolate partio fiesta demandar pedir una cosa, (no preguntar) prenar tomar, asir, agarrar donacajo regalo saluto hola komprenende por supuesto sukrajo caramelo kunportar traer til hasta ludilo juguete tua tuyo/a (adjetivo) nasko-dio cumpleaños vere verdaderamente, realmente nia nuestro/a (adjetivo) yaro año omna todo/a evar tener tal edad peco trozo, pedazo, pieza Traduce la siguiente conversación en ambos sentidos: Conversación: En la calle: A: ¡Hola, Juan! ¿Cómo estás? J: ¡Hola, Antonio! Hoy es mi cumpleaños A: ¿De verdad? ¿Cuántos años tienes? J: Tengo nueve años Tengo muchos juguetes: camión, coche, soldados y caramelos. Mañana tendré mi fiesta. ¿Vienes? Mi madre ya lo pidió/preguntó a tu madre A: ¿Mi madre dijo 'sí'? J: ¿Por supuesto! A: ¿Quiénes vienen a la fiesta? J: Todos nuestros amigos. Ellos/ellas traerán regalos. ¡Aquí están, coge un caramelo y un trozo de chocolate! A: Gracias J: Hasta la fiesta A: Hasta la fiesta Konversado: Sur la strado (A=Antonio, J=Juan): A: Saluto, Juan! Quale tu standas? J: Saluto, Antonio! Hodie es mea nasko-dio [nás-ko-dí-o]. A: Vere? Quante tu evas? J: Me evas non yari. Me havis multa ludili: Kamiono, automobilo, soldati e sukraji. Morge me havos mea partio. Ka tu venos? Mea matro ja demandis a tua matro. A: Ka mea matro dicis 'yes'? J: Komprenende! A: Qui venas a la partio? J: Omna nia amiki. Li kunportos donacaji. Yen, prenez sukrajo e peco de chokolado! A: Danko. J: Til la partio. A: Til la partio. Responde estas preguntas (en Ido, por supuesto): RECUERDA: Quakolora? ¿Qué color? Vespero Tardenoche Ube? ¿Dónde? Qua? ¿Quién? Che vu En su casa Quo? ¿Qué? Posdimezo Tarde 1. Quakolora es la pordo? - Ol es blanka quale nivo (blanca como la nieve) 2. Ube vu dormas? - En la lito kun mea amorata (amada) spozino 3. Ka vu dormas dum la jorno? - No, kompreneble ne. Me sempre devas laborar 4. Ka vu havas blua automobilo? - Yes, nam la blua esis chipa (barato) 5. Ka vu drinkas biro? - No, me esas anti-alkoholisto (abstemio) 6. Ka vu havas fisheyo che vu? - Fisheyo che me? Ho, no, ridinde (riéndose) no 7. Ka vu promenas en la nokto? - Promenar? No, me pavoras (tengo miedo) de la nokto 8. Ka vu laboras en la posdimezo? - Yes, komprenende. 9. Ka vu drinkas kafeo en la matino? - Yes, matine kafeo komplete vekigas (despierta) me 10. Quakolora es kafeo? - Generale ol es nigra ma bruna kande kun lakto 11. Ka vu iras a la skolo en la vespero? - No, me ne prizas skoli 12. Quo es sur la tablo? - Mea libri. Me lektas libri pri vasta (vasto, extenso) temi temas, materias) 13. Qua lojas che vu? - Nulu (nadie) lojas che me. Mea domo es tre mikra 14. Ube vu habitas? - En la strado di Ben-Yehuda 15. Ka vu havas fratino? - Yes, me havas un fratino LECCIÓN OCHO NÚMEROS ORDINALES Los números ordinales en español son irregulares en la mayor parte de los casos: del "uno" tenemos "primero", del "dos" - "segundo", "tres" - "tercero", "cuatro" - "cuarto", "cinco" - "quinto", y así sucesivamente. En Ido todos los números ordinales son regulares y se forman con la terminación "-esma" añadida a los números cardinales: primero un + esma = unesma (1ma) segundo duesma (2ma) tercero triesma (2ma) vigésimo duadekesma (20ma) centésimo cuadragésimo cuarto (144º) cent e quaradek e quaresma (144ma) Nótese que la terminación se añade a la última palabra que forme parte del número y no a todas como sucede en español. Los números entre paréntesis son las abreviaturas correspondientes. LOS MESES Los meses (monati) en Ido son los siguientes (entre corchetes se indica la pronunciación): januaro [ja-nu-á-ro] enero februaro [fe-bru-á-ro] febrero marto [már-to] marzo aprilo [a-prí-lo] abril mayo [má-yo] mayo junio [jú-nio] junio julio [jú-lio] julio agosto [a-gós-to] agosto septembro [sep-tém-bro] septiembre oktobro [ok-tó-bro] octubre novembro [no-vém-bro] noviembre decembro [de-cém-bro] diciembre LAS FECHAS Las fechas en Ido se expresan siguiendo estas reglas: 1. El número del día se expresa con un número ordinal. 2. La palabra para "de" es "di": la quaresma di mayo - el cuatro de mayo 3. El verbo "esas/es" se usa para indicar la fecha actual (como en español): Es la dek e nonesma di junio - Es el diecinueve de Junio 4. Ye" se emplea como preposición introductora cuando se debe mencionar un tiempo o lugar específico. Hay que tener especial cuidado con esto porque en español no suele emplearse una preposición: Il naskis ye la duadek e okesma di februaro - Él nació (en) el 28 de febrero RECUERDA: La preposición "ye" no tiene una sola traducción, sino que depende del contexto: debes usarla cuando no haya ninguna otra preposición que se adecue a la situación. UN NUEVO AFIJO Veamos un nuevo afijo: "-eri-" - Establecimiento donde se fabrica o se hace algo, según indique la raíz, aunque no necesariamente debe fabricarse o producirse: drinkerio taberna, bar agenterio agencia (agento = agente) fabrikerio fábrica lakterio lechería restorerio restaurante rafinerio refinería chapelerio fábrica de sombreros distilerio destilería NOTA: "-eri-" y "-ey-" se confunden algunas veces. El primero es un establecimiento, el último es un lugar. Por ejemplo: imprimar imprimir (verbo) imprimerio trabajos de impresión (incluyendo oficinas, etc.) imprimeyo la parte de los trabajos, el lugar/habitación donde se imprime ROPAS Algunas palabras para designar ropas: boto bota paltoto abrigo, gabán ganto guante pantalono pantalón kalzego pantis, malla subvesto ropa/vestido interior kalzeto calcetín surtuto [sur-tú- to] sobretodo kalzo media, calza vestono chaqueta de hombre robo vestido jupo falda jileto chaleco sharpo [shár-po] echarpe, chal shuo zapato korsajo [kor-sá-jo] blusa chapelo sombrero trikoturo pulóver jaketo chaqueta de mujer manu-sako [má-nu-sa-ko] maletín kamizo camisa subjupo [súb-jú-po] prenda interior femenina, combinación kravato corbata kalsono calzoncillo, braga MÁS SOBRE PRONOMBRES INTERROGATIVOS En la lección 6 ya tuvimos la primera toma de contacto con los pronombres interrogativos, pero no todo ha sido visto todavía. Así: Qua? ¿Quién? Qui? ¿Quiénes? Quo? ¿Qué? Qua manjas? ¿Quién está comiendo? Qui venis? ¿Quiénes vinieron? Quo facas la bruiso? ¿Qué está haciendo el ruido? En todos los ejemplos anteriores los "quién/es" o "qué" son los que realizan la acción indicada por el verbo. Sin embargo, como todos sabemos, hay situaciones en que los "quién/es" y "qué" reciben la acción del verbo: ¿A quién ves tú?, ¿Qué estás comiendo tú?. En estas dos oraciones el pronombre "tú" es el que realiza la acción (el hecho de ver o de comer). En el primer caso, "a quién" recibe la acción de estar siendo visto y en el segundo el "qué" recibe la acción de estar siendo comido. De la misma forma que en español colocamos o quitamos una "a" delante del "quién" para poder saber si preguntamos por la persona que recibe la acción o la que la realiza, en Ido existe una forma parecida de conseguir esto mismo. Para hacerlo, se añade la consonante "n" a la partícula interrogativa "qua" o "qui", según los casos, con lo que obtendríamos las palabras "quan" y "quin", respectivamente. Y con "quo" sucede lo mismo, llegamos a "quon". El uso de esta terminación de acusativo está motivado porque así se distingue claramente entre quién realiza la acción y quién la recibe. No es tan complicado como aparenta, puesto que para las personas es igual que en español y para las cosas tan sólo es cuestión de practicar unas cuantas frases: La viro quan tu vidis El hombre a quien viste Quin tu vidas? ¿A quiénes viste? Quon il dicis? ¿Qué dijo él? Me ne audis (to) quon il dicis No oí lo que él dijo NOTA: La palabra "to" se puede colocar o no, aunque lo normal es no hacerlo, cuando va justo detrás de un verbo. Como puedes notar, en español suele colocarse el sujeto detrás del verbo cuando se pregunta, sin embargo, en Ido no se hace esto: Español: Tú ves ¿A quién ves (tú)? Tú comes ¿Qué comes (tú)? Ido: Tu vidas Quan tu vidas? Tu manjas Quon tu manjas? PERSONAS Veamos algunas palabras para designar a las personas ("homi" - personas): viro varón adulto muliero mujer adulta homo ser humano/persona homino persona femenina homulo persona masculina yuno persona joven, chico/chica (de adolescente en adelante) yunino chica, mujer joven yunulo chico, varón joven geyuni personas jóvenes (chicos y chicas) puero niño/niña (de 7 años a la adolescencia) puerino niña puerulo niño infanto infante, niño/niña (hasta los 7 años) infantino niña infantulo niño infanteto bebé EJERCICIOS Traduce de español a ido y viceversa (práctica de fechas): 1. Es el cinco de marzo 1. Es la kinesma di marto. 2. Es el dos de enero 2. Es la duesma di januaro. 3. Ayer fue el quince de julio 3. Hiere esis la kinesma di julio. 4. Él no estuvo aquí el cinco de julio 4. Il ne esis hike ye la kinesma di julio. 5. Será el ocho de mayo mañana 5. Esos morge la okesma di mayo. 6. Será el nueve de junio mañana 6. Esos la nonesma di junio morge. 7. Fue el siete de agosto ayer 7. Esis la sepesma di agosto hiere. 8. Mi cumpleaños fue el uno de octubre 8. Mea nasko-dio esis ye la unesma di oktobro. 9. La carta vino el uno de febrero 9. La letro venis ye la unesma di februaro. 10. El sol brilló el veinte de noviembre 10. La suno brilis ye la duadekesma di novembro. 11. Los chicos no trabajarán el cuatro de abril 11. La yunuli ne laboros ye la quaresma di aprilo. 12. Mi madre vendrá el diez de septiembre 12. Mea matro venos ye la dekesma di septembro Traduce de español a Ido y a la inversa: 1. ¿Quién me ve? 1. Qua vidas me? 2. ¿A quién veo? 2. Quan me vidas? 3. ¿Quién puede (povar) verles? 3. Qua povas vidar li? 4. ¿A quién puede ver él? 4. Quan il povas vidar? 5. ¿Qué te gusta? 5. Quon tu prizas? 6. ¿Qué se comió mis zapatos? 6. Quo manjis mea shui? 7. ¿Qué hay en la caja? 7. Quo es en la buxo? 8. ¿Qué se bebió la leche? 8. Quo drinkis la lakto? 9. ¿Qué estás cocinando? 9. Quon tu koquas? 10. ¿Qué hay en la casa? 10. Quo es en la domo? 11. ¿Quién se está comiendo el pescado? 11. Qua manjas la fisho? 12. ¿Quién se está comiendo la carne? 12. Qua manjas la karno? 13. ¿A quién se está comiendo el pescado? 13. Quan la fisho manjas? 14. ¿Qué está comiendo el pájaro? 14. Quon la ucelo manjas? 15. ¿Qué les diste? 15. Quon tu donis a li? 16. ¿Qué le diste a Juan? 16. Quon tu donis a Juan? 17. ¿Quiénes aprecian/gustan las manzanas? 17. Qui prizas la pomi? 18. ¿Quiénes aprecian los pájaros? 18. Qui prizas la uceli? 19. ¿A quiénes vieron ellos? 19. Quin li vidis? 20. ¿A quiénes vieron mis amigos? 20. Quin mea amiki vidis? VORTARO (por exerco 3): adreso dirección, señas incendio-domo estación de bomberos antea anterior klerko empleado apud junto a, cerca de koquisto cocinero atesto certificado laboro trabajo bezonar necesitar lando país, región, comarca biblioteko biblioteca listo lista (sustantivo) bone bien (adverbio) livar dejar, abandonar, apartarse de un lugar brular quemar, arder naskar nacer centro centro onklulo tío cinemo cine rejala real, relativo a los reyes dil abreviatura de "di la" evar tener edad direte directamente serchar buscar, averiguar drinkerio taberna, pub restorerio restaurante eventar suceder, ocurrir staciono estación employo-agenterio agencia de trabajo tota todo, el todo fakte de hecho vartar aguardar, esperar homo hombre (como especie) ye preposición indeterminada, tradúcela por la que mejor corresponda hotelestro gerente de hotel fairo fuego hotelo hotel quanta? ¿cuánto(s)? - Ver NOTA 3 incendio incendio quante? ¿cuánto(s)? - Ver NOTA 3 kom como NOTAS: 1. "Konocar" significa "conocer, tener conocimiento de" con el mismo sentido que en español, es decir, cuando se conocer un lugar o a una persona: Me konocas María. "Savar" se usa cuando se sabe un hecho: "Me savas ke il es stupida". 2. "Evar" significa "tener tantos años" como sucede en: Me evas 51 (kinadek-e-un) yari. - Tengo 51 años. 3. "quanta?" es un adjetivo y "quante?" es un adverbio. Clarifiquemos un poco su uso: Quanta homi mortis? ¿Cuántos hombres murieron? Quante to kustas? ¿Cuánto cuesta esto? Quante tu evas? ¿Cuántos años tienes? Traduce la siguiente conversación en ambos sentidos: Conversación: En la agencia/oficina de trabajo (K=Empleado, A=Alberto): K: Buenos días, Señor A: Buenos días, Señor. Me llamo Alberto Pérez. Busco trabajo como cocinero. Aquí están mis certificados/documentos K: Hm. Alberto Pérez. Sí. ¿Cuál es su dirección? A: Vivo en el número 5 de la calle Couturat K: Hm, sí. ¿Cuántos años tiene? A: Tengo treinta y seis años K: ¿Y dónde nació? ¿En esta región? A: Sí, nací en Málaga K: Hm, sí. ¿Tiene familia? A: Sí, tengo esposa y tres niños. Mi tío también vive en la casa con nosotros K: Hm, sí. ¿Por qué dejó su anterior trabajo? A: Un incendio ocurrió en la cocina y el restaurante ardió. De hecho, toda la calle ardió K: Hm, hm, sí. ¡Espere! Buscaré trabajo para usted en mi lista. ¡Ah, sí! ¿Conoce el Hotel Real? El gerente del hotel necesita un buen cocinero A: No, no lo conozco K: Hm. ¿Conoce el centro de la ciudad? A: Sólo conozco el cine, las tiendas, la biblioteca y las tabernas/bares K: ¿Conoce la Calle Nueva? La estación está en la Calle Nueva A: Sí K: Bien, en esa calle está el Hotel Real. Está directamente junto a la estación de bomberos Konversado: En la employo-agenterio (K=Klerko, A=Alberto): K: Bon jorno, Sioro A: Bon jorno, Sioro. Me nomesas Alberto Pérez. Me serchas laboro kom koquisto. Yen mea atesti K: Hm. Alberto Pérez. Yes. Quo es vua adreso? A: Me habitas ye kin, Couturat Strado K: Hm, yes. Quante vu evas? A: Me evas triadek e sis yari K: Ed ube vu naskis? En ca lando? A: Yes, me naskis en Málaga K: Hm, yes. Ka vu havas familio? A: Yes, me havas spozino e tri infanti. Mea onklulo anke lojas en la domo kun ni K: Hm, yes. Pro quo vu livis vua antea laboro? A: Incendio eventis en la koqueyo e la restorerio brulis. Fakte la tota strado brulis K: Hm, hm, yes. Vartez! Me serchos laboro por vu en mea listo. Ha, yes! Ka vu konocas la Rejala Hotelo? La hotelestro bezonas bona koquisto A: No, me ne konocas ol K: Hm. Ka vu konocas la centro dil urbo? A: Me nur konocas la cinemo, la butiki, la biblioteko, e la drinkerii K: Ka vu konocas Nova Strado? La staciono es en Nova Strado A: Yes K: Bone, en ta strado es la Rejala Hotelo. Ol es direte apud la incendio-domo Responde las siguientes preguntas (questioni) referidas al texto anterior: 1. Quale la koquisto nomesas? - Il nomesas Alberto Pérez 2. Ube il esas? - Il esas en la employo-agenterio 3. Quon il serchas? - Il serchas laboro kom koquisto 4. Qua parolas ad Alberto? - La klerko ibe 5. Ube Alberto habitas? - Il habitas ye kin, Couturat Strado 6. Quante il evas? - Il evas triadek e sis yari 7. Ube il naskis? - Il naskis en London 8. Albert havas quanta infanti? - Il havas tri infanti 9. Quanta homi rezidas che Alberto? - Sis homi rezidas ibe 10. Quo eventis en la koqueyo dil restorerio? - Incendio eventis 11. Kad Alberto konocas la Rejala Hotelo? - No, il ne konocas 12. Qua bezonas bona koquisto? - La hotelestro di la Rejala Hotelo 13. Quon il konocas en la centro dil urbo? - La cinemo, la butiki, edc. 14. Ube la staciono es? - Olu esas en Nova Strado 15. Quo es direte apud la Rejala Hotelo? - La incendio-domo esas ibe LECCIÓN NUEVE UN PREFIJO Veamos un prefijo muy útil: "des-" - Construye la palabra contraria a lo indicado por la raíz: bona bueno/a desbona malo/a (= "mala") bela bello/a, bonito/a desbela feo/a (= "leda") facila fácil desfacila difícil chipa barato/a deschipa caro/a (="chera") freque frecuentemente desfreque pocas veces, raramente forta fuerte desforta débil harda duro/a desharda blando/a richa rico/a desricha pobre (="povra") fortuno fortuna desfortuno desgracia, infortunio helpo ayuda deshelpo estorbo, obstáculo honoro honor deshonoro deshonor neta limpio/a desneta sucio/a (= "sordida") ordino orden (de poner en orden) desordino desorden LOS TRES TIPOS DE INFINITIVO En español el infinitivo se identifica claramente porque termina en "-ar", "-er", "-ir", según la conjugación. Aunque pueda asustar al principio, en Ido se distinguen tres tipos de infinitivo. Veámoslos a continuación: RECUERDA: el acento recae en la última sílaba en los infinitivos El INFINITIVO PRESENTE de los verbos acaba en "-ar": kredar [kre-dár] creer donar [do-nár] dar PARA ACORDARTE: El tiempo presente acaba en "-as": me kredas [kré-das] - yo creo, me donas [dó-nas] - yo doy El INFINITIVO PASADO acaba en "-ir": kredir [kre-dír] haber creído donir [do-nír] haber dado PARA ACORDARTE: El tiempo pasado acaba en "-is": me kredis [kré-dis] - yo creí/he creído, me donis [dó-nis] - yo di/he dado El INFINITIVO FUTURO acaba en "-or": kredor [kre-dór] haber de creer donor [do-nór] haber de dar PARA PARA ACORDARTE: El tiempo futuro acaba en "-os": me kredos [kré-dos] - yo creré, me donos [dó-nos] - yo daré En Ido también se pueden construir las frases usuales "debo ir", "puedo ir" de forma similar a como se hace en español: "Me mustas irar", "me povas irar". En algunas ocasiones se emplea "por" delante de una infinitivo con el mismo sentido que en español: "Me laboras por vivar" - "Trabajo para vivir". El empleo del infinitivo en Ido es muy similar a la forma en que se hace en español, con lo que no es necesario hacer especial hincapié. Con los ejemplos irás comprobando lo fácil que es. Además, los infinitivos de pasado y de futuro son poco frecuentes, aunque hay que reconocer que son muy expresivos. TÍTULOS A continuación veremos cómo expresar los distintos títulos en Ido (entre paréntesis se indica la abreviatura): 1. Sioro (Sro) - Señor/Señora/Don/Doña/Señorito/Señorita Se usa para referirse tanto a una mujer como a un hombre, casado/a o soltero/a, independientemente de la edad. Por ejemplo, en una carta comercial: Estimata Sioro Estimado/a Señor/Señora 2. Siorulo (S-ulo) - Señor/Don/Señorito Se emplea cuando se quiere indicar claramente el sexo masculino. Puede referirse tanto a hombres casados como solteros. 3. Siorino (S-ino) - Señora/Doña/Señorita Idéntica explicación que en el caso anterior, pero para sexo femenino. Se emplea este criterio para distinguir entre miembros de la misma familia: Sro e S-ino Pérez Sr. y Sra. Pérez Hagamos hincapié en que "Sioro" sirve tanto para mujeres como para hombres, con lo que "Siorulo" y "Siorino" se usan sólo si se desea indicar claramente el sexo de la persona. El anterior ejemplo puede sonar raro en España, puesto que los apellidos de la esposa no se cambian por los del marido como sucede en otros países. Nótese que "Siorino" puede referirse tanto a mujeres casadas como solteras. 4. Damzelo (Dzlo) - Señorita Algunos ejemplos: Damzelo López, Yen S-ino e Dzlo Pérez Srta. López, Aquí están la Sra. y la Srta. Pérez La damzelo (qua esas) ibe La señorita de allí 5. Damo - Señora, Doña Esta palabra sólo puede usarse para referirse a una mujer casada o viuda: La damo ibe La señora de allí EN LA CASA A continuación se listan palabras muy comunes. No es necesario que las aprendas de memoria, aunque sí es interesante familiarizarse con ellas: En la domo - en la casa: avana-chambro habitación de delante garden-pordo puerta del jardín avan-chambro algún lugar delante de una habitación grado peldaño avana-pordo puerta frontal koqueyo cocina avan-pordo algún lugar delante de una puerta latrino letrina/retrete balno-chambro baño manjo-chambro comedor chambro habitación moblo mueble dopa-chambro habitación trasera plafono techo dopa-pordo puerta trasera planko-sulo suelo dormo-chambro dormitorio pordo puerta eskalero escalera salono salón fenco cerco, tapia tekto tejado fenestro ventana teraso terraza fluro rellano (de una escalera) vestibulo vestíbulo gardeno jardín EL CUERPO La homala korpo - el cuerpo humano: kapo cabeza muskulo músculo haro pelo, cabello osto hueso hararo pelo (todo) pelo piel fronto frente brakio brazo okulo ojo dopa-brakio [dó-pa-brá-kio] parte superior del brazo brovo ceja kudo codo orelo oreja avana-brakio [a-vá-na-brá-kio] antebrazo nazo nariz karpo muñeca vango mejilla manuo mano barbo barba polexo pulgar boko boca fingro dedo labio labio gambo pierna dento diente kruro muslo lango lengua genuo rodilla labio-barbo bigote tibio espinilla, tibia kolo cuello suro pantorrilla shultro hombro pedo-kolo tobillo pektoro pecho pedo pie dorso dorso, espalda talono talón mamo mama, seno plando planta del pie ventro vientre, barriga haluxo dedo gordo del pie tayo cintura ped-fingro dedo del pie hancho cadera EJERCICIOS VORTARO (por exerco 1): darfar poder (con el sentido de "estar permitido", "tener permiso", "tener el derecho de", indica también posibilidad)) povar poder (con el sentido de "ser capaz de") mustar deber, ser necesario, estar obligado a esforcar esforzarse, intentar savar saber komprar comprar televiziono televisión konduktar conducir volar querer ESTUDIA la diferencia entre "darfar" y "povar". Distingue también entre "mustar" (ser necesario, estar obligado a) y "devar" (estar obligado moralmente). Traduce de español a Ido y viveversa. Entre paréntesis se aclaran las posibles dudas cuando se emplea el verbo "poder" (aún así, deberías ser capaz de distinguir): 1. Debo ir 1. Me mustas irar 2. Debes venir 2. Tu mustas venar 3. Quiero saber 3. Me volas savar 4. Él no puede (no es capaz de) cocinar 4. Il ne povas koquar 5. Él quiere saber 5. Il volas savar 6. Él debe ser bueno 6. Il mustas esar bona 7. Él puede tener (tiene permiso) el perro 7. Il darfas havar la hundo 8. Puedo (ser capaz de) conducir un camión 8. Me povas konduktar kamiono 9. El médico no puede (no es capaz) venir 9. La mediko ne povas venar 10. Mi tío quiere comer 10. Mea onklulo volas manjar 11. Os podéis (tener permiso) comer las manzanas 11. Vi darfas manjar la pomi 12. A mi hermana le gusta cantar 12. Mea fratino prizas kantar 13. Ella puede (tiene permiso) comprarlo 13. El darfas komprar ol 14. Intenté cocinar la carne 14. Me esforcis koquar la karno 15. Me gusta visitar a mi hermana 15. Me prizas vizitar mea fratino 16. Intentaré escribirte 16. Me esforcos skribar a tu 17. ¿Puede (tener permiso) ver él la televisión? 17. Kad il darfas regardar la televiziono? 18. El joven quiere comprar este coche 18. La yunulo volas komprar ca automobilo 19. Ellos/as están intentando ver la televisión 19. Li esforcas regardar la televiziono 20. No podemos (no tener permiso) visitar al chico/a enfermo/a 20. Ni ne darfas vizitar la malada yuno VORTARO (exerco 2): an en (contigüidad) en contacto romano novela arivar llegar, arribar sempre siempre berjero sillón trans por, a través de binoklo gafas, anteojos vere verdaderamente chefa jefe, principal (adjetivo) vers hacia (en dirección a) chino chino (habitante de China) viro varón dineo cena ludar jugar agar obrar, hacer detektivo detective fairo fuego komfortoza comfortable, cómodo filiino hija du kloki dos en punto (hora) filiulo hijo misterioza misterioso/a formulo fórmula pedbalono fútbol forsar forzar pistolo pistola furioza furioso/a sekreta secreto ganar ganar sidar estar sentado ibe allí siorino señorita kande cuando sideskar sentarse karto carta, tarjeta de tempo a tempo de vez en cuando lasta último rakonto cuento, relato longa largo, grande, alargado vestibulo vestíbulo lore entonces sun-binoklo gafas de sol manuo mano tamen sin embargo, no obstante nam porque, pues, puesto que cirkum alrededor de, en las proximidades de nivo nieve dil - di la abreviatura de "di la" quale como sua su/s propio/s/a/as Traduce el siguiente texto en ambos entidos: Cuento para Niños: Ayer, después de la cena leí una novela a mi hija que tiene diez años. Mi hijo no estaba allí. Tiene catorce años y prefiere jugar al fútbol con sus amigos antes que escuchar la novela. He aquí una porción de la novela: 'Era una fría noche de invierno y la señorita Gato estaba en una cama bajo muchas mantas calientes. Sin embargo, en la cocina la lámpara brillaba. Allí, Enrique el hijo de la señorita Gato, y los tres detectives guardaban una fórmula secreta. Enrique y Konor estaban sentados en la mesa. Ellos jugaban a las cartas con Adolfo, un grueso gorila que llevaba gafas de sol. De vez en cuando Enrique comía plátanos y Konor y el gorila bebían cerveza. Enrique estaba furioso, porque, como siempre, el gorila ganaba. El último detective, que era un chino delgado y que se llamaba Wong, dormía en un cómodo sillón delante del fuego. Pero alrededor de la dos de la mañana, un hombre misterioso llegaba por la nieve en dirección a la casa. Forzó la puerta principal, fue a través del largo vestíbulo y entonces abrió la puerta de la cocina. En su mano tenía una pistola.' Rakonto por Infanti: Hiere pos dineo me lektis romano a mea filiino qua evas dek yari. Mea filiulo ne esis ibe. Il evas dek-e-quar yari e preferas ludar pedbalono kun sua amiki kam (antes que) askoltar (escuchar) la romano. Yen parto dil romano: 'Esis kolda nokto en la vintro e Siorino Gato esis en lito sub multa varma kovrili. Tamen en la koqueyo la lampo brilis. Ibe, Enrique la filiulo di Siorino Gato, e la tri detektivi gardis sekreta formulo. Enrique e Konor sidis an la tablo. Li ludis karti kun Adolfo, grosa gorilo qua portis (llevaba) sun-binoklo. De tempo a tempo Enrique manjis banano e Konor e la gorilo drinkis biro. Enrique esis furioza, nam, quale sempre, la gorilo ganis. La lasta detektivo qua esis magra chino e qua nomesis Wong, dormis en komfortoza berjero avan la fairo. Ma ye cirkum du kloki en la matino, misterioza viro venis trans la nivo vers la domo. Il forsis la chefa pordo, iris trans la longa vestibulo e lore apertis la pordo dil koqueyo. En sua manuo il havis pistolo.' Responde las siguiente preguntas sobre el texto: 1. Ka la suno brilis? - No, esis kolda nokto. 2. Ube Siorino Gato esis? - El esis en lito sub multa varma kovrili. 3. Ube esis Enrique e Konor? - Li esis en la koqueyo. 4. Quon la detektivi gardis? - Li gardis sekreta formulo. 5. Quon li ludis? - Du de li ludis karti. 6. Quo esis Adolfo? - Lu esas grosa gorilo. 7. Qua portis (llevaba) sun-binoklo? - Adolfo, grosa gorilo, portis olu. 8. Quon Enrique manjis de tempo a tempo? - Ilu manjis banano. 9. Qui drinkis biro? - Konor ed Adolfo. 10. Pro quo Enrique esis furioza? - Nam ilu perdis la ludo. 11. Quale la chino nomesis? - Lu nomesis Wong. 12. Quon Wong agis? - Lu dormis. 13. Ube Wong esis? - Lu esis en komfortoza berjero avan la fairo. 14. Kande la misterioza viro arivis? - Ye cirkum du kloki en la matino. 15. Quale la viro venis en la domo? - Ilu forsis la chefa pordo. 16. Quon il havis en sua manuo? - Ilu havis pistolo en sua manuo. LECCIÓN DIEZ PRONOMBRES Y ADJETIVOS POSESIVOS Hasta ahora sólo sabemos cómo usar los pronombres personales, pero ¿y los posesivos?, ¿serán nuevas y complejas formas?. No. Y lo que es más, en Ido no hay ninguna diferencia entre los pronombres posesivos y los adjetivos posesivos como sucede en español. Por ejemplo, un adjetivo posesivo es "mi" en "mi casa" (porque acompaña a un sustantivo) y "mío" es un pronombre posesivo en "el mío es mejor". Los pronombres y adjetivos posesivos se forman a partir del pronombre personal añadiéndoles la terminación "-a": Singular mea mi, mío/a tua tu, tuyo/a vua su, suyo/a, de usted lua su, suyo/a, de él, de ella, de ello ilua su, suyo, de él elua su, suya, de ella olua su, suyo, de ello (neutro) sua su propio/a (de él, de ella o de ello) Plural nia nuestro/a via vuestro/a, suyo/a, de ustedes lia su, de ellos, de ellas, neutro ilia su, de ellos (masculino) elia su, de ellas olia de ellos (neutro) sua sus propios/as (de ellos, de ellas o de ellos) Algunos comentarios: * Nótese que il, el, ol no toman directamente la vocal a puesto que las formas correctas son ilu, elu, olu: las formas cortas son simplemente una forma de abreviar. * Ya conocemos el pronombre reflexivo "su" que en forma posesiva es "sua" y que sirve tanto para el singular como para el plural de sólo la tercera persona. Por todo esto, se puede traducir por "su/sus propio(s)/propia(s)" y préstese especial atención al detalle de "propio/a", puesto que si no posee ese pequeño matiz no se puede emplear, sino que hay que recurrir a "lua/lia". Veamos algunos ejemplos de adjetivos posesivos: Me vizitis mea dentisto Visité a mi dentista Me prenas mea filii a la urbo Llevo mis hijos a la ciudad Hodie me vizitas mea dentisto Hoy visito a mi dentista El parolis pri sua vivo dum la festo Ella habló de su vida durante la fiesta Il vizitis sua matro Él visitó a su (su propia) madre El perdis ilua parapluvo Ella perdió su paraguas Li admiris sua chapeli Ellos/as admiraron sus (propios) sombreros Ili admiris elia chapeli Ellos (los hombres) admiraron sus (de ellas) sombreros Los adjetivos posesivos siempre implican un artículo definido. Así, mea amiko significa mi amigo, esto es, el amigo del que hablé (ya me he referido antes a él o el oyente ya sabe de quién estoy hablando). Para decir un amigo mío hay que decir amiko di me (en este caso no se refiere a uno en concreto, sino a uno cualquiera de mis amigos). Esto último no debería sorprenderte puesto que es lo mismo que se hace en español, ya que en realidad la expresión "amigo mío" es una contracción de "amigo de mí" provocada por el pasar de los años; o, al menos, eso creo :-). Y ahora podemos pasar a los pronombres posesivos que se emplean de la misma forma que en español, es decir, anteponiéndoles el artículo definido: La mea, la tua, la nia El/la mío/a, el/la tuyo/a, el/la nuestro/a La meo, la tuo, la nio El/la mío/a, el/la tuyo/a, el/la nuestro/a (ambas formas son válidas: la meo, la mea) Mea kavalo standas malada; prestez a me la tua Mi caballo está enfermo; préstame el tuyo Puedes preguntarte qué pasa si queremos indicar el plural. Pues nada tan sencillo como cambiar la "-a" final por una "-i" (OJO: sólo si NO les acompaña un sustantivo que ya indique el plural): la mei, la tui, la vui, la lui los míos, los tuyos, los suyos/de ustedes, los de él/ella/ello la ilui, la elui, la olui los de él, los de ella, los de ello (neutro) la nii, la vii los/las nuestros/as, los/las vuestros/as Ni havas multa libri Tenemos muchos libros La mei esas nova Los míos son nuevos La vui esas anciena Los de usted son antiguos La elui esas tre neta Los de ella son muy limpios La ilui esas sordida Los de él son sucios La tui esas tre poka Los tuyos son muy pocos La ilia esa bela Los de ellos son bonitos EL TIEMPO VERBAL CONDICIONAL Para completar los tiempos básicos nos falta el condicional. Para construirlo añade la terminación "-us" a la raíz del verbo: Me venus, ma me ne havas biciklo Iría, pero no tengo una bicicleta Il manjus Él comería El drinkus Ella bebería Con el modo subjuntivo hay que tener especial cuidado, puesto que no existe en Ido y lo más normal es traducirlo por un condicional: Me irus a la urbo se me havus la tempo Yo iría a la ciudad si tuviera tiempo Esto es así porque se está expresando algo que podría suceder hipotéticamente y, como en Ido no existe modo subjuntivo (que se encarga de expresar ideas de forma subjetiva, sin precisar si es exacto lo que se afirma) se recurre a usar el condicional. Recuerda que en todas las oraciones en que indiques alguna condición debes emplear el condicional. GRADOS DEL ADJETIVO Y DEL ADVERBIO En español los grados del adjetivo tienden a ser bastante regulares, aunque se presentan algunas excepciones. En Ido todo es regular: grande, más grande, el más grande granda, plu granda, maxim granda bello/a, más bello/a, el/la más bello/a bela, plu bela, maxim bela Como puedes ver, en Ido sólo hay una forma de establecer los grados del adjetivo: no hay irregularidades. Todos sabemos que los adjetivos disponen de tres grados: positivo, superlativo y comparativo. Veámoslos a continuación: Grado Positivo: El propio adjetivo: granda, bela, mikra, facila Me es leda Soy feo Grado Superlativo: Expresa la cualidad del adjetivo en su máxima intensidad. Distinguimos dos tipos: * Absoluto: Se forma con el adverbio "tre" (significa "muy") delante del adjetivo. Equivale a las terminaciones "-ísimo", "-érrimo" o, en general, a "muy": tre granda, tre bela, tre mikra muy grande, muy bello o bellísimo, muy pequeño o pequeñísimo Il esas tre brava Él es muy fiero * Relativo: Se forma con "maxim" ("lo más") o con "minim" ("lo menos") delante del adjetivo. Le puede seguir la palabra "de" para realizar comparaciones: "La maxim laborema **di/de(ek)** omni." (Esus bona korektigar ta dubito) ['di' indica pertenencia, 'me es la maxim laborema (filiulo) DI mea matro'. 'de(ek)' indica uno de una selección: 'me es la maxim laborema DE(EK) la dek personi'] La maxim laborema de omni El más trabajador de todos La maxim yuna de mea fratuli El más joven de mis hermanos La minim felica infanti Los niños menos felices Ol esas la maxim bela de omni Ello/eso es lo más bello de todos El es la maxim leda Ella es la más fea La maxim inteligenta de omni El/la más inteligente de todos/as La minim studiema de omna dicipuli El menos estudioso de todos los discípulos Facez minim posibla bruiso Haced (hagan) el menos ruido posible Grado Comparativo: Se emplea para realizar comparaciones: * De Igualdad: Se forma con las construcciones "tam ... kam" o "ne tam ... kam" ("tan(to) ... como", "no tan(to) ... como"): Me esas tam richa kam il Soy tan rico como él Il es tam leda kam me Él es tan feo como yo Ni esos tam richa kam li Seremos tan ricos como ellos Tam ico kam ito Tanto esto como aquello Tam bona kam bela Tan bueno como hermoso * De Superioridad e inferioridad: Se forma con las construcciones "plu ... kam" o "min ... kam" ("más ... que", "menos ... que"): Petrus esas plu forta kam Paulus Pedro es más fuerte que Pablo Ili esas plu kontenta kam eli Ellos están más contentos que ellas Il esas min felica kam me Él es menos feliz que yo Min alta kam la altra Menos alto que el otro El esas plu granda kam me Ella es más grande que yo El es plu leda kam tu Ella es más fea que tú Me esas plu yuna kam tu Soy más joven que tú * De desigualdad: Ya se ha visto "ne tam ... kam", pero también se suelen emplear las construcciones "plu multa kam" o "min multa kam" ("mucho más que", "mucho menos que"): Ni ridus plu multa kam li Reiríamos mucho más que ellos Plu multa fore kam la kazerno Mucho más lejos que el cuartel Eli kuras min multa kam ili Ellas corren mucho menos que ellos RECUERDA que la palabra "kam" es la que se emplea siempre que se realice alguna comparación. Por este motivo, se traduce en algunas situaciones por la "a" del español en: Me preferas ico KAM ito Prefiero esto A eso Aunque se ha visto la mayor parte de las comparaciones que se pueden hacer, también puedes construir las tuyas propias: Lo maxim bona posible Lo mejor posible La maxim granda nombro posible El número más grande posible La maxim bel infanto posible El niño más guapo posible Y lo mejor es que LOS ADVERBIOS SE COMPARAN IGUAL QUE LOS ADJETIVOS: Il lektas plu bone Él lee mejor El skribas tre bele Ella escribe muy bellamente (de forma muy bella) EDIFICIOS Algunas palabras para referirse a edificios (edifici): biblioteko [bi-blio-té-ko] biblioteca drinkerio [drin-ké-rio] taberna, pub fabrikerio [fa-bri-ké-rio] fábrica farmo-domo [fár-mo-dó-mo] casa de granja incendio-domo [in-cén-dio-dó-mo] estación de bomberos restorerio [res-to-ré-rio] restaurante urbo-domo [úr-bo-dó-mo] ayuntamiento muzeo [mu-zé-o] museo teatro [te-á-tro] teatro kirko [kír-ko] iglesia edifico [e-di-fí-co] edificio kafeerio [ka-fe-é-rio] cafetería kastelo [kas-té-lo] castillo katedralo [ka-te-drá-lo] catedral kazerno [ka-zér-no] cuartel laverio [la-vé-rio] lavandería staciono [sta-ci-ó-no] estación arto-galerio galería de arte dometo casa pequeña balno-baseno piscina faro faro policeyo comisaría de policía moskeo mezquita posto-kontoro oficina de correos palaco palacio hospitalo hospital gareyo garaje banko banco kontoro oficina butiko tienda templo templo cinemo cine kapelo capilla domo casa skolo escuela hotelo hotelo MÁS AFIJOS "-estr-" - Indica "cabecilla de, jefe de": polico policía policestro comisario, jefe de policía skolo escuela skolestro director de escuela urbo ciudad urbestro alcalde EJERCICIOS VORTARO (por exerco 1): alonge a lo largo de nazo nariz altra otro/a paketo paquete (pequeño) balde pronto obliviar olvidar balnar bañar, bañarse perdar perder desegnar dibujar, trazar repozar reposar filiino hija ruptar romper finar terminar, acabar sendar enviar, remitir ganar ganar spegulo espejo imajo imagen servar servir komencar comenzar tro demasiado lavar lavar voyo camino, senda, vía NOTA: "povar" - "ser capaz, poder"; "povus" - "sería capaz, podría". Traduce de español a Ido y de Ido a español las siguientes frases: 1. Comenzaría el trabajo 1. Me komencus la laboro 2. Ella perdería el dinero 2. El perdus la pekunio 3. Él rompería el espejo 3. Il ruptus la spegulo 4. Sus tías lo olvidarían 4. Lia onklini oblivius ol 5. Su (de ello) nariz sería demasiado pequeña 5. Olua nazo esus tro mikra 6. Ellos/as terminarían las bebidas 6. Li finus la drinkaji 7. Vendría pronto, si pudiera 7. Me venus balde, se me povus 8. Usted dibujaría otra imagen 8. Vu desegnus altra imajo 9. No serviría a otra señora 9. Me ne servus altra damo 10. El ratón se comería los plátanos 10. La muso manjus la banani 11. El hombre ganaría demasiadas (muchísimas) tarjetas/cartas 11. La viro ganus tro multa karti 12. La madre enviaría su (propia) hija 12. La matro sendus sua filiino 13. Olvidaría ir a lo largo del camino 13. Me oblivius irar alonge la voyo 14. Si pudiera, compraría otra casa 14. Se me povus, me komprus altra domo 15. El empleado comenzaría a trabajar si él pudiera 15. La klerko komencus laborar se il povus 16. María descansaría, pero no tiene tiempo 16. María repozus, ma el ne havas la tempo 17. Su (de ella) hija iría, pero el camino es demasiado largo 17. Elua filiino irus, ma la voyo es tro longa 18. Tú te bañarías en el río, pero está demasiado frío 18. Tu balnus en la rivero, ma ol es tro kolda 19. Lavaría el perro, pero no tengo el tiempo 19. Me lavus la hundo, ma me ne havas la tempo 20. Ellos/as enviarían el paquete, pero Juan lo ha perdido 20. Li sendus la paketo, ma Juan perdis ol VORTARO (por exerco 2): alta alto/a leda feo chipa barato mola suave danjeroza peligroso povra pobre fresha fresco plena (de) lleno (de) inteligenta inteligente pura puro interesanta interesante quieta quieto, tranquilo kontenta contento simpla simple, sencillo kurta corto stupida estúpido larja ancho vakua vacío Traduce de español a Ido y al contrario: 1. Los árboles son altos 1. La arbori es alta 2. Ese río es más ancho 2. Ta rivero es plu larja 3. Las manzanas son baratas 3. La pomi es chipa 4. Este trabajo es más sencillo 4. Ca laboro es plu simpla 5. Los plátanos son más baratos 5. La banani es plu chipa 6. Ese agua es la más pura 6. Ta aquo es la maxim pura 7. Esta caja está llena de plátanos 7. Ca buxo es plena de banani 8. Este camino es demasiado peligroso 8. Ca voyo es tro danjeroza 9. Él está dibujando la botella vacía 9. Il desegnas la vakua botelo 10. Ese niño está tan quieto como un ratón 10. Ta infanto es tam quieta kam muso 11. La carne está más fresca que el pescado 11. La karno es plu fresha kam la fisho 12. Mi casa es más alta que tu casa 12. Mea domo es plu alta kam tua domo 13. Su perro es el más fiero en/de la ciudad 13. Ilua hundo es la maxim feroca en la urbo 14. Ella es la chica más fea en/de la tienda 14. El es la maxim leda puerino en la butiko 15. Él es el profesor más pobre en/de esta ciudad 15. Il es la maxim povra instruktisto en ca urbo 16. La nariz de Silvia es más corta que la nariz de María 16. La nazo di Silvia es plu kurta kam la nazo di María 17. Ellos son los hombres más contentos de/en la taberna 17. Li es la maxim kontenta viri en la drinkerio 18. Este sillón es más suave que ese sillón 18. Ca berjero es plu mola kam ta berjero 19. Estoy leyendo el libro más interesante de la tienda 19. Me lektis la maxim interesanta libro en la butiko 20. Nuestra hermana es la chica más inteligente de/en esa escuela 20. Nia filiino es la maxim inteligenta yuno en ta skolo VORTARO (por exerco 3): al = a la a/hacia el/la komprenar comprender altra otro/a kredar creer apologiar disculparse omnibuso autobús kom como, que es autobuso autobús chera caro de precio) lasar falar dejar caer dejuno desayuno pano pan esperar esperar, tener esperanza parolar hablar maro mar pasar pasar facar hacer per por medio de forsan quizás quala? ¿qué?, ¿cuál? fru-dejuneto desayuno, almuerzo quale? ¿cómo? garsono sirviente, criado quik en seguida, al momento intencar tener la intención de sat suficiente ja ya sonar sonar, oírse una cosa jeristo administrador, gerente to eso, aquello (sustantivo) juar gozar, disfrutar telefonilo teléfono kelka algún, un poco neglijar descuidar, abandonar, tener negligencia kelke más bien, un poco adibe hacia allí/ahí Traduce la siguiente conversación en ambas direcciones: Conversación: En el hotel (J=Gerente, M=Señor Martín) J: ¡Buenos días, Señor Martín! Espero que pasara una buena noche aquí en el Hotel Real. M: Sí, suficientemente buena. Pero la cama no es muy suave. Está un poco dura. J: Discúlpeme. No comprendo por qué. Quizás alguien descuidó su trabajo. Le daremos otra habitación con una nueva cama. ¿Ha tomado el desayuno? Espero que disfrute de él. M: ¡De hecho no!. ¡Los huevos estaban fríos y el sirviente dejó caer algún (un poco de) café sobre mi pan!. Por lo tanto, tengo la intención de tomar mi desayuno en un restaurante. J: Hablaré en seguida con el sirviente. Otro camarero le servirá. M: Bien, quizás comeré aquí. No sé. Hoy visito el mar. Me gusta bañarme. Me voy de aquí en (por medio de) tren. J: Creo que el tren es caro. El autobús es más barato. ¡Oh!, ¡perdóneme! El teléfono suena. ¡Hasta la vista, Señor Martín! Konversado: En la hotelo (J=Jeristo, M=Sioro Martín) J: Bon jorno, Sioro Martín! Me esperas ke vu pasis bona nokto hike en la Rejala Hotelo. M: Yes, sat bona. Ma la lito ne es tre mola. Ol es kelke harda. J: Me apologias. Me ne komprenas pro quo. Forsan ulu neglijis sua laboro. Ni donos a vu altra chambro kun nova lito. Ka vu ja manjis fru-dejuneto? Me esperas ke vu juis ol. M: Fakte no! La ovi esis kolda e la garsono lasis falar kelka kafeo sur mea pano! Do, me intencas manjar mea dejuno en restorerio. J: Me parolos quik al garsono. Altra garsono servos vu. M: Bone, forsan me manjos hike. Me ne savas. Me vizitas hodie la maro. Me prizas balnar. Me iras de hike per la treno. J: Me kredas ke la treno es chera. La omnibuso es plu chipa. Ho! Pardonez a me! La telefonilo sonas. Til rivido, Sioro Martín! Intenta responder las preguntas referidas al anterior texto: 1. Quale nomesas la hotelo? - Ol nomesas la Rejala Hotelo. 2. Ka Sioro Martín pasis bona nokto? - Yes, sat bone. 3. Quala esis ilua lito? - Ol esis kelke harda. 4. Quon Sro Martín manjis kom fru-dejuneto? - Ilu manjis ovi. 5. Kad il juis ilua fru-dejuneto? - No, ilu ne juis ol. 6. Qua lasis falar la kafeo sur ilua pano? - La garsono. 7. Adube Sro Martín iras hodie? - Ilu iras a la maro. 8. Quon il prizas facar? - Ilu prizas balnar en la maro. 9. Quale il iras adibe? - Ilu iras per la treno. 10. Ka la treno es plu chipa kam la omnibuso? - No, plu chera. VORTARO (por exerco 5): butro mantequilla lenta lento febla débil margarino margarina forta fuerte piro pera grava grave, pesado preferar X (kam Y) preferir X (a Y) homo persona rapida rápido lejera ligero Responde estas preguntas generales (generala questioni): 1. Kad elefanto es plu granda kam muso? - Yes, multople plu granda kam muso. 2. Ka muso es plu lejera kam hundo? - Yes, plu lejera kam hundo. 3. Ka hotelo es plu mikra kam domo? - No, genarale plu granda kam domo. 4. Ka vu es la maxim grava homo en vua domo? - Kompreneble, yes!. 5. Ka treno es plu lenta kam biciklo? - No, treno es plu rapida. 6. Ka homo es plu forta kam gorilo? - No, homo es multe plu febla kam gorilo. 7. Ka butro es plu chera kam margarino? - Yes, margarino es plu chipa. 8. Ka vu preferas pomo kam piro? - Yes, pomo kam piro. 9. Ka la televiziono es plu bona kam la cinemo? - No, kompreneble ne. 10. Ka vu es la maxim inteligenta homo en vua familio? - No, regretinde ne. LECCIÓN ONCE DÍAS DE LA SEMANA Los días de la semana será lo que veamos ahora. En primer lugar se ha colocado el nombre que se usa para designarlos y en segundo lugar la forma adverbial (la que se usa para decir "en el lunes" o "en los martes"): lundio [lún-dio] lunes lundie ye lundio (en) el - los lunes mardio [már-dio] martes mardie ye mardio (en) el - los martes merkurdio [mer-kúr-dio] miércoles merkurdie ye merkurdio (en) el - los miércoles jovdio [jóv-dio] jueves jovdie ye jovdio (en) el - los jueves venerdio [ve-nér-dio] viernes venerdie ye venerdio (en) el - los viernes saturdio [sa-túr-dio] sábado saturdie ye saturdio (en) el - los sábado(s) sundio [sún-dio] domingo sundie ye sundio (en) el - los domingo(s) La forma adverbial puede parecerte algo rara, aunque no es lo mismo referirse a "un lunes" como día que a "los lunes" como momento, tiempo u ocasión en que se hace/sucede algo. Con los ejercicios se aclara su uso. LA HORA La palabra española "hora" se traduce en Ido por "kloko" cuando se está preguntando por la hora del reloj: Qua kloko esas? ¿Qué hora es? Qua kloko sonas? ¿Qué hora suena? (refiriéndose al reloj) Esas un kloko Es la una Sep kloki e quarimo Las siete y cuarto Dek kloko e duimo Las diez y media Es tri kloki Son las tres Es non kloki Son las nueve Ye un kloko A la una (para indicar una cita, por ejemplo) Ye sep kloki A las siete Algunos comentarios: * "kloko" es un sustantivo y se pluraliza cuando se indica una hora superior a "la una": un kloko, du kloki, tri kloki, etc. * En Ido es normal emplear el sistema de 24 horas: duadek kloki - las ocho de la tarde (las veinte horas). Por ahora sólo vamos a ver esta forma sencilla de expresar la hora. PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS En lecciones anteriores hemos visto los pronombres interrogativos, ahora es el turno de los pronombres relativos que, en general, son idénticos en su uso: Singular la yunino QUA amoras me la chica QUE (LA CUAL) me ama la hundo QUA atakis me el perro QUE (EL CUAL) me atacó Plural la yunini QUI amoras me las chicas QUE (LAS CUALES) me aman la hundi QUI atakis me los perros QUE (LOS CUALES) me atacaron (En estas oraciones el relativo "QUE" es el sujeto de la segunda oración) Las palabras "qua" y "qui" se usan para reemplazar un ser (persona, objeto, etc.) indicado por un sustantivo, que se menciona inmediatamente antes. Permiten hacer referencia a tal objeto o persona sin volver a mencionarlo, y agregarle alguna nueva característica: La yunino QUA amoras me ne venis a la festo La chica que me ama no vino a la fiesta ("qua" se refiere a "yunino" de la que decimos que no vino a la fiesta) La hundo QUA atakis me apartenas al vicino El perro que me atacó pertenece al vecino ("qua" se refiere a "hundo", del que decimos que pertenece al vecino). Si el sustantivo al que hacemos referencia está en plural, se utiliza "qui" en lugar de 'qua': La yunini QUI amoras me... las chicas que me aman... :-) La hundi QUI atakis me... los perros que me atacaron ... Algunos comentarios y consejos (aunque creo que son un poco complicadillos... :-): * Observa que en español los relativos se pueden sustituir por "el/la/los/las cual/cuales", mientras que los pronombres interrogativos NO. * Date cuenta de que sólo hemos mencionado QUA/QUI, que se emplea cuando nos referimos a personas o cosas que se mencionaron antes (igual que en los interrogativos). Si nos queremos referir a cosa(s) u objeto(s) indeterminados, usaremos QUO (en lecciones posteriores veremos esto con más detalle): To quo on facis rezultos eroro Aquello/lo que se hizo resultará un error * En los ejemplos se observa que QUA se usa cuando se refiere a una persona o cosa ya mencionada y QUI cuando se refiere a varias personas o cosas ya mencionadas. * Para recordar los relativos haz lo mismo que con los interrogativos, sin embargo, los relativos, normalmente, se emplean cuando se habla de una persona o cosa determinada, esto es, que ya hemos hecho referencia a ella anteriormente, con lo que lo más común es emplear la forma QUA/QUI. Así, la forma QUO (refiriéndose a cosas u objetos indeterminados) se emplea con menos frecuencia y suele ser en frases del tipo "lo que digo es..." que ya se verán en siguientes lecciones. De forma parecida a como sucedía con los interrogativos, si el pronombre relativo es el que recibe la acción de la segunda oración, se debe añadir la terminación "-n": Singular la yunino QUAN amoras me la chica A LA QUE (A LA CUAL) yo amo la hundo QUAN atakis me el perro AL QUE (AL CUAL) yo ataqué Plural la yunini QUIN amoras me las chicas A LAS QUE (A LAS CUALES) amo la hundi QUIN atakis me los perros A LOS QUE (A LOS CUALES) yo ataqué (En estas oraciones el sujeto es "YO" y es el que realiza la acción sobre "QUE") Algunos comentarios y consejos: * El añadir la terminación "-N" a los relativos resulta muy fácil, puesto que en español, normalmente, el equivalente a esto es añadir la "A" delante del relativo (aunque esto sólo sirve para las personas). * En español se puede omitir el artículo "el/la/los/las", sin embargo, es un buen método usarlo al traducir, ya que si se emplea en singular (el/la) utilizaremos "QUAN" y si se hace en plural (los/las) utilizaremos "QUIN". * Pensarás que hay otro uso del "que" en español y es cierto: es la conjunción "que" que se traduce a Ido por "ke". Se emplea cuando la acción del primer verbo no afecta directamente a nada ni a nadie de la segunda parte de la oración: Él dice "que" está enfermo Il dicas "ke" il es malada Creo "que" no iré Me kredas "ke" me ne iros TRUCO: Emplea el "ke" cuando la segunda oración se pueda sustituir por "algo": "Él dice algo", "Creo algo", etc. PAÍSES Con objeto de que dispongan de una forma más internacional, los nombres de los países y de los continentes son una excepción a la regla, según la cual, todos los sustantivos singulares deben terminar en "-o". Así, podemos clasificar estos nombres en varios grupos: * Una gran parte de los países disponen de una forma internacional latinizada que acaba en "-a" o en "-ia": Hispania Italia Usa Yugoslavia Austria Andora Angola Chinia Japonia * Muchos países, incluyendo algunos de reciente aparición, son conocidos en el mundo por sus nombres nacionales y el acento recae, normalmente, en la última sílaba, tal y como si terminaran en "-ia": Peru [pe-rú] Portugal [por-tu-gál] Pakistan [pa-kis-tán] Viet Nam [viet-nám] Chili (excepción) [chí-li] * Los países que terminan en "-land" toman la "-o" normal: Finlando. PENSAR Para el verbo "pensar" y para todos aquellos verbos que se refieren, de algún modo, a este acto, vamos a aclarar un poco su uso (se asemeja mucho al español): Pensar Pensar (usar el cerebro) Me pensas pri María Estoy pensando en María Opinionar Opinar (tener una determinada opinión) Me opinionas ke el es bela Opino que ella es hermosa Kredar Creer (se puede usar también en lugar de "opinionar") Me kredas ke la buxo es vakua Creo que la caja está vacía EJERCICIOS VORTARO (por exerco 1): furtisto ladrón horlojeto reloj policestro comisario, jefe de policía envenar venir dentro, entrar falar caer de de, desde (indica origen y materia o contenido) Traduce de español a Ido y de Ido a español: 1. (En) Los domingos no trabajamos 1. Ye sundio ni ne laboras 2. Ella aprecia mucho los martes 2. El prizas multe mardii 3. El lunes fui a Londres 3. Lundie me iris a London 4. Él no vendrá el jueves 4. Il ne venos ye lundio 5. Permanecí en cama el jueves 5. Me restis en lito jovdie 6. El miércoles iré a París 6. Merkurdie me iros a Paris 7. ¿Comprarás la comida el domingo? 7. Ka tu kompros la manjajo ye sundio? 8. Nací un viernes, el ocho de mayo 8. Me naskis ye venerdio, la okesma di mayo 9. Ellos/as desaparecieron el jueves en el cine 9. Li desaparis ye jovdio en la cinemo 10. El lunes un ladrón robó el reloj del comisario 10. Ye lundio furtisto pren-ganis la horlojeto di la policestro Traduce de español a Ido y de Ido a español: 1. ¿Qué hora es? 1. Qua kloko es? 2. Son las tres (en punto) 2. Es tri kloki 3. Comisteis a las cinco 3. Vi manjis ye kin kloki 4. No, él viene a las nueve 4. No, il venas ye non kloki 5. Comencé a trabajar a las siete 5. Me komencis laborar ye sep kloki 6. A las diez me caí de mi cama 6. Ye dek kloki me falis de mea lito 7. A las dos encontraron la cafetería 7. Ye du kloki li trovis la kafeerio 8. ¿Viene el cartero a las ocho? 8. Ka la letro-portisto venas ye ok kloki? 9. Eran las seis cuando su hermana (de ellos) entró 9. Esis sis kloki kande lia filiino envenis 10. A las cuatro, el lunes, treinta de agosto ella nació 10. Ye quar kloki, lundie, la triadekesma di agosto el naskis Traduce el siguiente texto: EL VIAJE: Llegué a la estación. El carruaje paró. El portero se acercó. "¿A dónde va usted?", preguntó. "Voy a París", respondí. "¿Tiene su billete?" - "¡No!" - "Vaya a comprarlo en la taquilla". Pagué al conductor (del carruaje). Le di una propina. "¡Rápido!" gritó el portero. "El tren partirá sin usted" "¡Deben vender los billetes más rápido! Quiero comprar un periódico. ¿Dónde está el quiosco? ¡Oh no! He perdido mi cartera/monedero!" Son las tres. El tren parte. Mi baúl está en el vagón de equipajes/paquetes. Dije a mi baúl con el corazón: "¡Hasta la vista!" LA VOYAJO: Me arivis a la staciono. La veturo haltis. Portisto (portero) advenis. "Adube vu iras?" il questionis. "Me iras a Paris." me respondis. "Ka vu havas vua bilieto?" - "No!" - "Venez komprar ol en la kontoro." Me pagis la veturisto. Me donis ad il gratifikuro (propina). "Hastez!" klamis la portisto. La treno departos sen vu." "On devas vendar la bilieti plu rapide! Me volus komprar jurnalo. Ube esas la jurnal-vendeyo? Ho no! Me perdabis mea monetuyo (cartera)!" Esas tri kloki. La treno departas. Mea kofro (baúl) esas en la pako-vagono. Me dicis en la kordio a mea kofro: "Til la rivido!" Traduce en ambos sentidos: 1. ¿Qué pasó/sucedió? 1. Quo eventis? 2. ¿Quiénes hablaron? 2. Qui parolis? 3. ¿Quién está allí? 3. Qua esas ibe? 4. ¿A quién vio usted? 4. Quin vu vidas? 5. ¿Qué dijo él? 5. Quon il dicis? 6. El hombre que/el cual habló 6. La viro qua parolis 7. Los hombres que/los cuales hablaron 7. La viri qui parolis 8. El hombre a quien usted vio 8. La viro quan vu vidis 9. El accidente que/el cual sucedió 9. La acidenti qui eventis 10. No oí lo que él dijo 10. Me ne audis (to) quon il dicis NOTAS: * "to" puede omitirse si va detrás de un verbo. * "Qua" se usa también como adjetivo: Qua viro parolis? - ¿Qué hombre habló? En la lección 12 veremos con más detalle este uso. VORTARO (por exerco 5): avertar advertir, avisar oldo persona vieja avulo abuelo plura varios danjero peligro posho bolsillo kurar correr pri acerca de, sobre kustar costar quante? ¿cuánto? lago lago stacar estar de pie linguo lengua (idioma) staceskar ponerse de pie mashino máquina stranja estraño navo nave, navío tante tan Traduce de español a Ido y de Ido a español: 1. Las chicas (a las) que él ama 1. La yunini quin il amas 2. La máquina (a la) que yo vi 2. La mashino quan me vidis 3. Las chicas que lo aman 3. La yunini qui amas il 4. Los lagos (a los) que ella aprecia 4. La lagi quin el prizas 5. El doctor que vive aquí 5. La mediko qua habitas hike 6. La lengua que él habla 6. La linguo quan il parolas 7. El hombre viejo que duerme aquí 7. La olda viro qua dormas hike 8. El policía que está corriendo 8. La policisto qua kuras 9. El ladrón que se pone de pie 9. La furtisto qua staceskas 10. El coche que el soldado compró 10. La automobilo quan la soldato kompris Traduce de en ambos sentidos: 1. Los hombres extraños que se pusieron de pie fueron policías 1. La stranja homi qui staceskis esis policisti 2. El viejo/a hombre/mujer que estuvo de pie sobre la mesa cayó 2. La oldo qua stacis sur la tablo falis 3. La máquina que él compró costó mucho dinero 3. La mashino quan il kompris kustis multa pekunio 4. No deseo hablar una lengua que es tan fea 4. Me ne deziras parolar linguo qua es tante leda 5. Su tío (de ella) que nació en Málaga tenía varios perros 5. Elua onklulo qua naskis en Málaga havis plura hundi 6. Pronto visitaré a mi abuelo que vive en Cádiz 6. Balde me vizitos mea avulo qua habitas en Cádiz 7. No correré hacia mi padre que cayó en el agua 7. Me ne kuros a mea patro qua falis aden la aquo. 8. El navío que queríamos ver está yendo a lo largo del río 8. La navo quan ni deziris vidar iras alonge la rivero. 9. ¿Cuánto costaban los libros que tienes en tu bolsillo? 9. Quante kustis la libri quin tu havas en tua posho? 10. Él advirtió a los niños que estaban nadando en el lago sobre el peligro 10. Il avertis la yuni qui natis en la lago pri la danjero - Il avertis la yuni pri la danjero, li-qui natis en la lago VORTARO (por exerco 7): aero aire vakanco vacaciones aranjar arreglar vento viento bone bien, vale, de acuerdo vera verdadero, cierto bonega excelente varmeta tibio, templado explorar explorar vidajo vista gareyo garaje voyajo viaje Idisto idista quale como (usado delante de una oración) maro mar quala qué, cuál (delante de sustantivo) monto montaña, monte Anglia Inglaterra montrar mostrar, hacer ver Dania [Dá-nia] Dinamarca natar nadar Hispania España omno todo Portugal Portugal pluvo lluvia Suedia Suecia propozar proponer suisa suizo, suiza restar restar, permanecer Suisia Suiza to eso, aquello (pronombre) suisiano suizo, suiza Traduce la siguiente conversación: Konversado: (P=Pedro, M=María): P: Adube ni iros dum la vakanco? M: Ni certe ne restos en Anglia. Me ne prizas la pluvo e la vento. Me multe preferas la suno. Ni iros a varma lando quala Hispania o Portugal. P: Ta landi es por me tro varma. Me preferas varmeta lando quala (ne quale) Suedia o Dania. [quale on preferas ...] La vetero povas esar bonega ibe. M: Quon tu opinionas pri voyajo en la monti? La fresha aero, la foresti, la bela vidaji... P: No, me preferas la maro. Me deziras natar. M: Ma, tu povas natar en la lagi. P: To es vera. Yes, bone, ni exploros la monti. M: A qua lando ni iros? P: Me propozas Suisia. Es multa Idisti en Suisia. Multi de li es bona amiki. Me aranjos omno. La Suisiana Idisti montros a ni sua bela lando. Conversación (P=Pedro, M=María): P: ¿A dónde iremos durante las vacaciones? M: Seguramente no nos quedaremos en Inglaterra. No aprecio el viento y la lluvia. En gran medida prefiero el sol. Iremos a un país cálido como España o Portugal. P: Esos países son para mí demasiado cálidos. Prefiero un país templado como (no "quale") Suecia o Dinamarca [como se prefiere ...] El tiempo puede ser mejor allí. M: ¿Qué opinas sobre un viaje a los montes? El aire fresco, los bosques, las hermosas vistas, ... P: No, prefiero el mar. Deseo nadar. M: Pero, puedes nadar en los lagos P: Eso es cierto. Sí, de acuerdo, exploraremos los montes M: ¿A qué país iremos? P: Propongo Suiza. Hay muchos idistas en Suiza. Muchos de ellos son buenos amigos. Lo arreglaré todo. Los idistas suizos nos mostrarán su bello país. Responde las siguientes preguntas sobre el texto anterior: 1. A qua Pedro parolas? - Ilu parolas a María. 2. Ka María prizas pluvo? - No, elu ne prizas olu. 3. Quon el preferas? - Elu preferas la suno. 4. Ka Hispania es kolda lando? - No, olu es varma lando. 5. Ube es la fresha aero? - Olu es en la monti. 6. Ka Pedro prizas natar? - Yes, multe. 7. Quon Pedro e María exploros? - Li exploros la monti. 8. Adube li iros? - Li iros a Suisa. 9. Qua aranjos la vakanco? - Pedro aranjos omno. 10. Qui montros Suisia a Pedro e María? - La Idisti di Suisia. Responde las siguientes preguntas generales: 1. Adube vu iros dum la vakanco? - Me iros a Grekia (Grecia) 2. Ka vu prizas la suno? - Yes, nam me esas nordala (del norte) Europano (europeo) 3. Ka la fresha aero es bona por vu? - Yes, tre bona por me 4. Ka vu parolas multa lingui? - Yes, me bezonas parolar multa lingui 5. Ka vu havas botelo de lakto en vua posho (bolsillo)? - No, sur la tablo 6. Ka sep e non es dek? - 7+9=10? No, to es dek-e-sis 7. Ka vua automobilo es en la staciono od en la gareyo? - En mea gareyo 8. Ube vu sidas? - En la berjero (sillón) 9. Ka vu intencas manjar balde? - Yes, nam mea laboro nun fineskas 10. Ka vu skribas a plura Idisti? - Yes, specale ad Idisti en USA LECCIÓN DOCE NEGACIÓN EN VERBOS AUXILIARES La negación en Ido se forma normalmente colocando "ne" delante del verbo. Pero debido a que existen verbos auxiliares (deber, poder, necesitar, etc.), debes tener especial cuidado con dónde colocas este adverbio de negación, ya que Ido posee significados y estilos propios que no existen en español directamente: Mustar (expresas neceseso absoluta, senkondiciona e nerezistebla) Deber (expresa necesidad absoluta, incondicional e irresistible; forzosamente ha de hacerse algo): Tu mustas NE acendar alumeto, nam la chambro es plena de gaso No debes encender una cerilla, porque la habitación está llena de gas Tu NE mustas acendar alumeto, nam me povas vidar suficante bone No tienes que encender una cerilla, porque puedo ver suficientemente bien Devar (konvenas ad omna ed omnaspeca obligesi moral od altra) Estar obligado a (conviene a todas y a toda especie de obligaciones morales o de otro tipo; deber en el sentido de estar obligado moralmente o por otro tipo de obligación) Me NE devas helpar vu No estoy obligado a ayudarte Tu devas Ne adulterar No debes cometer adulterio (obligación moral) Darfar (havar la yuro o permiso, kontre l'ideo di interdikto) Poder (tener el derecho o permiso, contrariamente a la idea de prohibición) Me NE darfas fumar hike No puedo fumar aquí (no tengo permiso para fumar) Me darfas NE asistar skolo Puedo faltar (no asistir) a la escuela (estoy en mi derecho de faltar a la escuela) Povar (esar en la stando necesa por agar e facar ulo) Poder (estar en el estado necesario para obrar o hacer algo; eres o no capaz de hacer algo) Me NE povas pagar imposturi No puedo pagar los impuestos Me povas NE pagar imposturi Puedo evadir los impuestos Bezonar Necesitar Ilu NE bezonis facar ol Él no necesitaba hacer eso. Así que, no lo hizo Ilu NE bezonas facir ol Él no necesita haber hecho eso, aunque lo hizo Ilu bezonas NE facir ol Él necesitaba no haber hecho eso. Demasiado tarde Audacar Atreverse, osar Me NE audacas informar il pri la mala nuntio No me atrevo a informarle sobre/de la mala noticia El audacis NE askoltar mea konsilo Ella se atrevió a no escuchar (ignorar) mi consejo Observa que detrás de un verbo auxiliar (los que hemos visto) NO se usa ningún tipo de preposición o palabra antes del infinitivo. MÁS AFIJOS Estos afijos que vamos a ver ya los has encontrado en algunas palabras: "-eg-" - Aumenta el tamaño o la intensidad de la palabra raíz: bona bueno/a bonega excelente varma cálido, caliente varmega más caliente domo casa domego mansión dormar dormir dormegar dormir profundamente "-et-" - Disminuye el tamaño o la intensidad de la palabra raíz: varmeta templado, tibio dometo choza, cabaña dormetar dormitar, cabecear ridar reír ridetar sonreír forko horca de un labrador forketo tenedor (para comer) LA HORA Anteriormente aprendimos a dar la hora en punto: 06:05 sis kloki kin 06:25 sis kloki duadek e kin 06:50 sis kloki kinadek 03:30 tri kloki e duimo 01:15 un kloko e quarimo 01:45 un kloko e tri quarimi En estos ejemplos puedes ver que todos los minutos se calculan pasada la hora. Los minutos que quedan para llegar a una hora nunca se usan en Ido: 02:05 du kloki kin las dos y cinco 02:20 du kloki duadek las dos y veinte 02:55 du kloki kinadek e kin las tres menos cinco 09:49 non kloki quaradek e non las diez menos once Para las "y media(s)" se emplea "e duimo": 04:30 quar kloki e duimo las cuatro y media 05:30 kin kloki e duimo las cinco y media NOTA: La "e" es importante, ya que "kin kloki duimo" podría confundirse por "las cinco y medio minuto'. Del mismo modo para las "y cuarto" se usa "e quarimo": 06:15 sis kloki e quarimo las seis y cuarto 06:45 sis kloki e tri quarimi las siete menos cuarto (las seis y tres cuartos) Veamos algunos ejemplos más (recuerda que se trabaja con las 24 horas): 02:05 du kloki kin las dos y cinco 03:40 tri kloki quaradek las cuatro menos veinte 17:00 dek e sep kloki las cinco de la tarde 14:47 dek e quar kloki quaradek e sep las tres menos trece de la tarde 02:00 du kloki las dos 09:05 non kloki kin las nueve y cinco 06:15 sis kloki e quarimo las seis y cuarto 06:45 sis kloki e tri quarimi las siete menos cuarto 10:35 dek kloki triadek e kin las diez y treinta y cinco 06:53 sis kloki kinadek e tri las siete menos siete RESUMEN DE RELATIVOS Como ya hemos visto "Qua" puede significar "quién/qué". Sin embargo, todavía nos queda otro uso para esta palabra: cuando se sitúa delante de un sustantivo en singular o plural se traduce por "cuál/qué" (pregunta por la característica que distingue a ese sustantivo de los demás): Qua hundo? ¿Qué/Cuál perro? (de entre todos los que hay) Qua hundi? ¿Qué/cuáles perros? (observa que NO se usa "QUI") Para que no nos liemos mucho, vamos a ver un pequeño cuadro resumen de los pronombres interrogativos y relativos que hemos visto hasta ahora: Interrogativos: Singular Qua viro venas? ¿Qué/Cuál hombre viene? Plural Qua viri venas? ¿Qué/Cuáles hombres vienen? Singular Qua venas? ¿Quién viene? Plural Qui venas? ¿Quiénes vienen? Sing./Plur. Quo venas? ¿Qué viene? (objeto indeterminado) Relativos: Singular La viro qua venas El hombre que/el cual viene (persona u objeto determinado) Plural La viri qui venas Los hombre que/los cuales vienen (ídem) Singular La treno qua iras El tren que/el cual van (ídem) Plural La treni qui iras Los trenes que/los cuales van (ídem) EL TIEMPO ATMOSFÉRICO En Ido todos los verbos que se refieren a fenómenos atmosféricos son impersonales (no se indica ningún sujeto), del mismo modo que sucede en español: Pluvas Está lloviendo/llueve (pluvo - lluvia) - no se dice quién es el que "llueve" Nivas Está nevando/nieva (nivo - nieve) Frostas Está helando (frosto - hielo) Ventas Hace viento (vento - viento) Pruinas Está "escarchado"/Hay escarcha (pruino - escarcha) EJERCICIOS VORTARO (por exerco 1): agnoskar reconocer, admitir kozo cosa ankore todavía, aún kara querido (afecto) audar oír kuzo primo/a avino abuela loko lugar cayare este año (adverbio) mortar morir danko pro gracias por nomo nombre decidar decidir omni todos (todas las personas) divenar hacerse, volverse, llegar a ser pluvar llover ecepte excepto post-karto (tarjeta) postal esforcar esforzarse, intentar praktikar practicar fortunoza afortunado/a prezente actualmente, en el presente fotografuro fotografía respondo respuesta gambo pierna se si (condicional) ja ya trista triste hospitalo hospital til nun hasta ahora infanteto bebé vakance en vacaciones invitar invitar la venonta yaro el año que viene Traduce el siguiente texto en ambos sentidos: Carta a una Amiga: 27 de agosto Querida María Gracias por la interesante carta y las hermosas postales que me has enviado. Esto muy triste al oír que tu abuela se partió la pierna cuando intentaba escalar el Monte Blanco (Mont Blanc) este año. Ella es muy afortunada por no haber muerto. Tengo un primo que desea convertirse en escalador, pero actualmente tiene sólo ocho años. Él practica sobre el muro en el jardín. Hasta ahora no ha caído. ¿A dónde irás en vacaciones el año que viene? Si no lo decidiste ya, te invito a Escocia. A menudo llueve aquí en Escocia, eso lo admito, pero hay muchos lugares y cosas interesantes que podemos ver. Ciertamente, visitaremos Edimburgo. Querías ver a mi familia. Por tanto, te envío una fotografía. Ya conoces el nombre de todos excepto el bebé que se llama Pablo. Escribe pronto tu respuesta. Mis saludos a tu abuela y a la familia. Tu amigo, Roberto Letro ad Amikino: La 27ma di agosto Kara María Danko pro la interesanta letro e la bela post-karti quin tu sendis a me. Me es tre trista audar ke tua avino ruptis gambo kande el esforcis klimar Blanka Monto (Mont Blanc) cayare. El es tre fortunoza ke el ne mortis. Me havas kuzo qua deziras divenar klimero, ma prezente il nur evas ok yari. Il praktikas sur la muro en la gardeno. Til nun il ne falis. Adube tu iros vakance en la venonta yaro? Se tu ne ja decidis, me invitas tu a Skotia. Ofte pluvas hike en Skotia, me agnoskas to, ma es multa interesanta loki e kozi quin ni povos vidar. Ni certe vizitos Edimburgo. Tu volis vidar mea familio. Do me sendas a tu fotografuro. Tu ja konocas la nomi di omni ecepte la infanteto qua nomesas Pablo. Skribez balde tua respondo. Mea saluti a tua avino e la familio. Tua amiko, Roberto VORTARO (por exerco 2): quala? ¿qué tipo? membro miembro renkontrar encontrar societo sociedad abonar abonar, suscribir a libro-listo lista de libros revuo revista Responde las preguntas referidas al anterior texto: Questioni pri la letro: 1. Quala es la post-karti de María? - Ol es interesanta. 2. Qua ruptis gambo? - Avino di María. 3. Quon el klimis? - El klimis Blanka Monto. 4. Kad el mortis? - No, fortunoze el ne mortis. 5. Qua deziras divenar klimero? - Kuzo di Roberto. 6. Quante il evas? - Il evas ok yari. 7. Sur quo il praktikas? - Sur la muro en la gardeno. 8. Kad il falis? - No, til nun il ne falis. 9. Se María venos a Skotia, kad el e Roberto vizitos Edimburgo? - Ho, yes. 10. Quon Roberto sendas a María? - Fotografuro di/pri la familio di Roberto. 11. Quale nomesas la infanteto? - Lu nomesas Pablo. 12. Quon Roberto esperas recevar balde? - Respondo de María. Preguntas generales (generala questioni): 1. Ka vu parolas Ido bone? - Yes, nam Ido es marveloze facila. 2. Ka vu ofte lektas Ido? - Yes, me prizas lektar libri en Ido. 3. Ka vu povas skribar Ido? - Komprenende yes ed anke devas me. 4. Ka vu skribas ad Idisti en altra landi? - Yes, kelkatempe. 5. Ka vu renkontras altra Idisti? - No, tre rare. Nam ne esas multa Idisti. 6. Kad es multa Ido-libri en vua domo? - No, nur kelka libri che me. 7. Ka vu kompros altra Ido-libri? - Yes, me intencas komprar oli. 8. Ka vu havas libro-listo? - Yes, la listo de Cardiff. 9. Ka vu abonis Ido-revui? - Yes, kelka revui. 10. Ka vu es membro dil Ido-Societo? - Yes, membro di Germana Ido-Societo. Traduce los siguientes textos "de certena lektolibro" (de cierto libro de lectura): Lectura 1: El día y la noche. El verano y el invierno. Las palabras y las frases. Un hombre tiene una boca y dos orejas. Dos hombres tienen dos bocas y cuatro orejas. Una mano tiene cinco dedos. Dos manos tienen diez dedos y pueden aplaudir otras. Grande y pequeño. Mucho o poco. Bonito o feo. Mi amigo tiene dos grandes casas. Muchas casas tienen poco dinero. Tienen bonitas flores en el jardín. El tiene otro trabajo. Lektajo 1: La jorno e la nokto. La somero e la vintro. La vorti e la frazi. Un homo havas un boko e du oreli. Du homi havas du boki e quar oreli. Un manuo havas kin fingri. Du manui havas dek fingri e povas aplaudar altri. Granda e mikra. Multa o poka. Bela o leda. Mea amiko havas du granda domi. Multa domi havas poka pekunio. Li havas bela flori en la gardeno. Il havas altra laboro. Lectura 2: Antes de hablar se debe pensar. Quiero aprender la lengua Ido. Vienes para trabajar. ¿A dónde quieres ir? Quiero pasear un poco. Un hombre solo tiene sólo una boca para hablar, pero dos orejas para oír. Los niños juegan en secreto detrás de la casa. ¿Qué hacen los padres? El padre escribe varias cartas y la madre lee un hermoso libro. Lektajo 2: Ante parolar on devas pensar. Me volas lernar la linguo Ido. Tu venas por laborar. Adube tu volas irar? Me volas kelke promenar. Singla homo havas nur un boko por parolar, ma du oreli por audar. La infanti sekrete ludas dop la domo. Quon facas la genitori? La patro skribas plura letri e la matro lektas bela libro. Lectura 3: Ellos/as no están aquí. Tú no estás allí. ¿Dónde está él? No sabemos. Vosotros paseáis a menudo. No estoy en la casa. ¿Él comprende eso? No, él no comprende. ¿Están llorando los niños? No, ellos no lloran, al contrario ellos ríen. ¿Todas las personas están contentas? No, solamente muy pocas personas están contentas. Comprador: "Estas peras no son comestibles, están agrias/podridas." Vendedor: "Sí, yo lo sé, pero yo no las como, yo las vendo." "La limpieza es muy importante. Me baño todos los años al menos una vez, totalmente independiente de si es necesario o no." Lektajo 3: Li ne esas hike. Tu ne esas ibe. Ube il esas? Ni ne savas. Vi promenas ofte. Me ne esas en la domo. Kad il komprenas to? No, il ne komprenas. Ka la infanti ploras? No, li ne ploras, kontree li ridas. Kad omna homi esas kontenta? No, nur tre poka homi esas kontenta. Komprero: "Ica piri ne esas manjebla, li esas acerba (agrio, podrido)." Vendisto: "Yes, me savas lo, ma me ne manjas li, me vendas li." "Neteso esas tre importanta. Me balnas omnayare adminime unfoye, tote indiferenta kad [lo] esas necesa o ne." Lectura 4: Mi prima tiene tres gatos, ella los quiere mucho. Él no habla mucho con ella. Karlo tiene dos hermosos libros, a menudo los lee. ¿Sabe Ido? - No, todavía no, pero lo aprendo. Varones y mujeres están en el restaurante, ellos beben vino, ellas beben café con leche. Huésped: "¿Por qué en esta ciudad el vino tinto es más caro que el blanco?" Encargado del restaurante: "¿Opina que recibimos la materia gratuitamente?" - "No puedo diferenciar tus gemelos, aunque los veo todos los días." - "Pero es muy simple, uno se llama Enrique, y el otro se llama Alberto." - (Pero es muy simple diferenciar a mis gemelos, Enrique y Alberto) Lektajo 4: Mea kuzino havas tri kati, el multe amas li. Il ne pluse parolas kun el. Karlo havas du bela libri, lu ofte lektas oli. Ka vu savas Ido? - No, ne ja (=ankore ne), ma me lernas ol. Viri e mulieri es en la restorerio, ili drinkas vino, eli drinkas kafeo kun lakto. Gasto: "Pro quo en ica urbo la reda vino es plu chera kam la blanka?" Restoristo: "Ka vu opinionas ke ni recevas la farbo gratuite?" - "Me ne povas dicernar tua jemeli, quankam (aunque) me vidas li omnadie." - "Ma es ya tre simpla, la una nomesas Henriko, e la altra nomesas Alberto." - (Ma es ya tre simpla dicernar mea jemeli, Henriko e Alberto.) Lectura 5 (parenti - parientes): Las palabras de la frase. Mi padre tiene cuarenta años. Tu bicicleta es todavía nueva. No tengo tiempo para visitarle (a usted) en su casa. La puerta de la casa está cerrada. Ahora queremos hablar sobre nuestra lengua Ido. Vuestros padres me prestaron un paraguas. Ellos envían dinero por correo a sus parientes. Ella no quiere decírselo. ¿A quién pertenece este lápiz? No sé a quién (ello) pertenece. Vemos las flores del jardín. Su (de él) buen padre está ya muerto. Padre: "¿Ahora sabes por qué te pegué?" "Sí", solloza Pablito, "porque eres más fuerte que yo." Lektajo 5 (parenti - parientes): La vorti di la frazo. Mea patro evas quaradek yari. Tua biciklo es ankore nova. Me ne havas tempo por vizitar vu che vua domo. La pordo di la domo es klozita. Ni volas nun parolar pri nia linguo Ido. Via genitori prestis a me parapluvo. Li sendas pekunio per la posto a lia parenti. El ne volas dicar ol ad il. A qua apartenas (pertenece) ica krayono? Me ne savas a qua ol apartenas. Ni vidas la flori di la gardeno. Ilua bona patro es ja mortinta (muerto). Patro: "Ka tu nun savas pro quo me batas tu?" "Yes", singlutas (solloza) Pauleto, "pro ke tu es plu forta kam me." A continuación, un resumen de las reglas de puntuación (Rezumo di la Reguli pri la Puntizado): El punto (.) se usa para separar las frases; la coma (,) para separar las proposiciones, el punto y coma (;) para separar frases gramaticalmente independientes, pero ligadas/relacionadas por (medio de) el sentido; los dos puntos (:) para anunciar explicación o cita; la admiración (!) se coloca después de una frase exclamativa; la interrogación (?) se coloca después de una proposición directamente interrogativa (no después de una proposición subordinada). Las comillas dobles (" ") se usan para incluir toda una cita. Los paréntesis ( ) incluyen una frase o palabra separada de cierto texto; Los corchetes [ ] y llaves { } tienen papeles/roles análogos; una llave { junta varias líneas (a la derecha) hacia una (a la izquierda). El guión (-) une las partes de una palabra compuesta; indica también la separación/corte de una palabra entre dos líneas. La línea (--) indica un cambio de hablador; se debe usar siempre en diálogos. No se debe usar en lugar de los paréntesis, o de los puntos suspensivos. Los puntos suspensivos (...) indican una interrupción del pensamiento. El nuevo párrafo (aparte) indica un cambio de tema o un nuevo órden de pensamientos. Las notas (en la parte inferior de las páginas) deben ser referidas por medio de números (no por asteriscos, cruces, etc.) La punto (.) uzesas (note el empleo del verbo "uzar" + "esar": uz-es-ar: ser usado) por separar la frazi; komo (,) por separar la propozicioni; la punto komo (;) por separar frazi gramatikale nedependanta, ma ligita per la senco; la bipunto (:) por anuncar expliko o citajo; la klamo-punto (!) pozesas pos frazo klamanta; la question-punto (?) pozesas pos propoziciono direte questionanta (ne pos propoziciono subordinita). La cito-hoketi (" ") uzesas por inkluzar omna citajo. La parentezi ( ) inkluzas frazo o vorto separenda de la cetera texto; La kramponi [ ] ed embracili { } havas analoga roli; un embracio { juntas plura linei (dextre) ad una (sinistre). La streketo (-) unionas la parti di vorto kompozita; ol indikas anke la seko di vorto inter du linei. La streko (--) indikas chanjo di parolanto; ol devas sempre uzesar en dialogi. On ne darfas uzar ol vice la parentezi, o vice la puntaro. La puntaro (...) indikas interrupto di la penso. L'alineo (new paragraph) indikas chanjo di temo o nova ordino di pensi. La noti (infre di la pagini) devas referesar per numeri (ne per steli, kruci, etc.) LECCIÓN TRECE El encabezamiento de este documento cambia de color, puesto que ésta es la primera lección del nivel intermedio (aunque no sé muy bien si este nivel es realmente intermedio o todavía sigue siendo fácil...). En este nivel ya comienzan a desaparecer las explicaciones en español y son sustituidas por explicaciones en Ido, puesto que dispone de la suficiente capacidad como para entender frases básicas. También hay que mencionar que en los ejercicios ya no se suele incluir el vocabulario antes, sino que se incluye entre paréntesis la traducción de alguna palabra que pueda resultar extraña. PRONOMBRES DEMOSTRATIVOS Los pronombres y adjetivos demostrativos (este/a, estos/as, ese/a/o, esos/esas, aquel/a, aquellos/as) son más fáciles que en español porque hay menos formas con las que convivir. En primer lugar hay que decir que la forma "aquél/la, aquéllos/as" no se diferencia en Ido de la forma "ése/a/o, ésos/as", esto es, que se puede traducir según el contexto (nótese que en Ido no se diferencia pronombre de adjetivo, con lo que en español deberás colocar la tilde según convenga, aunque creo que la RAE permite no colocar las tildes en estos casos...). Cuando no es necesario realizar una especial distinción entre "esto" y "eso/aquello" se emplea "ita", que se puede abreviar a "ta" donde suene bien: Kad ita esas tua libro? ¿Es éste tu libro? Ta libri esas mea. Esos libros son míos Cuando es necesario distinguir entre "este" y "ese/aquello", debes emplear "ica/ca" para "este" y "ita/ta" para "eso/aquello": Ica esas bona, ita esas mala Éste es bueno, ése es malo Cuando nos referimos a "esta cosa", "esa cosa", cambia la terminación "a" del pronombre por la terminación "o": Quo esas to? ¿Qué es esto? Ico esas libro, ito esas plumo Esto es un libro, eso es una pluma Como ya dejamos entrever en una lección anterior, en las típicas frases del estilo de "aquello/eso que digo es..." o "lo que digo es...", se emplea la construcción "to quo" (literalmente: eso/aquello que). Lo anterior se usa cuando se hace referencia a "esa cosa o hecho que", sin embargo, cuando nos referimos a algo de lo que ya hemos hablado o que es conocido, se emplea "ta qua" o el plural "ti qui". Veamos algunos ejemplos, porque la cosa parece más complicada de lo que es en realidad: To quon me dicas esas... Lo que digo es... Yen omnaspeca frukti, prenez ti quin vu preferas Aquí hay todo tipo de frutas, coge aquellas que usted prefiera También es posible realizar una distinción de sexo; en estos casos se emplean los prefijos "il-, el-, ol-" que pueden emplearse en cualquier otro pronombre, excepto, obviamente, en los propios pronombres personales: Ilti facis ol ed elti regardis Esos (hombres) lo hicieron y esas (mujeres) miraron La matro di mea amiko, elqua... La madre de mi amigo, la cual (se refiere a la madre)... La matro di mea amiko, ilqua... La madre de mi amigo, el cual (se refiere al amigo)... Mea onklino esis kun mea fratulo en la ferio; ilqua kompris krayoni, inko e plumi; elqua kompris cizo, filo, butoni e aguli Mi tía estuvo con mi hermano en la feria; él compró lápices, tinta y plumas; ella compró unas tijeras, hilo, botones y agujas PRONOMBRES POSESIVOS En lugar de "cuyo/a/os/as", Ido emplea "de quien", esto es, "di qua": La autoro, pri la libro di qua me parolis El autor de cuyo libro hablé PRONOMBRE LO Existe un pronombre en Ido que se parece mucho al que se emplea en español: "lo". Se emplea al referirse a un objeto indeterminado y, más concretamente, a un hecho antes que a un objeto, esto es, a un idea o cosa no material: Prenez ica pomo, me volas lo Coge esta manzana, lo deseo = deseo que lo hagas (el acto de darme la manzana) Me volas ol Significaría "la deseo (la manzana)". Por supuesto se puede decir también: Prenez ica pomo, me volas 'to' Coge esta manzana, deseo eso = deseo que lo hagas". Pero se puede producir cierta ambigüedad en caso de que haya dos manzanas: Prenez ica pomo, me volas to Coge 'esta' manzana, porque quiero coger 'esa' otra". Con lo que lo mejor es seguir empleando el pronombre "lo" de la misma forma que en español para estos casos. Al igual que en español, "Lo" se puede usar con adjetivos para marcar sentido indeterminado (significado idéntico al español): Lo bona, lo vera, lo bela Lo bueno, lo verdadero, lo bello Pero debes saber que mientras que en español "lo" es artículo, en Ido es un pronombre. MÁS AFIJOS No habíamos visto muchos afijos, pero todavía quedan más: "para-" - Significa "que guarda de, que protege de": parasuno parasol parapluvo paraguas paravento parabrisas "par-" - Significa "por entero, hasta el fin, de cabo a rabo": parlektar leer completamente pardrinkar beber por completo parkurar correr todo el trayecto parlernar aprender concienzudamente "-esk-" - Indica comienzo de acción, ponerse a: dormeskar caer dormido iraceskar empezar a enfadarse sideskar sentarse Con raíces que son nombres, significa "llegar a ser, tornar": vireskar convertirse en hombre Algunas veces con adjetivos: paleskar palidecer Cuando se añade al participio pasivo de un verbo transitivo, posee el mismo significado (convertirse en): vidateskar volverse visible "-ad-" - Significa "repetición, frecuencia": dansar bailar danso baile dansado baile largo pafado tiroteo parolado discurso largo "-ig-" - Con una raíz verbal indica "causar": dormigar enviar a dormir Con una raíz no verbal, significa "hacer lo indicado por la raíz": beligar embellecer fortigar fortalecer Con verbos transitivos, posee un significado pasivo (=igar -ata), a menudo seguido de la preposición "da" (por). El empleo de la terminación "-igar" puede resultar un poco confusa, aunque hay varias formas de conseguir lo mismo: Me igas la spozino sendar mea letri Hago que mi esposa envíe mi carta (literalmente: Hago a la esposa enviar mi carta), en lugar de: Me sendigas mea letri da la spozino Hago enviar mi carta por mi esposa Me igas tu atencar ulo Te hago atender a algo / hago que tú atiendas a algo Me atencigas ulo da tu Hago que algo sea atendido por ti. Me igas vu vidar ulo Hago que usted vea algo Me vidigas ulo da vu Hago ser visto algo por usted Hay, no obstante, otra forma de conseguir una traducción más clara: "Hacer que X sea hecho por Y": Me sendigas mea letri da LA spozino Hago que mi carta sea enviada por MI esposa NOTA: Cuando en Ido la relación es fácil de ver, se usa el artículo definido LA (si alguien habla de una esposa, se supone que habla de la suya). "-iz-" - Significa "proveer, aportar, proporcionar": armizar armar (proporcionar armamento) limitizar limitar (fijar un límite) adresizar direccionar (dar la dirección) Cuando sea necesario, el sentido "cubrir con" puede ser representado más claramente añadiéndole además el prefijo "sur" (sobre): surorizar dorar/cubrir con oro "-if-" - Significa "producir, generar, segregar": florifar florecer sudorifar transpirar, sudar sangifar sangrar EJERCICIOS Seguidamente se exponen algunos ejemplos de la primera parte de la lección; puedes intentar traducirlos (algunos son complicadillos...): Ellos/as tenían dos hijas que se convirtieron en enfermeras (podían tener más hijas) Li havis du filiini qui divenis flegistini / Li havis du filiini ed eli divenis flegistini (Onu ne savas quanta filiinin li havis - No se sabe cuántas hijas tenían) Ellos/as tenían dos hijas, que se convirtieron en enfermeras Li havis du filiini ed eli divenis flegistini (Onu savas ke li havis nur du filiini - Se sabe que sólo tenían dos hijas) Me gusta María, que es benigna/buena Me prizas María, nam elu esas benigna. Onu ne darfas dicar ke 'me prizas María qua esas benigna', nam onu devus imaginar altra María qua ne esas benigna No podemos decir que "me gusta María que es buena", porque podríamos imaginar otra María que no es buena. ¿Quién te gustaría que estuviera en este drama? Quan tu prizus ke tu esez en ca dramato? (tú mismo querrías estar en el drama) Quan tu prizus kom aktoro en ca dramato? (cualquier actor es válido) Quan tu prizus vidar en ca dramato? (a él o a ella me gustaría ver) ¿Quién crees que será el próximo presidente de España? Quan tu opinionas kom la nexta prezidanto di Hispania? No es fácil determinar aquél a quién votaremos en las próximas elecciones Es nefacila determinar ta por qua ni votos en la venonta elekto No es fácil decir aquél, que los miembros decidirán, que será responsable del trabajo Es nefacila dicar ta, quan la membri decidos, qua responsos pri la laboro. Ése es el hombre que, según creo, robó el Banco Nacional Lu esas, segun mea kredo, la viro qua furtis la Nacionala Banko. Un ejecutivo de una gran compañía de jabones, que no quiere ser citado según nuestra información, anunció un 50 por ciento de aumento en el precio del jabón Administranto de granda kompanio di sapono, (*ilu) ne dezirante citesar segun nia savo, anuncis preco-augmento di 50 procento pri sapono. (*ilu puede ser incluido o no según desee) Algunas frases para practicar los afijos vistos: 1. Quiero empaquetar (pakigar) esto 1. Me volas pakigar ico 2. Dame papel de empaquetar 2. Donez a me pak-papero 3. Necesito cuerda pequeña (kordeto) 3. Me bezonas kordeto 4. ¿Tienes cera para sellar (siglovaxo)? 4. Ka tu havas siglovaxo? 5. Puedo darle cola de pegar (gluo) 5. Me povas donar a vu gluo 6. Eso se convendrá/se hará (konvenar) 6. To konvenos 7. ¿Dónde está el bote de cola? 7. Ube esas la botelo de gluo? 8. Aquí está (eso) 8. Yen olu 9. No hay pincel (pinselo) (en ello) 9. Ne esas pinselo en ol 10. Aquí está el pincel 10. Yen la pinselo 11. Ahora quiero una etiqueta (etiketo) 11. Nun me deziras etiketo 12. Una etiqueta con pegamento / engomada (gumizita) 12. Gumizita etiketo 13. No tengo una engomada 13. Me ne havas un gumizita (nótese que "un" no es artículo) 14. ¿Esto se hará? 14. Kad ica konvenos? 15. Sí, gracias 15. Yes, danko Traduce el siguiente texto de español a Ido y viceversa. Entre paréntesis se indican las palabras nuevas: JASPER HABLA (escritorio): "¡Saludos! Me llamo Jasper. Vivo en Rotterdam, y trabajo en Leiden. Vivo en una pequeña y moderna casa. Trabajo en un gran y antiguo escritorio. Me gusta el vino y la música. Adoro las mujeres hermosas, especialmente si son también ricas. Tengo un nuevo automóvil. Es pequeño, rojo y rápido. Mi familia es bastante grande. Yo mismo estoy soltero. Tengo dos hermanas. Se llaman Mieke y Anja. Anja está casada. Tengo un hermano (uno sólo). Se llama Bert. Bert trabaja en Zaandam. También tengo una madre. Mi madre es rica. Tiene mucho dinero. Yo mismo soy pobre a veces. A menudo no tengo dinero. No tengo padre. Él está muerto. Ahora me voy. ¡Hasta la vista!" JASPER PAROLAS (kontoro - escritorio): "Saluto! Me nomesas Jasper. Me habitas en Rotterdam, e me laboras en Leiden. Me habitas en mikra, moderna domo. Me laboras en granda, anciena kontoro. Me prizas vino e muziko. Me adoras bela mulieri, specale se li esas anke richa. Me havas nova automobilo. Ol esas mikra, reda e rapida. Mea familio esas sat (bastante) granda. Me ipsa (mismo) esas celiba (soltero). Me havas du fratini. Li nomesas Mieke ed Anja. Anja esas mariajita (casada). Me havas un fratulo. Il nomesas Bert. Bert laboras en Zaandam. Me anke havas matro. Mea matro esas richa. El havas multa pekunio. Me ipsa esas ofte povra. Me ofte havas nula pekunio. Me ne havas patro. Il esas mortinta. Me iras nun. Til rivido!" Traduce el siguiente texto de español a Ido y viceversa. Entre paréntesis se indican las palabras nuevas: De cierto libro de lectura - Lectura 6: El niño llora. El abogado suplicó por el acusado. Se ve por (medio de) los ojos, y se oye por las orejas. Esa es una muy buena ocasión. Ella no tiene muchos amigos. Amo a esos gentiles niños. Enero es el primer mes del año. Ellos/as vienen del pueblo y van a la ciudad. Los extranjeros son conducidos por el conductor. "Aquí mi tío me envía cien francos y él escribe: ¡Hasta la vista!" Instructor a discípulo: "Eso es un esqueleto de un mamífero, ¿de qué mamífero es?" Discípulo: "De una bestia muerta" Profesor: "¿Puede decirme qué sucede con el barómetro, si estamos sentados con él en un globo, y si ascendemos hasta alrededor de dos kilómetros en el aire? Candidato: "El barómetro viene con nosotros." De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 06: L'infanto ploras (llora). L'advokato (abogato) pledis (suplicó) por l'akuzato (acusado). On vidas per l'okuli, ed on audas per l'oreli. To es tre bon okaziono. El ne havas mult amiki. Me amas ta jentil infanti. Januaro es l'unesma monato dil yaro. Li venas del (=de+la) vilajo ed iras al(a+la) urbo. La stranjeri (extranjeros) duktesas (son conducidos) dal (=da+la) duktisto (conductor). "Hike mea onklulo sendas a me cent franki ed il skribas: Til rivido!" Instruktisto (instructor) a dicipulo: "To es skeleto di mamifero, di qua mamifero ol esas?" Dicipulo: "Di mortinta bestio." (skeleto - esqueleto, mamifero - mamífero) Profesoro: "Ka vu povas dicar a me quo eventas kun barometro, se ni sidas kun ol en aerostato (globo aerostático), e se ni acensas (subir, ascender) an/ad cirkum (alrededor de) du kilometri en la aero?" Kandidato: "La barometro venas kun ni." De cierto libro de lectura - Lectura 7: Bello, más bello, el más bello. Buena, más buena, la más buena. Fácil, menos fácil, el menos fácil. Corto, menos corto, el menos corto. Usted es más rico que ella. Él es el más trabajador de todos. Esta persona es menos inteligente que altiva. Él/Ella/Ello sólo es tonto. Ellos/as hacen el menor ruido posible. ¿Dónde estuvo usted ayer? Ayer hice una bella excursión con mi amigo ¿Ya le respondiste a él? No, todavía no, pero tengo la intención de escribirle pronto, Esposa: "¿Dónde te quedaste durante tanto tiempo ayer por la tarde?" Esposo: "En casa de mi buen amigo." Esposa: "¿Y dónde se quedó tu buen amigo?" Esposo: "En la taberna." Un hombre se encontró a un conocido y le dijo: "Ayer vi a nuestro amigo Karlo, casi no lo conocí. Usted está gordo, y también estoy gordo, pero él está más gordo que nosotros dos juntos" De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 07: Bela, plu bela, maxim bela. Bona, plu bona, maxim bona. Facila, min facila, minim facila. Kurta, min kurta, minim kurta. Vu es plu richa kam el. Il es la maxim laborema (trabajador) de omni. Ica persono es min inteligenta kam fiera (altivo). Lu esas nur stulta (estulto, tonto) Li facas minim posibla bruiso (ruido). Ube vu esis hiere? Hiere me facis bel exkurso (excursión) kun mea amiko. Ka tu ja respondis (responder) ad il? No, ne ja, ma me intencas (tengo la intención de) skribar ad il balde. Spozino: "Ube tu restis dum tante longa tempo hiere vespere?" Spozulo: "Che mea bon amiko." Spozino: "Ed ube restis tua bon amiko?" Spozulo: "En la taverno (taberna, bar)." Viro renkontris konocato e dicis ad il: "Hiere me vidis nia amiko Karlo, me preske (casi, apenas) neplus konocis il. Vu es magra, ed anke me es magra, ma il es plu magra kam ni du kune." LECCIÓN CATORCE NÚMEROS ORDINALES De los números cardinales sólo hemos visto unos pocos; veamos algunos más: zero 0 non 9 un 1 dek 10 du 2 cent 100 tri 3 mil 1000 quar 4 milion 1.000.000 kin 5 miliard 1.000.000.000 sis 6 bilion 1.000.000.000.000 sep 7 trilion 1.000.000.000.000.000.000 ok 8 A partir de los anteriores se forman los demás números con las reglas siguientes: la "-a-" se usa para indicar multiplicación y la "e" para indicar suma (nótese que la "e" se usa como si fuera una conjunción): dek e un 11 (diez más uno) dek e du 12 (diez más dos) dek e sis 16 (diez más seis) dek e non 19 (diez más nueve) duadek 20 (dos veces diez) duadek e un 21 (dos veces diez más uno) triadek e quar 34 (tres veces diez más cuatro) quaradek e kin 45 mil e sisadek e sis 1066 kinadek e sis 56 mil e nonacent e duadek e tri 1923 cent e sepadek e ok 178 duamil e un 2001 Como sucede en español, los números se pueden dictar nombrando los dígitos: 1066 un zero sis sis 1923 un non du tri 2001 du zero zero un Los ordinales se forman con el sufijo "-esm": unesma primero duesma segundo triesma tercero dekesma décimo dekeduesma duodécimo centesma centésimo milesma milésimo omna duesma dio cada dos días, día por medio omna triesma dio cada tres días omna quaresma dio cada cuatro días Los cardinales y los ordinales se pueden usar como nombres o adverbios cambiando la terminación "-a" por "-o" o "-e", respectivamente: uno una unidad duo un par trio un trio dekeduo una docena unesmo el primero une de una forma/manera unesme primeramente/en primer lugar dekesmo el décimo Nótese que el acento se desplaza en las formas: miliono [mi-li-ó-no] millón biliono [bi-li-ó-no] billón Los fraccionarios se forman con el sufijo "-im": duimo un medio centimo un céntimo quarimo un cuarto du triimi dos tercios dekimo un décimo sep okimi siete octavos Los multiplicativos se forman con el sufijo "-opl": duopla doble dek e triopla terciodécuplo centopla [cen-tó-pla] céntuplo multopla [mul-tó-pla] múltiple Los distributivos se forman con el sufijo "-op": quarope en grupos de cuatro, de cuatro en cuatro pokope poco a poco vortope palabra por/a palabra La palabra "vez/veces" al contar se traduce por "foye": unfoye una vez trifoye tres veces dufoye dos veces centfoye cien veces Cuando los números se emplean como prefijos de palabras adquieren una forma más internacional: "mono-, bi-, tri-, quadri-, quinqua-, sexa-, septua-, okto-, nona-". Algunos ejemplos: mono-plano monoplano bi-plano biplano tri-folio trifolio (tres hojas) quadri-pedo cuadrúpedo Ido es bastante flexible y potente y, en muchos casos, resulta difícil realizar una traducción adecuada de una palabra. Como demostración de esto, vamos a ver una palabra interrogativa que se podría traducir por "¿qué posición/número en una serie/secuencia?": Quantesma persono de la dextra extremajo en la pikturo esas vua amoratino?. Sinistra extremajo - X X X X X X X X X X A X X X <- Dextra extremajo. El esas la quaresma persono de la dextra extremajo. El esas Sara ¿Qué persona (la posición ordinal que ocupa) del extremo derecho en la pintura es su amada?. Extremo izquierdo - X X X X X X X X A X X X <- Extremo derecho. Ella es la cuarta persona del extremo derecho. Es Sara. Y otra frasecilla curiosa (si alguien tiene una traducción mejor...): Me prenos kelkESMa specimeni por inspektar la qualeso di ica fabrikerio Tomaré en orden algunos especimenes para inspeccionar la calidad de aquella fábrica PARTICIPIOS Los participios en Ido son unos pocos más que los que tenemos en español, aunque tienen la ventaja de que siguen reglas de construcción regulares y, en la mayor parte de los casos, pueden simplificar y aclarar bastante una frase. Distinguimos dos tipos: los participios activos y los pasivos. Los que más se usan son: * El que termina en "-anta" es el participio activo de presente y equivale al gerundio del español: vidanta - viendo. * El participio pasivo de pasado acaba en "-ita" y equivale al participio en español: vidita - visto. Sin embargo, con objeto de ser coherentes, se dispone de seis formas en total. Para construirlos se recurre al empleo de las vocales "-a-, -i-, -o-". Así, al igual que en el modo indicativo o en el infinitivo, podemos construir los participios de presente, pasado y futuro respectivamente (tanto en activa como en pasiva). Veamos el conjunto completo: Activa Pasiva Presente vidanta viendo, que ve vidata siendo visto, que es visto Pasado vidinta habiendo visto, que veía o vio vidita visto, que fue o era visto Futuro vidonta que verá vidota que será visto Algunos comentarios: * Nótese que hemos empleado la terminación "-a", con lo que los ejemplos anteriores son adjetivos (ya veremos que se pueden formar los equivalentes sustantivos y adverbios). * Las formas activas hacen referencia a qué/quién realiza la acción (que ve, que vio, que verá), mientras que en las pasivas el qué/quién es el que recibe la acción (que es visto, era visto, será visto). EJERCICIOS Observa e intenta traducir en ambos sentidos las siguientes frases sobre edad: 1. ¿Cuántos años tiene usted? 1. Quante vu evas? 2. Tengo diez (años) 2. Me evas dek (yari) 3. Ella tenía treinta (años) 3. El evis triadek (yari) 4. Cuando tenía siete años 4. Kande me evis sep 5. Él es viejo (muchos años) 5. Il esas evoza (grandeva) 6. El viejo señor/caballero 6. La evoza siorulo 7. Mi edad es de cuarenta años 7. Mea evo esas quaradek yari 8. El bebé tenía cinco meses 8. La infanteto evis kin monati Traduce de español a Ido y viceversa la siguiente conversación: SANNE BUSCA EMPLEO/OFICIO: Chefo: ¡Buenos días, señorita, siéntese! Sanne: Gracias, señor. Chefo: Bien. ¿Cómo se llama? Sanne: Me llamo Sanne Jansen. Chefo: Y, ¿dónde vive, señorita Jansen? ¿Cuál es su dirección? Sanne: Vivo en la calle Vermeer, número 12 (doce), Amsterdam. Chefo: ¿Nació en Amsterdam? Sanne: No. Nací en Alkmaar. Chefo: Hm. ¿Qué edad tiene, señorita Jansen? Sanne: Tengo diecinueve años. Chefo: Para este empleo, se necesitan buenos conocimientos generales. ¿Tiene intereses o aficiones? Sanne: Cocino. Especialmente comida italiana. Juego al tenis, y a menudo nado en el mar. Chefo: ¿Le gusta la música? ¿Quizás todavía toca un instrumento musical? Sanne: Sí, tengo una guitarra. Pero no la toco muy bien. Chefo: ¿Sabe lenguas extranjeras? Sanne: Sí, hablo un poquito el español. También hablo Ido. Chefo: No sé mucho sobre Ido. Dígame/Hábleme sobre él... SANNE SERCHAS OFICO: Chefo: Bon-jorno, damzelo, sideskez! Sanne: Danko, sioro. Chefo: Bone. Quale vu nomesas? Sanne: Me nomesas Sanne Jansen. Chefo: Ed ube vu habitas, damzelo Jansen? Quo esas vua adreso? Sanne: Me habitas ye Vermeer-strado numero 12 (dek-e-du), Amsterdam. Chefo: Ka vu naskis en Amsterdam? Sanne: No. Me naskis en Alkmaar. Chefo: Hm. Quante vu evas, damzelo Jansen? Sanne: Me evas dek e non yari. Chefo: Por ca ofico, on bezonas bona generala savo. Ka vu havas interesi o hobii (afición, hobby)? Sanne: Me koquas. Specale Italiana manjaji. Me ludas teniso (tenis), e me ofte natas en la maro. Chefo: Ka vu prizas muziko? Forsan vu mem pleas (tocar) muzikala instrumento? Sanne: Yes, me havas gitaro. Ma me ne pleas ol tre bone. Chefo: Ka vu savas stranjera lingui? Sanne: Yes, me parolas kelkete la Hispana. Me anke parolas Ido. Chefo: Me ne savas multo pri Ido. Dicez a me pri ol... Aquí hay algunos textos más. Tradúcelos en ambos sentidos: De cierto libro de lectura - Lectura 8: Lo mejor: se aprende una lengua si se lee en voz alta tan a menudo como sea posible. Por la mañana me levanto siempre muy temprano. A menudo él se acuesta por la noche muy tarde. ¿Cómo está el niño enfermo? No lo sé, lamentablemente ya no pude visitarlo/la Muchos hombres hablan bien, pero obran mal. No todos los bellos pájaros cantan bellamente. Queremos estar en compañía todavía durante algún tiempo. ¿No queréis descansar un poco?, estáis ciertamente cansados?. Te agradecemos la atenta invitación, pero preferentemente queremos marchar para llegar pronto a casa. "¿Que no es muy interesante", dijo recientemente el bebedor, "que intencionadamente sólo bebo vino blanco y, sin embargo, mi nariz se pone siempre muy roja?" ¿Cuándo el profesor es el más distraído? Cuando pone sus zapatos en la cama, pero se acuesta él mismo delante de la puerta, y advierte el error recién empezada la siguiente mañana, cuando el sirviente comienza a cepillarle y pulirle. De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 8: Maxim bone on lernas linguo, se on lektas ol laute (en voz alta) tam ofte kam posible. Matine me levas (levantar) me sempre tre frue (temprano). Ofte il kushas (acostar) su vespere (tarde, velada) tre tarde (tarde). Quale standas la malad infanti? Me ne savas, regretinde (lamentablemente) me ne ja povis vizitar li. Multa homi parolas bone, ma agas (obrar, actuar) male. Ne omna bel uceli kantas bele. Ni volas restar kune (en compañía) ankore dum kelka tempo. Ka vi ne volas kelke repozar, vi certe es fatigita (cansado, fatigado). Ni dankas pro la jentil (gentil, atenta) invito, ma ni prefere volas marchar por balde arivar (llegar, arribar) adheme (a casa). "Ka ne es tre interesanta", dicis recente drinkero, "ke intence me drinkas nur blanka vino, e tamen (sin embargo) mea nazo divenas sempre plu reda?" Kande la profesoro es maxim distraktita (distraído)? Kande lu pozas sua shui aden la lito, ma kushas su ipsa avan la pordo, e remarkas (advertir, notar) l'eroro erste (recién) ye la sequanta matino, kande la servisto komencas brosar (cepillar) e cirajizar (pulir) lu. De cierto libro de lectura - Lectura 9: ¿Cuánto es veintitrés más nueve? 23 + 9 = ? Veintitrés más nueve es treinta y dos. 23 + 9 = 32 ¿Cuánto es cien menos cuarenta y cuatro? 100 - 44 = ? Cien menos cuarenta y cuatro es cincuenta y seis. 100 - 44 = 56 Un año tiene trescientos sesenta y cinco días. 365 días Un día consiste en una mañana y una noche. El primer día de la semana es el domingo, el segundo es lunes, los otros días son martes, miércoles, jueves, viernes y sábado. Un medio y un cuarto son tres cuartos. 1/2 + 1/4 = 3/4 Usted me debe diez francos y setenta céntimos. 10 franki + 70 centimi El triple de tres es nueve. 3 x 3 = 9 ¿Cuánto es el nónuple de cinco? El nónuple de cinco es cuarenta y cinco. 9 x 5 = 45 Por la noche la policía marcha en parejas. ¿Puede decirme qué hora es? Ahora son exactamente las tres y veinte. Me levanto todos los días a las cinco y media. Como a las seis horas y comienzo a trabajar a las seis y media. -"Mi primer enfermo me consultó hoy", dijo el/la joven médico. - "Te felicito", dijo el viejo médico, "¿de qué enfermedad padecía?" - "Verdaderamente no pude hallar ningún indicio de enfermedad." - "¿Le dijo eso a él/ella?" - "Sí, ciertamente." - "Usted no aprendió todavía demasiado mucho para ser médico." De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 9: Quante es duadek-e-tri plus non? 23 + 9 = ? Duadek-e-tri plus non es triadek-e-du. 23 + 9 = 32 Quante es cent minus quaradek-e-quar? 100 - 44 = ? Cent minus quaradek-e-quar es kinadek-e-sis. 100 - 44 = 56 Un yaro havas triacent e sisadek-e-kin dii. 365 dii Un dio konsistas ek un jorno ed un nokto. La unesma dio dil semano es sundio, la duesma es lundio, l'altra dii esas mardio, merkurdio, jovdio, venerdio e saturdio. Un duimo ed un quarimo es tri quarimi. 1/2 + 1/4 = 3/4 Vu debas a me dek franki e sepadek centimi. 10 franki + 70 centimi Triople tri es non. 3 x 3 = 9 Quante es nonople kin? Nonople kin es quaradek-e-kin. 9 x 5 = 45 Nokte la policisti marchas duope. Ka vu povas dicar a me qua kloki esas? Es nun precize tri kloki duadek. Me levas me omnadie ye kin kloki e duimo. Me manjas ye sis kloki e me komencas laborar ye sis kloki e duimo. - "Mea unesma malado konsultis me cadie", dicis la yuna mediko. - "Me gratulas", dicis la olda mediko, "pro qua maladeso lu sufris?" - "Me vere povis trovar nul indiko (indicación, indicio) di maladeso." - "Ka vu dicis to a lu?" - "Yes, certe." - "Vu ne ja lernis sat multe por esar mediko." De cierto libro de lectura - Lectura 10: Ella partirá mañana. ¿Cuándo pagarás tus deudas? Les pagaré tan pronto como (que ello) me sea, posible (NÓTESE que se emplea futuro en vez de subjuntivo) Les mostraremos, todas nuestras nuevas mercancías. Les mostraremos a todos ustedes, nuestras nuevas mercancías. Si no vengo mañana, entonces vendré pasado mañana. ¿Me acompaña hasta la estación? Sí, le acompañaré muy gustosamente. A: "Usted ciertamente perderá su dolor de estómago, si bebe (beberá) todos los días mi nuevo vino". B: "Yo ya lo probé, pero prefiero mi dolor de estómago." Un filólogo viajaba en barco y preguntó al "patrón del barco": "¿Sabe la gramática?" - "No", respondió el patrón. El filólogo replicó: "La mitad de tu vida está perdida." Pronto el barco se "sacudió" fuertemente a causa de la tempestad que comienza. "¿Sabe nadar?" ahora dijo el patrón del barco. "No", confesó el filólogo. "En ese caso toda su vida estará perdida", fue la respuesta del patrón. Dos amigos fueron a pie a la "ciudad jefe/principal". Habiendo llegado por la tarde a una pequeña aldea, preguntaron cuánto dista la "ciudad principal" todavía. Veinte kilómetros, se les dijo. "Eso es demasiado mucho.", dijo (el) uno, "Queremos permanecer aquí durante la noche, y continuaremos nuestro viaje mañana." Pero el otro respondió: "Podemos todavía ir (NÓTESE el empleo del infinitivo de presente) hasta allí muy bien, eso en verdad (ciertamente) será sólo diez kilómetros para cada uno de nosotros." De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 10: El departos morge. Kande tu pagos tua debi (deudas)? Me pagos li tam balde kam [ke lo] esos a me, posibla. Ni montros a vi, omna (todo) nia nova vari (mercancías). Ni montros a vi omnu (a cada uno de ustedes), nia nova vari (mercancías). Se me ne venos morge, lore (entonces) me venos posmorge. Ka vu akompanos me til la staciono? Yes, me akompanos vu tre volunte. A: "Vu certe perdos vua stomako-dolori, se vu drinkos omnadie de mea nova vino." B: "Me ja probis ol, ma me preferas mea stomako-dolori." (vehar - ir en un vehículo: montar a caballo, conducir, navegar) Filologo vehis per batelo e questionis la batelisto: "Ka vu savas la gramatiko?" - "No", respondis la batelisto. La filologo replikis (replicó): "La duimo di tua vivo es perdita." Balde la batelo forte tremeskis pro komencanta tempesto. "Ka vu savas natar?" nun dicis la batelisto. "No", konfesis la filologo. "Takaze vua tota vivo esos perdita", esis la respondo dil batelisto. Du amiki iris pede a la chefurbo. Arivinte vespere aden (hacia+en = a) mikra vilajo, li questionis quante ankore distas la chefurbo. Duadek kilometri, on dicis a li. "To es tro multe.", dicis l'unu, "Ni volas restar hike dum la nokto, e ni duros nia voyajo morge." Ma l'altru respondis: "Ni povos ankore tre bone irar til ibe, to ya esos nur dek kilometri por singlu de ni." LECCIÓN QUINCE TIEMPOS PERFECTOS Los tiempos perfectos del verbo se forman con el sufijo "-ab" situado después de la raíz y antes de la terminación gramatical: Me parolabis Yo había hablado Il finabos Él habrá terminado Finabez, kande me arivos Haya/Habed terminado, cuando yo llegue (llegaré) El imperativo perfecto (la última frase de los ejemplos anteriores) indica que la orden/instrucción debe haber terminado. El condicional sabemos que termina en "-us": Me kredus Yo creería Me donus Yo daría El enfalabus Ella habría caído en Me kredabus Yo habría creído Me donabus Yo habría dado Ya sabemos que el tiempo "he escrito" se traduce con el pasado simple: Ton quon me skribis, me skribis Lo que yo he escrito, he escrito Me skribis to quon me skribis Yo he escrito lo (=complemento directo) que yo he escrito CONDICIONAL El condicional sabemos que termina en "-us": Me parolas Yo hablo, estoy hablando Me parolis Yo hablé, estuve hablando Me parolos Yo hablaré, estaré hablando Me parolus Yo hablaría, estaría hablando PARTICIPIO DE FUTURO El participio de futuro que acaba en "-onta" se usa para traducir las expresiones "estar a punto de", "ir a": Me esas parolonta Voy a hablar/Estoy a punto de hablar Il esis parolonta Él estuvo a punto de habla/iba a hablar Kelka homi esas sempre o manjanta, o quick manjonta, o jus manjinta Algunas personas están siempre o comiendo, o a punto de comer, o justo habiendo comido FORMAS ENFÁTICAS Las formas enfáticas de los verbos se traducen añadiendo el adverbio "ya" (que significa "ciertamente, por cierto, a la verdad, claro que", según el contexto): Me ya askoltas Claro que escucho/estoy escuchando Me skribis ya Claro que escribo/estoy escribiendo Me atencis ya Por supuesto que estoy atendiendo/atiendo Venez ya! ¡Por supuesto que vengas! Cuidado con no confundir "ya" con "ja" (que sí se traduce por el "ya" del español). MÁS AFIJOS Todavía tenemos más afijos útiles: "dis-" - Separación, diseminación, dispersión: disdonar distribuir (a mano) dissekar disecar, anatomizar (referido a "sekar = seccionar, cortar parcialmente") dissendar distribuir (por carta) "des-" - Lo contrario de una acción, cualidad, etc.: deshonoro deshonor desplezar desagradar desfacila difícil desespero desesperación despruvar refutar ("desprobar") deskovrar descubrir desaparar desaparecer "ne-" - Realmente es un adverbio que significa "no". Se usa como prefijo para indicar negación. Se diferencia de "des-" en que este último indica "opuesto directo": nekredebla increíble vole o nevole voluntariamente o involuntariamente? Piensa en que hay mucha diferencia entre una prueba que no prueba una acusación (atesto nepruvanta) y una que refuta la acusación (atesto despruvanta). "sen-" - Existe una preposición que significa "sin" y, por tanto, también se usa como prefijo con el sentido de "carecer de": senpaga gratuito senviva sin vida senhara sin pelo "mi-" - Medio, mitad: mihoro media hora miapertita medioabierta "mis-" - Equivocadamente, erróneamente, mal: mislektar leer mal mispozar colocar mal (Tenga en cuenta el verbo "egarar - extraviar") "-ach" - Peyorativo, que da un sentido negativo: populacho populacho ridachar bufonear, risotear skribachar garabatear EJERCICIOS Traduce la siguiente conversación: 1. Parece pálido 1. Vu aspektas pala. 2. ¿Está malo? 2. Ka vu esas nesana? 3. Tengo un catarro/resfriado 3. Me havas kataro 4. He cogido un resfriado 4. Me prenis kataro 5. No permanezcas en la corriente (de aire) 5. Ne restez en la aer-fluo 6. Busca al médico 6. Querigez la mediko 7. ¿Está a menudo enfermo? 7. Ka vu esas ofte malada? 8. No, muy raramente 8. No, tre rare. 9. No recuerdo haber estado (en el pasado) enfermo desde mi infancia 9. Me ne memoras esir malada depos mea infanteso. 10. El año pasado cogí un resfriado (de nariz) 10. Lasta-yare, me havis nazkataro. 11. Debí quedarme en casa durante dos días 11. Me mustis restar en la domo dum du dii. 12. Pero no permanecí/estuve en la cama 12. Ma me ne restis en la lito. Salutación: Salutación Buenos días, señor - Buenas tardes, amigo Buenas noches, señorita - Me alegro mucho de verle Sentiría, si le molestara - Ya después de mucho tiempo no le vi Querría entrar, señor - Siéntese, le pido por favor - Hágame ese favor/gusto ¿Ya quiere irse lejos? - Querría escribirme pronto Muchos saludos a su esposo/a - Recomiéndeme a su padre - Con gusto, señor Duerma bien, querido amigo - Hasta la vista, mañana por la tarde - Adiós, señor Salutado Bon jorno, sioro. - Bona vespero, amiko. Bona nokto, damzelo. - Me tre joyas vidar vu. Me regretus, se me jenus vu. - Ja depos longa tempo me ne vidis vu. Voluntez enirar, sioro. - Sideskez, me pregas vu. - Facez a me ta plezuro. Ka vu ja volas forirar? - Voluntez balde skribar a me. Multa saluti a vua spozo. - Rekomendez me a vua patro. - Kun plezuro, sioro. Dormez bone, kar amiko. - Til rivido, morge vespere. - Adio, sioro. El estado (de salud). Traduce: El estado de salud ¿Cómo se encuentra, señor? - Gracias, estoy/me encuentro muy bien. ¿Cómo está su esposa/o? - Él/Ella está un poco enfermilla. Tose. Carlos tiene dolores de muela/diente. Usted no tiene buen ¿mieno? - Tengo dolor de cabeza. Usted está afónico - ¿Tiene fiebre? - ¿Ya ha consultado al médico? Sí, dijo que necesito ante todo reposo. No debo fumar más y debo caminar a menudo al aire libre/fresco. Obedezca exactamente sus consejos, para que usted esté pronto repetidamente sano. La stando Quale vu standas, sioro? - Me dankas, me standas tre bone. Quale standas vua spozo? - Lu es kelke maladeta. Lu tusas (toser). Karlo havas dento-dolori. Vu ne havas bona mieno. - Me havas kapo-dolori. Vu es rauka (afónico). - Ka vu havas febro? - Ka vu ja konsultis la mediko? Yes, lu dicis, ke me bezonas ante omno repozo. Me neplus darfas fumar e me devas promenar ofte en la fresh aero. Obediez exakte lua konsili por ke vu balde esez itere sana. Traduce la siguiente conversación en la taberna: CONVERSACIÓN EN UNA TABERNA: J: Gracias por la cerveza, Pablo. Me gusta esta taberna mucho... Bien, ¿dónde pasaste tus vacaciones? P: Fuimos a Francia. J: ¿Estuvo en el sur o en el norte? P: En el sur, naturalmente. J: ¿Cómo estuvo el tiempo? Muy cálido, sin duda. Esos afortunados hombres que... P: No, Malísimo. Llovió mucho. No vimos el sol. J: ¿De verdad? Creía que el tiempo es siempre bueno/bello en el sur de Francia. P: No este año... Si entiendo bien, Juan, tú no fuiste a un país de fuera. J: ¡Oh, no! Permanecí en Holanda. Pero el tiempo fue cálido y el sol brilló. Mi sobrino - el hijo de mi hermana - estuvo de vacaciones en mi casa. P: ¿Cómo se llama tu sobrino?. J: Felipe. Él tiene doce y crece rápidamente. ¡Y nunca vi tal apetito! He pasado la mitad de mis vacaciones en la "tienda de comida"... ¡Pero escucha! No he oído todo sobre Francia. Así que, a pesar del tiempo, ¿disfrutaste tu ¿sejorno? en Francia? P: De hecho, no. Mi amada/novia me abandonó. J: ¡Qué! Esa ¿blondino?. ¿Cómo se llama? Juana, ¿no? P: Sí. Ella encontró algún tío/tipo en/sobre la playa, y se fue lejos de París con él. J: ¡No es verdad! ¡Desafortunado tú! P: Volví de Francia solo. J: ¡Eh, Pablo! ¡Escucha! No te atormentes por Juana. ¡Olvídala! Hay muchas otras muchachas en el mundo. P: Sí, supongo que eres razonable/justo (tienes razón). J: Bien. Conozco una señorita muy atractiva que se llama Carina y sé que, actualmente, busca un nuevo novio/amado... KONVERSADO EN TAVERNO: J: Danko pro la biro, Pablo. Me prizas ca taverno multe... Bone, ube tu pasigis (pasar (las vacaciones, la noche, la hora, el tiempo)) tua vakanco (vacaciones)? P: Ni iris a Francia. J: Ka vu esis en la sudo o la nordo? P: En la sudo, naturale. J: Quala la vetero esis? Tre varma, sendubite. Ta fortunoza homi qui... P: No, Malega. Pluvegis. Ni ne vidis la suno. J: Ka vere? Me kredis ke la vetero esas sempre bela en la sudo di Francia. P: Ne ca yaro... Se me komprenis bone, Juan, tu ne iris adexterlande. J: Ho ve, no! Me restis en Nederlando. Ma la vetero esis varma e la suno brilis. Mea nevulo - la filio di mea fratino - vakancis che me. P: Quale il nomesas, tua nevulo? J: Felipe. Il evas dek e du e kreskas rapide. E me nultempe vidis tala apetito! Me pasigis duimo de mea vakanco en la manjajo-butiki... Ma askoltez! Me ne audis omno pri Francia. Do, malgre la vetero, ka tu juis tua sejorno en Francia? P: Fakte, no. Mea amorato abandonis me. J: Quo! Ta blondino. Quale el nomesas? Juana, ka ne? P: Yes. El renkontris ula kerlo sur la plajo, e foriris a Paris kun il. J: Ne vere! Desfortunoza tu! (kerlo=compañero, tipo, "tío") P: Me retrovenis de Francia sole (se usa un adverbio porque se quiere decir "volver de forma solitaria", es decir, de un modo sin compañía). J: He, Pablo! Askoltez! Ne trublez (atormentar, turbar) tu pri Juana. Obliviez el! Esas multa altra yunini en la mondo. P: Yes, me supozas ke tu esas justa. J: Bone. Me konocas tre atraktiva damzelo qua nomesas Carina, e me savas ke, prezente, el serchas nova amorato... Traduce los siguientes textos: De un libro de aprendizaje Italiano(1) Un hombre (padre, varón) o una mujer (madre, mujer, amazona) es un humano. Un niño o una niña es un infante/niño. En la familia se encuentra un padre, una madre y unos hijos, que son hijos o hijas. Se usan bueyes para el cultivo agrícola. Los bueyes son muy útiles, porque dan leche y manteca. La vida del hombre es corta y a menudo llena/plena de penas. Ellos tienen hermanos, pero no hermanas, y ellas tienen hermanas, pero no hermanos. Tengo todavía tres abuelos. De lernolibro Italiana (1) Homulo (patro, viro) o homino (matro, muliero, amazono) esas homo. Infantulo od infantino esas infanto. En la familio on trovas patro, matro e filii, qui esas filiuli o filiini. On uzas bovi por l'agrokultivo. (Hace 80 años en Italia :-) La bovi esas tre utila, nam li donas lakto e butro. La vivo di la homi esas kurta ed ofte plena de chagreni (pena, duelo). Ili havas fratuli, ma ne fratini, ed eli havas fratini, ma ne fratuli. Me havas ankore tri avi. De un libro de aprendizaje Italiano (2) No podemos vivir sin comer. Me gusta/Aprecio mucho, estando sentado sobre la terraza de la casa, mirar a los caminantes que pasan delante de mí. Se dice que esa reina tiene/siente una muy gran amabilidad para los pobres. Aquel que quiere ser feliz, debe (estar moralmente obligado) ser virtuoso. Los artistas y los científicos son enormemente útiles a los hombres. Ciertamente él tiene graves/importantes/pesados motivos para actuar de tal modo. Aquellas que yo veo entre las (mujeres) danzantes (que danzan), no son bellas, ni graciosas/gráciles. Esas personas se visten muy raramente. Usted desordena lo que ella ordena tan bien. De lernolibro Italiana (2) On ne povas vivar sen manjar. Me tre prizas, sidante (estando sentado) sur la teraso di la domo, regardar la promenanti (caminantes), qui pasas (pasar) avan me. On dicas ke ta rejino havas tre granda benigneso (amabilidad) por la povri. Ta qua (sujeto) volas esar felica, devas esar vertuoza (virtuoso). L' artisti e la ciencisti esas grande utila a la homi. Certe il havas grava motivi por agar tale. Ti quin (objeto directo) me vidas ek la dansantini, ne esas bela, nek gracioza. Ta personi vestizas su tre stranje. Vu desordinas to quon el ordinas tante bone. De un libro de aprendizaje Italiano (3) ¿Qué hizo ayer? Descansé. ¿Qué bebió? Bebí un poco de vino y mucha agua. ¿Y qué comió? Comí un poco de carne, pero mucho pan. ¿(Hacia) Dónde se ponían mis impresos? ¿Prefiere los rencorosos y los vengativos? Después de dormir (en el pasado) mucho, él quería partir. ¿Usted miró esas bellas esculturas? Ella sufre de/padece neuralgia facial. Ellos/ellas son muy valientes y virtuosos. No habiendo encontrado mis libros, tomé los tuyos. Habiendo llegado al pie del montecillo, paramos. Usted pagó eso muy caro("caramente"). Él tomó los cigarros más hermosos y dejó los pequeños. De la lernolibro Italiana (3) Quon vu facis hiere? Me repozis. Quon vu drinkis? Me drinkis poka vino e multa aquo. E quon vu manjis? Me manjis poka karno ma multa pano. Adube on pozis mea imprimuri (impresos)? Ka vu prizas la rankoremi (rencoroso) e la venjemi (vengativo)? Pos dormir multe, il volis departar. Ka vu regardis ta bela skulturi (esculturas)? El sufras de nevralgio (neuralgia) faciala (facial). Li esas tre kurajoza (valiente) e vertuoza (virtuoso). Ne trovinte mea libri, me prenis la tui (=*le tua). Arivinte ye la pedo di la monteto, ni haltis. Vu pagis to tre chere. Il prenis la maxim bela sigari e lasis *le mikra (=la mikri). *NOTA: Cuando quiera omitir un sustantivo plural como en "la tua (libri)", tiene que indicar el plural cambiando el artículo "la" por "le", o bien la terminación del adjetivo "-a" por "-i". Así, obtendremos "le tua" o "la tui", puesto que por "la tua" se entiende "la tua librO" y no "la tua librI". De cierto libro de lectura. Lectura 11 Hoy pasearíamos, si el tiempo fuera bueno (literalmente: hoy caminaríamos si el tiempo sería bueno). Ciertamente hablarías de otra forma, si supieras la verdad. De buen gusto alquilaría esa bella habitación, si (la habitación) fuera menos cara. Para tal habitación usted debe pagar en todos los lugares el mismo precio, nadie podría darle a usted una habitación más barata en ese "espacio, lugar" de la ciudad. Mi hermana estaría contenta, si ella no más estuviera enferma. ¿Trabajarías si fueras rico/a? Sí, trabajaría para mi placer. Pero Ana, no puedo comprender por qué ahora tan a menudo disputas con tu ¿novio?. Claro que se podría creer que ya estáis casados. "¿Por qué los peces están callados?" un estudiante preguntó a su camarada. "¡Ingenua cuestión!", fue la respuesta, "¿Podrías hablar, si tuvieras la boca llena de agua?" Quien otorga un crédito: "Usted no podría ir en tan bello automóvil, si pagara sus deudas." Quien debe dinero: "Eso es cierto, me alegro de que usted tenga la misma opinión que yo." Esposa: "Ahora mismo recibí mis fotografías, pero las olvidaré, aparezco como si fuera diez años más vieja (aparezco como con diez años más)." Esposo: "Claro que podrías conservarlas durante diez años, y después usarlas." De certena lektolibro. Lektajo 11 Cadie/Hodie ni promenus, se la vetero (tiempo atmosférico) esus bela. Tu certe parolus altre, se tu savus la vereso. Volunte me lokacus (alquilaría) ica bela chambro, se ol esus min chera. Por tala chambro vu mustas pagar omnaloke la sam preco, nulu povus donar a vu chambro plu chipa en ta quartero dil urbo. Mea fratino esus kontenta, se el neplus esus malada. Ka tu laborus, se tu esus richa? Yes, me laborus por mea plezuro. Ma Ana, me ne povas komprenar pro ke tu ja nun tante ofte disputas kun tua fiancito (novio¿?). On ya povus kredar ke vi ja esas mariajita (casado). "Pro quo la fishi es muta (callado¿?)?" studento questionis sua kamarado (camarada). "Naiva questiono!", esis la respondo, "Ka tu povus parolar, se tu havus la boko plena de aquo." Kreditanto: "Vu ne povus vehar en tante bel automobilo, se vu pagus vua debi." Debanto: "To es vera, me joyas ke vu havas la sam opiniono quale me." Spozino: "Me jus recevis mea fotografuri, ma me forjetos li, me aspektas quale se me esus dek yari plu olda." Spozulo: "Tu ya povus konservar li dum dek yari, e pose uzar li." LECCIÓN DIECISÉIS LA TERMINACIÓN DE ACUSATIVO La "terminación de acusativo" puede asustar a más de uno, pero no es nada más que el "complemento/objeto directo" que te debe sonar de algo, ¿no? (tengo la impresión de que puedo haber dejado las cosas menos claras que antes... :-). En ocasiones anteriores ya se indicó que el empleo de la terminación "-n" indicadora de acusativo sólo se usa para dejar más claro quién o qué realiza la acción y quién o qué la recibe. La regla oficial que nos indica cuándo debemos usar esta terminación es bien clara: en cualquier situación en la que se altere el orden "sujeto, verbo, complemento directo", es decir, tanto si el complemento directo precede al verbo como cuando el sujeto va después del verbo. Vamos, que si queremos mover libremente el complemento directo debemos saber cómo usar la "-n": OJO: muchos esperantistas creen que en Ido no hay libertad para situar el complemento directo donde se desee, pero, como verás, esto no es ni mucho menos cierto. El enfalabus Ella habría caído en Me amoras tu Yo te amo (a ti) Tun me amoras Te (yo) amo Tun amoras me Te amo yo En las dos últimas frases se puede ver que "tu" hace referencia a la persona que yo amo y no a otra cualquiera: Amoras me tu Yo te amo Amoras tun me Te amo Así que, dondequiera que el complemento directo preceda al sujeto, debes usar la terminación "-n". Aún así, es recomendable que uses la terminación de acusativo cuando el objeto está a la izquierda del verbo para aumentar la claridad de lo que se dice. Porque, por ejemplo: Me tun amoras Yo te amo (aunque "Me tu amoras" es gramaticalmente correcto) Kande me en tala cirkonstanco kontre mea provreso tun amoris, tu ... Cuando en tal circunstancia contra mi pobreza te ame, tú ... Tu esforcis men amorar dum ke me supozis ke tu amoris l'altru. Ho, ve! Tú te esforzaste en amarme mientras que yo suponía que tú amabas al otro/a. ¡Oh! Puedes añadir la "-n" cuando el significado sea ambiguo: Te ayudaré en lugar de tu hermano. Porque tu hermano está muy ocupado. Me helpos tu vice tua fratulo. Nam (Porque) tua fratulo es tre okupata. Te ayudaré en lugar de tu hermano. Porque te prefiero antes que a tu hermano Me helpos tu vice tua fratulon. Nam me preferas tu kam tua fratulo. *NOTA: "vice" significa "en lugar de", con lo que se puede usar para construir palabras como "vice-prezidanto" (vicepresidente). LA VOZ PASIVA Y TIEMPOS PERFECTOS La voz pasiva se forma con el verbo "ser" (esar) seguido del participio pasivo: La puero esas amata El chico/a es amado/a La puero esis amata El chico/a fue amado/a La puero esos amata El chico/a será amado/a Los tiempos perfectos se forman con el sufijo "-ab-": La puero esabis amata El chico/a había sido amado/a La puero esabos amata El chico/a habrá sido amado/a. Todas estas formas pueden contraerse añadiendo el verbo "ser" directamente a la raíz: La puero amesas El chico/a es amado/a Sin embargo, no es recomendable hacer lo mismo cuando tenemos el "-ab" en medio, porque resulta algo complicado seguir la conversación. Así, "La puero esabos amata" se prefiere a "La puero amesabos". El participio de presente pasivo es el más usado ("amata") y los otros se usan ocasionalmente. Por ejemplo, el pasado perfecto pasivo puede traducirse con la ayuda del participio de pasado: La puero esis amita El chico/a había sido amado/a (literalmente: fue una fue-amada-persona) El futuro en "-ota" se usa del mismo modo que "-onta" para la voz activa, es decir, para traducir expresiones como "a punto de ser", "ir a ser": Ol esas facota Eso está a punto de ser hecho La letro esas skribota La carta va a ser escrita La pasiva contracta (raíz verbal + verbo ser) es útil en frases como: Ica vorto uzesas rare Esa palabra se usa raramente En español es mucho más frecuente emplear una oración impersonal (no hay sujeto que realice la acción indicada por el verbo) conjugando un verbo en activa. De hecho, en Ido sucede lo mismo, aunque tenemos que emplear un pronombre "impersonal" (similar al francés) que hará las veces de sujeto, aunque no exista realmente. Se trata de "on" que, si quieres, puedes traducirlo por "uno(s), ello(s), nosotros", empero no se suele traducir: On trovas diamanti en India Se encuentran/Encontramos diamantes en la India La preposición "por" que indica el sujeto paciente (quien recibe la acción del verbo en pasiva) se indica con "da": Ol esas recevita da li Eso ha sido recibido por ellos/as PREPOSICIÓN DE La preposición "de" (de los casos genitivo y posesivo) es "di". Para indicar "de, desde" (punto de partida, origen, materia o contenido de) empleamos "de". Es importante que no los confundas: Ita esas la libro di Petro recevita da Paulo de Johano Este es el libro de Pedro, recibido por Pablo de (origen) Juan La acepto di la Prezidanto(n) di la Franca Republiko da la Rejo di Anglia La recepción del Presidente de la República Francesa por el Rey de Inglaterra Como con otros adjetivos, los participios pueden transformarse en sustantivos con el mismo sentido si cambiamos la "-a" final por una "-o" o "-i": La parolanto esas la urbestro El hombre que habla ahora es el alcalde La kantanto esas yunino La persona que canta ahora es una joven La disputanti aceptis arbitro Los querellantes aceptaron un arbitrio La batito kriis, ma la batinto duris sua batado El que había sido golpeado lloró, pero el que estaba golpeando siguió con su golpeo La regnati expresas granda kontenteso pri la agi di sua regnanti Los gobernados (súbditos) expresan una gran satisfacción por los actos/acciones de sus gobernantes. También puedes formar adverbios de modo cambiando la "-a" por una "-e": Ni progresas astonante Progresamos asombrosamente (maravillosamente) Audante la nuntio*, ilu iracis Al oír las noticias, él se enfadó *NOTA: Algunos adverbios de modo pueden traducirse con la expresión que hemos visto antes "AL + verbo" o "CUANDO + verbo". La forma del verbo dependerá de si se trata de presente, pasado o futuro. MÁS AFIJOS Veamos algunos afijos más: "-et-" - Forma diminutivos indicando pequeñez. Altera la idea a que se refiere la raíz: domo casa kantar cantar dometo cabaña kantetar tararear rivero río ridar reír rivereto arroyo, cañada ridetar sonreír También sirve para formar nombres cariñosos: matro madre Johano Juan matreto mamaíta, mamá Johaneto Juanito "-eg-" - Forma aumentativos, al contrario que los diminutivos, indica grandeza con alteración de la idea a que se refiere la raíz: domo casa domego mansión pluvo lluvia pluvego aguacero "-arki-" - Indica superioridad, grado superior, elevación, preeminencia: arkianjelo arcángel arkiduko archiduque arkifripono "archipícaro" "-estr-" - Cabeza de, jefe, dueño, amo: urbestro alcalde navestro amo del barco policestro alguacil principal Los dos afijos que siguen ("-ind-", "-end-") deberíamos agruparlos junto con el participio "-ot-" ("a punto de ser"). "-ind-" - Digno, merecedor: estiminda estimable aminda digno de ser amado krendinda creíble honorinda honorable respektinda respetable "-end-" - Que se debe hacer o es preciso hacer: lektenda que debe ser leído Me havas nulo skribenda No tengo nada que escribir (que deba ser escrito) pagenda pagadero (que debe ser pagado) facenda que es preciso hacer/ejecutar Por tanto, un problema que debe ser resuelto o que resolver (solvenda) es posible que no vaya a ser resuelto (solvota), ni, incluso, que sea digno de ser resuelto (solvinda). "-es-" - Forma sustantivos con el sentido de "estado, condición, cualidad, tendencia, defecto": avareso avaricia neteso limpieza sanesar estar saludable saneso salud beleso belleza qualeso cualidad (¿no calidad?) kontrukteso (estado de) construcción kontrukto (acto de) construcción konverteso conversión (acto de ser convertido) okupeso ocupación, estado de estar ocupado EJERCICIOS Traduce la siguiente conversación: 1. ¿Cómo se llama? 1. Quale vu nomesas? 2. Soy llamado Juan 2. Me nomesas Johano. 3. ¿De dónde viene? 3. De ube vu venas? 4. ¿Cómo se llama su padre? 4. Quale nomesas vua patro? 5. ¿Dónde naciste? 5. Ube tu naskis? 6. Nací en Londres 6. Me naskis en London. 7. ¿Cuándo naciste? 7. Kande tu naskis? 8. Nací en 1897 8. Me naskis en mil e oka-cent e nona-dek e sep. 9. ¿Dónde vives/habitas? 9. Ube tu habitas? 10. Vivo en la costa (mar-bordo) 10. Me habitas an la mar-bordo. Traduce: EN LA MESA: Sr. Brandsma: Mm. ¡La torta esta buena!. ¿Dónde la compraste? Sra. Brandsma: No la compré. ¡Sino que la hice yo! Sr. B: Está buenísima. ¿Leíste el periódico hoy? Sra. B: No. Estuve demasiado ocupada. ¿Algo importante sucedió? Sr. B: Hay otra guerra en Sudamérica. El Papa está enfermo, pero no grave. El primer ministro probablemente visitará China en Junio. Sra. B: ¿Hay cualquier información sobre la pequeña niña que desapareció el domingo? Sr. B: No. Los policías buscan a través de los bosques de la región de su casa. Sra. B: ¿Se piensa que alguien la mató? Sr. B: No lo sé, cariño. ¡Pásame la sal y la pimienta! Sra. B: ¿Quieres un vaso de sidra? Sr. B: Sí. Iré en busca de la botella. ¿Dónde está? Sra. B: En la cocina. ¿Recuerdas qué hay en la televisión esta noche? Sr. B: Sí. A las 8 hay una película. Una (película) muy antigua con Elvis Presley. En el otro canal hay una película de actividades sobre especies animales amenazadas Sra. B: Prefiero saber sobre los animales que escuchar a Elvis. Sr. B: Bien, eso me convence/conviene. AN LA TABLO: Sro Brandsma: Mm. La torto esas bona! Ube tu kompris ol? Sno Brandsma: Me ne kompris ol. Ma facis ol! Sro B: Ol esas bonega. Ka tu lektis la jurnalo hodie? Sno B: No. Me esis tro okupata. Ka ulo importanta eventis? Sro B: Esas altra milito en Sud-Amerika. La Papo esas malada, ma ne grave. La chefa ministro probable vizitos Chinia en junio. Sno B: Ka esas irga informo pri la mikra puerino qua desaparis ye sundio? Sro B: No. La policisti serchas tra la boski en la regiono di elua hemo. Sno B: Ka on opinionas ke ulu ocidis el? (boski - pequeños arbustos) Sro B: Me ne savas, mea karino. Voluntez pasigar la salo e la pipro! Sno B: Ka tu deziras glaso de cidro? Sro B: Yes. Me queros la botelo. Ube ol esas? Sno B: En la koqueyo. Ka tu rimemoras quo esas ye la televiziono canokte? Sro B: Yes. Ye 20 kloki esas filmo. Un (filmo) tre anciena kun Elvis Presley. Ye la altra kanelo esas faktala filmo pri minacata animalo-speci. Sno B: Me preferas savar pri la animali kam askoltar Elvis. Sro B: Bone, to konvenas a me. Traduce de español a Ido y de Ido a español: De un libro de aprendizaje italiano: Ayer él vino como particular/privado, pero mañana vendrá como rey. ¿Alguien niega que los que viven y los que morirán serán algún día desaparecidos? Este cepillo no cepilla tan bien como ese. (rozieri - rosales) El accionista miró afectuosamente a sus rosales. Se mece a los niños para dormirlos. Necesitamos agua para lavar y limpiar esas habitaciones. Algunos esperan llegar a ser ricos sin trabajar. Todos esos objetivos son bellos; pero ciertamente estos agradan más a nuestra hermana que esos. Usted coloca/coloque la sopera sobre la mesa. ¿Cómo está, señor? Muy bien, gracias señora. Usted sufre, lo veo (=que usted sufre) bien. De lernolibro Italiana: Hiere il venis kom privato, ma morge il venos kom rejo. Kad ulu negas ke la vivanti e la mortonti esos ul-die desaparinti? Ica brosilo ne brosas tam bone kam ita. (rozieri - rosales) La rentierino (accionista) regardis amoze (afectuosamente) sua rozieri. On bersas (mecer) l'infanteti por dormigar li. Ni bezonas aquo por lavar e netigar ta chambri. Uli esperas divenor richa sen laborar. Omna ta objekti esas bela; ma certe ici plu plezos a nia fratino kam iti. Vu pozas la supuyo (sopera) adsur la tablo. Quale vu standas, siorulo? Tre bone, danko siorino. Vu sufras, me vidas lo (=ke vu sufras) bone. Traduce de Español a Ido y a la inversa: De un libro de aprendizaje italiano: Si los jóvenes (conjunto de) supieran y si los viejos (conjunto de) pudieran, dice el proverbio. Prefiere un libro instructivo a un libro divertido. ¿Qué tiene que hacer? Sólo tengo que escribir una carta y enviar dos tarjetas. ¿Qué encontraste en la habitación? Nada. Si te sentaras, estarías mucho mejor. No quiero sentar (me), puesto que me dormiría. Todos los cristianos son miembros de Cristo, dice la Iglesia Cristiana. Entre todas esas cosas, ¿cuáles elegiréis? Ven conmigo a la casa de mi padre para que él esté contento. Esa madera esponjosa no es todavía combustible/capaz de arder; no daría ningún calor. ¿No está sufriendo?, usted palidece y enrojece alternativamente. Siéntese y repose; lo quiero (=que usted se siente y repose). De lernolibro Italiana: Se la yunaro savus e se la oldaro povus, dicas la proverbo. Preferez libro instruktiva kam libro amuziva. Quon vu havas facenda? Me havas nur un letro skribenda e du karti sendenda. Quon tu trovis en la chambro? Nulo. Se tu sideskus, tu esus plu bone. Me ne volas sideskar, nam me dormeskus. Omna Kristani esas membri di Kristo, dicas l' eklezio Kristana. Inter omna ta kozi, quin vi selektos? Venez kun me che mea patro por ke il esez kontenta. Ta ligno sponjatra ne esas mem brulebla; ol donus nula varmeso. Ka vu ne sufras?, vu paleskas e redeskas sucede (alternativamente). Sideskez e repozez; me volas lo (=ke vu sidez e repozez). Traduce de español a Ido y viceversa: De cierto libro de lectura. Lectura 12. Ven y ayúdame. No llores, niño. No rías siempre. Visite pronto a su camarada. Aprenda de memoria todas las palabras y frases. Preste atención a las explicaciones. Escriba más hermosamente (mejor). Iremos lentamente a casa, puesto que son ya las dieciocho horas (6:00 p.m.). No durmáis con la boca abierta. Obedeced los sabios consejos de tus padres. Ordenad que él se calle. Ellos vendrán y narrarán todos los detalles sobre el accidente. Dígame el nombre de su vecino. Mi vecino se llama Miller. Para que podamos hablar Ido pronto, conviene que leamos en voz alta muy a menudo. Madre: "¿Cómo puedes decirle a la tía que es tonta?. ¡Ve rápidamente y le dices que lo lamentas!." El pequeño Enrique: "Querida tía, ¡lamento que seas tonta!." Una cocinera quemó un trozo de carne que pesaba dos kilogramos. Al patrón ella le dijo que el gato se comió la carne. El patrón puso el gato sobre la balanza, pesó exactamente dos kilogramos. "Vea", dijo, "aquí están los dos kilogramos de carne, pero ¿dónde está ahora el gato?" "¡Venga dentro, venga dentro!", gritó el vendedor de vestidos a un campesino que estuvo de pie durante unos pocos instantes fuera del escaparate para mirar a las mercancías expuestas, "Aquí recibirá las mejores mercancías a los precios más bajos." Campesino: "¿Tiene camisas?" Vendedor: "Sí, sí, bellísimas camisas." Campesino: "¿Están limpias?" Vendedor: "Obviamente, obviamente, muy limpias." Campesino: "Por tanto haga el favor de ponerme una de esas limpias camisas." De certena lektolibro. Lektajo 12. Venez e helpez me. Ne plorez, infanto. Ne ridez sempre. Vizitez balde tua kamarado. Lernez memore omna vorti e frazi. Atencez la expliki (explicaciones). Skribez plu bele. Ni irez lente adheme, nam es ja dek-e-ok kloki (6:00 p.m.). Ne dormez kun boko apertita. Obediez la saja konsili di tua genitori. Imperez ke il tacez (deber callarse). Li venez e naracez omna detali pri l'acidento. Dicez a me la nomo di vua vicino (vecino). Mea vicino nomesas Miller. Por ke ni povez balde parolar Ido, oportas ke ni tre ofte lektez laute. Matro: "Quale tu povas dicar al onklino ke el es stulta?. Quik irez e dicez ad elu ke tu regretas!." La mikra Henriko: "Kar onklino, me regretas ke tu es stulta!." Koquistino bruligis peco de karno qua pezis du kilogrami. Al patrono (patrón) el dicis ke la kato manjis la karno. La patrono pozis la kato adsur la balanco, lu pezis precize du kilogrami. "Videz", lu dicis, "yen la du kilogrami de karno, ma ube es nun la kato?" "Enirez, enirez!", klamis (gritar) vendisto di vesti a rurano (campesino) qua stacis dum kelk instanti (instantes) exter la vetrino (escaparate) por regardar (mirar a atentamente) la vari (mercancías) estalita (exponer), "Hike vu recevos la maxim bona vari ye la maxim basa preci." Rurano: "Ka vu havas kamizi (camisa)?" Vendisto: "Yes, yes, belega kamizi." Rurano: "Ka li es neta?" Vendisto: "Komprenende, komprenende, tre neta." Rurano: "Voluntez do metar (ponerte) un de ta neta kamizi." LECCIÓN DIECISIETE MÁS SOBRE LA TERMINACIÓN DE ACUSATIVO Sobre la terminación de acusativo no hemos visto todo lo que nos interesa. Como bien sabes "Un león es un animal - Leono esas bestio". Pero un animal no es necesariamente un león: "Bestio ne sempre esas leono". Pero, ¿por qué?. El verbo "ser" aquí significa "pertenece a" o "ser miembro de un grupo". Así, un león pertenece a la clase de los leones. Pero un animal no pertenece necesariamente a la clase de los leones: Leono apartenas a bestio (tigro, elefanto, gorilo, leono, kato, hundo....) Leono es bestio ma bestio ne necese esas leono, nam 'esar' ne egalesas '='. Cuando quieres decirle a alguien "Un león es un animal, no un vegetal", puedes decir tanto "Ye animalo esas leono" como "Animalon esas leono". Piensa que lo que se hace es aclarar quién es el sujeto y quién el complemento. Para verbos como "ser" y "llegar a ser" que unen dos sustantivos (es decir: X es/llega a ser Y), es importante distinguir a X (el sujeto) de Y (el complemento). La preposición "ye" o la terminación "-n" (normalmente el acusativo) indica el complemento cuando es necesario. Como habrás notado, todo esto sucede cuando el complemento precede al sujeto: Quon (=Ye quo) divenas hano (gallo/gallina)? (Quo [complemento] < hano [sujeto]) ¿Un gallo/gallina llega a ser (se convierte en) qué? En la anterior oración se pregunta por aquello en lo que un gallo/gallina puede convertirse. Lu divenas rostajo o vek-horlojo (reloj despertador) Llega a ser (se convierte en) un reloj despertador o un asado Pero: Quo divenas hano? (Quo [sujeto] - hano [complemento]) ¿Qué llega a ser un gallo/gallina? En la anterior oración se pregunta por qué es lo que puede convertirse en un gallo o gallina. Ovo divenas hano Un huevo llega a ser un gallo/gallina Sin embargo, con "esar" esta distinción no se hace a menos que haya una diferencia definida entre el sujeto y el complemento: Quo es leono? ¿Qué es un león? (Preguntando por una definición) Quon (Ye quo) es leono? ¿Un león es qué? (Preguntando por una clasificación: un león es parte de la familia de los felinos, es un carnívoro, etc.) Estas descripciones no pueden invertirse: un león es un carnívoro, pero un carnívoro no es necesariamente un león. El complemento en estos casos es más amplio que el sujeto, o incluye al sujeto, así como la clase de los carnívoros incluye a los leones. Más quebraderos de cabeza: Quon esas vu?. Quon Vu : Me esas studento e samtempe anke yunulo. Ica questiono signifikas ke "quon" (studento, yunulo) kontenas "vu". Quo esis vu?. Quo < Vu : Lore ociemo esis me, ma nun laboremo esas me. Ica questiono signifikas ke 'vu' konsistas ek (ociemo, laboremo, edc.). Cuando "esas" no significa "pertenece a" y realmente significa "igual a", no necesitas ser tan específico, sino que simplemente di "Quo (en lugar de "Quon") esas vu?": Quo esas vu? Quo =< vu? (vu1, vu2,, quo,, vu5) : Me esas studento. Quebraderos finales: Ico esas pro ke me amoras tu. Ico esas [kauzo] pro ke me amoras tu. Ico/Ica kauzo/ (leono) esas kauzo (bestio) pro ke me amoras tu. - Este motivo es uno de los muchos motivos por los que yo te amo. - Éste es uno de los motivos por los que te amo. Icon esas pro ke me amoras tu. Icon esas [kauzi] pro ke me amoras tu. Icon/Ica kauzon/ (bestio) esas kauzi (leono, tigro) pro ke me amoras tu. - A este motivo pertenecen todos los motivos por los que te amo. - Éste es el gran motivo por el que yo te amo. PREPOSICIONES Las preposiciones en Ido, al contrario que en las lenguas naturales, no tienen ningún problema de uso. Cada una tiene un significado bien definido y, como todas las palabras en el idioma internacional, deben ser usadas sólo cuando el sentido las precise: Le compré esto a él, se convierte en: Compré esto de él - Me kompris ol de il. Se (reflexivo) cortó con su cuchillo, se convierte en: por medio de su cuchillo:Il sekis su per sua kultelo. La preposición "ye", sin embargo, no tiene significado definido y se usa sólo cuando no hay otra preposición que quede bien: Ye la duesma (di) marto El 2 de marzo Il kaptis la kavalo ye la kolo per lazo Él cogió el caballo por el cuello con (por medio de) un lazo Me doloras ye la kapo Me duele la cabeza (= Siento dolor en la cabeza). CONJUNCIONES Las conjunciones van seguidas de cualquier tiempo verbal que, de forma lógica, sea necesario: Se vu esus malada, Si estuviera enfermo, Se vu esos malada, Si está (estará) enfermo, Imperez ke il venez Ordénale que venga (imperativo) Restez til ke il venos Quédate hasta que él venga (vendrá) Kande il departos, dicez ad il ... Cuando él parta (= partirá), dile ... Segun ke me esos fatigita o ne, me iros kun vu Según si estoy (estaré) cansado o no, iré con usted Preparez chambro pro la kazo se il venus Prepare una habitación en caso de que él venga (vendría) En la kazo ke il venos, enduktez il En el caso de que él venga (vendrá), condúcele dentro Las conjunciones se forman a menudo partiendo de preposiciones y añadiéndoles el "ke" (similar al español): pro a causa de, por (prep.) dum ke mientras que (conj.) pro ke porque (conj.) depos desde (prep.) por para (prep.) depos ke desde que (conj.) por ke para que (conj.) til hasta (prep.) dum durante (prep.) til ke hasta que (conj.) Las preposiciones (sin "ke") se usan delante de un sustantivo, pronombre o infinitivo. Las conjunciones, por el contrario, sólo delante de una frase o sentencia: Depos mea mariajo Desde mi boda Depos ke me esis mariajata Desde que me casé Como puedes ver, no es nada difícil, ya que se parece bastante a lo que hacemos en español. MÁS AFIJOS Todavía nos quedan algunos afijos: "pre-" - Indica prelación, que antecede: predicar predecir preavo bisabuelo/a predatizar antedatar (Compara posnepoto - bisnieto) "prim-" - Primitivo: primavi antepasados "retro-" - Retrospección, acción inversa: retrovenar volver, venir atrás retroirar volver, ir atrás retrosendar devolver "ri-" - De nuevo, repetición, iteración: ridicar repetir, decir de nuevo ripolisar repulir "Retro" se usa como adverbio; sin embargo, el adverbio que corresponde al prefijo "ri-" es "itere - de nuevo". "-iv-" - Forma adjetivos con el significado de "que es capaz", "que puede": instruktiva instructivo responsiva responsable sugestiva sugestivo "-ebl-" - Forma adjetivos con el significado de "que puede ser", "capaz de ser": kredebla creíble lektebla legible nesondebla insondable "-ari-" - Indica el objeto indirecto del verbo (con el "a" expresado o entendido), es decir, el destinatario, el que recibe: legacario depositario, persona a la que algo se le deja EJERCICIOS Una anécdota para traducir de español a Ido y viceversa (entre paréntesis algunas palabras nuevas): Anécdota: relatada por B.Y.T.: En la antigua India y en una/alguna aldea vivían cuatro ciegos, pero muy eruditos. Un/algún día a la aldea vino por primera vez un elefante y ellos encontraron el elefante. Todos ellos rápidamente empezaron a tocar el elefante, "debido a/ a causa de" ardiente curiosidad. El primer ciego tocó la trompa del elefante y pronto dijo: Un elefante es similar a un clarín militar. El segundo ciego tocó sin embargo el cuerpo del elefante e interrumpió: ¡No! ¡No! Un elefante debe ser el gran muro de un edificio. El tercer ciego ya tocó la pierna del elefante y gritó: ¡No! ¡No! ¡No! Un elefante puede ser un pilar de una casa. El cuarto ciego por azar tocó la cola y burlándose dijo: ¡Estúpidos vosotros! Un elefante sólo es una cuerda ordinaria. Al día siguiente sin motivo visitó la villa un cirujano de "Ayurveda" y afortunadamente logró abrir los ojos del cuarto ciego.... Y él asombrado dijo después de mirar al elefante con sus propios ojos: --- Eso es un elefante. --- Anekdoto: rakontita (relatar) da B.Y.T.: En antiqua India ed en ula vilajo vivis quar blindi (ciego) ma tre erudita (erudito). Ye ula dio a la vilajo venis unesmafoye elefanto e li renkontris l'elefanto. Omnu de li quik tusheskis l'elefanto nam pro brulanta kuriozeso. La unesma blindo tushis la rostro (trompa) di l'elefanto e balde dicis: Elefanto similesas a klariono (clarín militar). La duesma blindo ma tushis la korpo (cuerpo) di l'elefanto ed interruptis: No! No! Elefanto mustas esar la granda muro di edifico (edificio). La triesma blindo ya tushis gambo (pierna) di l'elefanto e klamis: No! No! No! Elefanto povas esar kolono (pilar) di domo (casa). La quaresma blindo hazarde tushis la kaudo (cola) e mokante dicis: Vi stulti (estulto, estúpido)! Elefanto nur esas kordo (cuerda) ordinara. Ye la nexta dio senkauze vizitis la vilajon kirurgo (cirujano) di "Ayurveda" e fortunoze sucesis apertar l'okuli di la quaresma blindo.... E lu astonate dicis pos regardir l'elefanto per sua propra okuli: --- Icon esas elefanto. --- Traduce la siguiente conversación en ambos sentidos. Hazlo así en todos los ejercicios de este tema : ¿Le gusta viajar? Yo rara vez viajo Esto es demasiado caro No tanto como antiguamente ¿Opina así, de verdad? Según mi experiencia ¿Ha visitado Francia o Alemania? No, no sé francés ni alemán Ellos (los idiomas) son tan difíciles de adquirir Se espera que todos aprendamos Ido pronto Ka vu prizas voyajado? Me rare voyajas Ol esas tro kustoza Ne tam multe kam olim Ka vu tale opinionas, vere? Segun mea experienco Ka vu vizitis Francia o Germania? No, me ne savas la Franca nek la Germana Li esas tante desfacile aquirebla Espereble, omnu balde lernos Ido Traduce la siguiente situación: EN EL DESAYUNO: Madre: Sanne, ¿cuándo será la conferencia de Ido? ¿En agosto? Sanne: No, en julio. El 21. Madre: ¿Y dónde dijiste que tendrá lugar? Sanne: En Groningen. En la nueva universidad. Madre: ¿Tienes la intención de asistir? Sanne: Sí, por supuesto. La conferencia en Elsnigk del año pasado fue muy buena. Y este año espero volver a ver/"rever" a todos mis amigos. Madre:¿Ese joven de Suiza asistirá este año? ¿Cómo se llama? Erich, ¿no? Sanne: No estoy segura. Le escribí a él, pero hasta ahora él no ha respondido. Pero sé que Jean y Marie-Claire de Francia asistirán. Y Andreas de Suecia. ¿Qué hora es? No deseo perder el autobús. Madre: Son las siete y media. Tienes suficiente tiempo. Tú te levantaste muy temprano hoy. Sanne: ¡Yo siempre me levanto temprano! - especialmente ahora que el tiempo es más caliente y el día/la jornada más soleado. Madre: ¿Cómo está tu jefe? Sanne: ¿El señor Brink? Él no estuvo ayer en la oficina. Él fue a alguna reunión en algún lugar con la nueva secretaria. Dónde él la consiguió, no lo sé. Ella no sabe nada. Y ella es tan perezosa. Yo hago el verdadero trabajo. Ante él, ella lleva puesta como si fuera un semblante inocente. Y sus vestidos menos decentes que.... Madre: Sanne, el autobús! YE DEJUNETO (DESAYUNO): Matro: Sanne, kande esos la Ido-konfero? En agosto? Sanne: No, en julio. Ye la 21ma. Matro: Ed ube tu dicis ke ol eventos? Sanne: En Groningen. En la nova universitato. Matro: Ka tu intencas (tener la intención de) asistar? Sanne: Yes ya. La konfero en Elsnigk lasta-yare esis bonega. E ca-yare me esperas rividar omna mea amiki. Matro: Ka ta yunulo de Suisia asistos ca-yare? Quale il nomesas? Erich, ka ne? Sanne: Me ne esas certa. Me skribis ad il, ma til nun il ne respondis. Ma me savas ke Jean e Marie-Claire de Francia asistos. E Andreas de Suedia. Qua kloko esas? Me ne deziras perdar la autobuso. Matro: Esas sep kloki e duimo. Tu havas sat multa tempo*. Tu levis tu plu frue hodie. Sanne: Me sempre levas me frue! - specale nun ke (ahora que) la vetero (tiempo) esas plu varma (caliente) e la jorni plu sunoza (soleado). Matro: Quale tua chefo standas? Sanne: Sioro Brink? Il ne esis en la kontoro hiere. Il iris ad ula kunveno ulaloke kun la nova sekretariino. Ube il obtenis el, me ne savas. El savas nulo. Ed el esas tam ociema. Me facas la vera laboro. Avan il, el tragas* quaze inocenta mieno. Ed elua min kam decanta vesti.... (ociema - perezoso, decanta - decente) Matro: Sanne, la autobuso! (tragar* - llevar puesto, mieno - semblante) *NOTA: "Sat multa" se usa delante de un sustantivo. "Sat" se usa delante de un adjetivo: "sat bona". Igual sucede con las parejas "plu multa/plu", "maxim multa/maxim", "minim multa/minim" y "min multa/min". Traduce la siguiente situación: De un libro de aprendizaje italiano. Lectura 6: Cuando habíamos estado verdaderamente tranquilos y trabajadores durante una semana entera, el director de la escuela nos recompensó. Ella estuvo enferma ayer, porque ella había comido demasiado anteayer. Los lectores de ese periódico ya se habían quejado por/a causa de su inclinación al materialismo. Cuando usted llegue (habrá llegado) aquí, un grandioso paisaje cautivará su visión. Si esos árboles hubieran dado (habrían dado) frutos durante los últimos años, (muy) ciertamente no los habría cortado. ¿Quién dirá lo que habría producido el pensamiento de algunos científicos, si se les hubiera ayudado (mucho, más) mejor? Muchos fumadores mueren de cáncer. Ninguno atormenta a mi madre. Los miembros de la escuela aún no han llegado. No necesito ese cepillo/pincel más. De lernolibro Italiana. Lektajo 6: Kande ni esabis* vere tranquila e laborema (trabajadores) dum un tota (toda) semano, la skolestro (director de escuela) rekompensis ni. El esis malada hiere, pro ke el tro manjabis prehiere. La lekteri di ta jurnalo ja plendabis (quejarse) pro olua inklineso (inclinación) a la materialismo. Kande vu arivabos hike, belega peizajo (paisaje) charmos (encantar, cautivar) vua vidado (visión continua). Se ta arbori fruktifabus (dar fruto, fructificar) dum la lasta yari, me tre certe ne tranchabus (cortar) oli. Qua dicos to quon produktabus la pensado di ula ciencisti, se on helpabus li plu bone? Multa fumeri mortas de kancero (cáncer). Nulo trublas (atormentar) mea matro. La skolani ne ja esas arivinta. Me ne plus bezonas ta brosilo (cepillo). *NOTA: El sufijo "-ab-" se usa para forma los tiempos perfectos de los verbos. Así, en este caso, "ni esabis" significa "habíamos sido/estado". Traduce la siguiente situación: De un libro de aprendizaje italiano. Lectura 7: ¿Por qué se enrojece? ¿Se avergüenza de ser alabado? No tengo la opinión de haber sido demasiado recompensado. No esperamos ser aceptados tan cordialmente por sus cuñados Ellos pensarán sobre eso, cuando él haya (habrá) sido admitido aquí. Los caballos son alojados en la cuadra y las ovejas en el ovejil. Ellos no son merecedores de respeto y, consecuentemente, tampoco de amor. El parabrisas no se habría rasgado, si usted lo hubiera puesto en otro lugar. Todas las circulares ya habían sido distribuidas (a mano). Habiendo preguntado, el ex-capitán le respondió eso a ella confidencialmente y a media voz. Cada uno desea ser amado. Usted se alojará en casa de mi suegra. El legatario aún no es conocido. De lernolibro Italiana. Lektajo 7: Pro quo vu redeskas? Ka vu shamas (avergonzarse) esar laudata (alabado)? Me ne opinionas esir tro rekompensata. Ni ne esperis esar tante kordiale aceptata (aceptados) da lia bofratulo. Li pensos pri to, kande il esabos admisata (admitido) hike. La kavali esas lojigata (alojado) en la kavaleyo e la mutoni en la mutoneyo. Li ne esas respektinda (respetar) e, konseque, ne aminda. La paravento ne esabus lacerata (desgarrado, rasgado), se vu pozabus ol altraloke. Omna cirkuleri (circulares) ja esabis disdonata (distribuir a mano). Questionite, la exkapitano respondis to ad elu konfidence e mi-voce. Singlu deziras esar amata. Vu esos lojigata che mea bomatro. La legacario (legatario) ne ja esas konocata. Traduce la siguiente situación: De un libro de aprendizaje italiano. Lectura 8: Mientras que ellos/as fueron abandonados por todos, mi suegra los/las socorrió en su (de ellos/as) abandono. - Se dice que eso fue predicho por nuestro tío abuelo. Tanto tiempo como la tierra durará, ese hecho siempre será repetido para honorar (hacer honor) a su memoria. - Entonces nuestros padres fueron alabados, al contrario que ahora que son censurados. - El convencimiento producido en mí por sus argumentos causaron mi conversión. - Ustedes no jugarán, niños, hasta que esta lección haya (habrá) sido aprendida concienzudamente. - Despué de que esa casa fue construida aquí, su arquitecto fue matado. ¿Le sorprende esto? - ¿Por quién fue puesto esto sobre la mesa? - Esta flor no es rosa, sino violeta. - ¿Qué será o qué llegará a ser tal autoridad (sujeto)? De lernolibro Italiana. Lektajo 8: Dum ke li abandonesis da omni, mea bo-matro (suegra) sokursis (socorrer) li en lia abandoneso. - On dicas ke to predicesis (fue predicho) da nia pre-onklino (tío abuelo). Tam longe kam la tero duros, ta fakto sempre ridicesos por honorizar lua memoreso. - Lore (entonces) nia genitori laudesis, kontre ke li nun blamesas. - La konvinkeso (convencimiento) produktita en me da vua argumenti efektigis (causar) mea konverteso. - Vi ne ludos, pueri, til ke ca leciono esabos parlernata. - Depos ke ta domo konstruktesis hike, lua arkitekto ocidesis. Kad ico astonas vu? - Da qua ico pozesis adsur la tablo? - Ta floro ne esas rozea ma violea. - Quon esos o quon divenos tal autoritato (autoridad)? Traduce la siguiente situación: De cierto libro de lectura. Lectura 13: Caballo/yegua, caballo, yegua. Gato/a, gato, gata. Tengo tres hermanos/as, dos hermanas y un hermano. La hermana mayor es médico, la hermana más joven es telefonista, y mi hermano es comerciante. En esta escuela para niños los niños y niñas son instruidos/enseñados en compañía (juntos). ¿Cuántos trabajadores trabajan en esta fábrica? Aquí están ocupadas alrededor de cuatrocientos trabajadores y alrededor de ciento cincuenta trabajadoras. Existen sustantivos que indican sólo hombres (género masculino), por ejemplo: patro, viro; otros sustantivos indican sólo mujeres (género femenino), por ejemplo: matro, muliero,amazono, megero (raposa). La palabra damzelo (señorita) se aplica a mujeres solteras, la palabra damo (dama, señora) se usa para mujeres casadas o viudas. Como forma de cortesía se usa la palabra sioro (señor/a) para todos los hombres adultos, sean varones, sean mujeres. Sólo cuando es necesario, se usa siorulo (señor) o siorino (señora). Siori (señores), dice un orador a las señoras y señores que lo escuchan. Un bebedor fue atacado por la fiebre que (la cual) dobló su sed. El médico probó a hacer desaparecer al mismo tiempo la fiebre y la sed. "Ocúpese sólo de la fiebre", dijo el enfermo, "yo mismo me ocuparé de la sed." De certena lektolibro. Lektajo 13: Kavalo, kavalulo, kavalino. Kato, katulo, katino. Me havas tri frati, du fratini ed un fratulo. La seniora (mayor) fratino es mediko, la juniora (joven) fratino es telefonisto, e mea fratulo es komercisto. En ica skolo por pueri la pueruli e puerini instruktesas kune. Quanta laboristi laboras en ica fabrikerio (fábrica)? Hike es okupata cirkume (alrededor de) quaracent (400) laboristuli e cirkume cent-e-kinadek (150) laboristini. Existas substantivi qui indikas nur homuli, exemple: patro, viro; altra substantivi indikas nur homini, exemple: matro, muliero, amazono, megero raposa; lo siento por las mujeres, pero Ido sigue siendo un poco machista en algunas palabras). La vorto damzelo aplikesas a muliero celiba (soltera), la vorto damo uzesas por muliero mariajita o vidvino (viuda). Kom formo di politeso (cortesía) on uzas la vorto sioro por omna homi adulta, sive viri, sive mulieri. Nur kande es necesa, on uzas siorulo o siorino. Siori, dicas oratoro (orador) al siorini e sioruli qui askoltas lu. Drinkero atakesis da febro (fiebre) qua duopligis (doblar) sua dursto (sed). La mediko probis desaparigar samtempe la febro e la dursto. "Okupez vu nur pri la febro", dicis la malado, "me ipsa sorgos (tener cuidado) pri la dursto." LECCIÓN DIECIOCHO PRONOMBRES INDEFINIDOS Las siguientes palabras que veremos son los pronombres indefinidos (aunque nos refiramos con este nombre, realmente no son sólo pronombres). Cuando los veas, comprobarás que son muy fáciles de usar y muy flexibles. Ido posee una peculiaridad que consiste en que según la terminación del pronombre indefinido dispondremos de un pronombre, un objeto, un adjetivo o un adverbio. Así, si terminan en "-u" indican sujeto/pronombre en singular, si acaban en "-i" indican sujeto/pronombre en plural, si lo hacen en "-o" indican objeto en singular (y no se puede hacer el plural con la "-i"), si acaban en "-a" se usan como adjetivos y si terminan en "-e" se usan como adverbios (según el sentido serán de modo o de cantidad). Para no asustarnos demasiado, vamos a verlos: * Ula, ulo, ulu/uli, ule - algún, alguno, cierto, de algún modo/forma. Ula es un adjetivo (terminación -a): ula libro algún libro (un libro específico, aunque no sé cuál o no quiero decirlo). Ulu es un pronombre: ulu dicis alguien dijo (alguien, una cierta persona). Ulo es un pronombre que se refiere a una cosa: ulo mankas algo falta Ule es un adverbio que indica cómo se realiza la acción: me manjas ule yo como de alguna forma * Irga, irgo, irgu/irgi, irge - cualquier/a, cualesquier/a, de cualquier modo/forma. Cada forma se usa de la misma manera que en "ula, ulu, ulo, ule". Irgo konvenos Cualquier cosa estará bien, será aceptable, válida Irgo facesos Cualquier cosa se hará Irga okaziono esas bona por lernar Ido Cualquier ocasión es buena para aprender Ido. * Kelka, kelko, kelku/kelki, kelke - poca cosa, número o cantidad. El uso es idéntico: Kelka homi Unos pocos hombres Donez ad me kelko Dame algo (cantidad de eso) Kelka pano Un poco de pan Po kelka peseti Por pocas/algunas pesetas Yen fragi; prenez kelki (de oli) He aquí fresas; coge unas pocas (de ellas) * Poka, poko, poke - poco, en poca cantidad. Nótese que el pronombre "poku" aquí no tiene sentido, puesto que no se puede decir "poco individuo". Poka vino, poka homi Poco vino, pocos hombres Donez ad me poko Dame un poco (poca cantidad de eso) Il poke laboras, ma il ganas poke Él trabaja poco, pero él gana poco Llegados aquí, aprecia la diferencia entre "kelka" y "poka": "Kelka" significa un poco, una cierta cantidad, algo (lo contrario a "nula" - nada). "Poka" significa algo, pero poco (lo contrario a "multa" - mucho). Sigamos con más pronombres indefinidos: * Omna, omno, omnu/omni, omne - todo, toda, cada uno, todos juntos/en compañía. Observa los ejemplos atentamente: Omna homi Todos los hombres Omni dicis Todos dijeron Omnu kantis Todos cantaron/cada uno cantó Omno esas hike Todo (objeto) está aquí Omna vicini venos morge Todos los vecinos vendrán mañana Omna vicino venos morge Todos los vecinos vendrán mañana (nota que es igual a la anterior frase) Eli venis fine omne Al final ellas vinieron todas juntas * Altra, altro, altru/altri, altre - otro/a, de otra forma Altra foyo Otra vez Altru parolos Otro (persona) hablará Altro montros ke ... Otra cosa mostrará que ... Ol facesas altre Eso se hace de otra forma * Nula, nulo, nulu/nuli, nule - ningún/a, nada, nadie, de ninguna forma Lo contrario de "ula". Nula libro Ningún libro Nulu dicis Nadie dijo Nulo mankas Nada falta * Singla, singlo, singlu/singli, single - uno a uno, cada cosa, cada uno aparte Estas palabras tienen significado distributivo. Singla karti Cartas cada una aparte (cada una de las cartas) Singla soldati Cada soldado Il parolis a singlu Él habló a cada uno Li venis single Ellos/as vinieron individualmente/cada uno aparte Dek centimi po singla Diez céntimos por cada uno Tal vez tienes algunas dudas entre "omna" y "singla", por si acaso lo comentamos: "omna" significa todos, cada uno de forma colectiva "singla" significa cada uno de forma distributiva Todos hablaron, cada uno en su idioma Omnu parolis, singlu en sua linguo. Observe que la expresión "el uno al otro" se puede traducir como "una la altra" (en plural sería "uni la altri"), siempre y cuando el prefijo "inter-" sea inadecuado: Amaos los unos a los otros Amez uni la altri / Amez kom uni la altri Ellos hablaron entre ellos mucho tiempo Li interparolis longe Se dieron regalos los unos a los otros (se dieron regalos cada uno a los otros) Li donis donaci uni a l'altri / Li donis donaci kom uni a l'altri Las siguientes notas están traducidas al español debajo por si tienes dudas, aunque deberías ser capaz de traducirlas ... N.B. "inter" esas prepoziciono ma onu ofte uzas olu kom prefixo. Exemple: Sro Max parolas inter Sro Mix e Sro Mox. Do li inter-parolas. N.B. "unu la altra" ne esas substantivo ma vere adverbala frazo, do kande onu volus indikar olua adverbeso, onu povus montrar to per "kom". Amez "uni" - vu ne amas "uni", co volas dicar ke "uni" amez la altri. La frazo signifikas ke 'Amez "en la maniero ke" unu a/por la altri'. Do "kom" povas emfazar la signifiko di "en la maniero ke". N.B. Kande vua "unu" o "uni" ne esas irga persono/i ma specala persono/i en vua penso, vu povas dicar "la una la altra/i" o "la uni la altra/i" Aquí está la traducción: N.B. "inter" es una preposición, pero uno la usa a menudo como prefijo. P. ej.: Sro Max habla "entre" Sro Mix y Sro Mox. Por lo tanto hablan entre ellos. N.B. "unu la altra" no es un sustantivo, sino, realmente, una locución adverbial; por lo tanto, cuando uno quiere (querría) indicar su condición de adverbio, uno puede mostrar eso mediante "kom".Amez "uni" - Usted no ama a "unos", esto quiere decir que "unos" amen a los otros. La frase significa que 'Amen "en la manera en que" uno (ama) a los otros'. Por lo tanto "kom" puede enfatizar el significado de "en la manera en que". N.B. Cuando su "unu" o "uni" no es cualquier/cualesquiera persona(-s), sino una(-s) persona(-s) especial(-es) en su pensamiento, puede decir "la una la altra/i" o "la uni la altra/i". MÁS AFIJOS "-aj-" - Hay varios sentidos, así que veámoslos: Con una raíz verbal, indica el objeto de la acción expresada por el verbo: manjajo comida (lo que es comido) drinkajo bebida (lo que es bebido) chanjajo cosa cambiada Con un verbo intransitivo indica el sujeto de la acción: rezultajo resultado (lo que resulta) restajo resto (lo que resta) Con una raíz no verbal, significa una cosa hecha de una cierta materia o que posee una cierta cualidad: lanajo artículo de lana belajo belleza, cosa bella molajo parte suave Y, por extensión, expresa "acto de ...": amikajo acto de amistad infantajo travesura infantil, chiquillada "-ur-" - Indica el resultado/producto concreto de la acción expresada por el verbo: pikturo pintura imituro imitación. Compare con "imitajo - la cosa imitada imprimuro trabajo impreso fotografuro fotografía (la imagen) "-ar-" - Conjunto, colección de: homaro humanidad (conjunto de hombres) vortaro diccionario vazaro vajilla "Un elemento, partícula de un conjunto" se expresa mediante "-un-": greluno piedra de granizo Donde los elementos son piezas/trozos, antes que entidades, use "peco": sukropeco un terrón de azúcar "ex-" - "Ex", antiguo, que fue: exkonsulo ex-cónsul exoficiro ex-funcionario exprezidanto ex-presidente "-um-" - Es un sufijo indefinido sin significado concreto (similar a la preposición "ye"). Debes consultar el diccionario para las palabras en las que se use (son muy pocas). Además, sólo la Academia puede crear palabras con dicho prefijo (pero cualquiera puede usarlas), así que aquí se indica para que no te extrañes al verlo... mondumo el mundo, el mundo social foliumar hojear kolumo cuello de camisa o americana EJERCICIOS NOTA: A partir de esta lección las traducciones de los textos (no las frases aisladas o de ejemplo) no serán literales. Creo que llegados a esta lección se puede suponer que ya sabe cómo traducir una palabra o expresión concreta sin necesidad de explicarlo paso a paso. He aquí una nueva conversación. Como viene siendo habitual, las palabras nuevas irán entre paréntesis. Traducir todos los ejercicios de este tema en ambas direcciones: ¿Es jugador de ajedrez (shak-ludero)? Antaño (olim) sabía los movimientos (stroki) He olvidado los nombres de las piezas (peci) No podría incluso (mem) ni enrocar (roquar) correctamente (korekte) ¿Preferiría salir fuera (ekirar) y disfrutar del aire fresco (fresha)? Sí, ciertamente; la lluvia ha cesado (cesar) Bien; tomaremos (prenar) nuestros paraguas, en caso de que recomience (rikomencar) Si tiene frío (kolda), no permaneceremos mucho tiempo Ka vu esas shak-ludero? Olim me savis la stroki Me obliviis la nomi di la peci Me ne povus mem roquar korekte Ka vu preferus ekirar e juar la fresha aero? Yes, certe; la pluvo cesis Bone; ni prenos nia parapluvi, kaze ke ol rikomencus Se vu sentos vu kom kolda, ni ne restos longatempe Una carta: CARTA DE SUIZA: Ginebra, Suiza, 19 de mayo Querida Sanne: Gracias por tu carta. No pude responder antes de ahora, porque estuve lejos de casa durante un mes y sólo he vuelto recientemente. Por lo tanto, "tenga usted la voluntad" de excusarme. Sí, asistiré a la Ido-Conferencia en Groningen. Ahora mismo miraba el programa. Los organizadores tienen un buen número de ideas. Preveo que el concierto del jueves será un gran negocio/asunto. Jim Lipton presentará sus nuevas Ido-canciones. ¿Recuerdas las canciones de Jim en Elsnigk? ¿Recibiste el libro de cocina que envié desde Venecia, y las dos tarjetas postales de Roma? - Sí, pasé el mes en Italia. Recientemente escribí un artículo para 'Progreso' sobre ecología. ¿Lo leíste? Recibí varias cartas felicitándome por él (el artículo). Un Idista de Japón quiere traducir el artículo al idioma japonés para una revista japonesa. Di mi permiso, naturalmente. ¿Cómo están tus padres? Tu padre se retiró este año, ¿no? ¿Qué tiene la intención de hacer? Si no me equivoco, él pasará todo el año sobre un campo de golf. Mi tío Albert está todavía abatido después de su operación. No creo que asista (asistirá) a la Ido-Conferencia. Espero ansiosamente volver a verte. Mis más cordiales saludos para todos. Afectuosamente tuyo, Erich XXX LETRO DE SUISIA (SUIZA): Geneve (Ginebra), Suisia, la 19ma di mayo Kara Sanne: Danko pro tua letro. Me ne povis respondar ante nun, pro ke me esis for-heme (lejos de casa) dum monato e nur recente retrovenis. Do voluntez exkuzar (excusar) me. Yes, me asistos la Ido-konfero (conferencia) en Groningen. Me jus (ahora mismo) regardis la programo. La organizeri (organizadores) havas nombro de bona idei. Me previdas ke la koncerto (concierto) ye la jovdio esos granda afero. Jim Lipton prizentos (presentar) sua nova Ido-kansoni (canciones). Ka tu rimemoras (recordar) la kansoni di Jim en Elsnigk? Ka tu recevis (recibir) la koquo-libro quan me sendis de Venezia, e la du karti postala de Roma? - Yes, me pasis la monato en Italia. Recente me skribis artiklo por 'Progreso' pri ekologio (ecología). Ka tu lektis ol? Me recevis plura letri gratulanta (felicitando) me pro ol. Un Idisto en Japonia volas tradukar la artiklo aden la Japona linguo por Japona revuo (revista). Me donis mea permiso, naturale. Quale tua genitori standas? Tua patro retretas (retirarse) cayare, ka ne? Quon il intencas (tener la intención de) agar? Se me ne eroras, il pasos la tota yaro sur la golfo-tereno (terreno). Mea onklulo Albert esas ankore depresita (abatido) pos sua operaco (operación). Me ne kredas ke il asistos la Ido-konfero. Me avide (ansiosamente) vartas (aguardar, esperar) rividar tu. Mea maxim kordiala saluti ad omni. Afecionoze tua, Erich XXX Algunas preguntas (las primeras son de la carta): Cuestiones: 1. ¿Erich estuvo en Italia durante dos meses? - No, durante un mes. 2. ¿Asistirá a la Ido-Conferencia? - Sí, el asistirá. 3. ¿Qué tendrá lugar el jueves? - El convierto. 4. ¿Quién presentará canciones? - Jim Lipton. 5. ¿Erich escribió un artículo sobre Japón para 'Progreso'? - No, sobre ecología. 6. ¿Erich envió una tarjeta postal desde Venecia? - No, él envió un libro de cocina. 7. ¿Dónde está Roma? - Roma está en Italia. 8. ¿Quién se retirará este año? - El padre de Sanne. 9. ¿Quién es Albert? - El tío de Erich. 10. ¿Albert está bien? - No, él todavía está abatido después de su operación. Cuestiones: 1. Si fuera (sería) rico, yo ... compraría la compañía donde trabajo. 2. Si pudiera elegir una vacación cualquiera, yo ... elegiría una vacación en Grecia. 3. Si pudiera encontrar ... un fantasma, lo capturaría y lo vendería por dinero. 4. Si estuviera en una cárcel..., me convertiría en un pájaro y escaparía. 5. Viviría en ...Grecia, si ...me retirara/jubilara. Cuestiones generales: 1. ¿Qué color tienen tus ojos? - Son o marrones o azules o avellanados. 2. ¿Uno lleva puesto un pijama en la nieve? - ¡Por supuesto que no! 3. ¿Se encuentra usted como el calor (que está) presente? - Sí, suficientemente caliente cerca de la hoguera/fuego/hogar/chimenea. 4. ¿Cuán fácilmente respondió a la primera pregunta? - Sin cualquier problema. 5. ¿Cuán a menudo lee un libro de biblioteca? - 2 ó 3 veces por semana. 6. ¿Cuánto cuesta un marco postal (sello) para una carta ordinaria? - Quizás 2 ó 3 marcos. 7. ¿De dónde viene su familia? - La mía no es de la aristocracia. 8. ¿En qué condado vive? - En Idia de Japón. 9. ¿Cuántos primos tiene? - 10 primos. 10. ¿Escribe con su mano derecha o con su izquierda? - Con mi derecha. Questioni: 1. Ka Erich esis en Italia dum du monati? - No, dum un monato. 2. Kad il asistos la Ido-konfero? - Yes, ilu asistos. 3. Quo eventos ye jovdio? - La koncerto. 4. Qua prizentos kansoni? - Jim Lipton. 5. Ka Erich skribis artiklo pri Japonia por 'Progreso'? - No, pri ekologio. 6. Ka Erich sendis posto-karto de Venezia? - No, ilu sendis koquo-libro. 7. Ube esas Roma? - Roma es en Italia. 8. Qua retretos ca yaro? - Patro di Sanne. 9. Qua esas Albert? - Onklulo di Erich. 10. Kad Albert standas bone? - No, Ilu esas ankore depresita pos sua operaco. Questioni: 1. Se me esus richa, me ... komprus la kompanio ube me laboras. 2. Se me povus selektar irga vakanco, me ... selektus vakanco en Grekia. 3. Se me povus renkontrar ...fantomo, me olun kaptus e vendus por pekunio. 4. Se me esus en karcero (cárcel)..., me divenus ucelo ed eskapus. 5. Me habitus en ...Grekia, se ...me retretus. Generala questioni: 1. Qua koloro esas vua okuli? - Oli esas o bruna o blua o avelanea (avellanado). 2. Ka on tragas* (llevar puesto) pijamo (pijama) en la nivo? - Komprenende ne! 3. Ka vu sentas (sentir) vu kom varma prezente? - Yes, suficante varma apud herdo (hoguera, chimenea). 4. Quante facile vu respondis a la unesma questiono? - Sen irga problemo. 5. Quante ofte vu lektas biblioteko-libro? - 2 o 3 foyi en la semano. 6. Quante kustas marko postala por letro ordinara? - Forsan 2 o 3 marki. 7. De ube vua familio venas? - La mea ne esas de aristokrataro (aristocracia). 8. En qua komtio (condado) vu habitas? - En Idia di Japonia. 9. Quanta kuzin vu havas? - 10 kuzi. 10. Ka vu skribas per vua dextra o per vua sinistra manuo (mano)? - Per mea dextra. Lectura: De un libro de aprendizaje italiano. 9: - ¿Qué edad tiene este niño? - Tiene ocho años, y su hermana es de 11 años. - ¿A qué hora llegará? - A las 13 horas. - ¿Cuándo partirá el tren? - A las dos y 57 minutos - 2:57. - ¿Qué hora es ahora? - Son las once y tres cuartos - 11:45. - ¿Qué árboles plantarás? - Plantaré robles y hayas. - ¿Cuál es el orden del día del mes de hoy? - El 29º o el 30º, no lo sé mucho. - ¿Compró cigarrillos? - Sí, cigarrillos por sesenta céntimos por cada paquete. - Comí muy poco, un bocado, en el establecimiento de impresión. - ¡Oh! ¡Qué chiquillada! - Eso hallado es precioso. El párroco de esa parroquia es muy celoso, aunque viejo. - Él permaneció durante tres horas. Cualquiera que venga, no lo/la aceptes/acojas. - Cinco veces ocho es cuarenta. 5 x 8 =40 - Un tercio de quince es cinco. 1/3 x 15 = 5 De lernolibro Italiana. 9: - Quante evas ca puerulo? - Il evas ok yari, e lua fratino esas dek-e-un-yara. - Ye qua kloko li arivos? - Ye dek e tri kloki. - Kande la treno departos? - Ye du kloki kinadek e sep (minuti). - 2:57 - Qua kloko nun esas? - Esas dek e un kloki e tri quarimi. - 11:45 - Quala arborin vu plantacos (plantar, sembrar)? - Me plantacos querki (roble) e fagi (haya, árbol). - Quantesma dio di la monato esas? - La duadek e nonesma (29th) o la triadekesma (30th), me ne plu savas. - Kad vu kompris sigareti (cigarrillos)? - Yes, sigareti po sisadek centimi ye singla pako. - Me manjis tre poke, un bokedo (bocado), en la imprimerio. - Ho! Qual infantalajo! - Ta trovajo esas precoza. La paroko (sacerdote, párroco) di ta parokio (parrroquia) esas tre zeloza (celoso), quankam olda. - Il restis dum tri hori. Irgu qua venos, ne aceptez lu. - Kinople ok esas quara-dek. 5 x 8 =40 - La triimo di dek e kin esas kin. 1/3 x 15 = 5 Lectura: De un libro de aprendizaje italiano. 10: - ¿Quién puso eso en el comedor de nuestros maestros y maestras? - Una muy bella aeronave pasó sobre nuestras cabezas esta mañana. - ¿El cajón (o gaveta) de ese mueble ya no tiene llave (nunca más tendrá llave)? - ¿Qué le vendió esa persona dedicada a los muebles? - Sólo cuatro sillas y un pequeño escritorio. - Cuando la lluvia haya cesado (habrá cesado), quizás aparecerá en las nubes el arco iris. - Las patatas son una comida preciosa precisamente porque son baratas. - Buenos días, querido amigo, ¿cómo está este día? - La hora de la muerte es desconocida por todo ser viviente y no obstante les viene poco a poco. - Él es el hombre más maligno, que he encontrado hasta ahora. - Lleguen lo más rápidamente como sea posible. - Usted es menos trabajador que su primo, pero el menos trabajador de todos es el hijo/hija del vecino/vecina. - Nunca, no, nunca se vio a tantos hombres en nuestro pueblo. - Deme algún dinero para comprar una docena de huevos. - Mire esa voluminosa piedra de granizo. - A los escolares trabajadores los recompensaremos, pero a los ociosos los castigaremos severamente (ADVIERTA el uso del artículo en plural "le" delante del complemento directo indicado explícitamente con la terminación "n"). De lernolibro Italiana. 10: - Qua pozis to aden la manjo-chambro di nia gemastri? - Tre bel aer-navo pasis super nia kapi ca-matine. - Ka la tir-kesti (cajón) di ta moblo (mueble) ne plu havas klefo (llave)? - Quon vendis a vu ta moblisto? - Nur quar stuli ed un mikra skribotablo. - Kande la pluvo cesabos, forsan aparos en la nubi ciel-arko (arco iris). - La ter-pomi (patatas) esas manjajo precoza precize pro ke li esas chipa. - Bon jorno, kar amiko, quale vu standas ca-die? - La horo di la morto esas nekonocata da omna vivanti e tamen ol venas a li pokope. - Il esas la viro maxim maligna (maligno), quan me til nun renkontris. - Arivez maxim rapide kam posible. - Vu esas min laborema kam vua kuzulo, ma la minim laborema ek omni esas la filio di la vicino. - Nulatempe, no, nulatempe on vidis tanta homi en nia vilajo. - Donez a me kelka pekunio por komprar dekeduo (docena) de ovi (huevos). - Regardez ta grosega (voluminoso, abultado) greluno (piedra de granizo). - La skolanin laborema ni rekompensos (recompensar), ma le ocieman ni punisos (castigar) severe (OBSERVE esta frase detenidamente). Lectura: De cierto libro de lectura. Lectura 14: Las cinco partes del mundo se llaman: África, América, Australia, Asia y Europa. Además de el francés y el alemán, él sabe la lengua internacional. Durante un año y seis meses viví en París, durante un año estuve en Berlín, y ahora estoy en Zurich. Tolstoy fue un poeta ruso. Sócrates vivió en la antigua Grecia. Los (obras de) Goethe son raras. De unas manzanas, toma las buenas y deja las malas, Tú debes (obligación moral) escribir más bellamente, principalmente las "oes" y las "ues" están bastante mal escritas, uno puede ciertamente confundirlas. No aprecio/amo a las personas/hombres que siempre usan los "si" (condicional) y los "pero", prefiero a aquellos/los que usan los "síes" y los "noes". Alejandro Dumas, que no sabía alemán, viajó sobre la orilla derecha del Rheno. Cierto día fue a una posada en el Bosque Negro para cenar. Él deseaba comer setas, pero ¿cómo hacerse entender? Después de alguna reflexión dibujó una seta sobre un trozo de papel, y se lo mostró (el dibujo) al posadero. Éste hizo unas vivaces señas que él comprendió bien y trajo consigo un gran paraguas a Alejandro Dumas. De certena lektolibro. Lektajo 14: La kin mondoparti nomesas: Afrika, Amerika, Australia, Azia ed Europa. Ultre (además) la Franca e la Germana linguo, il savas la linguo internaciona. Dum un yaro e sis monati me habitis en Paris, dum un yaro me esis en Berlin, e nun me es en Zuerich. Tolstoy esis Rusa poeto. Sokrates vivis en anciena Grekia. Le Goethe es rara. Yen pomi, prenez le bona e lasez le mala. Tu devas skribar plu bele, precipue le 'o' e le 'u' es tro male skribita, on ya (ciertamente) povas konfundar (confundir) li. Me ne amas la homi qui sempre uzas le 'se' e le 'ma', me preferas ti qui uzas le 'yes' e le 'no'. Alexandro Dumas, qua ne savis la Germana linguo, voyajis sur la dextra rivo (orilla, ribera) dil Rheno. Uldie il eniris albergo (posada, albergue) en la Foresto Nigra por dinear. Il deziris manjar fungi (hongo, seta), ma quale komprenigar su (hacerse entender)? Pos kelka reflekto (reflexión) il desegnis (diseñar, dibujar) fungo sur peco de papero, e montris (mostrar) ol al albergestro (posadero). Ica facis vivaca (vivaz, vivo) signi ke il bone komprenis ed adportis - granda parapluvo (paraguas) ad Alexandro Dumas. LECCIÓN DIECINUEVE TEXTOS PARA LEER Y TRADUCIR Ésta es la penúltima lección del nivel intermedio y no vamos a ver más cuestiones teóricas acerca de Ido ... Ya hemos visto lo suficiente como para ser capaces de traducir los textos que aquí se exponen. Así que, ¡ánimo!, ya queda menos. EJERCICIOS NOTA 1: Por si no te has dado cuenta hasta ahora, entre paréntesis se indica la traducción de la palabra que hay antes, aunque sólo se ofrece la forma más simple (infinitivo o sustantivo en singular) para que pienses un poco... NOTA 2: En muchas ocasiones, incluso en la mayor parte de los textos de anteriores lecciones, los adjetivos se colocan delante de los sustantivos, pero esto es debido a que los que han escrito los textos son ingleses o les gusta el inglés, puesto que es perfectamente válido colocar los adjetivos detrás del sustantivo tal y como hacemos en español normalmente. Lectura 1 (traduce esta lectura y las siguientes de Ido a español y viceversa): Lektajo 01: Me lojas en alta domo. Avan la domo esas bela gardeno. Dop la domo esas korto (patio). La pordo esas klozita. Me havas klefo (llave). La eskalero (escalera) esas streta (estrecho), la fluro (rellano de una escalera) esas larja (ancho). En la salono esas tablo, stuli, sofao e horlojo. La fenestro esas granda. Tapiso (alfombra) jacas (yacer) sur la sulo (suelo). An la muro pendas (colgar, pender) imaji (imagen). La plafono (techo) esas blanka. La patro lektas libro. Me skribas. Me havas du fratini. La yuna/juniora (más joven, menor) fratino sutas (coser). La granda/seniora (más vieja, mayor) fratino esas en la koqueyo (cocina). La olda avulo sidas en dorso-stulo (silla simple). La matro koquas (cocinar). En la koqueyo esas multa utensili. La fairo brulas en la herdo (chimenea). La dishi esas sur la pladi (plato). Flori en vazo (jarrón) esas sur la tablo. En la dormo-chambro esas du liti (cama), armoro (armario), stuli e spegulo (espejo). Furnelo (estufa) stacas (estar de pie) apud la pordo. Me dormas en la lito. La genitori (padres) esas bona. Me esas volunte heme. Me prizas esar heme. Lectura 01: Vivo en una casa alta. Delante de la casa hay un bello jardín. Detrás de la casa hay un patio. La puerta está cerrada. Tengo una llave. La escalera es estrecha, el rellano de la escalera es ancho. En el salón hay una mesa, unas sillas, un sofá y un reloj. La ventana es grande. Una alfombra yace sobre el suelo. Del muro cuelgan unas imágenes. El techo es blanco. El padre lee un libro. Estoy escribiendo/escribo. Tengo dos hermanas. La hermana menor está cosiendo. La hermana mayor está en la cocina. El viejo abuelo se sienta en una silla simple¿?. La madre cocina. En la cocina hay muchos utensilios. El fuego arde en la chimenea. La comida (manjares) está sobre los platos. Unas flores en un jarrón están sobre la mesa. En el dormitorio hay dos camas, un armario, unas sillas y un espejo. Una estufa está de pie cerca de la puerta. Duermo en la cama. Los padres son buenos. Estoy voluntariamente en casa. Me gusta estar en casa. Lectura 2: Lektajo 02: On mustas flegar (cuidar de) sua korpo. Sana anmo (alma) lojas nur en sana korpo. Omnadie me lavas mea vizajo (cara), la kolo (cuello), la pektoro (pecho) e la manui per sapono. Ofte me balnas. Somere (en verano) ni balnas en la fluvio (gran río). Me pektas (peinar) mea hari e netigas mea denti. Mea hari esas nigra e mea denti esas blanka. La pelo (piel) esas bruna e la labii esas reda. Mea patro havas blonda barbo. Vespere (por la tarde) me promenas kun mea amiko en nia gardeno. Ni parolas la mondolinguo. Nia okuli vidas la bela flori. La flori emisas (emitir) sua agreabla odoro (olor). La nazo (nariz) flaras (oler, percibir) lia odoro e nia oreli audas la kanto dil uceleti. Nia pulmoni respiras la pura aero. La nervi (nervio) divenas tranquila. Cadie me iras a mea kuzulo e lua amiki. Li kantas, ludas e rakontas (relatar, narrar) interesiva rakonti (relato, cuento). Ni esas gaya (alegre, jovial). Se pluvas, me lektas libro heme. La ventego ululas (ulular, aullar) cirkum la domo. La nokto esas tenebroza (tenebroso, oscuro, sombrío). Ma mea chambreto esas lumoza (llena de luz, luminosa) e mea kordio (corazón) esas joyoza, nam la libro montras a me bona homi e bela landi. Ankore en la dormo me sonjas (soñar) pri to. Lectura 02: Uno debe cuidar de su cuerpo. Un alma sana habita sólo en un cuerpo sano. Todos los días (me) lavo mi cara, el cuello, el pecho y las manos con jabón. Me baño a menudo. En verano nos bañamos en el gran río. Peino mi pelo y limpio mis dientes. Mi pelo es negro y mis dientes son blancos. La piel es marrón y los labios son rojos. Mi padre tiene una barba rubia. Por la tarde paseo con mi amigo en nuestro jardín. Hablamos el idioma mundial. Nuestros ojos ven las bellas flores. Las flores emiten su agradable olor. La nariz percibe sus olores y nuestros oídos oyen el canto de los pajarillos. Nuestros pulmones respiran el aire puro. Los nervios se vuelven tranquilos. Este día voy a(¿con?) mi primo y sus amigos. Ellos cantan, juegan y relatan interesantes cuentos. Estamos alegres. Si llueve, leo un libro en casa. La ventisca ulula alrededor de la casa. La noche es tenebrosa. Pero mi cuartito está lleno de luz y mi corazón está eufórico, porque el libro me muestra unos buenos hombres y unas bellos países. Todavía en el sueño, sueño sobre eso. Lectura 3 y conversación: Lektajo 03: Hiere me vizitis nia vicini (vecino). Li esas olda. Me konocas li depos mea infanteso. Li havis quar filii, tri filiuli ed un filiino. Un filiulo mortis frue (temprano). La genitori edukis amoze (afectuosamente, con cariño) l'altri. La filiuli esis adolecanti (adolescente), lore (entonces) la mondo-milito (guerra mundial) komencis. Ili eniris la armeo (ejército). L'unun balde kuglo (bala) atingis (alcanzar). Il mortis quik. L'altru retrovenis sana. Il mariajis yunino e vivas nun kun sua spozino en altra urbo. Nur la filiino restis che sua olda genitori. El flegas li sorgeme (cuidadosamente). Me adportis a li frukti e dicis multa saluti (saludo) de mea genitori. La oldulo esis afabla e naracis a me pri sua yuneso (juventud). La oldino jacis en la lito; el esas malada. Elua filiino adportis ad el medikamento; ma la malado ne volis drinkar ol. Forsan el mortos balde. Me vizitus el omnadie, se me povus. La bona vicini amis me sempre. Li joyos (alegrarse), kande me rivenos. Konverso A: Bona jorno, siorino! B: Bona jorno, siorulo! A: Quale vu standas? B: Me dankas tre bone e quale standas vu? A: Me esis malada e mustis konsultar la mediko; ma nun me esas sana. B: Quon la mediko dicis? A: Il dicis: "Irez ofte aden la foresto e repozez multe!" B: La saneso (salud) esas valoroza (valioso). A: Yes, me obedios (obedecer) la konsilo dil mediko. B: Til rivido, siorulo! A: Til rivido, siorino! Lectura 03: Ayer visité a nuestros vecinos. Son viejos. Los conozco desde mi infancia. Tienen cuatro hijos, tres hijos y una hija. Un hijo murió pronto. Los padres educaron con cariño a los otros. Los hijos eran adolescentes, entonces la guerra mundial comenzó. Ellos entraron en (ir dentro) el ejército. A uno pronto una bala lo alcanzó. Él murió rápidamente. El otro regresó sano. Él se casó con una joven mujer y vive ahora con su esposa en otra ciudad. Sólo la hija permaneció en casa de sus viejos padres. Ella los cuida cuidadosamente. Les llevé unas frutas y les di muchos saludos de mis padres. El viejo era afable y me habló sobre su juventud. La vieja yacía en la cama; está enferma. Su hija le trajo a ella la medicina; pero la enferma no quería bebersela. Quizás ella morirá pronto. La visitaría a ella todos los días, si pudiera. Los buenos vecinos me amaban siempre. Ellos se alegrarán, cuando vuelva de nuevo. Conversación A: ¡Buenos días, señora! B: ¡Buenos días, señor! A: ¿Cómo está? B: Gracias, muy bien y ¿cómo está usted? A: Estuve enfermo y tuve que consultar al médico; pero ahora estoy sano. B: ¿Qué dijo el médico? A: Él dijo: "¡Vaya a menudo al bosque y descanse mucho!" B: La salud es valiosa. A: Sí, obedeceré el consejo del médico. B: ¡Hasta la vista, señor! A: ¡Hasta la vista, señora! Lectura 4: Lektajo 04: La vespero esas koldeta. Vespere me iras rapide a la vilajo. La rapida kavalo portas la kavalkero (kavalkar - cabalgar). Naracez a me la historio, ma kurte (brevemente). Avan la foresto esas prato (prado). Ni kuras ad-avane. Quanta pomin tu havas? Quante me joyas! Ica farino (harina) esas blanka, ma ita esas griza (gris). Ca floro odoras forte; iti havas bela kolori. Ti qui ne laboras, anke devus ne manjar. Ilca esas richa, ma elta esas povra. Me savas to. Me ne povas komprenar ico. Ni iras a la ruro. Quante la flava (amarillo) cereali (cereal) stacas belege sur l'agro! Inter la spiki (espigas) on vidas blua aciani (flor de maíz) e reda papaveri (amapola). Ibe rurano falchas (segar) la frumento (trigo). Hike du kavali tiras plena (lleno) veturo (carruaje). Pomieri (manzano) stacas sur ca agro. La pomi ne ja esas matura, ma ta prunieri (ciruelos) portas multa matura pruni (ciruela). Dop la vilajo esas viteyo (viñedo). La vitberi (uva) divenas dolca, nam la suno brilas varmege de la cielo (cielo) sennuba. Cirkum la vilajo esas multa legum-gardeni (legumbre-jardín). En ici fazeoli (habichuela), pizi (guisante), karoti (zanahoria), salado (ensalada?¿) e kaulo (col) kreskas. Se la rurano ne kultivus l'agri (campo), l'urbano ne havus nutrivo. Nun ni hungras (tener hambre) e durstas (estar sediento). En restorerio ni drinkas taso de kafeo e manjas peco de pano kun butro (manteca). Lectura 04: La tarde es fresquita. Por la tarde voy rápidamente al pueblo. El caballo rápido lleva al jinete (el que cabalga por afición). Cuéntame la historia, pero brevemente. Delante del bosque hay un prado. Corremos hacia delante. ¿Cuántas manzanas tienes? ¡Cómo me alegro! Esta harina es blanca, pero esa es gris. Esta flor huele fuertemente; esas tienen colores bonitos. Los que no trabajan, también deberían (obligación moral) no comer. Éstos son ricos, pero ésas son pobres. Yo sé eso. No puedo comprender esto. Vamos al campo. ¡Cuán hermosísimamente los amarillos cereales se alzan sobre el campo! Entre las espigas uno ve flores de maíz y amapolas rojas. Allí/ahí un campesino siega el trigo. Aquí dos caballos tiran de un carruaje lleno. Unos manzanos se alzan (se encuentran) sobre este campo. Las manzanas no están maduras aún, pero estos ciruelos tienen mucha ciruelas maduras. Detrás del pueblo hay un viñedo. Las uvas se vuelven dulces, porque el sol brilla muy ardientemente desde el cielo sin nubes. Alrededor del pueblo hay muchos huertos de legumbres. En éstos habichuelas, guisantes, zanahorias, ensaladas¿? y coles crecen. Si el campesino no cultivara el campo, los ciudadanos (de ciudad) no tendrían nutrientes. Ahora tenemos hambre y sed. En un restaurante bebemos una taza de café y comemos un trozo de pan con manteca. Lectura 5 (con perdón para los campesinos): Lektajo 05: Lumoza expliko Du rurani parolis pri la telegrafo. "Quale ol agas por transportar la novaji (noticia) tante rapide? "Esas tre simpla.", l'altru respondis. "On tushas l'una extremajo (extremo) di la metalfilo (alambre) e l'altra extremajo skribas quale per plumo." "Me quik klarigos (aclarar) lo por tu. Ka tu havas hundo?" - "Yes." "Quale lu aspektas?" - "Lu esas tenua (delgado) e havas longa kaudo (cola)." "Nun, kande tu fulas (pisar) la kaudo, ka lu ne aboyas (ladrar)?" - "Yes, certe!" "Nun, supozez ke tua hundo esus sat longa por atingar (alcanzar) Stockholm de tua vilajo. Esas nula dubo ke lu aboyus en Stockholm, se tu fulus lua kaudo hike. Yen to quo esas la elektrala telegrafo." Lectura 05: Explicación iluminadora Dos campesinos hablaban sobre el telégrafo. "¿Cómo hace (el telégrafo) para transportar las noticias tan rápidamente? "Es muy simple.", respondió el otro. "Se toca uno de los extremos del alambre y el otro extremo escribe como con pluma." "En seguida lo aclaro para ti. ¿Tienes perro?" - "Sí." "¿Qué aspecto tiene?" - "Es delgado y tiene una larga cola." "Ahora, cuando tú pisas la cola, ¿no ladra?" - "¡Sí, ciertamente!" "Ahora, supón que tu perro fuera lo suficientemente largo para alcanzar Estocolmo desde tu pueblo. No hay ninguna duda de que él ladraría en Estocolmo, si tu pisaras su cola aquí. He aquí lo que es el telégrafo eléctrico." Lectura 6: Lektajo 06: -- acensar (ascender, subir) e decensar (descender, bajar) la vagono (vagón)-- Cadie esas la unesma agosto, la komenco di la vakanco. Ye venerdio ni ankore sidis sur la skolbenki (banco de la escuela, pupitre) e sudorifis (sudar). Dum la lasta leciono l'instruktisto parolis pri la Nigra Foresto. Omnu ja revis (soñar despierto) pri obskura abieto-foresti e la migrado sur altaji eskarpa (escarpado). Me recevis bona atesto e departas ca-matine kun mea fratino a nia geonkli. La kofro ja esas preparita; parapluvo, bastono e mantelo esas pronta. Nia patro donas a me 250 marki. (abieto - abeto) "Til rivido, kara patro; adio, bona matro! Ni skribos balde." Yen la fervoyo-staciono! Me serchas la gicheto (ventanilla) por komprar du bilieti por Triberg. Li kustas 35 marki. Amaso (gentío) de voyajanti pulsas (empujar) sur la kayo (plataforma). Ni vartas (aguardar, esperar) la treno. Nun la konduktoro klamas : "Atenco!" La treno arivas ye 10 kloki. Ni acensas (subir) la vagono (vagón) e trovas bona plaso en libera angulo (esquina). Pos 5 minuti la trenestro siflas (pitar, silbar). La treno moveskas. Apertez la fenestro por ke me povez regardar la bel naturo e respirar (respirar) la fresha aero. Ni vehas rapide. Vespere la treno proximeskas a staciono. "Triberg!" Ni decensez (bajar)! "Yen la bilieto.", "Danko." Lectura 06: Hoy es el uno de agosto, el comienzo de las vacaciones. El viernes todavía estábamos sentados sobre los bancos de la escuela (pupitre) y sudábamos. Durante la última lección el profesor habló sobre el Bosque Negro. Todos ya soñábamos despiertos sobre unos bosques oscuros de abetos y la migración/viaje sobre las altitudes escarpadas. Recibí un buen certificado y partí esta mañana con mi hermana hacia (la casa de) nuestros tíos. El portaequipaje ya estaba preparado; un paraguas, un bastón, una capa estaban listas. Nuestro padre me dio 250 marcos. "¡Hasta la vista, querido padre; adiós, buena madre! Escribiremos pronto." ¡He aquí la estación de ferrocarril! Busco la ventanilla para comprar dos billetes para Triberg. Cuestan 35 marcos. Un gentío de viajantes empujan sobre la plataforma. Aguardamos al tren. Ahora el conductor grita: "¡Atención!" El tren llega a las 10 horas. Subimos al vagón y encontramos un buen lugar en una esquina libre. Después de 5 minutos el jefe del tren silbó. El tren comenzó a moverse. Abre la ventana para que pueda mirar la bella naturaleza y respirar el aire fresco. Iremos en un vehículo rápidamente. Por la tarde el tren comenzó a aproximarse a una estación. "¡Triberg!" ¡Bajemos! "He aquí el billete.", "Gracias." Lectura 7: Lektajo 07:- En la hotelo (kontoro - mostrador) Dum nia unesma migrado sur la montaro ni arivis due pos 9 hori an la monto-lago e ni nun acensas a la hotelo por pasar la nokto ibe. Fine, yen la hotelo. Ol stacas che 1345 metri (metros) super la maro. En la teretajo (planta baja), apud la enireyo (entrada) sinistre, esas la kontoro. "Ka ni povas havar du chambri?" "Yes, siori, en qua etajo (piso de una casa) vi deziras lojar?" "Ni preferas la triesma etajo." "Ka me darfas demandar via nomi?" "Ni nomesas Helmut e Gertrud Naumann. Qua precon (precio) vu demandas?" "Kinadek mark po un chambro e po dio." "To ne esas tro chera (caro)." "Voluntez sequar (seguir) me. Numeri 37 e 38 esas libera." "Ni enirez. Bela chambri kun vasta vido adsur la monti e vali (valle) dil cirkumajo." "Hike esas la klosheto (campanilla, timbre) elektrala. La chambristino (encargada de la habitación) venos, se vu sonigos (hacer sonar) unfoye; pos dufoya sonigo la servistulo venos.", "Bone." Nun ni decensas aden la manjo-salono. La supeo esas pronta. Kelka gasti (huésped) ja sidas an la tablego. Olca esas belete kovrita (cubrir). Cirkum la porcelan-plado (plato de porcelana) jacas kultelo, forketo, kuliero e boktuko (servilleta). "Garsono, adportez a ni un botelo de Rhen-vino e du glasi." Me komendas (encargar) duima hano (pollo) kun legumo e desero. La manjajo esas tre bona. "Garsono, pagar!", "La duopla supeo kustas: dek e kin mark per du esas triadek mark, pluse vino po sep mark, 30 plus 7 esas 37 mark." "Voluntez vekigar (vekar - despertar) ni ye quar kloki; ni volas vidar la sun-levo (amanecer, salida del sol). Bona nokto!" Lectura 07:- En el hotel Durante nuestro primer viaje/migración sobre la cordillera (conjunto de montañas) llegamos ambos después de 9 horas al lago del monte y ahora estamos subiendo al hotel para pasar la noche allí. Finalmente, he aquí el hotel. Está a 1345 metros sobre el nivel del mar. En la planta baja, junto a la entrada izquierda, está el mostrador. "¿Podemos tener dos habitaciones?" "Sí, señor, ¿en qué piso desean alojarse?" "Preferimos el tercer piso." "¿Podría pedirles sus nombres?" "Nos llamamos Helmut y Gertrud Naumann. ¿Qué precio pide?" "Cincuenta marcos por una habitación y por día." "Eso no es demasiado caro." "Hagan el favor de seguirme. Números 37 y 38 están libres." "Entremos. Unas bellas habitaciones con una amplia vista sobre los montes y valles de los alrededores." "Aquí está la campanilla eléctrica. La encargada de la habitación vendrá, si usted la hace sonar una vez; después de dos veces de sonido el sirviente vendrá.", "Bien." Ahora bajamos hacia el salón-comedor. La cena está lista. Algunos huéspedes ya están sentados en la gran mesa. Ésta (la mesa) está cubierta con poco gusto (no muy bonita). Alrededor del plato de porcelana están/yacen un cuchillo, un tenedor, una cuchara y una servilleta. "Camarero, tráiganos una botella de vino de Rhen y dos vasos." Encargo medio pollo con legumbres y postre. La comida es muy buena. "¡Camarero, pagar!", "La doble sopa cuesta: quince marcos por dos son treinta marcos, más un vino por siete marcos, 30 más 7 son 37 marcos." "Haga el favor de despertarnos a las cuatro; queremos ver el amanecer. ¡Buenas noches!" Lectura 8: Lektajo 08:- L'anciena (antigua) urbo (ciudad) - L'anciena parti di nia urbo existas ja depos la mez-epoko (edad media). Olim (antaño) komto (conde) invitabis komercisti por ke li establisez (establecer) su an la komercala strado (calle). - Richa komercisti sequabis l'invito e balde li esis konstruktinta urbo e fortifikabis (habían fortificado) ol per muri (muro). - La butiki (tienda) plenigis su. Anke kelka mestieristi (profesionales de un oficio), exemple bakisti (panadero), buchisti, masonisti (albañil), seruristi (cerrajero), taliori (sastre) ed altri esis veninta. - Pokope la mestiero (oficio) florifis (florecer). An la rivereto habitis la peskisti e la tanagisti (curtidor); en streta (estrecha) stradeto la shuifisti (zapatero) fasonis (formar) la ledro (cuero, piel). La menuzisto (carpintero) fabrikis mobli en sua laboreyo, e la veturifisto veturi (vehículo, carruaje). En altra stradeto la texisti (tejedor) texis la telo (lino) o la lano, quan la mulieri filifabis (habían hilado). La potifisto (alfarero) e la forjisto (herrero, forjador) ne darfis mankar. - Quon la mastro fabrikabis, ton lu expozis avan sua domo o dop la fenestro. Olca divenis ilua vetrino (escaparate). - Dum la merkato-dio granda turbo (multitud) esis sur la merkato-placo. Omna komercisto e mestieristo ofris vende sua vari (mercancía). - La rurani vendis ligno, bestiaro, farino edc. e kambiis ((inter)cambiar) po to vesti, ornivi (ornamento, adorno) ed utensili. *La mestiero havis ora sulo (suelo). - Se la triadek-yara milito (guerra de los 30 años) ne destruktabus (destruir) multo, ni povus admirar (admirar) ankore plu multa domi anciena del (de+la) unesma florifado (florecimiento) di nia urbo. * "havar ora sulo" esas Germanajo (germanismo). Co dicas ke "Handwerk hat goldenen Boden". "Ora sulo" signifikas "ferma (firme) fundamento ekonimiala". Do la proverbo (proverbio) dicas: Per bona mestiero onu bone manjas. Lectura 08:- La antigua ciudad - Las partes antiguas de nuestra ciudad existen ya desde la edad media. Antaño un conde había invitado a los comerciantes para que se establecieran en una calle comercial. - Unos ricos comerciantes habían seguido la invitación y pronto había construida una ciudad y la habían fortificado con muros. - Las tiendas se llenaron. También algunos profesionales de un oficio, por ejemplo panaderos, carniceros, albañiles, cerrajeros, sastres y otros habían venido. - Poco a poco los oficios florecieron. En contacto con el pequeño río vivían los pescadores y los curtidores; en una estrecha calle los zapateros formaban el cuero. Los carpinteros fabricaban muebles en su taller, y los cocheros carruajes. En otra callecita los tejedores tejían el lino o la lana, que las mujeres habían hilado. El alfarero y el herrero no podían faltar. - Lo que el maestro había fabricado, lo exponía delante de su casa o detrás de la ventana. Esto se convertía en su escaparate. - Durante el día del mercado una gran multitud estaba sobre el lugar del mercado. Todo comerciante y profesional ofrecía la venta de sus mercancías. - Los campesinos vendían madera, rebaños de animales. harina, etc. y los intercambiaban por vestidos, adornos y utensilios. *Los profesionales de un oficio tenían un terreno dorado (que podían comer gracias a su trabajo debido al intercambio que hacían los campesinos por sus trabajos manuales). - Si la guerra de los treinta años no hubiera destruido mucho, podríamos admirar todavía muchas casas antiguas del primer florecimiento de nuestra ciudad. * "havar ora sulo" es un germanismo. En alemán se dice "Handwerk hat goldenen Boden". "Ora sulo" significa "firme fundamento económico". Por lo tanto el proverbio dice: Por medio de un buen oficio uno come bien. Lectura 9: Lektajo 09:- La foxo (zorro) e la tortugo (tortuga), Indiana (indio) fablo (fábula) ---- - Olim foxo chasis apud la maro tortugo (tortoise), quan lu vidis unesmafoye. - Havante apetito por manjar sua kaptajo (presa) lu penadis parmordar (morder completamente) la harda skalio (caparazón), ma olua fermeso (firmeza, dureza) esis plu forta kam la dentaro (dentadura, conjunto de dientes) dil foxo. Iracoze (enfadado, irritado) lu haltis por meditar (meditar). - "La hungro tormentas (atormentar, torturar) me", lu dicis, "me mustas serchar altra vildo (presa); ma antee me portos ica stranja ento (entidad, ser) a mea kaverno por pose lacerar (lacerar, rasgar) ol quiete (serenamente)." La tortugo pavoreskis (asustarse). - Lu dicis: "Severa (riguroso, severo) foxo, me ya vidas ke me mustos mortar, pro to me pregas (rogar), se tu volas kurtigar (acortar) mea dolori e quik facar manjajo a tu, lore pozez me aden la maro, e mea skalio divenos mola (suave), sen peno (pena) tu manjos me." - "Esas vera, tu esas justa", triumfis (triunfar, exultar) la foxo, "me nur astonesas (sorprenderse) ke me ipsa ne pensis a to." Lu portis la ruzozo (astuto) al maro e pozis lu aden la aquo. - Esante en sua elemento la tortugo quik eskapis. De sekura disto (distancia) lu mokis (mofarse, reirse de) la foxo, qua troteskis (comenzó a trotar) shamante (avergonzadamente). - Merkez (marcar, señalar): Anke la maxim ruzozo trovas (encontrar) sua mastro (maestro). Lectura 09:- El zorro y la tortuga, una fábula India - Antaño un zorro cazó cerca del mar una tortuga, que veía por primera vez. - Teniendo apetito para comer su presa, él intentó repetidamente morder completamente el duro caparazón, pero su dureza era más fuerte que la dentadura del zorro. Enfadado, paró para meditar. - "El hambre me atormenta", dijo, "debo buscar otra presa; pero antes llevaré este extraño ser a mi caverna para después desgarrarlo serenamente." La tortuga comenzó a asustarse. - Ella dijo: "Severo zorro, yo ya veo que debo morir, por eso ruego, si tú quieres acortar mis dolores y en seguida hacerte una comida, entonces ponme en el mar, y mi caparazón se volverá suave, tú me comerás sin esfuerzo." - "Es verdad, eres justa", se alegró el zorro, "sólo estoy sorprendido de que yo mismo no lo pensara."Él llevó a la astuta al mar y la puso en el agua. - Estando en su elemento la tortuga en seguida escapó. Desde una distancia segura se rió del zorro, que comenzó a trotar avergonzadamente. - Moraleja: También el más astuto encuentra a su maestro. Lectura 10: Lektajo 10: L'autuno: Sempre plu multe la suno perdas sua varmeso. La nokti esas kolda, e matine blanka pruino (escarcha) jacas (yacer) sur la prati (prado). Nun la kultivisto mustas hastar por rekoltar (cosechar) la produkturi dil agro. La frukti koliesas (ser recogido). La grapi (racimo) tranchesas (ser cortado) de la viti (vid) ed manjesas kom saporoza (suculento) donajo di la naturo o presesas (presar - prensar, presionar) en la presilo. Dum ke la migrant (migrador) uceli flugas (volar) a la sudo, por eskapar la ruda (rudo) vintro, la vitkultivisti festas sua rekoltofesto per kantado e dansado. La gardeni vakuigesas (ser vaciado); omnaloke la terpomi ekterigesas (ser sacados fuera de la tierra). Kande apene l'agri esas vakua, sekalo (centeno) e frumento (trigo) semesas. La bovi, mutoni e kapri (cabra) esas duktita de la monti aden la vali; nam supre nivo (nieve) falis sur la herbi. La laborinta rurano regardas kontente sua kelero (bodega) e garbeyo (granero). "Laboro esas la ornuro (adorno) dil civitano, prospero esas la rekompenso dil peno." Balde la yuna semajo kovresos dal nivo. Ube antee la agro esis kultivita, ibe la leporo (liebre) e la kapreolo (corzo) chasesos dal chasero (cazador). La naturo dormeskas e vekos (despertar) erste (no antes (de que), recién), kande la printempo (primavera) vekigos ol. Lectura 10: El otoño: Siempre el sol pierde mucho más su calidez. Las noches son frías, y por la mañana una blanca escarcha yace sobre los prados. Ahora el agricultor debe darse prisa para cosechar los productos del campo. Las frutas son recogidas. Los racimos son cortados de la vid y son comidos como un suculento regalo de la naturaleza o son prensados en la prensa. Mientras que los pájaros migradores vuelan hacia el sur, para escapar del rudo invierno, los viticultores festejan su fiesta de la cosecha con cánticos y bailes. Los jardines son vaciados; en todo lugar las patatas son sacadas de la tierra. Cuando apenas los campos están vacíos, centeno y trigo son sembrados. Las vacas, ovejas y cabras son conducidas de los montes a los valles; porque encima una nieve cayó sobre las hierbas. El campesino que ha trabajado (trabajador) mira alegremente su bodega y granero. "El trabajo es el adorno del ciudadano, la prosperidad es la recompensa del esfuerzo" Pronto la joven semilla será cubierta por la nieve. Donde antes el campo había sido cultivado, allí la liebre y el corzo serán cazados por el cazador. La naturaleza comienza a dormir y despertará no antes de cuando la primavera la haga despertar. LECCIÓN VEINTE TEXTOS PARA LEER Y TRADUCIR Ésta es la última lección del nivel intermedio. Aunque pueda parecer que no sabes mucho sobre Ido, ¡ya tienes un nivel tan alto como para traducir cualquier texto en Ido sin problemas!. Así que, ya sabes, puedes ir a cualquier grupo de discusión sobre Ido y podrás entender todo lo que dicen, así como podrás también decir lo que piensas. EJERCICIOS Lectura 11 (continuación de la lección 19): (traduce esta lectura y las siguientes de Ido a español y viceversa): Lektajo 11:- La tri guti (gota de un líquido) Alba, la bona feino [fe-I-no] (hada), qua protektas (proteger) la fianciti (novio), Alba, qua habitas la pupilo (pupilo) blua di la virgini (virgen) inocenta, pasante ulmatine proxim rozo (rosa), audis sua nomo enuncesar da tri guti. Proximigante su e sideskante en la kordio dil floro, el questionis gracioze: "Quon vi deziras de me, guti brilanta?" "Venez por solvar (resolver) questiono", dicis l'UNESMA. Alba: "Pri quo vi parolas?" "Ni esas tri guti diferanta, de origini diversa; ni deziras ke tu dicez, qua de ni esas la maxim meritoza (meritorio), la maxim pura." Konseque Alba dicis, "Me konsentas (consentir). Parolez, guto brilanta." E la UNESMA guto dicis: "Me venas ek la nubi alta, me esas filiino di la granda mari. Me naskis en la granda oceano antiqua e potenta. Vizitante maro-rivi (costa) e litori (litoral), sukusite (sacudir, agitar) en mil tempesti, me absorbesis da la nubo. Me iris til l'alta regioni ube la steli brilas, e de ibe rulante (rodando) inter la fulmini (relámpago), me falis aden la floro en qua me nun repozas. Me reprezentas la maro.", finis la UNESMA. "Nun esas tua foyo, guto brilanta," la feino [fe-I-no] dicis a la DUESMA. "Me esas la roso (rocío), qua entras la lilii [LI-lii]; me esas la fratino dil opalea (del color del ópalo) lumo dil luno, la filiino dil nebulo, qua difuzesas kande la nokto obskurigas la naturo. Me reprezentas l'auroro (aurora)." "E tu?" Alba questionis la TRIESMA, la guto minim granda e lore tacanta. "Me havas nula merito (mérito)." Alba: "Parolez! De ube tu venas?" "Ek la okuli di fiancitino (novia); me esis la rideto, me esis la kredo, me esis la espero, pose me esis l'amoro ... cadie me esas lakrimo (lágrima)." L'altri ridis pri la guteto, ma Alba, apertante sua brakii, prenis el kun su e dicis: "Ica esas la maxim meritoza, ica esas la maxim pura." L'UNESMA : "Ma me esis la maro!" La DUESMA : "E me l'atmosfero!" "To esas vera; ma ica esas la kordio..", dicis e taceskis (callarse) Alba. Ed el desaparis en l'azuro (azul, celeste), kunportante la TRIESMA, la humila (humilde) guto. Lectura 11:- Las tres gotas Alba, la buena hada, que protege a los novios, Alba, que vive en la pupila azul de las virgenes inocentes, al pasar una mañana cerca de una rosa, oyó ser enunciado su nombre por tres gotas. Aproximándose y sentándose en el corazón de la flor, ella preguntó graciosamente: "¿Qué deseáis de mi, gotas brillantes?" "Ven para resolver una cuestión", dijo la PRIMERA. Alba: "¿Sobre qué habláis?" "Somos tres gotas diferentes, de orígenes diversos; deseamos que digas, cuál de nosotras es la más meritoria, la más pura." Seguidamente Alba dijo, "Acepto/consiento. Habla, gota brillante." Y la PRIMERA gota dijo: "Vengo de las nubes altas, soy hija de los grandes mares. Nací en el gran océano antiguo y poderoso. Visitando costas y litorales, sacudida en mil tempestades, fui absorbida por la nube. Fui hasta las altas regiones donde las estrellas brillan, y de allí rodando entre los relámpagos, caí en la flor en la que ahora reposo. Represento el mar.", acabó la PRIMERA. "Ahora es tu turno, gota brillante," el hada dijo a la SEGUNDA. "Soy el rocío, que entras las azucenas; soy la hermana de la luz opalina de la luna, la hija de la nebulosa, que se difumina cuando la noche hace oscurecer la naturaleza. Represento la aurora." "¿Y tú?" Alba preguntó a la TERCERA, la gota menos grande y entonces callada. "No tengo ningún mérito." Alba: "¡Habla! ¿De dónde vienes?" "De los ojos de una novia; fui la sonrisa, fui la creencia, fui la esperanza, después fui el amor ... hoy soy una lágrima." Las otras se rieron de la gotita, pero Alba, abriendo sus brazos, la tomó consigo y dijo: "Ésta es la más meritoria, ésta es la más pura." La PRIMERA: "¡Pero yo soy el mar!" La SEGUNDA : "¡Y yo la atmósfera!" "Eso es verdad; pero ésta es el corazón..", dijo y se calló Alba. Y ella desapareció en el azul/celeste, llevándose con ella la TERCERA, la humilde gota. Lectura 12: Lektajo 12:- Lingui internaciona/interkomprenigilo (Instrumento para la intercomprensión) La lingui di preske (casi, apenas) omna nacioni de India til Atlantiko decendas de komuna origin-linguo. Ica linguo diferenciesis, e la nacioni separis su. La relati kun stranjera landi esis neimportanta en anciena tempi, pro ke la moyeni (medios) dil cirkulado (circulación) esis primitiva. Tamen sempre existis lingui qui mediacis la trafiko, precipue la komerco. To pruvas ke linguo internaciona esas necesa e nekareebla (indispensable). La linguo dil Greki dominacis (había predominado) longatempe en l'oriento. Interne di la frontieri dil Romana imperio la Latina divenis dominacanta; ol restis la linguo di la cienco (ciencia) en preske tota Europa til aden la moderna tempo. La Latina ankore uzesas ekleziale mem hodie. En la 17. e 18. yarcenti, Francia atingis (lograr) la kulmino (culminación) di sua povo, la Franca divenis la linguo dil dipolomacisti (diplomáticos) e nobeli. Nuntempe la linguo dil Angli havas la prerango en la mondo-komerco. Ma anke la Germana esas ample difuzita: en Austria, Hungaria, Polonia, Rusia, ed en l'esto di Europa, ol ofte esas l'interkomprenigilo por multa mikra nacioni. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. ** (-Lektajo 13) Futurale la konkurenco (rivalidad) dil naturala lingui en la mondo-trafiko cesos (cesar). Nula de li esas sat (suficientemente) facila, exakta e bela ke ol povus divenar (convertirse en) internaciona helpolinguo. Lo rekomendas Ido kom la solvuron. En Berlin, London e New-York, en Arjentinia e Japonia, omnaloke (todo lugar), adube komercisti e ciencisti voyajos, Ido komprenesos e parolesos. Ultre to omna naciono kultivos e konservos la pureso e beleso di sua matrolinguo. En irga fora futuro existos 'nova linguo por omni', unesme (en primer lugar) kom komercala linguo, pose generale kom linguo dil mentala komunikado, tam certe kam ultempe existos aernavigado. (escrito hace 80 años en Alemania) ** La Hispana esas anke tre importanta ;-) Lectura 12:- Lenguas internacionales / Instrumento para la intercomprensión. Las lenguas de casi todas las naciones de India hasta el Atlántico descienden de una lengua común originaria. Esta lengua se diversificó, y las naciones se separaron. Las relaciones con países extranjeros no eran importantes en tiempos antiguos, porque los medios de circulación eran primitivos. Sin embargo siempre existían lenguas que intermediaban el tránsito/trato, principalmente el comercio. Eso prueba que una lengua internacional es necesaria e indispensable. La lengua de los Griegos había predominado mucho tiempo en oriente. En el interior de las fronteras del imperio Romano el Latín se volvió dominante; permaneció como la lengua de la ciencia en casi toda Europa hasta en tiempo moderno. El latín aún se usa eclesialmente incluso hoy. En los siglos 17 y 18, Francia logró la culminación de su poder, el francés se convirtió en la lengua de los diplomáticos y nobles. Hoy día la lengua de los ingleses tiene el predominio en el comercio mundial. Pero también el alemán está ampliamente difundido: en Austria, Hungría, Polonia, Rusia, y en el este de Europa, a menudo es el medio de comunicación para muchas pequeñas naciones. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. ** (-Lectura 13) (hasta el pelo más pequeño tiene su sombra) En el futuro la rivalidad de las lenguas naturales en el tráfico mundial cesará. Ninguna de ellas es lo suficientemente fácil, exacta y bella como para que pueda convertirse en una lengua internacional de ayuda. Ello encomienda a Ido como la solución. En Berlín, Londres y Nueva York, en Argentina y Japón, todo lugar, hacia donde comerciantes y científicos viajen, Ido será comprendido y hablado. Además de eso toda nación cultivará y conservará la pureza y belleza de su lengua materna. En cualquier futuro lejano existirá una "nueva lengua para todos", en primer lugar como lengua comercial, después generalmente como lengua de la comunicación mental, tan cierto como que en algún momento existirá la navegación aérea. (escrito hace 80 años en Alemania) ** El español es hoy también muy importante ;-) Lectura 13: Lektajo 13:- Vestaro - Bezonesas dicernar (distinguir) 'portar' e 'tragar*'. Me volas vizitar cavespere la teatro; pro to me mustas quik chanjar mea vesti. Ube esas la kamizo (camisa) e la kalzi (media, calceta)? La kamizo esas male glatigita (planchada); mem butono mankas (faltar). Yen agulo (aguja) e filo (hilo, hebra), sutez (coser) nova butono an la kamizo! Ka la boti (bota) esas cirajizita (pulido)? Ka la vesti (ropa) esas brosita (cepillado)? Donez a me la pantalono (pantalón), la vestono (chaqueta) e la flava jileto (chaleco)! La kolumo (collar, cuello) esas sordida, me metos (ponerse) un neta. La bruna kravato (corbata) ne plezas (agradar, gustar) a me, me preferas la verda. Nun me ornas (adornar) me per l'arjenta (plata) kateno (cadena) dil horlojeto (reloj). Posh-tukon (=naz-tuko - pañuelo) e gantin (guantes) me ne darfas obliviar. Mea klefi (llave) e la burso (cartera, bolso) esas en la posho (bolsillo). La felta chapelo (sombrero de fieltro) e la mantelo (manto, mantel) pendas an la vesto-portilo (percha). La fuluro (pliegue, arruga <- fular+ur) dil mantelo esas lacerita (rasgado). Portez (llevar, no llevar puesto) ol morge al talioro (sastre) por ke il reparez ol. Se mea salario (sueldo, salario) esus plu granda, me komprus peliso (pelliza) e shapko (gorra de piel), nam la vetero koldeskas. La furisto (peletero) demandas tro chera preco. La siorini ofte iras aden la teatro, vestizita per veluro (terciopelo) e silko, o li tragas* precoza denteli (puntillas, encajes). Tala luxon (lujo) me ne amas. Nivas, metez (ponerse) la kauchuka (engomado) surshui (sobrezapato) e la getri (polaina)! Yen la parapluvo (paraguas). Granda plezuro! Proverbi (ek: Proverbaro da Peus). Ne omno oresas quo brilas. - No es oro todo lo que brilla (o reluce). Omnu havas sua propra gusto. - Sobre gustos no hay nada escrito. L'unesma ateston esas la vesto. - La primera impresión es la que cuenta. Defekton di naturo ne kovras veluro (terciopelo). - Aunque la mona se vista de seda mona se queda. Extere ornita (adornado), interna sordida (sucio, sórdido). - Un lobo con piel de oveja. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. = La maxim mikra haro (pelo) jetas sua ombro. - Hasta el más pequeño pelo tiene su sombra. Lectura 13:- Vestuario - Es necesario distinguir 'llevar' y 'llevar puesto'. Quiero visitar esta tarde el teatro; por eso debo cambiar rápidamente mis ropas. ¿Dónde está la camisa y las medias? La camisa está mal planchada; incluso falta un botón. Aquí hay una aguja e hilo, ¡cose un nuevo botón en la camisa! ¿Las botas están abrillantadas/pulidas? ¿La ropa está cepillada? ¡Dame el pantalón, la chaqueta y el chaleco amarillo! El cuello está sucio, me pondré uno limpio. La corbata marrón no me agrada, prefiero la verde. Ahora me adornaré/arreglaré con la cadena de plata del reloj. Pañuelo (de bolsillo) y guantes no puedo olvidar. Mis llaves y la cartera/bolso están en el bolsillo. El sombrero de fieltro y el manto cuelgan de la percha. El pliegue/arruga del manto está rasgado. Llévalo (llevar, no llevar puesto encima) mañana al sastre para que él lo arregle. Si mi sueldo fuera más grande, compraría una pelliza y una gorra de piel, porque empieza a hacer frío. El peletero pide un precio demasiado caro/alto. Las señoritas a menudo van al teatro, vestidas con terciopelo y seda, o llevan puestas unos preciosos encajes. Tal lujo no lo quiero. Nieva, ¡ponte las botas/sobrezapato de goma y las polainas! Aquí está el paraguas. ¡Que disfrutes! Proverbios (de: Conjunto de proverbios de Peus). Ne omno oresas quo brilas. - No es oro todo lo que brilla (o reluce). Omnu havas sua propra gusto. - Sobre gustos no hay nada escrito. L'unesma ateston esas la vesto. - La primera impresión es la que cuenta. Defekton di naturo ne kovras veluro (terciopelo). - Aunque la mona se vista de seda mona se queda. Extere ornita (adornado), interna sordida (sucio, sórdido). - Un lobo con piel de oveja. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. = La maxim mikra haro (pelo) jetas sua ombro. - Hasta el más pequeño pelo tiene su sombra. Lectura 14: Lektajo 14:- En la teatro --- (staco-placo = galerio [ga-LE-rio] - galería )--- La reprezento komencas precize ye 6:30 kloki (sis kloki e duimo). La demando pri l'eniro-bilieti esas tre granda. Se on volas obtenar bilieto an la gicheto (taquilla), on mustas ibe instalar su (ponerse a la cola) ye ja duima horo (30 minutos) ante olua aperto. "Me demandas bilieto por la duesma rango (fila), sinistra latero, staco-placo." "Me regretas, ica plasi esas parvendita, nur partero (platea) - lojio (palco) esas ankore recevebla.", "Quante kustas la bilieto?" "9.50 mark inkluzinte la taxo po l'uzo di la vesteyo (vestuario)." On pleas la kanto-maestri de Nuernberg da Richard Wagner. Me preferas opero kam dramato e komedio kam tragedio. La kurteno (cortina, telón) levesas. La ceneyo vidigas l'internajo di kirko. Kantistino kantas per sonora voco. Anke la tenoro kantas ecelante. L'orkestro-chefo direktas tre vivace (vivamente). Omna muzikisti di ca orkestro esas artisti. Pos singla akto eventas pauzo. Aparte la 3. akto esas belega. On vidas la gaya Johannis-festo sur la prato. Walter ganas per sua premio-kanto la filiino dil or-forjisto (orfebre). La kurteno abasesas (es bajada). La audantaro (audiencia, público) aplaudas (aplaudir) entuziasmigite (entusiásticamente), la kantisti dankas joyoze. Wagner ne nur esis genio (genio) kom kompozisto ma anke bona poeto. Lectura 14:- En el teatro La representación comienza exactamente a las 6:30 horas (seis y media). La solicitud de billetes de entrada es muy grande. Si uno quiere obtener un billete en la taquilla, uno debe encolarse allí media hora (30 minutos) antes de su apertura. "Desearía un billete para la segunda fila, lateral izquierdo, galería." "Lo siento, estos lugares están completamente vendidos, sólo una platea - palco es todavía "receptivo" (está libre).", "¿Cuánto cuesta el billete?" "9.50 marcos incluido el impuesto por el uso del vestuario (para guardar la ropa)." Se tocarán los cánticos maestros de Nuernberg, de Richard Wagner. Prefiero una ópera a un drama y una comedio a una tragedia. El telón se levanta. El escenario deja ver el interior de una iglesia. La cantante canta con una voz armoniosa/sonora. También el tenor canta excelentemente. El director de la orquesta dirige muy vivamente. Todos los músicos de esta orquesta son artistas. Después de cada acto hay una pausa. Aparte el tercer acto es muy bello. Se ve la alegre fiesta de Juan sobre el prado. Walter gana con su premio de canto a la hija del orfebre. El telón se baja. El público aplaude entusiásticamente, los cantantes dan gracias alegremente. Wagner no era sólo un genio como compositor, sino también un buen poeta. Lectura 15: Lektajo 15:- La muso e la leono (da Aesopos) Leono dormis en sua kaverno (caverna); cirkum lu trupo de gaya musi ludis. Un/Una de li jus esis kliminta adsur salianta (saliente, sobresaliente) rokaji, falis adinfre e vekigis la leono qua retenis (retener) lu per sua grandega pedo. "Ho ve", la muso pregis, "esez jeneroza a me kompatinda, neimportanta kreuro! me ne volis ofensar tu, me nur facis mispazo e falis de la rokajo. Quale mea morto utilesus a tu? Lasez vivar me /Lasez (a) me vivar/, e me volas esor/esur gratitudoza a tu dum mea tota vivo!, se me vivus." "Forirez!", la leono dicis jeneroze e lasis forkurar la museto. Ma pose lu ridis e dicis: "Esor gratitudoza! Nu, ton me dezirus vidar, quale museto povus manifestar sua gratitudo a leono. To ne semblas esor posibla" Pos kurta tempo la sama muso kuris tra la foresto e serchis nuci (nuez) por su. Subite (de repente) lu audis la plendala mujado (rugido) di leono. "Lu certe esas en danjero!" la muso parolis en su ed iris a la loko, de qua la mujado sonis. Ibe lu trovis la jeneroza (generoso) leono cirkumplektita (entrelazar) da forta reto (red) quan la chasisto pozabis injenioze por kaptar (capturar) per to animali granda e forta. La kordi (trozos de cuerda) tante kontraktesabis (encoger) ke la leono povis uzar nek sua denti nek la forteso di sua pedi por lacerar (rasgar) li. "Vartez, amiko," dicis la museto, "cakaze me povas helpar probable maxim bone." Lu adkuris, parrodis (roer completamente) la kordi qui entravis (trabar) lua avana pedi, e fine divenis ke li (la pedi) esas libera. La leono laceris la cetera (restante) reto e riatingis tale sua libereso per la helpo da la museto di qua vivon olim lu ipsa sparis sualatere. Nobla esez la homo, helpema e bona, nam to distingas lu de omna enti quin ni konocas. (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749-1832) Lectura 15:- El ratón y el león (por Esopo) Un león dormía en su guarida; alrededor de él una tropa de alegres ratones jugaban. Uno de ellos en ese instante había trepado sobre unas rocas salientes, cayó abajo y despertó al león que lo retuvo con su enorme pie. "¡Ay!", el ratón rogó, "¡sed generoso conmigo, una creación sin importancia y digna de compasión! no quería ofenderte, sólo di un mal paso y caí desde las rocas. ¿Cómo te sería útil mi muerte? ¡Permíteme vivir, y seré agradecido contigo durante toda mi vida!, ¡si vivo!." "¡Fuera!", el león dijo generosamente y dejó correr lejos al ratoncito. Pero después se rió y dijo: "¡Ser agradecido! Bien, eso desearía ver, cómo un ratón puede manifestar su gratitud a un león. Eso no parece que vaya a ser posible" Después de un rato el mismo ratón corría a través del bosque y buscaba nueces para sí. De repente oyó el rugido de queja de un león. "¡Ciertamente está en peligro!" el ratón habló para sí y fue al lugar, desde el cual el rugido sonó. Allí halló al generoso león enredado por una fuerte red que un cazador había puesto ingeniosamente para capturar mediante ella a animales grandes y fuertes. Los trozos de cuerda tanto se habían ajustado que el león no podía usar ni sus dientes ni la fuerza de sus pies para rasgarlos. "Espera, amigo," dijo el ratoncito, "en este caso puedo ayudar probablemente de la mejor forma." Él corrió (hacia el león), royó completamente los trozos de cuerda que trababan sus patas delanteras, y finalmente hizo que ellas (las patas) estuvieran libres. El león rasgó la restante red y de esta forma recuperó su libertad gracias a la ayuda del ratoncito cuya vida antaño él mismo salvó por su parte. Noble sea el hombre, ayudante y bueno, puesto que eso lo distingue de otros seres queconocemos. (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749-1832) Lectura 16: Lektajo 16:- Du komercala letri Milano, 16. marto 1921. Sioro Zahn e kompanio, mashin-fabrikerio Mannheim (Germania) Me dankas pro la sendo dil preco-listo. Nuntempe agrokultivala (agrícola) mashini demandesas tante multe ke me mustas balde riplenigar (recambiar) mea magazino (almacén). Nia kompristo (comprador) vizitos vu pos kelka dii; il havas la promiso (=expekto - expectación) komendar (encomendar) pasable (regularmente) granda nombro de mashini, se vu grantos konvenanta rabato (discuento) ed avantajoza pago-kondicioni. Specale me bezonas motor-plugili (arado), semo-mashini (máquina sembradora), falcho-mashini (segadora), fen (heno)-rastili (rastrillo) e drash-mashini (trilladora). Konsiderante la plucherigo (subida, aumento) extraordinara pro la transporto-preco ed importaco-taxo, me nur povas komprar, se la preco kalkulesos ad/kom/ye la maxim basa [preco kam] posible. Me ja recevis avatajoza ofri da Angla firmi; tamen me havas l'espero agreabla, filigar (hilar, hacer hilos/hebras) per ica kompro la relati aferala qui existis ante la milito inter nia firmi, por la profito di la du parti. Kun granda estimo, Giovanni Rienzi, Dante-strado 17, Milano (Italia) ----------------------------------------------------------------- Mainz, 8. februaro 1921. Sioro P. Thorbecke, Rembrandt-placo 11, Amsterdam (Nederlando). Vua sendajo del 29. januaro arivis cadie. La vari esas nereprochebla, pezo e nombro esis justa. Me komisis (apuntar, señalar) la Rhenana banko asignar a vu la sumo de 2864 florini. Me pregas vu quik sendar a me la sequanta vari: 500 kilogrami de rizo, singla kg po 4 mark; 100 kg de kakao, maxim bona qualeso; 200 kg de saguto (sagú); 220 kg de Braziliana kafeo; 90 kg de teo, mezvalora mixuro (mezcla); 4000 buxi de lakto sukrizita (azucarada); 360 kg de fromajo (queso) de Edam; 50 litri de palm-oleo (aceita de palmera); fine 5 kg de pipro (pimienta) muelita. Koncerne la preci me fidas a vu pro mea multyara experienco pri la loyaleso di vua firmo, e me supozas, ke la livrajo (entrega) esos tam bona kam la lasta. Kun respektoza saluti, vua devota (devoto, fiel), Walter Schutz La pasero e la kolombo Puerulo kaptabis pasero (gorrión) e vidis pose kolombo (paloma) sur la tekto. "Ita esas plu bona", il pensis, lasis riflugar la pasero ed acensis la tekto, por kaptar vice (=anstat* - en lugar de) lu la kolombo. Ma ica ne vartis il, ma lu forflugis. Sidante sur la tekto, sen pasero e sen kolombo, la puerulo memoris la proverbo: Plu bona (esas) pasero en la manuo kam kolombo sur la tekto. Lectura 16:- Dos cartas comerciales Milán, 16 de marzo de 1921. Señor Zahn y compañía, fábrica de maquinaria de Mannheim (Alemania) Gracias por el envío de la lista de precios. En estos tiempos las máquinas agrícolas son demandadas tanto que debo recambiar/rellenar mi almacén pronto. Nuestro comprador le visitará dentro de algunos días; él tiene la promesa de encargar regularmente un gran número de máquinas, si usted me concede un descuento conveniente y ventajosas condiciones de pago. Especialmente necesito "arados motorizados", máquinas sembradoras, segadoras, "rastrillos para heno" y trilladoras; Considerando la subida extraordinaria por el precio de transporte y el impuesto de importación, sólo puedo comprar, si el precio será/fuera calculado como el más bajo posible. Ya recibí ventajosas ofertas/ofrecimientos de unas casas de comercio inglesas; sin embargo tengo la esperanza agradable, de estrechar/unir mediante esta compra las relaciones de negocios que existían antes de la guerra entre nuestras firmas, para el beneficio de las dos partes. Con gran estima, Giovanni Rienzi, Calle Dante 17, Milán (Italia) ----------------------------------------------------------------- Mainz, 8. febrero 1921. Señor P. Thorbecke, plaza Rembrandt 11, Amsterdam (Holanda). Su envío del 29 de enero llegó hoy. Las mercancías son irreprochables, el peso y número era justo. Indiqué al banco Rhenano que le asignara la suma de 2864 florines. Le ruego enviarme rápidamente las siguientes mercancías: 500 kilogramos de arroz, cada Kg. por 4 marcos; 100 Kg. de cacao, de la mejor calidad; 200 Kg. de sagú; 220 Kg. de café brasileño; 90 Kg. de té, mezcla de medio valor; 4000 cajas de leche azucarada; 360 Kg. de queso de Edam; 50 litros de aceita de palmera; finalmente 5 Kg. de pimienta molida. Con respecto a los precios me fío de usted por mis muchos años de experiencia con la lealtad de su firma, y supongo, que la entrega será tan buena como la última. Con saludos respetuosos, su fiel, Walter Schutz El gorrión y la paloma Un niño había capturado un gorrión y vio después una paloma sobre el tejado. "Eso es mejor", pensó, dejó volver a volar al gorrión y subió al tejado, para capturar en lugar de él a la paloma. Pero ésta no lo esperó, sino que se escapó volando. Estando sentado sobre el tejado, sin gorrión y sin paloma, el niño se acordó del proverbio: Mejor gorrión en la mano que paloma sobre el tejado (Más vale pájaro en mano que ciento volando). Lectura 17: Lektajo 17:- Linguala stilo La skopo (fin) di la linguo internaciona esas l'interkompreno adminime en Europa. Ne suficas havar internaciona vortaro e gramatiko inter lingui Europala, se la frazi ne esas omnaloke komprenebla (por diferanta nacionani). La vortordino esez naturala segun la reguli dil Ido-gramatiko. La maxim bona moyeno por komprenesar esas facar kurta frazi. Qua bone skribas, facas multa punti. Ne akumulez la subordinita frazi. Anke en Ido existas bona e mala stilo. La naturala lingui havas multa idiomaji (modismo, frase hecha), quin on devas uzar, mem se li esas nelogikala. "Ido ne havas idiomaji*", singla nociono (concepto) havas un vorto e singla vorto signifikas nur un nociono. Do on evitez l'idiomaji dil naturala lingui; li ne komprenesas en omna landi. Skribez simple e klare, lore tu espereble skribos en bona stilo. --- * Ma poke fanfaronanta reklamajo por Ido da olima Idisto Germana, nam omna lingui sur la tero havas plu o min idiomaji e ne-logikeso, quin tamen Ido adminime esforcas eskapar per sua anmo por facileso. Lectura 17:- Estilo lingüístico El fin de la lengua internacional es la "intercomprensión" al menos en Europa. No basta tener con un conjunto de palabras y una gramática internacional entre las lenguas europeas, si las frases no son en todo lugar comprensibles (para diferentes ciudadanos de una nación). El orden de las palabras sea/será natural según las reglas de la gramática de Ido. El mejor medio para ser comprendidos es hacer frases cortas. Quien bien escribe, usa muchos puntos. No acumule las frases subordinadas. También en Ido existe un buen y mal estilo. Las lenguas naturales tienen muchos modismos/frases hechas, que uno debería usar, aún cuando son ilógicos. "Ido no tiene modismos*", cada concepto tiene una palabra y cada palabra significa sólo un concepto. Por tanto evite las frases hechas de las lenguas naturales; no son comprendidas en todos los países. Escriba de forma simple y clara, entonces esperanzadamente escribirás con un buen estilo. --- * Pero brevemente un consejo jocoso para Ido de un antiguo Idista alemán, puesto que todas las lenguas sobre la tierra tiene más o menos frases hechas e "ilogicidad", las cuales sin embargo Ido al menos se esfuerza en escapar (de ellas) por medio de su alma/espíritu para la facilidad. N. del T.: Esta traducción es bastante literal, digamos que se podría haber hecho una mejor y más clara, pero se ha preferido dejarla para ver la transmisión de la idea :-) Lectura 18: Lektajo 18:- Pri Idiomaji e propra kustumo (comtumbre) di naturala lingui Lernar stranjera lingui esas multe desfacila por ordinara populi (=plebeyi). Nam sempre restas/os nekonteble multa neregulozeso (irregularidad) gramatikala ed anke en dicmanieri, idiomaji nacionala, pos 'omna esforcado (esfuerzo)' bone lernar la linguo di irga intereso ed importo. Logikeso ne suficas ma la rezulton decidos nur suficanta tempo e pekunio por parlernar la linguo. Quale onu povus facile memorar omna idiomaji di linguo lernata? Exemple: tener pelos en la lengua, tener un corazón de oro, soltar la pasta... Quale onu povus facile dicernar (discernir) per dicionario la korekta signifiko di frazo? Kande USAani dicas "I'm MAD about the event.", onu ne povas komprenar la vera signifiko per simple konsultar la dicionario; mad - fola Advere (en verdad) la frazo ne signifikas ke "Me esas FOLA pri l'evento" ma to dicas ke "Me IRACAS pri l'evento." ed altrafoye "Me ENTUZIASMAS pri l'evento." ... HoLala! Tala kozi numeroza abundas e nule cesas kande onu lernas irga stranjera linguo. Advere nur la richi povas facile lernar sua stranjera linguo, se li deziras. La plebeyi nur povus disponar sua bona logikeso, sen havar suficanta pekunio. Ido esas/os la unika internaciona linguo por omna laboristi sur la mondo, pro ke onu povas facile lernar Ido inter sua limitizita tempo e pekunio. Do ni lernez Ido, Ido mustos kultivar nia mento per sua logikeso por omni. ......skribita da laboristo, Idisto ed Idiotisto, Bebson Y. Hochfeld Lectura 18:- Sobre modismos y propia costumbre de las lenguas naturales Aprender lenguas extranjeras es muy difícil para la gente ordinaria. Porque siempre quedan/quedarán muchas incontables irregularidades gramaticales y también en maneras de decir, modismos nacionales, después de 'todo esfuerzo' aprender bien la lengua de cualquier interés e importancia. La lógica no basta sino que sólo el suficiente tiempo y dinero para aprender completamente la lengua decidirá el resultado. ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente memorizar todo modismo de una lengua aprendida? Por ejemplo: tener pelos en la lengua, tener un corazón de oro, soltar la pasta... ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente discernir mediante un diccionario el correcto significado de una frase? Cuando los estadounidenses dicen "I'm MAD about the event.", no se puede comprender el significado verdadero por medio de consultar simplemente el diccionario; mad - loco. En verdad la frase no significa que "Estoy loco por el evento", sino que dice que "Yo estoy enfadado por el evento" y en otro momento "Estoy entusiasmado por el evento." ... ¡Olala! Tales cosas numerosas abundan y de ninguna forma cesan cuando uno aprende cualquier lengua extranjera. En verdad sólo los ricos pueden fácilmente aprender su lengua extranjera, si lo desean. La gente corriente sólo podrían disponer de su buena lógica, sin tener bastante dinero. Ido es/será la única lengua internacional para todos los trabajadores sobre el mundo, porque uno puede fácilmente aprender Ido entre su limitado tiempo y dinero. Por tanto aprendamos Ido, Ido deberá cultivar nuestra mente por medio de su lógica para todos. ......escrito por un trabajador, Idista e "Idiotista", Bebson Y. Hochfeld 961 2037 2005-04-15T08:44:57Z Josu Lavin 2 interposition = le credentia que un stato pote inponer su proprie soveranitate inter le populo e le soveranitate del governamento federal.<br> 962 2038 2005-04-15T08:45:55Z Josu Lavin 2 nullification= le derecto de un stato pro declarar NULLE e SIN VALOR ulle lege federal.. <br> 963 72 2005-04-15T21:50:44Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center">Cinque theses a clavar ad le portas de Babel</h1> <p class="autor">Alexander Gode, Ph. D.</p> <p class="fonte">&quot;International Language Review&quot;, n&ordm; 29&#150;30, octobre 1962&#150;martio 1963.</p> <p class="autor">Traduction anglese&#150;Interlingua de B. C. Sexton, B.A., F.L.A., secretario del British Interlingua Society.</p> <hr> <h2>1.</h2> <p>Le concepto de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate contine un elemento potente de mythologia. Illo es associate con le idea de un "Etate de Auro", tanto in le senso de un antique stato de innocentia como etiam in illo de un utopia a venir.</p> <p>Como tote altere conceptos mythologic, illo ha evolvite <i lang="la">pari passu</i> con le aspirationes del homine, con su necessitates externe e interne, con le patronos e le principios de su pensar. Como formulate in le majoritate del discussiones currente, le concepto de un lingua universal reflecte le optimismo rationalistic del seculo dece-octave, e es le producto de ille fide in un progresso systematic que inspirava le scientias natural durante le secunde medietate del seculo dece-none, mais que supervive hodie solo in le conceptiones false de personas inculte.</p> <p>Io poterea, forsan, illustrar iste assertiones per referer me brevemente al turre de Babel e le Confusion del Linguas. Lo que ha evenite in ille die memorabile era, secundo le narration conventional, que Deo (insciente del principios le plus elementari del pedagogia moderne) ha date expression a su ira contra su infelice creaturas per practicar in illes un burla malevolente. Quando illes se ha mittite a examinar le resultatos del experientia, illes ha trovate que le unes parlava francese, le alteres judeogermano, ojibway, etc. Ancora nos es occupate in effortiar nos a reparar le damno insensate que Ille ha facite. Le adoption de un lingua artificial universal serea le resposta le plus elegante e comprehensive.</p> <p>On pote interpretar in altere modo le historia de Babel. Lo que ha evenite, secundo iste version alternative, es que le constructores ha devenite si absorbite in lor proprie parte del interprisa que in poco illes ha trovate impossibile o pensar o parlar del ambiente si non per le conceptos de lor mestiero. Illes non ha comenciate subito a parlar francese e judeogermano e ojibway, mais le linguages professional de muratores, de carpenteros, de plumberos, etc. Iste interpretation del historia de Babel &#150; le qual, a proposito, io non ha originate mais ha citate sin alteration ab Dante &#150; es a un alte grado compatibile con nostre comprension moderne del phenomenologia multiforme del lingua. Nos sape de novo, como sapeva Dante, que le differentias fundamental inter le linguas son primemente differentias in le patronos conceptual, non in le formas del parolas.</p> <p>Le effortio de levar le "malediction" de Babel &#150; per quanto un tal effortio es compatibile con le interpretation deDante &#150; se concerne de un objectivo metaphysic e religiose: de effectuar, in preparation pro le fin del tempore, le harmonia ultimate (e original) del pensamento human, sin reguardo a qual cerebro individual servi de su bouillon de cultura. Reimplaciar iste objectivo metaphysic per le scopo physic de effortiar se a provider tote le humanitate de un medio commun de communication es practicar lo que Reinhold Niebuhr ha nominate "le strategia de fugir de problemas difficile per refugiar se in solutiones impossibile".</p> <p>Io mantene que le idea de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate, secundo le definition usual, es un conception false, e al plus un cosa solo utile a exponer, quasi in un museo, como exemplo de un certe typo de aberration intellectual in le qual nostre patres e nostre avos ha perdite se a causa de lor appoiamento enthusiastic del positivismo rationalistic.</p> <hr> <h2>2.</h2> <p>Sin dubita il es possibile inventar artificialmente un systema efficace de communication verbal interhuman. De facto, il es possibile inventar centos de tales. Exemplos es esperanto e le si-nominate "Pig Latin" (i.e. "latino porcin"), que es un specie de lingua burlesc, formate per le mutilation systematic del anglese. In consequentia, io suggere que es absurde arguer contra esperanto per dicer que illo es inefficace, non practic, o repulsive. Nulle lingua es repulsive, si non le dialecto saxone parlate in le vicinitate de Leipzig (qual observation gratuite io insere a iste puncto solo pro illustrar quanto naive, quanto subjectivemente prejudiciate son tote opiniones de belle e repulsive quando se tracta de cosas linguistic). Dicer que esperanto non es practic es a pena minus naive que dicer que illo es repulsive. Le homine qui ha dicite que "On pote traducer toto in esperanto, on pote exprimer nihil" se effortiava de vincer per un argutia, proque le factos non le era utile. Le simple factos son istes: es disponibile un corpore substantial de litteratura original, e pragmatic e belletristic, in esperanto. De plus, il es provate ad evidentia, mesmo a supererogation. que le gente pote non solo conversar in esperanto, mais anque facer le corte in illo e maritar se in illo.</p> <p>Quando, un momento retro, io ha accopulate in comparation esperanto e Pig Latin, io non voleva presentar Pig Latin como symbolo de lo que me pare contemptibile. lllo non me pare assi. De facto io lo reguarda multo seriemente, proque le existentia de illo es al minus si interessante como le existentia de Shriners, Kiwanis, Lions, Moose, Elks (istos son le nomines de certe confraternitates benevolente e plus o minus masonic in le Statos Unite) ab le puncto de vista de alicuno qui se interessa de studiar le psychologia del delicia human de societates secrete.</p> <p>A iste puncto in le argumento mi amicos esperantista se rebella e me provide de un bon opportunitate de contrarebellar me. On me dice sovente, "Si, il es ver que esperanto es al presente un ‘lingua de initiatos’. Il ha illes qui lo sape e illes qui non lo sape." Mais le puncto essential es que le sapientes (qui sape que illes son initiatos, e qui, de quando in quando, non pote resister al temptation de reguardar con disdigno lor fratres minus illuminate) non vole esser o remaner membros de un societate secrete. Pro dicer le veritate, illes crede e spera ardentemente que venira le die quando esperanto sera inseniate como lingua secunde in tote scholas in le mundo integre, e quando le corpore diminuente de non-sapientes va rememorar nos de que le obra non es ancora finite (como hodie le analphabetos qui remane in le mundo nos rememora de un labor de education non ancora complite).</p> <p>Eh ben, si esperanto e le altere projectos de lingua auxiliar universal non vole mais son fortiate actualmente a jocar le rolo apparente de linguas secrete de communitates de privilegiate initiatos, per qual medio poterea transformar se iste situation traditional? Un sol responsa es possibile: per decreto; per le decision de un assemblea mundial de plenipotentiarios; per le benevolentia sapiente de un dictator mundial.</p> <p>Mais io mantene que in le dominio del intellecto e del spirito, ubi son le radices del lingua, il es impossibile realisar per decretos un plano revolutionari. Le operationes del mundo spiritual constitue un economia libere ubi le planos administrative pote guidar e diriger mais non jammais compeller.</p> <hr> <h2>3.</h2> <p>Io definirea le termino "lingua international" simplemente como "alicun lingua in uso in le communication international". Io suppone que il ha pauc o nulle linguas que non, de quando in quando, corresponde a iste definition. Sin dubita il non ha uno que corresponde a illo plus frequente- e extensemente que le anglese. In omne caso, le effecto es risibile quando on juxtapone esperanto, o (pro ver dicer) interlingua, o alicun altere lingua construite o schematisate, con le anglese, dicente que illo es superior al anglese e destinate a expeller lo ab su position in le communicationes international. On pensa non de David e Goliath mais del rana que ha tentate a inflar se usque al grandor de un bove.</p> <p>Il ha multe personas &#150; non solo illes qui parla le anglese como lingua native &#150; qui, per deducer ab le progressos realisate in le passato, predice que le anglese sera, tosto o tarde, le lingua commun unic, sia prime sia secunde, de tote le humanitate. Si iste prediction suppone que un jorno o le altere un congresso mundial de plenipotentiarios decretara que tote humano, nonobstante qual altere cosas ille vole studiar in le campo linguistic, sia obligate a apprender le anglese, illo non es plus meritori o plus solide que le prediction que volapük essera seligite un belle die como lingua universal de Terra. Si illo suppone que le lingua del Etate de Auro del futuro debe esser le anglese proque solo le anglese es compatibile con le concepto de un Etate de Auro, nos pote permitter nos a surrider e diriger nostre attention a altere cosas. Mais il remane le possibilitate que le prediction de un futuro functionalmente importante e mesmo gloriose del anglese es fundate in le supposition que le anglese habera semper, como al presente, le capacitate de concurrer e superar su rivales in le economia libere del communication international. Iste rationamento face bon senso. Io lo accepta como le mie. Mais io debe sublinear emphaticamente que il non se tracta de un monopolio. Le prediction non assigna al anglese le position del lingua international unic <em>mais</em> solo lo de un lingua international inter plures. In altere parolas, illo previde nulle transformation revolutionari mais solo le extension quantitative del remedios que nos possede actualmente.</p> <p>Io mantene que on ha ration de creder in le continuation del rolo supereminente que joca le anglese in le communication international. Io mantene que ni le qualitates proprie de ille lingua ni le configurationes del situation mundial poterea justificar le notion que le anglese usurpara un position de potentia monopolistic.</p> <hr> <h2>4.</h2> <p>Si le mundo ha devenite minus grande, le contactos inter le nationes plus directe e intense, le causa immediate debe esser vidite in le florimento del scientia e del technologia post le Renascentia, e specialmente in le ultime cento o cento e cinquanta annos. Proque le scientia e le technologia se glorifica de tractar factos e non attitudes, on apprende solo per un investigation profunde que il non es un accidente fortuite que le scientia e le technologia moderne ha surgite non de un continuitate asiatic o african mais del tradition de individualismo occidental. Iste facto es de grande signification linguistic, ma significa que le lingua del scientia (io parla principalmente del scientias natural) &#150; nonobstante como evolvite, comocunque transvestite in diverse robas linguistic &#150; es de base e origine occidental.</p> <p>Totevia, le sublinear del origines occidental del scientias &#150; <i lang="la">ex occidente scienti&aelig;</i> &#150; non debe inducer nos a facer le pretension absurde que le scientias son un prerogativa occidental. Al contrario, le preoccupation del scientia e del technologia con le factos objective los ha insertate con rapiditate e facilitate stupefacente in le communitates cultural le plus diverse in tote partes del mundo. Isto es le causa de que le contributiones a progressos ulterior in tote le campos subordinate de scientia e de technologia son facite in un numero de linguas semper crescente.</p> <p>Nos debe manear iste situation, que non es solo un question de prediction, proque nos sta al limine de illo. Nos lo dominara per le dynamica del economia libere. Nos debe dar nos intense- e anque extensemente al studio de linguas. Il habera necessitate de un grande augmento de traductiones, si grande que le machinas traductori non potera facer toto sin le auxilio de semper plus numerose traductores human specialisate e experte.</p> <p>Mais io mantene que in tote evolution anticipate del lingua del scientia, su substrato linguistic occidental va certo remaner essential e vital.</p> <hr> <h2>5.</h2> <p>Mesmo si on non accepta tote le theorias linguistic de Benjamin Lee Whorf, on pote, con ille, reguardar le linguas occidental &#150; <i lang="la">sub specie latinitatis</i> &#150; como variantes de un norma commun. Le consequentia de isto es le concepto de un "lingua ponte". Si on prende alicun gruppo de linguas proxime de parentela on pote, sin violentia o artificio excessive, reducer los a un norma commun in le qual on pote transmitter un message toto efficacemente a parlatores de cata uno del linguas contribuente sin haber initiate les in illo. Interlingua es un lingua ponte pan-occidental. In illo, on pote transmitter messages, con efficacia adequate, a ille personas qui, sia per accidente, sia per nascentia, sia per le election de education, sape ben (o quasi) uno del linguas major in le orbita latin.</p> <p>Io mantene que iste facto assigna a interlingua un function utile in communicationes scientific in tote le mundo. Io assere, definitivemente, que illo non es candidato pro le rolo &#150; sia gloriose, sia ingloriose &#150; de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate. Illo non es un substituto pro le apprension de linguas estranie, ni un competitor de traductiones. Illo es un lingua ponte que pote servir pro adressar informationes a un auditorio o circulo de lectores heteropolyglotte.</p> <hr> 2039 2005-04-17T20:44:15Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Cinque Theses a Clavar ad le Portas de Babel</b></h1> <h1 align="center">Five Theses to Hammer on the Gates of Babel</h1> <p class="autor">Alexander Gode, Ph. D.</p> <p class="fonte">“International Language Review”, no. 29-30, octobre 1962-martio 1963.</p> <hr> <h2><b>1.</b></h2> <p><b>Le concepto de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate contine un elemento potente de mythologia. Illo es associate con le idea de un "Etate de Auro", tanto in le senso de un antique stato de innocentia como etiam in illo de un utopia a venir.</b></p> <p>The concept of one language for all mankind contains a powerful mythological element. It is associated with the “Golden Age”, both in the sense of a past State of Innocence as also a Future Utopia.</p> <p><b>Como tote altere conceptos mythologic, illo ha evolvite <i>pari passu</i> con le aspirationes del homine, con su necessitates externe e interne, con le patronos e le principios de su pensar. Como formulate in le majoritate del discussiones currente, le concepto de un lingua universal reflecte le optimismo rationalistic del seculo dece-octave, e es le producto de ille fide in un progresso systematic que inspirava le scientias natural durante le secunde medietate del seculo dece-none, mais que supervive hodie solo in le conceptiones false de personas inculte.</b></p> <p>Like all mythological concepts, it has evolved with man's longings, his outer and inner needs, his patterns and principles of thought. As formulated in most current discussions, the concept of a universal language reflects the rationalistic optimism of the Eighteenth Century and is the product of the positivistic faith in orderly progress which inspired the natural sciences during the second half of the Nineteenth Century but which today survives only in popular misconception.</p> <p><b>Io poterea, forsan, illustrar iste assertiones per referer me brevemente al turre de Babel e le Confusion del Linguas. Lo que ha evenite in ille die memorabile era, secundo le narration conventional, que Deo (insciente del principios le plus elementari del pedagogia moderne) ha date expression a su ira contra su infelice creaturas per practicar in illes un burla malevolente. Quando illes se ha mittite a examinar le resultatos del experientia, illes ha trovate que le unes parlava francese, le alteres judeogermano, ojibway, etc. Ancora nos es occupate in effortiar nos a reparar le damno insensate que Ille ha facite. Le adoption de un lingua artificial universal serea le resposta le plus elegante e comprehensive.</b></p> <p>I may clarify these assertions by refering briefly to the Tower of Babel and the Confusion of Tongues. What happened on that memorable day was - in conventionally rationalistic terms - that God (unaware of the most elementary principles of modern pedagogy) vented his wrath on his hapless creatures by playing on them a dirty trick or practical joke. When they came to, they found that some of them spoke French, others Yiddish, others Ojibway, and so forth. And we are still busy trying to undo the senseless damage He wrought. The adoption of a universal man-made language would be the neatest counter trick.</p> <p><b>On pote interpretar in altere modo le historia de Babel. Lo que ha evenite, secundo iste version alternative, es que le constructores ha devenite si absorbite in lor proprie parte del interprisa que in poco illes ha trovate impossibile o pensar o parlar del ambiente si non per le conceptos de lor mestiero. Illes non ha comenciate subito a parlar francese e judeogermano e ojibway, mais le linguages professional de muratores, de carpenteros, de plumberos, etc. Iste interpretation del historia de Babel - le qual, a proposito, io non ha originate mais ha citate sin alteration ab Dante - es a un alte grado compatibile con nostre comprension moderne del phenomenologia multiforme del lingua. Nos sape de novo, como sapeva Dante, que le differentias fundamental inter le linguas son primemente differentias in le patronos conceptual, non in le formas del parolas.</b></p> <p>There is another way of reading the Babel story. What happened - in terms of this other view - was that the builders became so engrossed in their respective portions of the venture that after a while they found it impossible to think, and hence to speak, of what went on around them in any but in the concepts of their craft. They did not suddenly begin to talk French and Yiddish and Ojibway but Bricklayerese and Carpenterese, Pipefitterese, and so forth. This way of reading the Babel story - which by the way is not original with me but cited unaltered from Dante - is eminently compatible with our contemporary understanding of the phenomenon language and its multiplicity of forms. We know again - as Dante did - that the basic differences between languages are differences in conceptual patterns and not in word forms.</p> <p><b>Le effortio de levar le "malediction" de Babel - per quanto un tal effortio es compatibile con le interpretation de Dante - se concerne de un objectivo metaphysic e religiose: de effectuar, in preparation pro le fin del tempore, le harmonia ultimate (e original) del pensamento human, sin reguardo a qual cerebro individual servi de su bouillon de cultura. Reimplaciar iste objectivo metaphysic per le scopo physic de effortiar se a provider tote le humanitate de un medio commun de communication es practicar lo que Reinhold Niebuhr ha nominate "le strategia de fugir de problemas difficile per refugiar se in solutiones impossibile".</b></p> <p>The endeavor to undo the “curse” of Babel - as such endeavor is compatible with Dante's view - is concerned with a metaphysical and religious objective: To bring about - in preparation for the end of Time - the ultimate (and original) harmony of human thought, regardless of what individual brain may serve as its culture broth. To replace this metaphysical objective by the physical one of striving to provide all mankind with a common medium of communication is to practice what Reinhold Niebuhr called “the strategy of fleeing from difficult problems by taking refuge in impossible solutions.”</p> <p><b>Io mantene que le idea de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate, secundo le definition usual, es un conception false, e al plus un cosa solo utile a exponer, quasi in un museo, como exemplo de un certe typo de aberration intellectual in le qual nostre patres e nostre avos ha perdite se a causa de lor appoiamento enthusiastic del positivismo rationalistic.</b></p> <p>I hold that the concept of one language for all mankind - as commonly defined - is a misconception and at best an interesting museum piece, useful as an exhibit to exemplify a certain kind of intellectual aberration in which our fathers and grandfathers got involved by reason of their enthusiastic endorsement of rationalistic positivism.</p> <hr> <h2><b>2.</b></h2> <p><b>Sin dubita il es possibile inventar artificialmente un systema efficace de communication verbal interhuman. De facto, il es possibile inventar centos de tales. Exemplos es esperanto e le si-nominate "Pig Latin" (i.e. "latino porcin"), que es un specie de lingua burlesc, formate per le mutilation systematic del anglese. In consequentia, io suggere que es absurde arguer contra esperanto per dicer que illo es inefficace, non practic, o repulsive. Nulle lingua es repulsive, si non le dialecto saxone parlate in le vicinitate de Leipzig (qual observation gratuite io insere a iste puncto solo pro illustrar quanto naive, quanto subjectivemente prejudiciate son tote opiniones de belle e repulsive quando se tracta de cosas linguistic). Dicer que esperanto non es practic es a pena minus naive que dicer que illo es repulsive. Le homine qui ha dicite que "On pote traducer toto in esperanto, on pote exprimer nihil" se effortiava de vincer per un argutia, proque le factos non le era utile. Le simple factos son istes: es disponibile un corpore substantial de litteratura original, e pragmatic e belletristic, in esperanto. De plus, il es provate ad evidentia, mesmo a supererogation. que le gente pote non solo conversar in esperanto, mais anque facer le corte in illo e maritar se in illo.</b></p> <p>There can be no doubt but that it is possible to devise artificially an efficient system of interhuman verbal communication. As a matter of fact, it is possible to devise hundreds of such. Pig Latin and Esperanto are examples. I mean to imply that it is nonsense to argue against Esperanto by calling it inefficient, impractical, or ugly. No language is ugly, except the Saxon dialect spoken in the vicinity of Leipzig (which uncalled-for-remark I insert at this point only to illustrate how naive and subjectively prejudiced are all verdicts of ugly and beautiful when it comes to matters of language). To call Esperanto.impractical is hardly less naive than to call it ugly. The man who said, “You can translate everything into Esperanto, but there is nothing you can express in it”, was trying to carry the day by a witticisrn, for the facts would not help him. These are the simple facts: There is available a substantial original literature - both reporting and creative - in Esperanto. Furthermore there is more than ample evidence that people can not only converse in Esperanto, they can make love in it and get married in it.</p> <p><b>Quando, un momento retro, io ha accopulate in comparation esperanto e Pig Latin, io non voleva presentar Pig Latin como symbolo de lo que me pare contemptibile. lllo non me pare assi. De facto io lo reguarda multo seriemente, proque le existentia de illo es al minus si interessante como le existentia de Shriners, Kiwanis, Lions, Moose, Elks (istos son le nomines de certe confraternitates benevolente e plus o minus masonic in le Statos Unite) ab le puncto de vista de alicuno qui se interessa de studiar le psychologia del delicia human de societates secrete.</b></p> <p>When, a moment ago, I coupled Esperanto with Pig Latin I did not do so because I regard Pig Latin as contemptible. I don't. I take it very seriously, for its existence is at least as interesting as the existence of Shriners, Kiwanis, Lions, Moose, and Elks from the point of view of anyone interested in the psychology of the human delight with secret societies.</p> <p><b>A iste puncto in le argumento mi amicos esperantista se rebella e me provide de un bon opportunitate de contrarebellar me. On me dice sovente, "Si, il es ver que esperanto es al presente un ‘lingua de initiatos’. Il ha illes qui lo sape e illes qui non lo sape." Mais le puncto essential es que le sapientes (qui sape que illes son initiatos, e qui, de quando in quando, non pote resister al temptation de reguardar con disdigno lor fratres minus illuminate) non vole esser o remaner membros de un societate secrete. Pro dicer le veritate, illes crede e spera ardentemente que venira le die quando esperanto sera inseniate como lingua secunde in tote scholas in le mundo integre, e quando le corpore diminuente de non-sapientes va rememorar nos de que le obra non es ancora finite (como hodie le analphabetos qui remane in le mundo nos rememora de un labor de education non ancora complite).</b></p> <p>Here of course, my Esperanto friends rebel and give me a wonderful chance to counterrebel. At this point in my argument I am often told, Yes, it is true that Esperanto is at present a “language of the chosen”. There are those who know it and those who don't. But the point is precisely, I am told, that the knowers (who know that they are in the know and who occasionally cannot resist the temptation of looking down upon their less enlightened brethren) do not want to be or remain the members of a secret society. The point is precisely that they ardently believe and hope that the day will come when Esperanto is taught as a second language in all schools all over the world, with a shrinking body of surviving non-knowers on hand to remind us that the job is not finished (just as today the remaining illiterates throughout the world remind us of an unfinished educational job.)</p> <p><b>Eh ben, si esperanto e le altere projectos de lingua auxiliar universal non vole mais son fortiate actualmente a jocar le rolo apparente de linguas secrete de communitates de privilegiate initiatos, per qual medio poterea transformar se iste situation traditional? Un sol responsa es possibile: per decreto; per le decision de un assemblea mundial de plenipotentiarios; per le benevolentia sapiente de un dictator mundial.</b></p> <p>All right then, if Esperanto and other universal auxliary-language proposals do not wish but are forced at this time to play the apparent role of secret cants of communities of fortunate initiates, how can this traditional situation be expected to change? There is but one answer: By decree: by the decision of a world body of authorized representatives by the wise benevolence of a world dictator.</p> <p><b>Mais io mantene que in le dominio del intellecto e del spirito, ubi son le radices del lingua, il es impossibile realisar per decretos un plano revolutionari. Le operationes del mundo spiritual constitue un economia libere ubi le planos administrative pote guidar e diriger mais non jammais compeller.</b></p> <p>But I hold that in the realm of the intellect and the spirit - where language has its roots - there can be no planning by decree. The economy of the world of the spirit is a free-market economy where planning can guide and direct but never compel.</p> <hr> <h2><b>3.</b></h2> <p><b>Io definirea le termino "lingua international" simplemente como "alicun lingua in uso in le communication international". Io suppone que il ha pauc o nulle linguas que non, de quando in quando, corresponde a iste definition. Sin dubita il non ha uno que corresponde a illo plus frequente- e extensemente que le anglese. In omne caso, le effecto es risibile quando on juxtapone esperanto, o (pro ver dicer) interlingua, o alicun altere lingua construite o schematisate, con le anglese, dicente que illo es superior al anglese e destinate a expeller lo ab su position in le communicationes international. On pensa non de David e Goliath mais del rana que ha tentate a inflar se usque al grandor de un bove.</b></p> <p>I would define the term “international language” or “interlanguage” simply as “any language in use in iriternational communications”. I suppose there are few or no languages that do not on occasion answer this definition. There doubtless is none that answers it more often and more extensively than English. In any event, it looks a bit funny when Esperanto or, for that matter, Interlingua - or any other constructed or planned language - is placed next to English with the claim that it is fit to crowd out English and destined to do so. The image which comes to mind is not that of David and Goliath but that of the frog trying to blow himself up to the size of an ox.</p> <p><b>Il ha multe personas - non solo illes qui parla le anglese como lingua native - qui, per deducer ab le progressos realisate in le passato, predice que le anglese sera, tosto o tarde, le lingua commun unic, sia prime sia secunde, de tote le humanitate. Si iste prediction suppone que un jorno o le altere un congresso mundial de plenipotentiarios decretara que tote humano, nonobstante qual altere cosas ille vole studiar in le campo linguistic, sia obligate a apprender le anglese, illo non es plus meritori o plus solide que le prediction que volapük essera seligite un belle die como lingua universal de Terra. Si illo suppone que le lingua del Etate de Auro del futuro debe esser le anglese proque solo le anglese es compatibile con le concepto de un Etate de Auro, nos pote permitter nos a surrider e diriger nostre attention a altere cosas. Mais il remane le possibilitate que le prediction de un futuro functionalmente importante e mesmo gloriose del anglese es fundate in le supposition que le anglese habera semper, como al presente, le capacitate de concurrer e superar su rivales in le economia libere del communication international. Iste rationamento face bon senso. Io lo accepta como le mie. Mais io debe sublinear emphaticamente que il non se tracta de un monopolio. Le prediction non assigna al anglese le position del lingua international unic <em>mais</em> solo lo de un lingua international inter plures. In altere parolas, illo previde nulle transformation revolutionari mais solo le extension quantitative del remedios que nos possede actualmente.</b></p> <p>There are many - and got only native speakers of English - who, by extrapolation from past progress, predict that English will sooner or later be the common primary or secondary language for mankind. If this prediction assumes that a world congress of plenipotentiaries will some day decree that every human being - whatever else he may wish to study in the language field - must learn English, it is on a par in merit and soundness with the prediction that Volapük will some fine day be selected as the universal language of Terra. If it assumes that the language of the Golden Age of the future must be English because only English is compatible with the concept of the Golden Age, we may smile and pass on. But there remains the possibility that the prediction of a functionally important and even glorious future for English is based on the assumption that English will continue to have what it takes to compete and excel in the free-market economy of international communication. And this makes sense. This view I share. But I hasten to emphasize that there is no exclusivity in this claim. It does not assign to English the role of <em>the</em> international language but of <em>one</em>. In other words, the prediction envisages no revolutionary change but only more and more of what we already have.</p> <p><b>Io mantene que on ha ration de creder in le continuation del rolo supereminente que joca le anglese in le communication international. Io mantene que ni le qualitates proprie de ille lingua ni le configurationes del situation mundial poterea justificar le notion que le anglese usurpara un position de potentia monopolistic.</b></p> <p>I hold that English may be expected to continue to play an outstanding role in international communication and that there is nothing in either the language as such or in the world situation to lend support to the notion that English might usurp a position of monopolistic power.</p> <hr> <h2><b>4.</b></h2> <p><b>Si le mundo ha devenite minus grande, le contactos inter le nationes plus directe e intense, le causa immediate debe esser vidite in le florimento del scientia e del technologia post le Renascentia, e specialmente in le ultime cento o cento e cinquanta annos. Proque le scientia e le technologia se glorifica de tractar factos e non attitudes, on apprende solo per un investigation profunde que il non es un accidente fortuite que le scientia e le technologia moderne ha surgite non de un continuitate asiatic o african mais del tradition de individualismo occidental. Iste facto es de grande signification linguistic, ma significa que le lingua del scientia (io parla principalmente del scientias natural) - nonobstante como evolvite, comocunque transvestite in diverse robas linguistic - es de base e origine occidental.</b></p> <p>If the world has shrunk, with contacts between nations having become more direct and intense, the immediate cause must be seen in the flowering of science and technology since the renaissance and in particular throughout the past one hundred or one hundred and fifty years. Since science and technology take pride in being concerned with facts, not attitudes, it takes some probing to recognize that it is no accident that modern science and technology did not arise from an Asian or African cultural continuity but from the tradition of occidental individualism. This latter fact is of great linguistic significance. It means that the language of science - no matter how it evolved, no matter how transvested in diverse linguistic garments - is basically and originally occidental.</p> <p><b>Totevia, le sublinear del origines occidental del scientias - <i>ex occidente scientiae</i> - non debe inducer nos a facer le pretension absurde que le scientias son un prerogativa occidental. Al contrario, le preoccupation del scientia e del technologia con le factos objective los ha insertate con rapiditate e facilitate stupefacente in le communitates cultural le plus diverse in tote partes del mundo. Isto es le causa de que le contributiones a progressos ulterior in tote le campos subordinate de scientia e de technologia son facite in un numero de linguas semper crescente.</b></p> <p>However, to emphasize the occidental origins of the sciences - <i>ex occidente scientiae</i> - cannot mislead us to the absurd claim that the sciences are an occidental prerogative. On the contrary, the objective factualism of science and technology has grafted them, with amazing speed and ease into the most diverse cultural continuities in all parts of the world. Hence the event that contributions to further advances in all the subfields of science and technology are being made in the ever increasing number of languages.</p> <p><b>Nos debe manear iste situation, que non es solo un question de prediction, proque nos sta al limine de illo. Nos lo dominara per le dynamica del economia libere. Nos debe dar nos intense- e anque extensemente al studio de linguas. Il habera necessitate de un grande augmento de traductiones, si grande que le machinas traductori non potera facer toto sin le auxilio de semper plus numerose traductores human specialisate e experte.</b></p> <p>We shall have to cope with this situation which is not just a matter of prediction, for it is at hand. We shall cope with it in the dynamics of a free market. We shall have to do more language learning, and not only more, we shall have to make it more diverse. There will have to be more translation, tremendously more, too much more for machines to handle without the help of ever increasing numbers of specialized and expert human translators.</p> <p><b>Mais io mantene que in tote evolution anticipate del lingua del scientia, su substrato linguistic occidental va certo remaner essential e vital.</b></p> <p>But I hold that in all anticipated evolution of the language of science its occidental linguistic substratum is bound to remain essential and vital.</p> <hr> <h2><b>5.</b></h2> <p><b>Mesmo si on non accepta tote le theorias linguistic de Benjamin Lee Whorf, on pote, con ille, reguardar le linguas occidental - <i>sub specie latinitatis</i> - como variantes de un norma commun. Le consequentia de isto es le concepto de un "lingua ponte". Si on prende alicun gruppo de linguas proxime de parentela on pote, sin violentia o artificio excessive, reducer los a un norma commun in le qual on pote transmitter un message toto efficacemente a parlatores de cata uno del linguas contribuente sin haber initiate les in illo. Interlingua es un lingua ponte pan-occidental. In illo, on pote transmitter messages, con efficacia adequate, a ille personas qui, sia per accidente, sia per nascentia, sia per le election de education, sape ben (o quasi) uno del linguas major in le orbita latin.</b></p> <p>With or without Whorf it is possible to regard the occidental languages - <i>sub specie latinitatis</i> - as variants of a common norm. This has led to the concept of a “bridge language”. Take any group of closely related languages and you can - without undue artifice or violence - reduce them to a common norm in which a message can be transmitted quite effectively to speakers of each and every one of the contributing languages without prior initiation. Interlingua is a pan-occidental bridge 1anguage. In it messages can be transmitted with adequate effectiveness to those who by accident or birth or by choice of education know well (or fairly well) one of the major languages in the Latin orbit.</p> <p><b>Io mantene que iste facto assigna a interlingua un function utile in communicationes scientific in tote le mundo. Io assere, definitivemente, que illo non es candidato pro le rolo - sia gloriose, sia ingloriose - de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate. Illo non es un substituto pro le apprension de linguas estranie, ni un competitor de traductiones. Illo es un lingua ponte que pote servir pro adressar informationes a un auditorio o circulo de lectores heteropolyglotte.</b></p> <p>I hold that this assigns to Interlingua a useful function in scientific communication anywhere in the world. Once and for all, it is no candidate for the role - glorious or inglorious - of one common language for all mankind. It is no substitute for language learning and no competitor of translation. It is a bridge language to be used in addressing a heteropolyglot audience or readership.</p> <hr> 3117 2006-04-30T15:08:23Z 85.60.136.98 __NOTOC__ <h1 align="center"><b>Cinque Theses a Clavar ad le Portas de Babel</b></h1> <h1 align="center">Five Theses to Hammer on the Gates of Babel</h1> <p class="autor">Alexander Gode, Ph. D.</p> <p class="fonte">“International Language Review”, no. 29-30, octobre 1962-martio 1963.</p> <hr> <h2><b>1.</b></h2> <p><b>Le concepto de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate contine un elemento potente de mythologia. Illo es associate con le idea de un "Etate de Auro", tanto in le senso de un antique stato de innocentia como etiam in illo de un utopia a venir.</b></p> <p>The concept of one language for all mankind contains a powerful mythological element. It is associated with the “Golden Age”, both in the sense of a past State of Innocence as also a Future Utopia.</p> <p><b>Como tote altere conceptos mythologic, illo ha evolvite <i>pari passu</i> con le aspirationes del homine, con su necessitates externe e interne, con le patronos e le principios de su pensar. Como formulate in le majoritate del discussiones currente, le concepto de un lingua universal reflecte le optimismo rationalistic del seculo dece-octave, e es le producto de ille fide in un progresso systematic que inspirava le scientias natural durante le secunde medietate del seculo dece-none, mais que supervive hodie solo in le conceptiones false de personas inculte.</b></p> <p>Like all mythological concepts, it has evolved with man's longings, his outer and inner needs, his patterns and principles of thought. As formulated in most current discussions, the concept of a universal language reflects the rationalistic optimism of the Eighteenth Century and is the product of the positivistic faith in orderly progress which inspired the natural sciences during the second half of the Nineteenth Century but which today survives only in popular misconception.</p> <p><b>Io poterea, forsan, illustrar iste assertiones per referer me brevemente al turre de Babel e le Confusion del Linguas. Lo que ha evenite in ille die memorabile era, secundo le narration conventional, que Deo (insciente del principios le plus elementari del pedagogia moderne) ha date expression a su ira contra su infelice creaturas per practicar in illes un burla malevolente. Quando illes se ha mittite a examinar le resultatos del experientia, illes ha trovate que le unes parlava francese, le alteres judeogermano, ojibway, etc. Ancora nos es occupate in effortiar nos a reparar le damno insensate que Ille ha facite. Le adoption de un lingua artificial universal serea le resposta le plus elegante e comprehensive.</b></p> <p>I may clarify these assertions by refering briefly to the Tower of Babel and the Confusion of Tongues. What happened on that memorable day was - in conventionally rationalistic terms - that God (unaware of the most elementary principles of modern pedagogy) vented his wrath on his hapless creatures by playing on them a dirty trick or practical joke. When they came to, they found that some of them spoke French, others Yiddish, others Ojibway, and so forth. And we are still busy trying to undo the senseless damage He wrought. The adoption of a universal man-made language would be the neatest counter trick.</p> <p><b>On pote interpretar in altere modo le historia de Babel. Lo que ha evenite, secundo iste version alternative, es que le constructores ha devenite si absorbite in lor proprie parte del interprisa que in poco illes ha trovate impossibile o pensar o parlar del ambiente si non per le conceptos de lor mestiero. Illes non ha comenciate subito a parlar francese e judeogermano e ojibway, mais le linguages professional de muratores, de carpenteros, de plumberos, etc. Iste interpretation del historia de Babel - le qual, a proposito, io non ha originate mais ha citate sin alteration ab Dante - es a un alte grado compatibile con nostre comprension moderne del phenomenologia multiforme del lingua. Nos sape de novo, como sapeva Dante, que le differentias fundamental inter le linguas son primemente differentias in le patronos conceptual, non in le formas del parolas.</b></p> <p>There is another way of reading the Babel story. What happened - in terms of this other view - was that the builders became so engrossed in their respective portions of the venture that after a while they found it impossible to think, and hence to speak, of what went on around them in any but in the concepts of their craft. They did not suddenly begin to talk French and Yiddish and Ojibway but Bricklayerese and Carpenterese, Pipefitterese, and so forth. This way of reading the Babel story - which by the way is not original with me but cited unaltered from Dante - is eminently compatible with our contemporary understanding of the phenomenon language and its multiplicity of forms. We know again - as Dante did - that the basic differences between languages are differences in conceptual patterns and not in word forms.</p> <p><b>Le effortio de levar le "malediction" de Babel - per quanto un tal effortio es compatibile con le interpretation de Dante - se concerne de un objectivo metaphysic e religiose: de effectuar, in preparation pro le fin del tempore, le harmonia ultimate (e original) del pensamento human, sin reguardo a qual cerebro individual servi de su bouillon de cultura. Reimplaciar iste objectivo metaphysic per le scopo physic de effortiar se a provider tote le humanitate de un medio commun de communication es practicar lo que Reinhold Niebuhr ha nominate "le strategia de fugir de problemas difficile per refugiar se in solutiones impossibile".</b></p> <p>The endeavor to undo the “curse” of Babel - as such endeavor is compatible with Dante's view - is concerned with a metaphysical and religious objective: To bring about - in preparation for the end of Time - the ultimate (and original) harmony of human thought, regardless of what individual brain may serve as its culture broth. To replace this metaphysical objective by the physical one of striving to provide all mankind with a common medium of communication is to practice what Reinhold Niebuhr called “the strategy of fleeing from difficult problems by taking refuge in impossible solutions.”</p> <p><b>Io mantene que le idea de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate, secundo le definition usual, es un conception false, e al plus un cosa solo utile a exponer, quasi in un museo, como exemplo de un certe typo de aberration intellectual in le qual nostre patres e nostre avos ha perdite se a causa de lor appoiamento enthusiastic del positivismo rationalistic.</b></p> <p>I hold that the concept of one language for all mankind - as commonly defined - is a misconception and at best an interesting museum piece, useful as an exhibit to exemplify a certain kind of intellectual aberration in which our fathers and grandfathers got involved by reason of their enthusiastic endorsement of rationalistic positivism.</p> <hr> <h2><b>2.</b></h2> <p><b>Sin dubita il es possibile inventar artificialmente un systema efficace de communication verbal interhuman. De facto, il es possibile inventar centos de tales. Exemplos es esperanto e le si-nominate "Pig Latin" (i.e. "latino porcin"), que es un specie de lingua burlesc, formate per le mutilation systematic del anglese. In consequentia, io suggere que es absurde arguer contra esperanto per dicer que illo es inefficace, non practic, o repulsive. Nulle lingua es repulsive, si non le dialecto saxone parlate in le vicinitate de Leipzig (qual observation gratuite io insere a iste puncto solo pro illustrar quanto naive, quanto subjectivemente prejudiciate son tote opiniones de belle e repulsive quando se tracta de cosas linguistic). Dicer que esperanto non es practic es a pena minus naive que dicer que illo es repulsive. Le homine qui ha dicite que "On pote traducer toto in esperanto, on pote exprimer nihil" se effortiava de vincer per un argutia, proque le factos non le era utile. Le simple factos son istes: es disponibile un corpore substantial de litteratura original, e pragmatic e belletristic, in esperanto. De plus, il es provate ad evidentia, mesmo a supererogation. que le gente pote non solo conversar in esperanto, mais anque facer le corte in illo e maritar se in illo.</b></p> <p>There can be no doubt but that it is possible to devise artificially an efficient system of interhuman verbal communication. As a matter of fact, it is possible to devise hundreds of such. Pig Latin and Esperanto are examples. I mean to imply that it is nonsense to argue against Esperanto by calling it inefficient, impractical, or ugly. No language is ugly, except the Saxon dialect spoken in the vicinity of Leipzig (which uncalled-for-remark I insert at this point only to illustrate how naive and subjectively prejudiced are all verdicts of ugly and beautiful when it comes to matters of language). To call Esperanto.impractical is hardly less naive than to call it ugly. The man who said, “You can translate everything into Esperanto, but there is nothing you can express in it”, was trying to carry the day by a witticisrn, for the facts would not help him. These are the simple facts: There is available a substantial original literature - both reporting and creative - in Esperanto. Furthermore there is more than ample evidence that people can not only converse in Esperanto, they can make love in it and get married in it.</p> <p><b>Quando, un momento retro, io ha accopulate in comparation esperanto e Pig Latin, io non voleva presentar Pig Latin como symbolo de lo que me pare contemptibile. lllo non me pare assi. De facto io lo reguarda multo seriemente, proque le existentia de illo es al minus si interessante como le existentia de Shriners, Kiwanis, Lions, Moose, Elks (istos son le nomines de certe confraternitates benevolente e plus o minus masonic in le Statos Unite) ab le puncto de vista de alicuno qui se interessa de studiar le psychologia del delicia human de societates secrete.</b></p> <p>When, a moment ago, I coupled Esperanto with Pig Latin I did not do so because I regard Pig Latin as contemptible. I don't. I take it very seriously, for its existence is at least as interesting as the existence of Shriners, Kiwanis, Lions, Moose, and Elks from the point of view of anyone interested in the psychology of the human delight with secret societies.</p> <p><b>A iste puncto in le argumento mi amicos esperantista se rebella e me provide de un bon opportunitate de contrarebellar me. On me dice sovente, "Si, il es ver que esperanto es al presente un ‘lingua de initiatos’. Il ha illes qui lo sape e illes qui non lo sape." Mais le puncto essential es que le sapientes (qui sape que illes son initiatos, e qui, de quando in quando, non pote resister al temptation de reguardar con disdigno lor fratres minus illuminate) non vole esser o remaner membros de un societate secrete. Pro dicer le veritate, illes crede e spera ardentemente que venira le die quando esperanto sera inseniate como lingua secunde in tote scholas in le mundo integre, e quando le corpore diminuente de non-sapientes va rememorar nos de que le obra non es ancora finite (como hodie le analphabetos qui remane in le mundo nos rememora de un labor de education non ancora complite).</b></p> <p>Here of course, my Esperanto friends rebel and give me a wonderful chance to counterrebel. At this point in my argument I am often told, Yes, it is true that Esperanto is at present a “language of the chosen”. There are those who know it and those who don't. But the point is precisely, I am told, that the knowers (who know that they are in the know and who occasionally cannot resist the temptation of looking down upon their less enlightened brethren) do not want to be or remain the members of a secret society. The point is precisely that they ardently believe and hope that the day will come when Esperanto is taught as a second language in all schools all over the world, with a shrinking body of surviving non-knowers on hand to remind us that the job is not finished (just as today the remaining illiterates throughout the world remind us of an unfinished educational job.)</p> <p><b>Eh ben, si esperanto e le altere projectos de lingua auxiliar universal non vole mais son fortiate actualmente a jocar le rolo apparente de linguas secrete de communitates de privilegiate initiatos, per qual medio poterea transformar se iste situation traditional? Un sol responsa es possibile: per decreto; per le decision de un assemblea mundial de plenipotentiarios; per le benevolentia sapiente de un dictator mundial.</b></p> <p>All right then, if Esperanto and other universal auxliary-language proposals do not wish but are forced at this time to play the apparent role of secret cants of communities of fortunate initiates, how can this traditional situation be expected to change? There is but one answer: By decree: by the decision of a world body of authorized representatives by the wise benevolence of a world dictator.</p> <p><b>Mais io mantene que in le dominio del intellecto e del spirito, ubi son le radices del lingua, il es impossibile realisar per decretos un plano revolutionari. Le operationes del mundo spiritual constitue un economia libere ubi le planos administrative pote guidar e diriger mais non jammais compeller.</b></p> <p>But I hold that in the realm of the intellect and the spirit - where language has its roots - there can be no planning by decree. The economy of the world of the spirit is a free-market economy where planning can guide and direct but never compel.</p> <hr> <h2><b>3.</b></h2> <p><b>Io definirea le termino "lingua international" simplemente como "alicun lingua in uso in le communication international". Io suppone que il ha pauc o nulle linguas que non, de quando in quando, corresponde a iste definition. Sin dubita il non ha uno que corresponde a illo plus frequente- e extensemente que le anglese. In omne caso, le effecto es risibile quando on juxtapone esperanto, o (pro ver dicer) interlingua, o alicun altere lingua construite o schematisate, con le anglese, dicente que illo es superior al anglese e destinate a expeller lo ab su position in le communicationes international. On pensa non de David e Goliath mais del rana que ha tentate a inflar se usque al grandor de un bove.</b></p> <p>I would define the term “international language” or “interlanguage” simply as “any language in use in iriternational communications”. I suppose there are few or no languages that do not on occasion answer this definition. There doubtless is none that answers it more often and more extensively than English. In any event, it looks a bit funny when Esperanto or, for that matter, Interlingua - or any other constructed or planned language - is placed next to English with the claim that it is fit to crowd out English and destined to do so. The image which comes to mind is not that of David and Goliath but that of the frog trying to blow himself up to the size of an ox.</p> <p><b>Il ha multe personas - non solo illes qui parla le anglese como lingua native - qui, per deducer ab le progressos realisate in le passato, predice que le anglese sera, tosto o tarde, le lingua commun unic, sia prime sia secunde, de tote le humanitate. Si iste prediction suppone que un jorno o le altere un congresso mundial de plenipotentiarios decretara que tote humano, nonobstante qual altere cosas ille vole studiar in le campo linguistic, sia obligate a apprender le anglese, illo non es plus meritori o plus solide que le prediction que volapük essera seligite un belle die como lingua universal de Terra. Si illo suppone que le lingua del Etate de Auro del futuro debe esser le anglese proque solo le anglese es compatibile con le concepto de un Etate de Auro, nos pote permitter nos a surrider e diriger nostre attention a altere cosas. Mais il remane le possibilitate que le prediction de un futuro functionalmente importante e mesmo gloriose del anglese es fundate in le supposition que le anglese habera semper, como al presente, le capacitate de concurrer e superar su rivales in le economia libere del communication international. Iste rationamento face bon senso. Io lo accepta como le mie. Mais io debe sublinear emphaticamente que il non se tracta de un monopolio. Le prediction non assigna al anglese le position del lingua international unic <em>mais</em> solo lo de un lingua international inter plures. In altere parolas, illo previde nulle transformation revolutionari mais solo le extension quantitative del remedios que nos possede actualmente.</b></p> <p>There are many - and got only native speakers of English - who, by extrapolation from past progress, predict that English will sooner or later be the common primary or secondary language for mankind. If this prediction assumes that a world congress of plenipotentiaries will some day decree that every human being - whatever else he may wish to study in the language field - must learn English, it is on a par in merit and soundness with the prediction that Volapük will some fine day be selected as the universal language of Terra. If it assumes that the language of the Golden Age of the future must be English because only English is compatible with the concept of the Golden Age, we may smile and pass on. But there remains the possibility that the prediction of a functionally important and even glorious future for English is based on the assumption that English will continue to have what it takes to compete and excel in the free-market economy of international communication. And this makes sense. This view I share. But I hasten to emphasize that there is no exclusivity in this claim. It does not assign to English the role of <em>the</em> international language but of <em>one</em>. In other words, the prediction envisages no revolutionary change but only more and more of what we already have.</p> <p><b>Io mantene que on ha ration de creder in le continuation del rolo supereminente que joca le anglese in le communication international. Io mantene que ni le qualitates proprie de ille lingua ni le configurationes del situation mundial poterea justificar le notion que le anglese usurpara un position de potentia monopolistic.</b></p> <p>I hold that English may be expected to continue to play an outstanding role in international communication and that there is nothing in either the language as such or in the world situation to lend support to the notion that English might usurp a position of monopolistic power.</p> <hr> <h2><b>4.</b></h2> <p><b>Si le mundo ha devenite minus grande, le contactos inter le nationes plus directe e intense, le causa immediate debe esser vidite in le florimento del scientia e del technologia post le Renascentia, e specialmente in le ultime cento o cento e cinquanta annos. Proque le scientia e le technologia se glorifica de tractar factos e non attitudes, on apprende solo per un investigation profunde que il non es un accidente fortuite que le scientia e le technologia moderne ha surgite non de un continuitate asiatic o african mais del tradition de individualismo occidental. Iste facto es de grande signification linguistic, ma significa que le lingua del scientia (io parla principalmente del scientias natural) - nonobstante como evolvite, comocunque transvestite in diverse robas linguistic - es de base e origine occidental.</b></p> <p>If the world has shrunk, with contacts between nations having become more direct and intense, the immediate cause must be seen in the flowering of science and technology since the renaissance and in particular throughout the past one hundred or one hundred and fifty years. Since science and technology take pride in being concerned with facts, not attitudes, it takes some probing to recognize that it is no accident that modern science and technology did not arise from an Asian or African cultural continuity but from the tradition of occidental individualism. This latter fact is of great linguistic significance. It means that the language of science - no matter how it evolved, no matter how transvested in diverse linguistic garments - is basically and originally occidental.</p> <p><b>Totevia, le sublinear del origines occidental del scientias - <i>ex occidente scientiae</i> - non debe inducer nos a facer le pretension absurde que le scientias son un prerogativa occidental. Al contrario, le preoccupation del scientia e del technologia con le factos objective los ha insertate con rapiditate e facilitate stupefacente in le communitates cultural le plus diverse in tote partes del mundo. Isto es le causa de que le contributiones a progressos ulterior in tote le campos subordinate de scientia e de technologia son facite in un numero de linguas semper crescente.</b></p> <p>However, to emphasize the occidental origins of the sciences - <i>ex occidente scientiae</i> - cannot mislead us to the absurd claim that the sciences are an occidental prerogative. On the contrary, the objective factualism of science and technology has grafted them, with amazing speed and ease into the most diverse cultural continuities in all parts of the world. Hence the event that contributions to further advances in all the subfields of science and technology are being made in the ever increasing number of languages.</p> <p><b>Nos debe manear iste situation, que non es solo un question de prediction, proque nos sta al limine de illo. Nos lo dominara per le dynamica del economia libere. Nos debe dar nos intense- e anque extensemente al studio de linguas. Il habera necessitate de un grande augmento de traductiones, si grande que le machinas traductori non potera facer toto sin le auxilio de semper plus numerose traductores human specialisate e experte.</b></p> <p>We shall have to cope with this situation which is not just a matter of prediction, for it is at hand. We shall cope with it in the dynamics of a free market. We shall have to do more language learning, and not only more, we shall have to make it more diverse. There will have to be more translation, tremendously more, too much more for machines to handle without the help of ever increasing numbers of specialized and expert human translators.</p> <p><b>Mais io mantene que in tote evolution anticipate del lingua del scientia, su substrato linguistic occidental va certo remaner essential e vital.</b></p> <p>But I hold that in all anticipated evolution of the language of science its occidental linguistic substratum is bound to remain essential and vital.</p> <hr> <h2><b>5.</b></h2> <p><b>Mesmo si on non accepta tote le theorias linguistic de Benjamin Lee Whorf, on pote, con ille, reguardar le linguas occidental - <i>sub specie latinitatis</i> - como variantes de un norma commun. Le consequentia de isto es le concepto de un "lingua ponte". Si on prende alicun gruppo de linguas proxime de parentela on pote, sin violentia o artificio excessive, reducer los a un norma commun in le qual on pote transmitter un message toto efficacemente a parlatores de cata uno del linguas contribuente sin haber initiate les in illo. Interlingua es un lingua ponte pan-occidental. In illo, on pote transmitter messages, con efficacia adequate, a ille personas qui, sia per accidente, sia per nascentia, sia per le election de education, sape ben (o quasi) uno del linguas major in le orbita latin.</b></p> <p>With or without Whorf it is possible to regard the occidental languages - <i>sub specie latinitatis</i> - as variants of a common norm. This has led to the concept of a “bridge language”. Take any group of closely related languages and you can - without undue artifice or violence - reduce them to a common norm in which a message can be transmitted quite effectively to speakers of each and every one of the contributing languages without prior initiation. Interlingua is a pan-occidental bridge 1anguage. In it messages can be transmitted with adequate effectiveness to those who by accident or birth or by choice of education know well (or fairly well) one of the major languages in the Latin orbit.</p> <p><b>Io mantene que iste facto assigna a interlingua un function utile in communicationes scientific in tote le mundo. Io assere, definitivemente, que illo non es candidato pro le rolo - sia gloriose, sia ingloriose - de un lingua commun pro tote le humanitate. Illo non es un substituto pro le apprension de linguas estranie, ni un competitor de traductiones. Illo es un lingua ponte que pote servir pro adressar informationes a un auditorio o circulo de lectores heteropolyglotte.</b></p> <p>I hold that this assigns to Interlingua a useful function in scientific communication anywhere in the world. Once and for all, it is no candidate for the role - glorious or inglorious - of one common language for all mankind. It is no substitute for language learning and no competitor of translation. It is a bridge language to be used in addressing a heteropolyglot audience or readership.</p> <hr> 964 70 2005-04-17T14:25:35Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"><tr><td><strong> The Selfish Giant VERY afternoon, as they were coming from school, the children used to go and play in the Giant's garden. It was a large lovely garden, with soft green grass. Here and there over the grass stood beautiful flowers like stars, and there were twelve peach-trees that in the spring-time broke out into delicate blossoms of pink and pearl, and in the autumn bore rich fruit. The birds sat on the trees and sang so sweetly that the children used to stop their games in order to listen to them. "How happy we are here!" they cried to each other. One day the Giant came back. He had been to visit his friend the Cornish ogre, and had stayed with him for seven years. After the seven years were over he had said all that he had to say, for his conversation was limited, and he determined to return to his own castle. When he arrived he saw the children playing in the garden. "What are you doing here?" he cried in a very gruff voice, and the children ran away. "My own garden is my own garden," said the Giant; "any one can understand that, and I will allow nobody to play in it but myself." So he built a high wall all round it, and put up a notice-board. TRESPASSERS WILL BE PROSECUTED He was a very selfish Giant. The poor children had now nowhere to play. They tried to play on the road, but the road was very dusty and full of hard stones, and they did not like it. They used to wander round the high wall when their lessons were over, and talk about the beautiful garden inside. "How happy we were there," they said to each other. Then the Spring came, and all over the country there were little blossoms and little birds. Only in the garden of the Selfish Giant it was still winter. The birds did not care to sing in it as there were no children, and the trees forgot to blossom. Once a beautiful flower put its head out from the grass, but when it saw the notice-board it was so sorry for the children that it slipped back into the ground again, and went off to sleep. The only people who were pleased were the Snow and the Frost. "Spring has forgotten this garden," they cried, "so we will live here all the year round." The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. "This is a delightful spot," he said, "we must ask the Hail on a visit." So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. "I cannot understand why the Spring is so late in coming," said the Selfish Giant, as he sat at the window and looked out at his cold white garden; "I hope there will be a change in the weather." But the Spring never came, nor the Summer. The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant's garden she gave none. "He is too selfish," she said. So it was always Winter there, and the North Wind, and the Hail, and the Frost, and the Snow danced about through the trees. One morning the Giant was lying awake in bed when he heard some lovely music. It sounded so sweet to his ears that he thought it must be the King's musicians passing by. It was really only a little linnet singing outside his window, but it was so long since he had heard a bird sing in his garden that it seemed to him to be the most beautiful music in the world. Then the Hail stopped dancing over his head, and the North Wind ceased roaring, and a delicious perfume came to him through the open casement. "I believe the Spring has come at last," said the Giant; and he jumped out of bed and looked out. What did he see? He saw a most wonderful sight. Through a little hole in the wall the children had crept in, and they were sitting in the branches of the trees. In every tree that he could see there was a little child. And the trees were so glad to have the children back again that they had covered themselves with blossoms, and were waving their arms gently above the children's heads. The birds were flying about and twittering with delight, and the flowers were looking up through the green grass and laughing. It was a lovely scene, only in one corner it was still winter. It was the farthest corner of the garden, and in it was standing a little boy. He was so small that he could not reach up to the branches of the tree, and he was wandering all round it, crying bitterly. The poor tree was still quite covered with frost and snow, and the North Wind was blowing and roaring above it. "Climb up! little boy," said the Tree, and it bent its branches down as low as it could; but the boy was too tiny. ¡" Suba! el niño, " dijo el Árbol, y ello se inclinó sus ramas tan bajo como esto podría; pero el muchacho era demasiado diminuto. And the Giant's heart melted as he looked out. "How selfish I have been!" he said; "now I know why the Spring would not come here. I will put that poor little boy on the top of the tree, and then I will knock down the wall, and my garden shall be the children's playground for ever and ever." He was really very sorry for what he had done. So he crept downstairs and opened the front door quite softly, and went out into the garden. But when the children saw him they were so frightened that they all ran away, and the garden became winter again. Only the little boy did not run, for his eyes were so full of tears that he did not see the Giant coming. And the Giant stole up behind him and took him gently in his hand, and put him up into the tree. And the tree broke at once into blossom, and the birds came and sang on it, and the little boy stretched out his two arms and flung them round the Giant's neck, and kissed him. And the other children, when they saw that the Giant was not wicked any longer, came running back, and with them came the Spring. "It is your garden now, little children," said the Giant, and he took a great axe and knocked down the wall. And when the people were going to market at twelve o'clock they found the Giant playing with the children in the most beautiful garden they had ever seen. All day long they played, and in the evening they came to the Giant to bid him good-bye. "But where is your little companion?" he said: "the boy I put into the tree." The Giant loved him the best because he had kissed him. "We don't know," answered the children; "he has gone away." "You must tell him to be sure and come here tomorrow," said the Giant. But the children said that they did not know where he lived, and had never seen him before; and the Giant felt very sad. Every afternoon, when school was over, the children came and played with the Giant. But the little boy whom the Giant loved was never seen again. The Giant was very kind to all the children, yet he longed for his first little friend, and often spoke of him. "How I would like to see him!" he used to say. Years went over, and the Giant grew very old and feeble. He could not play about any more, so he sat in a huge armchair, and watched the children at their games, and admired his garden. "I have many beautiful flowers," he said; "but the children are the most beautiful flowers of all." One winter morning he looked out of his window as he was dressing. He did not hate the Winter now, for he knew that it was merely the Spring asleep, and that the flowers were resting. Suddenly he rubbed his eyes in wonder, and looked and looked. It certainly was a marvellous sight. In the farthest corner of the garden was a tree quite covered with lovely white blossoms. Its branches were all golden, and silver fruit hung down from them, and underneath it stood the little boy he had loved. Downstairs ran the Giant in great joy, and out into the garden. He hastened across the grass, and came near to the child. And when he came quite close his face grew red with anger, and he said, "Who hath dared to wound thee?" For on the palms of the child's hands were the prints of two nails, and the prints of two nails were on the little feet. "Who hath dared to wound thee?" cried the Giant; "tell me, that I may take my big sword and slay him." "Nay!" answered the child; "but these are the wounds of Love." "Who art thou?" said the Giant, and a strange awe fell on him, and he knelt before the little child. And the child smiled on the Giant, and said to him, "You let me play once in your garden, today you shall come with me to my garden, which is Paradise." And when the children ran in that afternoon, they found the Giant lying dead under the tree, all covered with white blossoms. </strong></td><td><strong> Le gigante egoistic [Conto. Texto complete] Oscar Wilde Cata vespere, al sortita del schola, les infantes vadeva a jocar al jardin del Gigante. Esseva un jardin grande e belle, con arbustos de flores e coperite de herba verde e suave. Per hic e per ibi, intre le herba, se aperiva flores luminose como strellas, e habeva dece-duo albaricochieros que durante le Primavera se coperiva con delicate flores color rosa e nacre, et al arrivar le autumno se plenava de ric fructos pruinose. Le aves restava in le branca del arbores, e cantava con tan dulcor que le infantes habeva le habitude de stoppar de jocar pro ascultar lor trillos. -¡Que felice nos es hic! -se diceva un a alteres. Sed un die le gigante regresava. Ille habeva vadite de visitar ubi su amico le Ogro de Cornish, et habeva restate con ille durante le ultime septe annos. Durante iste tempore illes jam se habeva dicite omne lo que illos habeva a dicer se, nam su conversation esseva limitate, e le Gigante sentiva le desiro de revenir a su proprie castello. Quando ille arrivava, lo primo que videva esseva le infantes jocante in le jardin. -¿Que vos face hic? –diceva con voce resonante, e le infantes pavorose sortiva currente. -“Iste jardin es mie. Es mi jardin private” –diceva le Gigante-; “toto le mundo debe comprender illo, e non permittera que nemo jocar hic excepte ego”. E, de immediate, construeva un multo alte muro circum, et in le porta collocava un annuncio que diceva: ENTRATA STRICTEMENTE PROHIBITE INTRUSOS SERA PROSEQUITE Esseva un Gigante multo egoistic. Le povres infantes nunc non habeva loco ubi jocar. Ille tentava de jocar in le strata, sed esseva plen de pulvere e petras et illos non amava. Sovente illes deambulava circa del muro quando illos habeva finite lor lectiones e parlava sur le belle jardin e rememorava “Quam felice nos esseva ibi” Se diceva le un al altere. Quando le Primavera retornava, omne le village se populava de aves e flores. Solmente, le jardin del Gigante Egoistic remaneva in hiberno.Como non habeva infantes, le aves non voleva cantar in ille, e le arbores oblidava florescer. Sol un vice un bellissime flor apparer inter le herba, mais quando ille videva le annuncio, se sentiva tan triste per le infantes que volveva a mitter se sub terra e volveva a dormir. Le unic que ibi esseva a gusto esseva le neve e le gelo. “Le Primavera ha oblidate iste jardin” –critava illes-, “Tunc nos vivira hic toto le anno”. Le Neve coperiva le terra con su grande copertura albe e le gelo coperiva de argento le arbores.Deinde illes invitava al vento del nord a restar con illes, e ille veni. Ille arrivava inveloppate in pelle, e ille rugiva omne le die sur le jardin, e su sufflo faceva cader le capelleto del camino. “¡Que loco plus incantator!” –ille diceva, Nos debe decir le al Grandine que veni a esser con nos. “Tunc le grandine tamben veniva”. Cata die durante tres horas ille strepitava in le tecto del castello, usque que rumpe le malior parte del ardesias. Postea ille curreva circum del jardin lo plus celere que ille poteva. Ille se vestite in grey e su halito era como le glacie. “No pote comprender per que le Primavera tarda tanto in arrivar hic –diceva le Gigante Egoistic, quando regardava al fenestra e videva su jardin frigide e blanc; “io spere que tosto le tempore cambiara. Sed le Primavera nunquam arrivava, ni adhuc le Estate. Le autumno donava fructos aurate in tote le jardines, mais al jardin del Gigante non donava nihil. “Ille esseva assatis egoistic –diceva ille. Assi, le jardin del Gigante restava semper submergite in le hiberno, e le vento del nord, e le grandine, e le gelo, e le nive dansava inter le arbores. Un matino, le Gigante jaceva evaliate in le lecto quando ille audiva un music multo belle desde foras. Sonava tan dulce in lor aures, que pensava debe ser le musicos del rege que passava. In realitate, era sol un carduele que esseva cantante fronte a su fenestra, ma faceva tanto tempore que le Gigante non ascoltava trillar un ave in su jardin, que le semblava audir le music plus belle del mundo. Alora le Grandine stoppa su dansa, e le vento del Nord lassava de rugir et un perfumo deliciose veniva a ille per inter le persianas aperite. " Io crede que le Primavera al fin ha venite, " diceva le Gigante; e saltava del lecto e reguardava foras. ¿E que es lo que ille videva? Fronte lor oculos habeva un spectaculo meraviliose. Per medio de un parve brecha in el muro le infantes habeva entrate, sin ser appercipite, et illos se sedeva in le branca del arbores. In cata arbore habeva un parve infante, e le arbores esseva tan felice de tener le infantes de retorno, que illos se habeva coperite de flores, e balanciava suavemente lor brancas supra le capitas del infantes. Le aves volava cantante circa de illos e pipava de placer, e le flores levava le vista inter le herba verde e rideva. Iste era realmente un scena multo belle, sol in un angulo remaneva le hiberno. Era le angulo plus longitan del jardin et in ille se incontrava un parve infante. Sed era tan parvo que ille non obteneva attinge le brancas del arbore, e le infante tornava circum del trunco plorante con amaritude. Le povre arbore esseva totevia completemente coperite de gelo e neve, e le vento del nord sufflava e rugiva sur ille. -¡Monta parve infante! –diceva le arbore, inclinante lor brancas tan basse como iste poteva. Sed le infante esseva parvissime. Le Gigante sentiva su cordo funder se. -¡Quam egoista he essite! -exclamava-. “Nunc io sape per que le Primavera non voleva venir hic. Montara a isse parve infante al arbore e postea va a abatter le muro. E mi jardin sera pro semper un loco de jocos pro infantes. Ille esseva realmente repentete per illo que habeva facite. Alora ille descende le scala, et aperiva cautamente le porta del domo, et entrava in le jardin. Sed quando le infantes lo videva illes esseva tan espaventate que omne fugiva, e al jardin retornava le hiberno de nove. Sol aquelle parve infante non fugiva, per que lor oculos esseva tan plen de lacrimas que ille non videva vanir al Gigante. Tunc le Gigante se approxima detra de ille e lo prendeva con delicatessa inter su manos, e lo montava al arbore. E le arbore floresceva subitemente, e le aves veniva a cantar in su brancas, e le infante extende le bracios e imbracia le collo del Gigante e lo basia. E le infantes, quando videva que le Gigante jam non esseva mal, reveniva currente, e con illes retornava le Primavera al jardín. -“Desde ora le jardin sera pro vos parve infantes”, e ille prendeva un grande hacha e abatte le muro. E quando le gente vadeva al mercato al mediedie omne poteva vider al Gigante jocante con le infantes in le jardin plus belle que jammais habeva videte. Illes jocava, omne le die, e per le vespere illes vadeva a dicer adeo al Gigante. -¿Sed ubi es le plus parve ? –questionava le Gigante-, ¿isse infante que io montava al arbore . “Le Gigante lo amava plus que le alteres, perque ille le habeva donate un basio. -Nos non sape diceva le infantes-, respondeva le infantes. Ille ha partite. -“Vos debe dicer le que retorna deman” – diceva le Gigante. Sed le infantes respondeva que illes non cognoceva ubi viveva , e que nunquam lo habava videte ante. E le Gigante se sentiva multo triste. Tote le vesperes, quando le infantes sortiva del schola vadeva a jocar con le Gigante Sed le infante plus parve, isse que le Gigante plus amava, jammais esseva viedete de nove. Le Gigante era multo amabile con tote le infantes sed regrettava a su prime amichetto, e sovente parlava de ille. -¡Como amarea poter revider lo! –diceva usualmente. Passava le annos, e le Gigante deveniva vetule e debile . Ille jam non poteva tocar plus, sed sedite in un grande chaise, videva tocar al infantes e admirava su jardin. -“Io habe multe belle flores -se deceva”-, Sed le infantes es le flores plus belle de omne. Un matino de hiberno, ille reguarda a traverso del fenestra donec ille se vestiva. Ille jam non odiava le hiberno nam sapeva que le hiberno esseva simplemente le Primavera dormite , e que le flores se reposava. Subito ille frictiona sue oculos meraviliate, e reguarda, reguarda. Illo era realmente un meravilia lo que esseva vidente. In le angulo plus longitan del jardin habeva un arbore coperite de belle flores blanc. Omne lor brancas esseva aurate, e de illes pendeva fructos de argento. Infra de illes esseva le parve infante que ille tanto habeva amate. Plen de allegresa , le Gigante bassava currente le scalas et entra in le jardin. Ille se hastava trans le herba, e veniva juxta del infante. Sed quando ille se approcha del infante su facie se rubiface de ira, e diceva, “¿Qui ha ausate facer te damno?” Namque le infante habeva marca de clavos in le palma del manos e le pedes -“¿Sed qui ha osate facerte damno?” crita le Gigante; “dice me lo, que io pote prender mi spada et occider lo”. -¡Non ! –respondeva le infante-. “Istes son le feritas del Amor”. -¿Qui es tu, mi parve infante? –diceva le Gigante, et un estranie timor lo invadeva, e caudeva de genu ante le parve infante Tunc le infante rideva e le diceva al Gigante -Un vice vos me lassava jocar in tu jardin; hodie vos venira con me a mi jardin, que es le Paradiso. E quando le infantes arrivava isse vespere, Illes incontrava al Gigante que jaceva morte infra del arbore, e su corpore esseva totalmente coperite de flores blanc. </strong></td></tr><tr><td><p> </table> 91 2005-04-17T14:45:00Z Josu Lavin 2 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong>The Selfish Giant </strong></td><td><strong> Le gigante egoistic [Conto. Texto complete] Oscar Wilde </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p>VERY afternoon, as they were coming from school, the children used to go and play in the Giant's garden. It was a large lovely garden, with soft green grass. Here and there over the grass stood beautiful flowers like stars, and there were twelve peach-trees that in the spring-time broke out into delicate blossoms of pink and pearl, and in the autumn bore rich fruit. The birds sat on the trees and sang so sweetly that the children used to stop their games in order to listen to them. "How happy we are here!" they cried to each other. One day the Giant came back. He had been to visit his friend the Cornish ogre, and had stayed with him for seven years. After the seven years were over he had said all that he had to say, for his conversation was limited, and he determined to return to his own castle. When he arrived he saw the children playing in the garden. "What are you doing here?" he cried in a very gruff voice, and the children ran away. "My own garden is my own garden," said the Giant; "any one can understand that, and I will allow nobody to play in it but myself." So he built a high wall all round it, and put up a notice-board. TRESPASSERS WILL BE PROSECUTED He was a very selfish Giant. The poor children had now nowhere to play. They tried to play on the road, but the road was very dusty and full of hard stones, and they did not like it. They used to wander round the high wall when their lessons were over, and talk about the beautiful garden inside. "How happy we were there," they said to each other. Then the Spring came, and all over the country there were little blossoms and little birds. Only in the garden of the Selfish Giant it was still winter. The birds did not care to sing in it as there were no children, and the trees forgot to blossom. Once a beautiful flower put its head out from the grass, but when it saw the notice-board it was so sorry for the children that it slipped back into the ground again, and went off to sleep. The only people who were pleased were the Snow and the Frost. "Spring has forgotten this garden," they cried, "so we will live here all the year round." The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. "This is a delightful spot," he said, "we must ask the Hail on a visit." So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. "I cannot understand why the Spring is so late in coming," said the Selfish Giant, as he sat at the window and looked out at his cold white garden; "I hope there will be a change in the weather." But the Spring never came, nor the Summer. The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant's garden she gave none. "He is too selfish," she said. So it was always Winter there, and the North Wind, and the Hail, and the Frost, and the Snow danced about through the trees. One morning the Giant was lying awake in bed when he heard some lovely music. It sounded so sweet to his ears that he thought it must be the King's musicians passing by. It was really only a little linnet singing outside his window, but it was so long since he had heard a bird sing in his garden that it seemed to him to be the most beautiful music in the world. Then the Hail stopped dancing over his head, and the North Wind ceased roaring, and a delicious perfume came to him through the open casement. "I believe the Spring has come at last," said the Giant; and he jumped out of bed and looked out. What did he see? He saw a most wonderful sight. Through a little hole in the wall the children had crept in, and they were sitting in the branches of the trees. In every tree that he could see there was a little child. And the trees were so glad to have the children back again that they had covered themselves with blossoms, and were waving their arms gently above the children's heads. The birds were flying about and twittering with delight, and the flowers were looking up through the green grass and laughing. It was a lovely scene, only in one corner it was still winter. It was the farthest corner of the garden, and in it was standing a little boy. He was so small that he could not reach up to the branches of the tree, and he was wandering all round it, crying bitterly. The poor tree was still quite covered with frost and snow, and the North Wind was blowing and roaring above it. "Climb up! little boy," said the Tree, and it bent its branches down as low as it could; but the boy was too tiny. ¡" Suba! el niño, " dijo el Árbol, y ello se inclinó sus ramas tan bajo como esto podría; pero el muchacho era demasiado diminuto. And the Giant's heart melted as he looked out. "How selfish I have been!" he said; "now I know why the Spring would not come here. I will put that poor little boy on the top of the tree, and then I will knock down the wall, and my garden shall be the children's playground for ever and ever." He was really very sorry for what he had done. So he crept downstairs and opened the front door quite softly, and went out into the garden. But when the children saw him they were so frightened that they all ran away, and the garden became winter again. Only the little boy did not run, for his eyes were so full of tears that he did not see the Giant coming. And the Giant stole up behind him and took him gently in his hand, and put him up into the tree. And the tree broke at once into blossom, and the birds came and sang on it, and the little boy stretched out his two arms and flung them round the Giant's neck, and kissed him. And the other children, when they saw that the Giant was not wicked any longer, came running back, and with them came the Spring. "It is your garden now, little children," said the Giant, and he took a great axe and knocked down the wall. And when the people were going to market at twelve o'clock they found the Giant playing with the children in the most beautiful garden they had ever seen. All day long they played, and in the evening they came to the Giant to bid him good-bye. "But where is your little companion?" he said: "the boy I put into the tree." The Giant loved him the best because he had kissed him. "We don't know," answered the children; "he has gone away." "You must tell him to be sure and come here tomorrow," said the Giant. But the children said that they did not know where he lived, and had never seen him before; and the Giant felt very sad. Every afternoon, when school was over, the children came and played with the Giant. But the little boy whom the Giant loved was never seen again. The Giant was very kind to all the children, yet he longed for his first little friend, and often spoke of him. "How I would like to see him!" he used to say. Years went over, and the Giant grew very old and feeble. He could not play about any more, so he sat in a huge armchair, and watched the children at their games, and admired his garden. "I have many beautiful flowers," he said; "but the children are the most beautiful flowers of all." One winter morning he looked out of his window as he was dressing. He did not hate the Winter now, for he knew that it was merely the Spring asleep, and that the flowers were resting. Suddenly he rubbed his eyes in wonder, and looked and looked. It certainly was a marvellous sight. In the farthest corner of the garden was a tree quite covered with lovely white blossoms. Its branches were all golden, and silver fruit hung down from them, and underneath it stood the little boy he had loved. Downstairs ran the Giant in great joy, and out into the garden. He hastened across the grass, and came near to the child. And when he came quite close his face grew red with anger, and he said, "Who hath dared to wound thee?" For on the palms of the child's hands were the prints of two nails, and the prints of two nails were on the little feet. "Who hath dared to wound thee?" cried the Giant; "tell me, that I may take my big sword and slay him." "Nay!" answered the child; "but these are the wounds of Love." "Who art thou?" said the Giant, and a strange awe fell on him, and he knelt before the little child. And the child smiled on the Giant, and said to him, "You let me play once in your garden, today you shall come with me to my garden, which is Paradise." And when the children ran in that afternoon, they found the Giant lying dead under the tree, all covered with white blossoms. </p><p></p></td><td><p>Cata vespere, al sortita del schola, les infantes vadeva a jocar al jardin del Gigante. Esseva un jardin grande e belle, con arbustos de flores e coperite de herba verde e suave. Per hic e per ibi, intre le herba, se aperiva flores luminose como strellas, e habeva dece-duo albaricochieros que durante le Primavera se coperiva con delicate flores color rosa e nacre, et al arrivar le autumno se plenava de ric fructos pruinose. Le aves restava in le branca del arbores, e cantava con tan dulcor que le infantes habeva le habitude de stoppar de jocar pro ascultar lor trillos. -¡Que felice nos es hic! -se diceva un a alteres. Sed un die le gigante regresava. Ille habeva vadite de visitar ubi su amico le Ogro de Cornish, et habeva restate con ille durante le ultime septe annos. Durante iste tempore illes jam se habeva dicite omne lo que illos habeva a dicer se, nam su conversation esseva limitate, e le Gigante sentiva le desiro de revenir a su proprie castello. Quando ille arrivava, lo primo que videva esseva le infantes jocante in le jardin. -¿Que vos face hic? –diceva con voce resonante, e le infantes pavorose sortiva currente. -“Iste jardin es mie. Es mi jardin private” –diceva le Gigante-; “toto le mundo debe comprender illo, e non permittera que nemo jocar hic excepte ego”. E, de immediate, construeva un multo alte muro circum, et in le porta collocava un annuncio que diceva: ENTRATA STRICTEMENTE PROHIBITE INTRUSOS SERA PROSEQUITE Esseva un Gigante multo egoistic. Le povres infantes nunc non habeva loco ubi jocar. Ille tentava de jocar in le strata, sed esseva plen de pulvere e petras et illos non amava. Sovente illes deambulava circa del muro quando illos habeva finite lor lectiones e parlava sur le belle jardin e rememorava “Quam felice nos esseva ibi” Se diceva le un al altere. Quando le Primavera retornava, omne le village se populava de aves e flores. Solmente, le jardin del Gigante Egoistic remaneva in hiberno.Como non habeva infantes, le aves non voleva cantar in ille, e le arbores oblidava florescer. Sol un vice un bellissime flor apparer inter le herba, mais quando ille videva le annuncio, se sentiva tan triste per le infantes que volveva a mitter se sub terra e volveva a dormir. Le unic que ibi esseva a gusto esseva le neve e le gelo. “Le Primavera ha oblidate iste jardin” –critava illes-, “Tunc nos vivira hic toto le anno”. Le Neve coperiva le terra con su grande copertura albe e le gelo coperiva de argento le arbores.Deinde illes invitava al vento del nord a restar con illes, e ille veni. Ille arrivava inveloppate in pelle, e ille rugiva omne le die sur le jardin, e su sufflo faceva cader le capelleto del camino. “¡Que loco plus incantator!” –ille diceva, Nos debe decir le al Grandine que veni a esser con nos. “Tunc le grandine tamben veniva”. Cata die durante tres horas ille strepitava in le tecto del castello, usque que rumpe le malior parte del ardesias. Postea ille curreva circum del jardin lo plus celere que ille poteva. Ille se vestite in grey e su halito era como le glacie. “No pote comprender per que le Primavera tarda tanto in arrivar hic –diceva le Gigante Egoistic, quando regardava al fenestra e videva su jardin frigide e blanc; “io spere que tosto le tempore cambiara. Sed le Primavera nunquam arrivava, ni adhuc le Estate. Le autumno donava fructos aurate in tote le jardines, mais al jardin del Gigante non donava nihil. “Ille esseva assatis egoistic –diceva ille. Assi, le jardin del Gigante restava semper submergite in le hiberno, e le vento del nord, e le grandine, e le gelo, e le nive dansava inter le arbores. Un matino, le Gigante jaceva evaliate in le lecto quando ille audiva un music multo belle desde foras. Sonava tan dulce in lor aures, que pensava debe ser le musicos del rege que passava. In realitate, era sol un carduele que esseva cantante fronte a su fenestra, ma faceva tanto tempore que le Gigante non ascoltava trillar un ave in su jardin, que le semblava audir le music plus belle del mundo. Alora le Grandine stoppa su dansa, e le vento del Nord lassava de rugir et un perfumo deliciose veniva a ille per inter le persianas aperite. " Io crede que le Primavera al fin ha venite, " diceva le Gigante; e saltava del lecto e reguardava foras. ¿E que es lo que ille videva? Fronte lor oculos habeva un spectaculo meraviliose. Per medio de un parve brecha in el muro le infantes habeva entrate, sin ser appercipite, et illos se sedeva in le branca del arbores. In cata arbore habeva un parve infante, e le arbores esseva tan felice de tener le infantes de retorno, que illos se habeva coperite de flores, e balanciava suavemente lor brancas supra le capitas del infantes. Le aves volava cantante circa de illos e pipava de placer, e le flores levava le vista inter le herba verde e rideva. Iste era realmente un scena multo belle, sol in un angulo remaneva le hiberno. Era le angulo plus longitan del jardin et in ille se incontrava un parve infante. Sed era tan parvo que ille non obteneva attinge le brancas del arbore, e le infante tornava circum del trunco plorante con amaritude. Le povre arbore esseva totevia completemente coperite de gelo e neve, e le vento del nord sufflava e rugiva sur ille. -¡Monta parve infante! –diceva le arbore, inclinante lor brancas tan basse como iste poteva. Sed le infante esseva parvissime. Le Gigante sentiva su cordo funder se. -¡Quam egoista he essite! -exclamava-. “Nunc io sape per que le Primavera non voleva venir hic. Montara a isse parve infante al arbore e postea va a abatter le muro. E mi jardin sera pro semper un loco de jocos pro infantes. Ille esseva realmente repentete per illo que habeva facite. Alora ille descende le scala, et aperiva cautamente le porta del domo, et entrava in le jardin. Sed quando le infantes lo videva illes esseva tan espaventate que omne fugiva, e al jardin retornava le hiberno de nove. Sol aquelle parve infante non fugiva, per que lor oculos esseva tan plen de lacrimas que ille non videva vanir al Gigante. Tunc le Gigante se approxima detra de ille e lo prendeva con delicatessa inter su manos, e lo montava al arbore. E le arbore floresceva subitemente, e le aves veniva a cantar in su brancas, e le infante extende le bracios e imbracia le collo del Gigante e lo basia. E le infantes, quando videva que le Gigante jam non esseva mal, reveniva currente, e con illes retornava le Primavera al jardín. -“Desde ora le jardin sera pro vos parve infantes”, e ille prendeva un grande hacha e abatte le muro. E quando le gente vadeva al mercato al mediedie omne poteva vider al Gigante jocante con le infantes in le jardin plus belle que jammais habeva videte. Illes jocava, omne le die, e per le vespere illes vadeva a dicer adeo al Gigante. -¿Sed ubi es le plus parve ? –questionava le Gigante-, ¿isse infante que io montava al arbore . “Le Gigante lo amava plus que le alteres, perque ille le habeva donate un basio. -Nos non sape diceva le infantes-, respondeva le infantes. Ille ha partite. -“Vos debe dicer le que retorna deman” – diceva le Gigante. Sed le infantes respondeva que illes non cognoceva ubi viveva , e que nunquam lo habava videte ante. E le Gigante se sentiva multo triste. Tote le vesperes, quando le infantes sortiva del schola vadeva a jocar con le Gigante Sed le infante plus parve, isse que le Gigante plus amava, jammais esseva viedete de nove. Le Gigante era multo amabile con tote le infantes sed regrettava a su prime amichetto, e sovente parlava de ille. -¡Como amarea poter revider lo! –diceva usualmente. Passava le annos, e le Gigante deveniva vetule e debile . Ille jam non poteva tocar plus, sed sedite in un grande chaise, videva tocar al infantes e admirava su jardin. -“Io habe multe belle flores -se deceva”-, Sed le infantes es le flores plus belle de omne. Un matino de hiberno, ille reguarda a traverso del fenestra donec ille se vestiva. Ille jam non odiava le hiberno nam sapeva que le hiberno esseva simplemente le Primavera dormite , e que le flores se reposava. Subito ille frictiona sue oculos meraviliate, e reguarda, reguarda. Illo era realmente un meravilia lo que esseva vidente. In le angulo plus longitan del jardin habeva un arbore coperite de belle flores blanc. Omne lor brancas esseva aurate, e de illes pendeva fructos de argento. Infra de illes esseva le parve infante que ille tanto habeva amate. Plen de allegresa , le Gigante bassava currente le scalas et entra in le jardin. Ille se hastava trans le herba, e veniva juxta del infante. Sed quando ille se approcha del infante su facie se rubiface de ira, e diceva, “¿Qui ha ausate facer te damno?” Namque le infante habeva marca de clavos in le palma del manos e le pedes -“¿Sed qui ha osate facerte damno?” crita le Gigante; “dice me lo, que io pote prender mi spada et occider lo”. -¡Non ! –respondeva le infante-. “Istes son le feritas del Amor”. -¿Qui es tu, mi parve infante? –diceva le Gigante, et un estranie timor lo invadeva, e caudeva de genu ante le parve infante Tunc le infante rideva e le diceva al Gigante -Un vice vos me lassava jocar in tu jardin; hodie vos venira con me a mi jardin, que es le Paradiso. E quando le infantes arrivava isse vespere, Illes incontrava al Gigante que jaceva morte infra del arbore, e su corpore esseva totalmente coperite de flores blanc. </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 92 2005-04-19T20:13:07Z 83.195.187.112 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong>The Selfish Giant </strong></td><td><strong> Le gigante egoistic [Conto. Texto complete] Oscar Wilde </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p> VERY afternoon, as they were coming from school, the children used to go and play in the Giant's garden. It was a large lovely garden, with soft green grass. Here and there over the grass stood beautiful flowers like stars, and there were twelve peach-trees that in the spring-time broke out into delicate blossoms of pink and pearl, and in the autumn bore rich fruit. The birds sat on the trees and sang so sweetly that the children used to stop their games in order to listen to them. "How happy we are here!" they cried to each other. One day the Giant came back. He had been to visit his friend the Cornish ogre, and had stayed with him for seven years. After the seven years were over he had said all that he had to say, for his conversation was limited, and he determined to return to his own castle. When he arrived he saw the children playing in the garden. "What are you doing here?" he cried in a very gruff voice, and the children ran away. "My own garden is my own garden," said the Giant; "any one can understand that, and I will allow nobody to play in it but myself." So he built a high wall all round it, and put up a notice-board. TRESPASSERS WILL BE PROSECUTED He was a very selfish Giant. The poor children had now nowhere to play. They tried to play on the road, but the road was very dusty and full of hard stones, and they did not like it. They used to wander round the high wall when their lessons were over, and talk about the beautiful garden inside. "How happy we were there," they said to each other. Then the Spring came, and all over the country there were little blossoms and little birds. Only in the garden of the Selfish Giant it was still winter. The birds did not care to sing in it as there were no children, and the trees forgot to blossom. Once a beautiful flower put its head out from the grass, but when it saw the notice-board it was so sorry for the children that it slipped back into the ground again, and went off to sleep. The only people who were pleased were the Snow and the Frost. "Spring has forgotten this garden," they cried, "so we will live here all the year round." The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. "This is a delightful spot," he said, "we must ask the Hail on a visit." So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. "I cannot understand why the Spring is so late in coming," said the Selfish Giant, as he sat at the window and looked out at his cold white garden; "I hope there will be a change in the weather." But the Spring never came, nor the Summer. The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant's garden she gave none. "He is too selfish," she said. So it was always Winter there, and the North Wind, and the Hail, and the Frost, and the Snow danced about through the trees. One morning the Giant was lying awake in bed when he heard some lovely music. It sounded so sweet to his ears that he thought it must be the King's musicians passing by. It was really only a little linnet singing outside his window, but it was so long since he had heard a bird sing in his garden that it seemed to him to be the most beautiful music in the world. Then the Hail stopped dancing over his head, and the North Wind ceased roaring, and a delicious perfume came to him through the open casement. "I believe the Spring has come at last," said the Giant; and he jumped out of bed and looked out. What did he see? He saw a most wonderful sight. Through a little hole in the wall the children had crept in, and they were sitting in the branches of the trees. In every tree that he could see there was a little child. And the trees were so glad to have the children back again that they had covered themselves with blossoms, and were waving their arms gently above the children's heads. The birds were flying about and twittering with delight, and the flowers were looking up through the green grass and laughing. It was a lovely scene, only in one corner it was still winter. It was the farthest corner of the garden, and in it was standing a little boy. He was so small that he could not reach up to the branches of the tree, and he was wandering all round it, crying bitterly. The poor tree was still quite covered with frost and snow, and the North Wind was blowing and roaring above it. "Climb up! little boy," said the Tree, and it bent its branches down as low as it could; but the boy was too tiny. ¡" Suba! el niño, " dijo el Árbol, y ello se inclinó sus ramas tan bajo como esto podría; pero el muchacho era demasiado diminuto. And the Giant's heart melted as he looked out. "How selfish I have been!" he said; "now I know why the Spring would not come here. I will put that poor little boy on the top of the tree, and then I will knock down the wall, and my garden shall be the children's playground for ever and ever." He was really very sorry for what he had done. So he crept downstairs and opened the front door quite softly, and went out into the garden. But when the children saw him they were so frightened that they all ran away, and the garden became winter again. Only the little boy did not run, for his eyes were so full of tears that he did not see the Giant coming. And the Giant stole up behind him and took him gently in his hand, and put him up into the tree. And the tree broke at once into blossom, and the birds came and sang on it, and the little boy stretched out his two arms and flung them round the Giant's neck, and kissed him. And the other children, when they saw that the Giant was not wicked any longer, came running back, and with them came the Spring. "It is your garden now, little children," said the Giant, and he took a great axe and knocked down the wall. And when the people were going to market at twelve o'clock they found the Giant playing with the children in the most beautiful garden they had ever seen. All day long they played, and in the evening they came to the Giant to bid him good-bye. "But where is your little companion?" he said: "the boy I put into the tree." The Giant loved him the best because he had kissed him. "We don't know," answered the children; "he has gone away." "You must tell him to be sure and come here tomorrow," said the Giant. But the children said that they did not know where he lived, and had never seen him before; and the Giant felt very sad. Every afternoon, when school was over, the children came and played with the Giant. But the little boy whom the Giant loved was never seen again. The Giant was very kind to all the children, yet he longed for his first little friend, and often spoke of him. "How I would like to see him!" he used to say. Years went over, and the Giant grew very old and feeble. He could not play about any more, so he sat in a huge armchair, and watched the children at their games, and admired his garden. "I have many beautiful flowers," he said; "but the children are the most beautiful flowers of all." One winter morning he looked out of his window as he was dressing. He did not hate the Winter now, for he knew that it was merely the Spring asleep, and that the flowers were resting. Suddenly he rubbed his eyes in wonder, and looked and looked. It certainly was a marvellous sight. In the farthest corner of the garden was a tree quite covered with lovely white blossoms. Its branches were all golden, and silver fruit hung down from them, and underneath it stood the little boy he had loved. Downstairs ran the Giant in great joy, and out into the garden. He hastened across the grass, and came near to the child. And when he came quite close his face grew red with anger, and he said, "Who hath dared to wound thee?" For on the palms of the child's hands were the prints of two nails, and the prints of two nails were on the little feet. "Who hath dared to wound thee?" cried the Giant; "tell me, that I may take my big sword and slay him." "Nay!" answered the child; "but these are the wounds of Love." "Who art thou?" said the Giant, and a strange awe fell on him, and he knelt before the little child. And the child smiled on the Giant, and said to him, "You let me play once in your garden, today you shall come with me to my garden, which is Paradise." And when the children ran in that afternoon, they found the Giant lying dead under the tree, all covered with white blossoms. </p><p></p></td><td><p> Cata vespere, al sortita del schola, les infantes vadeva a jocar al jardin del Gigante. Esseva un jardin grande e belle, con arbustos de flores e coperite de herba verde e suave. Per hic e per ibi, intre le herba, se aperiva flores luminose como strellas, e habeva dece-duo albaricochieros que durante le Primavera se coperiva con delicate flores color rosa e nacre, et al arrivar le autumno se plenava de ric fructos pruinose. Le aves restava in le branca del arbores, e cantava con tan dulcor que le infantes habeva le habitude de stoppar de jocar pro ascultar lor trillos. -¡Que felice nos es hic! -se diceva un a alteres. Sed un die le gigante regresava. Ille habeva vadite de visitar ubi su amico le Ogro de Cornish, et habeva restate con ille durante le ultime septe annos. Durante iste tempore illes jam se habeva dicite omne lo que illos habeva a dicer se, nam su conversation esseva limitate, e le Gigante sentiva le desiro de revenir a su proprie castello. Quando ille arrivava, lo primo que videva esseva le infantes jocante in le jardin. -¿Que vos face hic? –diceva con voce resonante, e le infantes pavorose sortiva currente. -“Iste jardin es mie. Es mi jardin private” –diceva le Gigante-; “toto le mundo debe comprender illo, e non permittera que nemo jocar hic excepte ego”. E, de immediate, construeva un multo alte muro circum, et in le porta collocava un annuncio que diceva: ENTRATA STRICTEMENTE PROHIBITE INTRUSOS SERA PROSEQUITE Esseva un Gigante multo egoistic. Le povres infantes nunc non habeva loco ubi jocar. Ille tentava de jocar in le strata, sed esseva plen de pulvere e petras et illos non amava. Sovente illes deambulava circa del muro quando illos habeva finite lor lectiones e parlava sur le belle jardin e rememorava “Quam felice nos esseva ibi” Se diceva le un al altere. Quando le Primavera retornava, omne le village se populava de aves e flores. Solmente, le jardin del Gigante Egoistic remaneva in hiberno.Como non habeva infantes, le aves non voleva cantar in ille, e le arbores oblidava florescer. Sol un vice un bellissime flor apparer inter le herba, mais quando ille videva le annuncio, se sentiva tan triste per le infantes que volveva a mitter se sub terra e volveva a dormir. Le unic que ibi esseva a gusto esseva le neve e le gelo. “Le Primavera ha oblidate iste jardin” –critava illes-, “Tunc nos vivira hic toto le anno”. Le Neve coperiva le terra con su grande copertura albe e le gelo coperiva de argento le arbores.Deinde illes invitava al vento del nord a restar con illes, e ille veni. Ille arrivava inveloppate in pelle, e ille rugiva omne le die sur le jardin, e su sufflo faceva cader le capelleto del camino. “¡Que loco plus incantator!” –ille diceva, Nos debe decir le al Grandine que veni a esser con nos. “Tunc le grandine tamben veniva”. Cata die durante tres horas ille strepitava in le tecto del castello, usque que rumpe le malior parte del ardesias. Postea ille curreva circum del jardin lo plus celere que ille poteva. Ille se vestite in grey e su halito era como le glacie. “No pote comprender per que le Primavera tarda tanto in arrivar hic –diceva le Gigante Egoistic, quando regardava al fenestra e videva su jardin frigide e blanc; “io spere que tosto le tempore cambiara. Sed le Primavera nunquam arrivava, ni adhuc le Estate. Le autumno donava fructos aurate in tote le jardines, mais al jardin del Gigante non donava nihil. “Ille esseva assatis egoistic –diceva ille. Assi, le jardin del Gigante restava semper submergite in le hiberno, e le vento del nord, e le grandine, e le gelo, e le nive dansava inter le arbores. Un matino, le Gigante jaceva evaliate in le lecto quando ille audiva un music multo belle desde foras. Sonava tan dulce in lor aures, que pensava debe ser le musicos del rege que passava. In realitate, era sol un carduele que esseva cantante fronte a su fenestra, ma faceva tanto tempore que le Gigante non ascoltava trillar un ave in su jardin, que le semblava audir le music plus belle del mundo. Alora le Grandine stoppa su dansa, e le vento del Nord lassava de rugir et un perfumo deliciose veniva a ille per inter le persianas aperite. " Io crede que le Primavera al fin ha venite, " diceva le Gigante; e saltava del lecto e reguardava foras. ¿E que es lo que ille videva? Fronte lor oculos habeva un spectaculo meraviliose. Per medio de un parve brecha in el muro le infantes habeva entrate, sin ser appercipite, et illos se sedeva in le branca del arbores. In cata arbore habeva un parve infante, e le arbores esseva tan felice de tener le infantes de retorno, que illos se habeva coperite de flores, e balanciava suavemente lor brancas supra le capitas del infantes. Le aves volava cantante circa de illos e pipava de placer, e le flores levava le vista inter le herba verde e rideva. Iste era realmente un scena multo belle, sol in un angulo remaneva le hiberno. Era le angulo plus longitan del jardin et in ille se incontrava un parve infante. Sed era tan parvo que ille non obteneva attinge le brancas del arbore, e le infante tornava circum del trunco plorante con amaritude. Le povre arbore esseva totevia completemente coperite de gelo e neve, e le vento del nord sufflava e rugiva sur ille. -¡Monta parve infante! –diceva le arbore, inclinante lor brancas tan basse como iste poteva. Sed le infante esseva parvissime. Le Gigante sentiva su cordo funder se. -¡Quam egoista he essite! -exclamava-. “Nunc io sape per que le Primavera non voleva venir hic. Montara a isse parve infante al arbore e postea va a abatter le muro. E mi jardin sera pro semper un loco de jocos pro infantes. Ille esseva realmente repentete per illo que habeva facite. Alora ille descende le scala, et aperiva cautamente le porta del domo, et entrava in le jardin. Sed quando le infantes lo videva illes esseva tan espaventate que omne fugiva, e al jardin retornava le hiberno de nove. Sol aquelle parve infante non fugiva, per que lor oculos esseva tan plen de lacrimas que ille non videva vanir al Gigante. Tunc le Gigante se approxima detra de ille e lo prendeva con delicatessa inter su manos, e lo montava al arbore. E le arbore floresceva subitemente, e le aves veniva a cantar in su brancas, e le infante extende le bracios e imbracia le collo del Gigante e lo basia. E le infantes, quando videva que le Gigante jam non esseva mal, reveniva currente, e con illes retornava le Primavera al jardín. -“Desde ora le jardin sera pro vos parve infantes”, e ille prendeva un grande hacha e abatte le muro. E quando le gente vadeva al mercato al mediedie omne poteva vider al Gigante jocante con le infantes in le jardin plus belle que jammais habeva videte. Illes jocava, omne le die, e per le vespere illes vadeva a dicer adeo al Gigante. -¿Sed ubi es le plus parve ? –questionava le Gigante-, ¿isse infante que io montava al arbore . “Le Gigante lo amava plus que le alteres, perque ille le habeva donate un basio. -Nos non sape diceva le infantes-, respondeva le infantes. Ille ha partite. -“Vos debe dicer le que retorna deman” – diceva le Gigante. Sed le infantes respondeva que illes non cognoceva ubi viveva , e que nunquam lo habava videte ante. E le Gigante se sentiva multo triste. Tote le vesperes, quando le infantes sortiva del schola vadeva a jocar con le Gigante Sed le infante plus parve, isse que le Gigante plus amava, jammais esseva viedete de nove. Le Gigante era multo amabile con tote le infantes sed regrettava a su prime amichetto, e sovente parlava de ille. -¡Como amarea poter revider lo! –diceva usualmente. Passava le annos, e le Gigante deveniva vetule e debile . Ille jam non poteva tocar plus, sed sedite in un grande chaise, videva tocar al infantes e admirava su jardin. -“Io habe multe belle flores -se deceva”-, Sed le infantes es le flores plus belle de omne. Un matino de hiberno, ille reguarda a traverso del fenestra donec ille se vestiva. Ille jam non odiava le hiberno nam sapeva que le hiberno esseva simplemente le Primavera dormite , e que le flores se reposava. Subito ille frictiona sue oculos meraviliate, e reguarda, reguarda. Illo era realmente un meravilia lo que esseva vidente. In le angulo plus longitan del jardin habeva un arbore coperite de belle flores blanc. Omne lor brancas esseva aurate, e de illes pendeva fructos de argento. Infra de illes esseva le parve infante que ille tanto habeva amate. Plen de allegresa , le Gigante bassava currente le scalas et entra in le jardin. Ille se hastava trans le herba, e veniva juxta del infante. Sed quando ille se approcha del infante su facie se rubiface de ira, e diceva, “¿Qui ha ausate facer te damno?” Namque le infante habeva marca de clavos in le palma del manos e le pedes -“¿Sed qui ha osate facerte damno?” crita le Gigante; “dice me lo, que io pote prender mi spada et occider lo”. -¡Non ! –respondeva le infante-. “Istes son le feritas del Amor”. -¿Qui es tu, mi parve infante? –diceva le Gigante, et un estranie timor lo invadeva, e caudeva de genu ante le parve infante Tunc le infante rideva e le diceva al Gigante -Un vice vos me lassava jocar in tu jardin; hodie vos venira con me a mi jardin, que es le Paradiso. E quando le infantes arrivava isse vespere, Illes incontrava al Gigante que jaceva morte infra del arbore, e su corpore esseva totalmente coperite de flores blanc. </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 93 2005-04-19T20:16:58Z 83.195.187.112 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong>The Selfish Giant </strong></td><td><strong> Le gigante egoistic [Conto. Texto complete] Oscar Wilde </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p> VERY afternoon, as they were coming from school, the children used to go and play in the Giant's garden. It was a large lovely garden, with soft green grass. Here and there over the grass stood beautiful flowers like stars, and there were twelve peach-trees that in the spring-time broke out into delicate blossoms of pink and pearl, and in the autumn bore rich fruit. The birds sat on the trees and sang so sweetly that the children used to stop their games in order to listen to them. "How happy we are here!" they cried to each other. One day the Giant came back. He had been to visit his friend the Cornish ogre, and had stayed with him for seven years. After the seven years were over he had said all that he had to say, for his conversation was limited, and he determined to return to his own castle. When he arrived he saw the children playing in the garden. "What are you doing here?" he cried in a very gruff voice, and the children ran away. "My own garden is my own garden," said the Giant; "any one can understand that, and I will allow nobody to play in it but myself." So he built a high wall all round it, and put up a notice-board. TRESPASSERS WILL BE PROSECUTED He was a very selfish Giant. The poor children had now nowhere to play. They tried to play on the road, but the road was very dusty and full of hard stones, and they did not like it. They used to wander round the high wall when their lessons were over, and talk about the beautiful garden inside. "How happy we were there," they said to each other. Then the Spring came, and all over the country there were little blossoms and little birds. Only in the garden of the Selfish Giant it was still winter. The birds did not care to sing in it as there were no children, and the trees forgot to blossom. Once a beautiful flower put its head out from the grass, but when it saw the notice-board it was so sorry for the children that it slipped back into the ground again, and went off to sleep. The only people who were pleased were the Snow and the Frost. "Spring has forgotten this garden," they cried, "so we will live here all the year round." The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. "This is a delightful spot," he said, "we must ask the Hail on a visit." So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. "I cannot understand why the Spring is so late in coming," said the Selfish Giant, as he sat at the window and looked out at his cold white garden; "I hope there will be a change in the weather." But the Spring never came, nor the Summer. The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant's garden she gave none. "He is too selfish," she said. So it was always Winter there, and the North Wind, and the Hail, and the Frost, and the Snow danced about through the trees. One morning the Giant was lying awake in bed when he heard some lovely music. It sounded so sweet to his ears that he thought it must be the King's musicians passing by. It was really only a little linnet singing outside his window, but it was so long since he had heard a bird sing in his garden that it seemed to him to be the most beautiful music in the world. Then the Hail stopped dancing over his head, and the North Wind ceased roaring, and a delicious perfume came to him through the open casement. "I believe the Spring has come at last," said the Giant; and he jumped out of bed and looked out. What did he see? He saw a most wonderful sight. Through a little hole in the wall the children had crept in, and they were sitting in the branches of the trees. In every tree that he could see there was a little child. And the trees were so glad to have the children back again that they had covered themselves with blossoms, and were waving their arms gently above the children's heads. The birds were flying about and twittering with delight, and the flowers were looking up through the green grass and laughing. It was a lovely scene, only in one corner it was still winter. It was the farthest corner of the garden, and in it was standing a little boy. He was so small that he could not reach up to the branches of the tree, and he was wandering all round it, crying bitterly. The poor tree was still quite covered with frost and snow, and the North Wind was blowing and roaring above it. "Climb up! little boy," said the Tree, and it bent its branches down as low as it could; but the boy was too tiny. ¡" Suba! el niño, " dijo el Árbol, y ello se inclinó sus ramas tan bajo como esto podría; pero el muchacho era demasiado diminuto. And the Giant's heart melted as he looked out. "How selfish I have been!" he said; "now I know why the Spring would not come here. I will put that poor little boy on the top of the tree, and then I will knock down the wall, and my garden shall be the children's playground for ever and ever." He was really very sorry for what he had done. So he crept downstairs and opened the front door quite softly, and went out into the garden. But when the children saw him they were so frightened that they all ran away, and the garden became winter again. Only the little boy did not run, for his eyes were so full of tears that he did not see the Giant coming. And the Giant stole up behind him and took him gently in his hand, and put him up into the tree. And the tree broke at once into blossom, and the birds came and sang on it, and the little boy stretched out his two arms and flung them round the Giant's neck, and kissed him. And the other children, when they saw that the Giant was not wicked any longer, came running back, and with them came the Spring. "It is your garden now, little children," said the Giant, and he took a great axe and knocked down the wall. And when the people were going to market at twelve o'clock they found the Giant playing with the children in the most beautiful garden they had ever seen. All day long they played, and in the evening they came to the Giant to bid him good-bye. "But where is your little companion?" he said: "the boy I put into the tree." The Giant loved him the best because he had kissed him. "We don't know," answered the children; "he has gone away." "You must tell him to be sure and come here tomorrow," said the Giant. But the children said that they did not know where he lived, and had never seen him before; and the Giant felt very sad. Every afternoon, when school was over, the children came and played with the Giant. But the little boy whom the Giant loved was never seen again. The Giant was very kind to all the children, yet he longed for his first little friend, and often spoke of him. "How I would like to see him!" he used to say. Years went over, and the Giant grew very old and feeble. He could not play about any more, so he sat in a huge armchair, and watched the children at their games, and admired his garden. "I have many beautiful flowers," he said; "but the children are the most beautiful flowers of all." One winter morning he looked out of his window as he was dressing. He did not hate the Winter now, for he knew that it was merely the Spring asleep, and that the flowers were resting. Suddenly he rubbed his eyes in wonder, and looked and looked. It certainly was a marvellous sight. In the farthest corner of the garden was a tree quite covered with lovely white blossoms. Its branches were all golden, and silver fruit hung down from them, and underneath it stood the little boy he had loved. Downstairs ran the Giant in great joy, and out into the garden. He hastened across the grass, and came near to the child. And when he came quite close his face grew red with anger, and he said, "Who hath dared to wound thee?" For on the palms of the child's hands were the prints of two nails, and the prints of two nails were on the little feet. "Who hath dared to wound thee?" cried the Giant; "tell me, that I may take my big sword and slay him." "Nay!" answered the child; "but these are the wounds of Love." "Who art thou?" said the Giant, and a strange awe fell on him, and he knelt before the little child. And the child smiled on the Giant, and said to him, "You let me play once in your garden, today you shall come with me to my garden, which is Paradise." And when the children ran in that afternoon, they found the Giant lying dead under the tree, all covered with white blossoms. </p><p></p></td><td><p> Cata vespere, al sortita del schola, les infantes vadeva a jocar al jardin del Gigante. Esseva un jardin grande e belle, con arbustos de flores e coperite de herba verde e suave. Per hic e per ibi, intre le herba, se aperiva flores luminose como strellas, e habeva dece-duo albaricochieros que durante le Primavera se coperiva con delicate flores color rosa e nacre, et al arrivar le autumno se plenava de ric fructos pruinose. Le aves restava in le branca del arbores, e cantava con tan dulcor que le infantes habeva le habitude de stoppar de jocar pro ascultar lor trillos. -¡Que felice nos es hic! -se diceva un a alteres. Sed un die le gigante regresava. Ille habeva vadite de visitar ubi su amico le Ogro de Cornish, et habeva restate con ille durante le ultime septe annos. Durante iste tempore illes jam se habeva dicite omne lo que illos habeva a dicer se, nam su conversation esseva limitate, e le Gigante sentiva le desiro de revenir a su proprie castello. Quando ille arrivava, lo primo que videva esseva le infantes jocante in le jardin. -¿Que vos face hic? –diceva con voce resonante, e le infantes pavorose sortiva currente. -“Iste jardin es mie. Es mi jardin private” –diceva le Gigante-; “toto le mundo debe comprender illo, e non permittera que nemo jocar hic excepte ego”. E, de immediate, construeva un multo alte muro circum, et in le porta collocava un annuncio que diceva: ENTRATA STRICTEMENTE PROHIBITE INTRUSOS SERA PROSEQUITE Esseva un Gigante multo egoistic. Le povres infantes nunc non habeva loco ubi jocar. Ille tentava de jocar in le strata, sed esseva plen de pulvere e petras et illos non amava. Sovente illes deambulava circa del muro quando illos habeva finite lor lectiones e parlava sur le belle jardin e rememorava “Quam felice nos esseva ibi” Se diceva le un al altere. Quando le Primavera retornava, omne le village se populava de aves e flores. Solmente, le jardin del Gigante Egoistic remaneva in hiberno.Como non habeva infantes, le aves non voleva cantar in ille, e le arbores oblidava florescer. Sol un vice un bellissime flor apparer inter le herba, mais quando ille videva le annuncio, se sentiva tan triste per le infantes que volveva a mitter se sub terra e volveva a dormir. Le unic que ibi esseva a gusto esseva le neve e le gelo. “Le Primavera ha oblidate iste jardin” –critava illes-, “Tunc nos vivira hic toto le anno”. Le Neve coperiva le terra con su grande copertura albe e le gelo coperiva de argento le arbores.Deinde illes invitava al vento del nord a restar con illes, e ille veni. Ille arrivava inveloppate in pelle, e ille rugiva omne le die sur le jardin, e su sufflo faceva cader le capelleto del camino. “¡Que loco plus incantator!” –ille diceva, Nos debe decir le al Grandine que veni a esser con nos. “Tunc le grandine tamben veniva”. Cata die durante tres horas ille strepitava in le tecto del castello, usque que rumpe le malior parte del ardesias. Postea ille curreva circum del jardin lo plus celere que ille poteva. Ille se vestite in grey e su halito era como le glacie. “No pote comprender per que le Primavera tarda tanto in arrivar hic –diceva le Gigante Egoistic, quando regardava al fenestra e videva su jardin frigide e blanc; “io spere que tosto le tempore cambiara. Sed le Primavera nunquam arrivava, ni adhuc le Estate. Le autumno donava fructos aurate in tote le jardines, mais al jardin del Gigante non donava nihil. “Ille esseva assatis egoistic –diceva ille. Assi, le jardin del Gigante restava semper submergite in le hiberno, e le vento del nord, e le grandine, e le gelo, e le nive dansava inter le arbores. Un matino, le Gigante jaceva evaliate in le lecto quando ille audiva un music multo belle desde foras. Sonava tan dulce in lor aures, que pensava debe ser le musicos del rege que passava. In realitate, era sol un carduele que esseva cantante fronte a su fenestra, ma faceva tanto tempore que le Gigante non ascoltava trillar un ave in su jardin, que le semblava audir le music plus belle del mundo. Alora le Grandine stoppa su dansa, e le vento del Nord lassava de rugir et un perfumo deliciose veniva a ille per inter le persianas aperite. " Io crede que le Primavera al fin ha venite, " diceva le Gigante; e saltava del lecto e reguardava foras. ¿E que es lo que ille videva? Fronte lor oculos habeva un spectaculo meraviliose. Per medio de un parve brecha in el muro le infantes habeva entrate, sin ser appercipite, et illos se sedeva in le branca del arbores. In cata arbore habeva un parve infante, e le arbores esseva tan felice de tener le infantes de retorno, que illos se habeva coperite de flores, e balanciava suavemente lor brancas supra le capitas del infantes. Le aves volava cantante circa de illos e pipava de placer, e le flores levava le vista inter le herba verde e rideva. Iste era realmente un scena multo belle, sol in un angulo remaneva le hiberno. Era le angulo plus longitan del jardin et in ille se incontrava un parve infante. Sed era tan parvo que ille non obteneva attinge le brancas del arbore, e le infante tornava circum del trunco plorante con amaritude. Le povre arbore esseva totevia completemente coperite de gelo e neve, e le vento del nord sufflava e rugiva sur ille. -¡Monta parve infante! –diceva le arbore, inclinante lor brancas tan basse como iste poteva. Sed le infante esseva parvissime. Le Gigante sentiva su cordo funder se. -¡Quam egoista he essite! -exclamava-. “Nunc io sape per que le Primavera non voleva venir hic. Montara a isse parve infante al arbore e postea va a abatter le muro. E mi jardin sera pro semper un loco de jocos pro infantes. Ille esseva realmente repentete per illo que habeva facite. Alora ille descende le scala, et aperiva cautamente le porta del domo, et entrava in le jardin. Sed quando le infantes lo videva illes esseva tan espaventate que omne fugiva, e al jardin retornava le hiberno de nove. Sol aquelle parve infante non fugiva, per que lor oculos esseva tan plen de lacrimas que ille non videva vanir al Gigante. Tunc le Gigante se approxima detra de ille e lo prendeva con delicatessa inter su manos, e lo montava al arbore. E le arbore floresceva subitemente, e le aves veniva a cantar in su brancas, e le infante extende le bracios e imbracia le collo del Gigante e lo basia. E le infantes, quando videva que le Gigante jam non esseva mal, reveniva currente, e con illes retornava le Primavera al jardín. -“Desde ora le jardin sera pro vos parve infantes”, e ille prendeva un grande hacha e abatte le muro. E quando le gente vadeva al mercato al mediedie omne poteva vider al Gigante jocante con le infantes in le jardin plus belle que jammais habeva videte. Illes jocava, omne le die, e per le vespere illes vadeva a dicer adeo al Gigante. -¿Sed ubi es le plus parve ? –questionava le Gigante-, ¿isse infante que io montava al arbore . “Le Gigante lo amava plus que le alteres, perque ille le habeva donate un basio. -Nos non sape diceva le infantes-, respondeva le infantes. Ille ha partite. -“Vos debe dicer le que retorna deman” – diceva le Gigante. Sed le infantes respondeva que illes non cognoceva ubi viveva , e que nunquam lo habava videte ante. E le Gigante se sentiva multo triste. Tote le vesperes, quando le infantes sortiva del schola vadeva a jocar con le Gigante Sed le infante plus parve, isse que le Gigante plus amava, jammais esseva viedete de nove. Le Gigante era multo amabile con tote le infantes sed regrettava a su prime amichetto, e sovente parlava de ille. -¡Como amarea poter revider lo! –diceva usualmente. Passava le annos, e le Gigante deveniva vetule e debile . Ille jam non poteva tocar plus, sed sedite in un grande chaise, videva tocar al infantes e admirava su jardin. -“Io habe multe belle flores -se deceva”-, Sed le infantes es le flores plus belle de omne. Un matino de hiberno, ille reguarda a traverso del fenestra donec ille se vestiva. Ille jam non odiava le hiberno nam sapeva que le hiberno esseva simplemente le Primavera dormite , e que le flores se reposava. Subito ille frictiona sue oculos meraviliate, e reguarda, reguarda. Illo era realmente un meravilia lo que esseva vidente. In le angulo plus longitan del jardin habeva un arbore coperite de belle flores blanc. Omne lor brancas esseva aurate, e de illes pendeva fructos de argento. Infra de illes esseva le parve infante que ille tanto habeva amate. Plen de allegresa , le Gigante bassava currente le scalas et entra in le jardin. Ille se hastava trans le herba, e veniva juxta del infante. Sed quando ille se approcha del infante su facie se rubiface de ira, e diceva, “¿Qui ha ausate facer te damno?” Namque le infante habeva marca de clavos in le palma del manos e le pedes -“¿Sed qui ha osate facerte damno?” crita le Gigante; “dice me lo, que io pote prender mi spada et occider lo”. -¡Non ! –respondeva le infante-. “Istes son le feritas del Amor”. -¿Qui es tu, mi parve infante? –diceva le Gigante, et un estranie timor lo invadeva, e caudeva de genu ante le parve infante Tunc le infante rideva e le diceva al Gigante -Un vice vos me lassava jocar in tu jardin; hodie vos venira con me a mi jardin, que es le Paradiso. E quando le infantes arrivava isse vespere, Illes incontrava al Gigante que jaceva morte infra del arbore, e su corpore esseva totalmente coperite de flores blanc. </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 2040 2005-04-19T20:18:47Z 83.195.187.112 <table cellpadding="10" border="2"> <tr><td><strong>The Selfish Giant </strong></td><td><strong> Le gigante egoistic [Conto. Texto complete] Oscar Wilde </strong></td></tr> <tr><td><p> VERY afternoon, as they were coming from school, the children used to go and play in the Giant's garden. It was a large lovely garden, with soft green grass. Here and there over the grass stood beautiful flowers like stars, and there were twelve peach-trees that in the spring-time broke out into delicate blossoms of pink and pearl, and in the autumn bore rich fruit. The birds sat on the trees and sang so sweetly that the children used to stop their games in order to listen to them. "How happy we are here!" they cried to each other. One day the Giant came back. He had been to visit his friend the Cornish ogre, and had stayed with him for seven years. After the seven years were over he had said all that he had to say, for his conversation was limited, and he determined to return to his own castle. When he arrived he saw the children playing in the garden. "What are you doing here?" he cried in a very gruff voice, and the children ran away. "My own garden is my own garden," said the Giant; "any one can understand that, and I will allow nobody to play in it but myself." So he built a high wall all round it, and put up a notice-board. TRESPASSERS WILL BE PROSECUTED He was a very selfish Giant. The poor children had now nowhere to play. They tried to play on the road, but the road was very dusty and full of hard stones, and they did not like it. They used to wander round the high wall when their lessons were over, and talk about the beautiful garden inside. "How happy we were there," they said to each other. Then the Spring came, and all over the country there were little blossoms and little birds. Only in the garden of the Selfish Giant it was still winter. The birds did not care to sing in it as there were no children, and the trees forgot to blossom. Once a beautiful flower put its head out from the grass, but when it saw the notice-board it was so sorry for the children that it slipped back into the ground again, and went off to sleep. The only people who were pleased were the Snow and the Frost. "Spring has forgotten this garden," they cried, "so we will live here all the year round." The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. "This is a delightful spot," he said, "we must ask the Hail on a visit." So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. "I cannot understand why the Spring is so late in coming," said the Selfish Giant, as he sat at the window and looked out at his cold white garden; "I hope there will be a change in the weather." But the Spring never came, nor the Summer. The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant's garden she gave none. "He is too selfish," she said. So it was always Winter there, and the North Wind, and the Hail, and the Frost, and the Snow danced about through the trees. One morning the Giant was lying awake in bed when he heard some lovely music. It sounded so sweet to his ears that he thought it must be the King's musicians passing by. It was really only a little linnet singing outside his window, but it was so long since he had heard a bird sing in his garden that it seemed to him to be the most beautiful music in the world. Then the Hail stopped dancing over his head, and the North Wind ceased roaring, and a delicious perfume came to him through the open casement. "I believe the Spring has come at last," said the Giant; and he jumped out of bed and looked out. What did he see? He saw a most wonderful sight. Through a little hole in the wall the children had crept in, and they were sitting in the branches of the trees. In every tree that he could see there was a little child. And the trees were so glad to have the children back again that they had covered themselves with blossoms, and were waving their arms gently above the children's heads. The birds were flying about and twittering with delight, and the flowers were looking up through the green grass and laughing. It was a lovely scene, only in one corner it was still winter. It was the farthest corner of the garden, and in it was standing a little boy. He was so small that he could not reach up to the branches of the tree, and he was wandering all round it, crying bitterly. The poor tree was still quite covered with frost and snow, and the North Wind was blowing and roaring above it. "Climb up! little boy," said the Tree, and it bent its branches down as low as it could; but the boy was too tiny. ¡" Suba! el niño, " dijo el Árbol, y ello se inclinó sus ramas tan bajo como esto podría; pero el muchacho era demasiado diminuto. And the Giant's heart melted as he looked out. "How selfish I have been!" he said; "now I know why the Spring would not come here. I will put that poor little boy on the top of the tree, and then I will knock down the wall, and my garden shall be the children's playground for ever and ever." He was really very sorry for what he had done. So he crept downstairs and opened the front door quite softly, and went out into the garden. But when the children saw him they were so frightened that they all ran away, and the garden became winter again. Only the little boy did not run, for his eyes were so full of tears that he did not see the Giant coming. And the Giant stole up behind him and took him gently in his hand, and put him up into the tree. And the tree broke at once into blossom, and the birds came and sang on it, and the little boy stretched out his two arms and flung them round the Giant's neck, and kissed him. And the other children, when they saw that the Giant was not wicked any longer, came running back, and with them came the Spring. "It is your garden now, little children," said the Giant, and he took a great axe and knocked down the wall. And when the people were going to market at twelve o'clock they found the Giant playing with the children in the most beautiful garden they had ever seen. All day long they played, and in the evening they came to the Giant to bid him good-bye. "But where is your little companion?" he said: "the boy I put into the tree." The Giant loved him the best because he had kissed him. "We don't know," answered the children; "he has gone away." "You must tell him to be sure and come here tomorrow," said the Giant. But the children said that they did not know where he lived, and had never seen him before; and the Giant felt very sad. Every afternoon, when school was over, the children came and played with the Giant. But the little boy whom the Giant loved was never seen again. The Giant was very kind to all the children, yet he longed for his first little friend, and often spoke of him. "How I would like to see him!" he used to say. Years went over, and the Giant grew very old and feeble. He could not play about any more, so he sat in a huge armchair, and watched the children at their games, and admired his garden. "I have many beautiful flowers," he said; "but the children are the most beautiful flowers of all." One winter morning he looked out of his window as he was dressing. He did not hate the Winter now, for he knew that it was merely the Spring asleep, and that the flowers were resting. Suddenly he rubbed his eyes in wonder, and looked and looked. It certainly was a marvellous sight. In the farthest corner of the garden was a tree quite covered with lovely white blossoms. Its branches were all golden, and silver fruit hung down from them, and underneath it stood the little boy he had loved. Downstairs ran the Giant in great joy, and out into the garden. He hastened across the grass, and came near to the child. And when he came quite close his face grew red with anger, and he said, "Who hath dared to wound thee?" For on the palms of the child's hands were the prints of two nails, and the prints of two nails were on the little feet. "Who hath dared to wound thee?" cried the Giant; "tell me, that I may take my big sword and slay him." "Nay!" answered the child; "but these are the wounds of Love." "Who art thou?" said the Giant, and a strange awe fell on him, and he knelt before the little child. And the child smiled on the Giant, and said to him, "You let me play once in your garden, today you shall come with me to my garden, which is Paradise." And when the children ran in that afternoon, they found the Giant lying dead under the tree, all covered with white blossoms. </p><p></p></td><td><p> Cata vespere, al sortita del schola, les infantes vadeva a jocar al jardin del Gigante. Esseva un jardin grande e belle, con arbustos de flores e coperite de herba verde e suave. Per hic e per ibi, intre le herba, se aperiva flores luminose como strellas, e habeva dece-duo albaricochieros que durante le Primavera se coperiva con delicate flores color rosa e nacre, et al arrivar le autumno se plenava de ric fructos pruinose. Le aves restava in le branca del arbores, e cantava con tan dulcor que le infantes habeva le habitude de stoppar de jocar pro ascultar lor trillos. -¡Que felice nos es hic! -se diceva un a alteres. Sed un die le gigante regresava. Ille habeva vadite de visitar ubi su amico le Ogro de Cornish, et habeva restate con ille durante le ultime septe annos. Durante iste tempore illes jam se habeva dicite omne lo que illos habeva a dicer se, nam su conversation esseva limitate, e le Gigante sentiva le desiro de revenir a su proprie castello. Quando ille arrivava, lo primo que videva esseva le infantes jocante in le jardin. -¿Que vos face hic? –diceva con voce resonante, e le infantes pavorose sortiva currente. -“Iste jardin es mie. Es mi jardin private” –diceva le Gigante-; “toto le mundo debe comprender illo, e non permittera que nemo jocar hic excepte ego”. E, de immediate, construeva un multo alte muro circum, et in le porta collocava un annuncio que diceva: ENTRATA STRICTEMENTE PROHIBITE INTRUSOS SERA PROSEQUITE Esseva un Gigante multo egoistic. Le povres infantes nunc non habeva loco ubi jocar. Ille tentava de jocar in le strata, sed esseva plen de pulvere e petras et illos non amava. Sovente illes deambulava circa del muro quando illos habeva finite lor lectiones e parlava sur le belle jardin e rememorava “Quam felice nos esseva ibi” Se diceva le un al altere. Quando le Primavera retornava, omne le village se populava de aves e flores. Solmente, le jardin del Gigante Egoistic remaneva in hiberno.Como non habeva infantes, le aves non voleva cantar in ille, e le arbores oblidava florescer. Sol un vice un bellissime flor apparer inter le herba, mais quando ille videva le annuncio, se sentiva tan triste per le infantes que volveva a mitter se sub terra e volveva a dormir. Le unic que ibi esseva a gusto esseva le neve e le gelo. “Le Primavera ha oblidate iste jardin” –critava illes-, “Tunc nos vivira hic toto le anno”. Le Neve coperiva le terra con su grande copertura albe e le gelo coperiva de argento le arbores.Deinde illes invitava al vento del nord a restar con illes, e ille veni. Ille arrivava inveloppate in pelle, e ille rugiva omne le die sur le jardin, e su sufflo faceva cader le capelleto del camino. “¡Que loco plus incantator!” –ille diceva, Nos debe decir le al Grandine que veni a esser con nos. “Tunc le grandine tamben veniva”. Cata die durante tres horas ille strepitava in le tecto del castello, usque que rumpe le malior parte del ardesias. Postea ille curreva circum del jardin lo plus celere que ille poteva. Ille se vestite in grey e su halito era como le glacie. “No pote comprender per que le Primavera tarda tanto in arrivar hic –diceva le Gigante Egoistic, quando regardava al fenestra e videva su jardin frigide e blanc; “io spere que tosto le tempore cambiara. Sed le Primavera nunquam arrivava, ni adhuc le Estate. Le autumno donava fructos aurate in tote le jardines, mais al jardin del Gigante non donava nihil. “Ille esseva assatis egoistic –diceva ille. Assi, le jardin del Gigante restava semper submergite in le hiberno, e le vento del nord, e le grandine, e le gelo, e le nive dansava inter le arbores. Un matino, le Gigante jaceva evaliate in le lecto quando ille audiva un music multo belle desde foras. Sonava tan dulce in lor aures, que pensava debe ser le musicos del rege que passava. In realitate, era sol un carduele que esseva cantante fronte a su fenestra, ma faceva tanto tempore que le Gigante non ascoltava trillar un ave in su jardin, que le semblava audir le music plus belle del mundo. Alora le Grandine stoppa su dansa, e le vento del Nord lassava de rugir et un perfumo deliciose veniva a ille per inter le persianas aperite. " Io crede que le Primavera al fin ha venite, " diceva le Gigante; e saltava del lecto e reguardava foras. ¿E que es lo que ille videva? Fronte lor oculos habeva un spectaculo meraviliose. Per medio de un parve brecha in el muro le infantes habeva entrate, sin ser appercipite, et illos se sedeva in le branca del arbores. In cata arbore habeva un parve infante, e le arbores esseva tan felice de tener le infantes de retorno, que illos se habeva coperite de flores, e balanciava suavemente lor brancas supra le capitas del infantes. Le aves volava cantante circa de illos e pipava de placer, e le flores levava le vista inter le herba verde e rideva. Iste era realmente un scena multo belle, sol in un angulo remaneva le hiberno. Era le angulo plus longitan del jardin et in ille se incontrava un parve infante. Sed era tan parvo que ille non obteneva attinge le brancas del arbore, e le infante tornava circum del trunco plorante con amaritude. Le povre arbore esseva totevia completemente coperite de gelo e neve, e le vento del nord sufflava e rugiva sur ille. -¡Monta parve infante! –diceva le arbore, inclinante lor brancas tan basse como iste poteva. Sed le infante esseva parvissime. Le Gigante sentiva su cordo funder se. -¡Quam egoista he essite! -exclamava-. “Nunc io sape per que le Primavera non voleva venir hic. Montara a isse parve infante al arbore e postea va a abatter le muro. E mi jardin sera pro semper un loco de jocos pro infantes. Ille esseva realmente repentete per illo que habeva facite. Alora ille descende le scala, et aperiva cautamente le porta del domo, et entrava in le jardin. Sed quando le infantes lo videva illes esseva tan espaventate que omne fugiva, e al jardin retornava le hiberno de nove. Sol aquelle parve infante non fugiva, per que lor oculos esseva tan plen de lacrimas que ille non videva vanir al Gigante. Tunc le Gigante se approxima detra de ille e lo prendeva con delicatessa inter su manos, e lo montava al arbore. E le arbore floresceva subitemente, e le aves veniva a cantar in su brancas, e le infante extende le bracios e imbracia le collo del Gigante e lo basia. E le infantes, quando videva que le Gigante jam non esseva mal, reveniva currente, e con illes retornava le Primavera al jardín. -“Desde ora le jardin sera pro vos parve infantes”, e ille prendeva un grande hacha e abatte le muro. E quando le gente vadeva al mercato al mediedie omne poteva vider al Gigante jocante con le infantes in le jardin plus belle que jammais habeva videte. Illes jocava, omne le die, e per le vespere illes vadeva a dicer adeo al Gigante. -¿Sed ubi es le plus parve ? –questionava le Gigante-, ¿isse infante que io montava al arbore . “Le Gigante lo amava plus que le alteres, perque ille le habeva donate un basio. -Nos non sape diceva le infantes-, respondeva le infantes. Ille ha partite. -“Vos debe dicer le que retorna deman” – diceva le Gigante. Sed le infantes respondeva que illes non cognoceva ubi viveva , e que nunquam lo habava videte ante. E le Gigante se sentiva multo triste. Tote le vesperes, quando le infantes sortiva del schola vadeva a jocar con le Gigante Sed le infante plus parve, isse que le Gigante plus amava, jammais esseva viedete de nove. Le Gigante era multo amabile con tote le infantes sed regrettava a su prime amichetto, e sovente parlava de ille. -¡Como amarea poter revider lo! –diceva usualmente. Passava le annos, e le Gigante deveniva vetule e debile . Ille jam non poteva tocar plus, sed sedite in un grande chaise, videva tocar al infantes e admirava su jardin. -“Io habe multe belle flores -se deceva”-, Sed le infantes es le flores plus belle de omne. Un matino de hiberno, ille reguarda a traverso del fenestra donec ille se vestiva. Ille jam non odiava le hiberno nam sapeva que le hiberno esseva simplemente le Primavera dormite , e que le flores se reposava. Subito ille frictiona sue oculos meraviliate, e reguarda, reguarda. Illo era realmente un meravilia lo que esseva vidente. In le angulo plus longitan del jardin habeva un arbore coperite de belle flores blanc. Omne lor brancas esseva aurate, e de illes pendeva fructos de argento. Infra de illes esseva le parve infante que ille tanto habeva amate. Plen de allegresa , le Gigante bassava currente le scalas et entra in le jardin. Ille se hastava trans le herba, e veniva juxta del infante. Sed quando ille se approcha del infante su facie se rubiface de ira, e diceva, “¿Qui ha ausate facer te damno?” Namque le infante habeva marca de clavos in le palma del manos e le pedes -“¿Sed qui ha osate facerte damno?” crita le Gigante; “dice me lo, que io pote prender mi spada et occider lo”. -¡Non ! –respondeva le infante-. “Istes son le feritas del Amor”. -¿Qui es tu, mi parve infante? –diceva le Gigante, et un estranie timor lo invadeva, e caudeva de genu ante le parve infante Tunc le infante rideva e le diceva al Gigante -Un vice vos me lassava jocar in tu jardin; hodie vos venira con me a mi jardin, que es le Paradiso. E quando le infantes arrivava isse vespere, Illes incontrava al Gigante que jaceva morte infra del arbore, e su corpore esseva totalmente coperite de flores blanc. </p><p></p></td></tr> </table> 965 73 2005-04-18T09:15:46Z Josu Lavin 2 A traducer a Interlingua Josu Lavin ==============================================================================<br> "-IDO FOR ALL-" by Niklas ApGawain + P.D. Hugon + J.L. Moore + L. de Beaufront<br> revised by an Idiotist (B.Y.T) with material from various sources, revizita/<br> ata/ota da zeloza Idisti per materii de diversa fonti, ed fakte ja tradukita<br> da li "tote libere" aden kelka sua lingui "segun sua maniero por sua skopi".<br> Lo signifikas ke onu darfas tote libere uzar "Ido For All" por sua skopo segun<br> sua maniero, tradukante la libro aden sua propra linguo pro ke olim Sro Niklas<br> ApGawain per sua grand'anmo permisis me tale ke anke me volas kondutar simile.<br> <br> == Laborinta/anta Idisti por ica lernolibro := ultre B.Y.T.(^_^ Idiotisto) ===<br> Hans STUIFBERGEN : Frank KASPER : Stephen L. RICE (Kapabla Logli ed USAano)<br> == Revizuri ==================================================================<br> 1.0 / 1999-07-26 : 1.1 / 1999-08-03 : 1.2 / 2000-02-29 : 1.3 / 2000-05-10<br> 1.4 / Ups! (Oops!) Pardonez me. 2005-02-13 / ....<br> E 20??-??-?? da qui? Forsan vu hike e vu ibe e vu qua esas lontane..<br> <br> ==============================================================================<br> Just as the Tanakh is a composition of two major sources, this course is also <br> a mixture of two different books by Niklas ApGawain and P.D. Hugon+J.L. Moore+<br> L. de Beaufront. Moreover this "IDO FOR ALL" contains small materials gathered<br> from somewhere by Hans STUIFBERGEN in Holland and Frank KASPER in Germany.<br> ==============================================================================<br> <br> <br> <br> <br> <br> ==== Elementary Lessons (00 - 12) ========================================<br> **** Lesson 00 - Zeresma Leciono **********************************************<br> <br> The Alphabet:------------------------------------------------------------------<br> Ido uses all the 26 letters found in the English alphabet.<br> There are no silent letters. Every letter must be pronounced. Each letter has<br> its own particular sound value which distinguishes it from all others.<br> There are no double letters, except where both are to be pronounced separately.<br> <br> The Consonants:----------------------------------------------------------------<br> These have exactly the same pronounciation as in English:<br> b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, w, z, qu, sh.<br> <br> The other consonants are as follows:<br> c - as 'ts' in bits, never as in English: ca (=tsa).<br> g - always as 'g' in get, never as 'g' in gin.<br> h - always sounded: honoro - honour.<br> j - as in French, i.e. like the 's' in pleasure.<br> r - rolled if possible, but in any case always pronounced,<br> even in such words as portar [porr-TARR].<br> s - as 's' in soft, never a 'z' sound as in fuse.<br> x - as English x [ks, gz], except that the Ido x never has the 'z' sound<br> found in English xylophone, but retains the 'ks' or 'gz' sound<br> even at the beginning of words: xilofono [ksi-lo-FO-no].<br> y - this is a consonant as in yellow, and is never a vowel.<br> ch - as 'ch' in chat, never as 'ch' in machine.<br> <br> The Vowels:--------------------------------------------------------------------<br> These have approximately the following sounds (but see notes below):<br> a - as 'a' in father.<br> e - as 'e' in then.<br> i - as 'i' in machine, an 'ee' sound.<br> o - as 'o' in glory.<br> u - as 'u' in rude, an 'oo' sound.<br> <br> -- Important Notes --<br> 1) There is room for a little variation in the length of the vowel sound,<br> but it should not be too long or too short.<br> 2) 'a'. Avoid making the 'ah' sound too long, so that it becomes 'aah' or<br> even worse 'aahr'.<br> 3) Never pronounce 'e' as in English 'meter'. Avoid adding a 'y' or 'ee'<br> sound to the Ido 'e' so that it sounds like the 'ay' in English 'way'.<br> 4) Avoid too much of an 'eey' sound to the Ido 'i'.<br> Never pronounce 'i' as in the English word 'white', so be careful how<br> you say such Ido words as 'mikra'.<br> 5) Avoid adding an 'oo' or 'w' sound to the Ido 'o', as is the case with<br> English 'no' which rhymes with 'know'.<br> 6) Never pronounce 'u' as in the English words 'use' or 'universal',<br> i.e. a 'yoo' sound instead of 'oo'. So be careful with words like<br> 'uzata' and 'universala'.<br> 7) Always say each vowel clearly. Never give a vowel the obscure 'uh' sound<br> that is found in many English words, e.g. the 'a' in 'across',<br> the 'e' in 'begin', or the 'o' and 'u' in 'button'.<br> <br> Diphthongs:--------------------------------------------------------------------<br> A diphthong is a vowel sound resulting from two vowel sounds combining.<br> In Ido there are two simple diphthongs:<br> au - a(ah) + u(oo) giving the 'ow' sound found in English 'now'.<br> It is never pronounced as English 'au' in 'Paul'.<br> eu - e(eh) + u(oo). This is an 'eh-oo' sound which does not exist in<br> standard English. 'eu' is never a 'yoo' sound as in English 'neutral'.<br> <br> /Note/<br> 'u' before a vowel will tend to become like 'w', e.g. linguo [LIN-gwo].<br> 'i' before a vowel will tend to bceome like 'y', e.g. pekunio [pe-KU-nyo].<br> <br> All other vowel should be said separately: 'ai' is 'a-i' and 'ae' is 'a-e',<br> etc, (not the English sounds remember).<br> <br> Accentuation:------------------------------------------------------------------<br> All English words have at least one syllable which is stressed more than the<br> others: but'ter, intel'ligent, e'lephant, begin'.<br> You will see from this that in English there is no obvious rule about where<br> the stress occurs in a word. It could be in any syllable.<br> <br> In Ido there is a simple rule with only one exception.<br> <<<<< The stress always falls on the last syllable but one. >>>>> :<br> hun'do, ka'to, lin'guo, fami'lio [fa-MI-lyo], akade'mio [a-ka-DE-myo].<br> <br> But the accentuation is on the last syllable in the case of verb infinitives<br> (recognisable by their -ar, -or, -ir endings) for clarity in speech:<br> pozar', drinkar', drinkor', drinkir', donar', donor', donir'.<br> <br> - Examples -<br> amar', kredir', finor', ama'ta, kredi'ta, fino'ta,<br> espere'ble, facin'da, jo'yo, boa'o, muze'o, hero'o, di'o, du'o,<br> fo'lio [FO-lyo], li'lio [LI-lyo], men'tio [MEN-tyo], Ita'lia [i-TA-lya]<br> a'quo [A-qwo], lin'guo [LIN-gwo], por'tuo [PORR-two], re'vuo [RE-vwo]<br> <br> Pronunciation Exercise:--------------------------------------------------------<br> <br> Ka vu ja ler'nas la no'va lin'guo internacio'na?<br> ka vu ja LERR-nas la NO-va LIN-gwo in-terr-na-ci-O-na<br> kah voo zhah lairnahs lah nohvah leengwoh eentairnahtsiohnah<br> <br> Me komen'cis studiar' olu an'te kel'ka di'i,<br> me ko-MEN-cis stu-DYARR O-lu AN-te KEL-ka DI-i<br> meh kohmentsees stoodeeahr oh-loo ahnteh kelkah dee-ee<br> <br> e me tro'vas ke olu es'as ve're tre faci'la.<br> e me TRO-vas ke O-lu ES-as VE-re tre fa-CI-la<br> eh meh trohvahs keh oh-loo ehsahs vehreh treh fahtseelah<br> <br> Om'na-di'e me lek'tas tex'to dum un ho'ro;<br> OM-na-DI-e me LEK-tas TEX-to dum un HO-ro<br> omnah-dee-eh meh lektahs tekstoh doom oon hohro<br> <br> me sem'pre lekt'tas lau'te.<br> me SEM-pre LEK-tas LAW-te [LAw-te, never laU-te!, au being a diphthong.]<br> meh sempreh lektahs louteh<br> <br> Ka vu kompre'nas to?<br> ka vu kom-PRE-nas to<br> ka voo komprehnahs toh<br> <br> The names of the letters in Ido-alphabet are:----------------------------------<br> a be ce [cho] de e fe/(ef) ge he/(hash) i je ke le/(el) me/(em) ne/(en)<br> o pe que re/(ere) se/(es) [sho] te u ve/(ev) we xe/(exe) ye and ze<br> --- The (forms) are alternative and unauthorized names. ---<br> <br> Some Europeans cannot distinguish between b/v, v/w, s/z and s/sh.<br> And the descendants of the Roman Empire do not pronounce 'h' very well.<br> H is a 'hush' sign for the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French etc.<br> In addition, the Japanese are deaf to the differences between b/v and l/r.<br> So it is convenient to use be/ev, ev/we, el/ere, es/ze, es/sho and hash.<br> <br> Now let's begin.--- Never too old to learn and never too young to learn -------<br> In this book you haven't got to do any obligatory 'exercises with the key'.<br> That is the way when you learn mathematics with numerous and boring exercises.<br> You can't learn a language really effectively enough in the same manner.<br> <br> <<< Por ke ni povez balde parolar Ido, oportas ke ni tre ofte lektez laute.>>><br> <br> Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible.<br> And one lesson a day is quite enough for mastering this beautiful language.<br> Reading aloud as often as you can is the royal road to learning a new language,<br> as proved by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-90).<br> <br> << Maxim bone on lernas linguo, se on lektas olu laute tam ofte kam posibla.>><br> <br> 76 2005-04-18T12:25:59Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 0 - Zeresma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>The Alphabet</b> <br> Ido uses all the 26 letters found in the English alphabet.<br> There are no silent letters. Every letter must be pronounced. Each letter has its own particular sound value which distinguishes it from all others.<br> There are no double letters, except where both are to be pronounced separately.<br> <br> <br> <b>The Consonants</b><br> These have exactly the same pronounciation as in English:<br> b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, w, z, qu, sh.<br> <br> The other consonants are as follows:<br> c - as 'ts' in bits, never as in English: ca (=tsa).<br> g - always as 'g' in get, never as 'g' in gin.<br> h - always sounded: honoro - honour.<br> j - as in French, i.e. like the 's' in pleasure.<br> r - rolled if possible, but in any case always pronounced, even in such words as portar [porr-TARR].<br> s - as 's' in soft, never a 'z' sound as in fuse.<br> x - as English x [ks, gz], except that the Ido x never has the 'z' sound found in English xylophone, but retains the 'ks' or 'gz' sound even at the beginning of words: xilofono [ksi-lo-FO-no].<br> y - this is a consonant as in yellow, and is never a vowel.<br> ch - as 'ch' in chat, never as 'ch' in machine.<br> <br> <br> <b>The Vowels</b> <br> These have approximately the following sounds (but see notes below):<br> a - as 'a' in father.<br> e - as 'e' in then.<br> i - as 'i' in machine, an 'ee' sound.<br> o - as 'o' in glory.<br> u - as 'u' in rude, an 'oo' sound.<br> <br> Important Notes<br> 1) There is room for a little variation in the length of the vowel sound, but it should not be too long or too short.<br> 2) 'a'. Avoid making the 'ah' sound too long, so that it becomes 'aah' or even worse 'aahr'.<br> 3) Never pronounce 'e' as in English 'meter'. Avoid adding a 'y' or 'ee' sound to the Ido 'e' so that it sounds like the 'ay' in English 'way'. 4) Avoid too much of an 'eey' sound to the Ido 'i'. Never pronounce 'i' as in the English word 'white', so be careful how you say such Ido words as 'mikra'.<br> 5) Avoid adding an 'oo' or 'w' sound to the Ido 'o', as is the case with English 'no' which rhymes with 'know'.<br> 6) Never pronounce 'u' as in the English words 'use' or 'universal', i.e. a 'yoo' sound instead of 'oo'. So be careful with words like 'uzata' and 'universala'.<br> 7) Always say each vowel clearly. Never give a vowel the obscure 'uh' sound that is found in many English words, e.g. the 'a' in 'across', the 'e' in 'begin', or the 'o' and 'u' in 'button'.<br> <br> <br> <b>Diphthongs</b> <br> A diphthong is a vowel sound resulting from two vowel sounds combining.<br> In Ido there are two simple diphthongs:<br> au - a(ah) + u(oo) giving the 'ow' sound found in English 'now'. It is never pronounced as English 'au' in 'Paul'.<br> eu - e(eh) + u(oo). This is an 'eh-oo' sound which does not exist in standard English. 'eu' is never a 'yoo' sound as in English 'neutral'.<br> <br> Note:<br> 'u' before a vowel will tend to become like 'w', e.g. linguo [LIN-gwo].<br> 'i' before a vowel will tend to bceome like 'y', e.g. pekunio [pe-KU-nyo].<br> <br> All other vowels should be said separately: 'ai' is 'a-i' and 'ae' is 'a-e', etc, (not the English sounds remember).<br> <br> <br> <b>Accentuation</b> <br> All English words have at least one syllable which is stressed more than the others: but'ter, intel'ligent, e'lephant, begin'.<br> You will see from this that in English there is no obvious rule about where the stress occurs in a word. It could be in any syllable.<br> <br> In Ido there is a simple rule with only one exception.<br> The stress always falls on the last syllable but one:<br> hun'do, ka'to, lin'guo, fami'lio [fa-MI-lyo], akade'mio [a-ka-DE-myo].<br> <br> But the accentuation is on the last syllable in the case of verb infinitives (recognisable by their -ar, -or, -ir endings) for clarity in speech:<br> pozar', drinkar', drinkor', drinkir', donar', donor', donir'.<br> <br> Examples:<br> amar', kredir', finor', ama'ta, kredi'ta, fino'ta, espere'ble, facin'da, jo'yo, boa'o, muze'o, hero'o, di'o, du'o, fo'lio [FO-lyo], li'lio [LI-lyo], men'tio [MEN-tyo], Ita'lia [i-TA-lya] a'quo [A-qwo], lin'guo [LIN-gwo], por'tuo [PORR-two], re'vuo [RE-vwo]<br> <br> <br> <b>Pronunciation Exercise</b> <br> Ka vu ja ler'nas la no'va lin'guo internacio'na?<br> ka vu ja LERR-nas la NO-va LIN-gwo in-terr-na-ci-O-na<br> kah voo zhah lairnahs lah nohvah leengwoh eentairnahtsiohnah<br> <br> Me komen'cis studiar' ol an'te kel'ka di'i<br> me ko-MEN-cis stu-DYARR ol AN-te KEL-ka DI-i<br> meh kohmentsees stoodeeahr ohl ahnteh kelkah dee-ee<br> <br> e me tro'vas ke ol es'as ve're tre faci'la<br> e me TRO-vas ke ol ES-as VE-re tre fa-CI-la<br> eh meh trohvahs keh ohl ehsahs vehreh treh fahtseelah<br> <br> Om'na-di'e me lek'tas tex'to dum un ho'ro<br> OM-na-DI-e me LEK-tas TEX-to dum un HO-ro<br> omnah-dee-eh meh lektahs tekstoh doom oon hohro<br> <br> me sem'pre lekt'tas lau'te<br> me SEM-pre LEK-tas LAW-te [LAw-te, never laU-te!, au being a diphthong.]<br> meh sempreh lektahs louteh<br> <br> Ka vu kompre'nas to<br> ka vu kom-PRE-nas to<br> ka voo komprehnahs toh<br> <br> <br> <b>The names of the letters in Ido-alphabet</b> <br> The names of the letters in Ido-alphabet are:<br> a be ce [cho] de e fe/(ef) ge he/(hash) i je ke le/(el) me/(em) ne/(en) o pe que re/(ere) se/(es) [sho] te u ve/(ev) we xe/(exe) ye and ze<br> The (forms) are alternative and unauthorized names.<br> <br> Some Europeans cannot distinguish between b/v, v/w, s/z and s/sh.<br> And the descendants of the Roman Empire do not pronounce 'h' very well. H is a 'hush' sign for the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French etc.<br> In addition, the Japanese are deaf to the differences between b/v and l/r.<br> So it is convenient to use be/ev, ev/we, el/ere, es/ze, es/sho and hash.<br> <br> <br> <b>Now let's begin</b> (Never too old to learn and never too young to learn)<br> <<< Por ke ni povez balde parolar Ido, oportas ke ni tre ofte lektez laute.>>><br> Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. And one lesson a day is quite enough for mastering this beautiful language.<br> Reading aloud as often as you can is the royal road to learning a new language, as proved by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-90).<br> << Maxim bone on lernas linguo, se on lektas olu laute tam ofte kam posible.>> <br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 2041 2005-04-18T13:21:01Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 0 - Zeresma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>The Alphabet</b> <br> Ido uses all the 26 letters found in the English alphabet.<br> There are no silent letters. Every letter must be pronounced. Each letter has its own particular sound value which distinguishes it from all others.<br> There are no double letters, except where both are to be pronounced separately.<br> <br> <br> <b>The Consonants</b><br> These have exactly the same pronounciation as in English:<br> b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, w, z, qu, sh.<br> <br> The other consonants are as follows:<br> c - as 'ts' in bits, never as in English: ca (=tsa).<br> g - always as 'g' in get, never as 'g' in gin.<br> h - always sounded: honoro - honour.<br> j - as in French, i.e. like the 's' in pleasure.<br> r - rolled if possible, but in any case always pronounced, even in such words as portar [porr-TARR].<br> s - as 's' in soft, never a 'z' sound as in fuse.<br> x - as English x [ks, gz], except that the Ido x never has the 'z' sound found in English xylophone, but retains the 'ks' or 'gz' sound even at the beginning of words: xilofono [ksi-lo-FO-no].<br> y - this is a consonant as in yellow, and is never a vowel.<br> ch - as 'ch' in chat, never as 'ch' in machine.<br> <br> <br> <b>The Vowels</b> <br> These have approximately the following sounds (but see notes below):<br> a - as 'a' in father.<br> e - as 'e' in then.<br> i - as 'i' in machine, an 'ee' sound.<br> o - as 'o' in glory.<br> u - as 'u' in rude, an 'oo' sound.<br> <br> Important Notes<br> 1) There is room for a little variation in the length of the vowel sound, but it should not be too long or too short.<br> 2) 'a'. Avoid making the 'ah' sound too long, so that it becomes 'aah' or even worse 'aahr'.<br> 3) Never pronounce 'e' as in English 'meter'. Avoid adding a 'y' or 'ee' sound to the Ido 'e' so that it sounds like the 'ay' in English 'way'. 4) Avoid too much of an 'eey' sound to the Ido 'i'. Never pronounce 'i' as in the English word 'white', so be careful how you say such Ido words as 'mikra'.<br> 5) Avoid adding an 'oo' or 'w' sound to the Ido 'o', as is the case with English 'no' which rhymes with 'know'.<br> 6) Never pronounce 'u' as in the English words 'use' or 'universal', i.e. a 'yoo' sound instead of 'oo'. So be careful with words like 'uzata' and 'universala'.<br> 7) Always say each vowel clearly. Never give a vowel the obscure 'uh' sound that is found in many English words, e.g. the 'a' in 'across', the 'e' in 'begin', or the 'o' and 'u' in 'button'.<br> <br> <br> <b>Diphthongs</b> <br> A diphthong is a vowel sound resulting from two vowel sounds combining.<br> In Ido there are two simple diphthongs:<br> au - a(ah) + u(oo) giving the 'ow' sound found in English 'now'. It is never pronounced as English 'au' in 'Paul'.<br> eu - e(eh) + u(oo). This is an 'eh-oo' sound which does not exist in standard English. 'eu' is never a 'yoo' sound as in English 'neutral'.<br> <br> Note:<br> 'u' before a vowel will tend to become like 'w', e.g. linguo [LIN-gwo].<br> 'i' before a vowel will tend to bceome like 'y', e.g. pekunio [pe-KU-nyo].<br> <br> All other vowels should be said separately: 'ai' is 'a-i' and 'ae' is 'a-e', etc, (not the English sounds remember).<br> <br> <br> <b>Accentuation</b> <br> All English words have at least one syllable which is stressed more than the others: but'ter, intel'ligent, e'lephant, begin'.<br> You will see from this that in English there is no obvious rule about where the stress occurs in a word. It could be in any syllable.<br> <br> In Ido there is a simple rule with only one exception.<br> The stress always falls on the last syllable but one:<br> hun'do, ka'to, lin'guo, fami'lio [fa-MI-lyo], akade'mio [a-ka-DE-myo].<br> <br> But the accentuation is on the last syllable in the case of verb infinitives (recognisable by their -ar, -or, -ir endings) for clarity in speech:<br> pozar', drinkar', drinkor', drinkir', donar', donor', donir'.<br> <br> Examples:<br> amar', kredir', finor', ama'ta, kredi'ta, fino'ta, espere'ble, facin'da, jo'yo, boa'o, muze'o, hero'o, di'o, du'o, fo'lio [FO-lyo], li'lio [LI-lyo], men'tio [MEN-tyo], Ita'lia [i-TA-lya] a'quo [A-qwo], lin'guo [LIN-gwo], por'tuo [PORR-two], re'vuo [RE-vwo]<br> <br> <br> <b>Pronunciation Exercise</b> <br> Ka vu ja ler'nas la no'va lin'guo internacio'na?<br> ka vu ja LERR-nas la NO-va LIN-gwo in-terr-na-ci-O-na<br> kah voo zhah lairnahs lah nohvah leengwoh eentairnahtsiohnah<br> <br> Me komen'cis studiar' ol an'te kel'ka di'i<br> me ko-MEN-cis stu-DYARR ol AN-te KEL-ka DI-i<br> meh kohmentsees stoodeeahr ohl ahnteh kelkah dee-ee<br> <br> e me tro'vas ke ol es'as ve're tre faci'la<br> e me TRO-vas ke ol ES-as VE-re tre fa-CI-la<br> eh meh trohvahs keh ohl ehsahs vehreh treh fahtseelah<br> <br> Om'na-di'e me lek'tas tex'to dum un ho'ro<br> OM-na-DI-e me LEK-tas TEX-to dum un HO-ro<br> omnah-dee-eh meh lektahs tekstoh doom oon hohro<br> <br> me sem'pre lekt'tas lau'te<br> me SEM-pre LEK-tas LAW-te [LAw-te, never laU-te!, au being a diphthong.]<br> meh sempreh lektahs louteh<br> <br> Ka vu kompre'nas to<br> ka vu kom-PRE-nas to<br> ka voo komprehnahs toh<br> <br> <br> <b>The names of the letters in Ido-alphabet</b> <br> The names of the letters in Ido-alphabet are:<br> a be ce [cho] de e fe/(ef) ge he/(hash) i je ke le/(el) me/(em) ne/(en) o pe que re/(ere) se/(es) [sho] te u ve/(ev) we xe/(exe) ye and ze<br> The (forms) are alternative and unauthorized names.<br> <br> Some Europeans cannot distinguish between b/v, v/w, s/z and s/sh.<br> And the descendants of the Roman Empire do not pronounce 'h' very well. H is a 'hush' sign for the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French etc.<br> In addition, the Japanese are deaf to the differences between b/v and l/r.<br> So it is convenient to use be/ev, ev/we, el/ere, es/ze, es/sho and hash.<br> <br> <br> <b>Now let's begin</b> (Never too old to learn and never too young to learn)<br> <<< Por ke ni povez balde parolar Ido, oportas ke ni tre ofte lektez laute.>>><br> Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. And one lesson a day is quite enough for mastering this beautiful language.<br> Reading aloud as often as you can is the royal road to learning a new language, as proved by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-90).<br> << Maxim bone on lernas linguo, se on lektas olu laute tam ofte kam posible.>> 966 74 2005-04-18T09:18:01Z Josu Lavin 2 **** Lesson 01 - Unesma Leciono ***********************************************<br> <br> Nouns:-------------------------------------------------------------------------<br> The word 'noun' literally means a 'name'. It refers to any thing that you can<br> actually see, hear, touch, or put a name to: table, chair, man, cat.<br> In Ido you will quickly recognise which words are nouns, because they all end<br> with the letter -o: kato (cat), hundo (dog), tablo (table).<br> <br> The Indefinite Article:--------------------------------------------------------<br> The English language uses two little words 'a' and 'an',<br> which do not exist in Ido. In Ido it is enough to say<br> 'ovo' for egg or 'an' egg; 'tablo' for table or 'a' table and so on.<br> You will soon see that it is not necessary to have<br> an indefinite article, and that no confusion ever arises.<br> <br> The Definite Article:----------------------------------------------------------<br> The definite article (the) is 'la': matro - a mother; la matro - the mother<br> <br> Es:----------------------------------------------------------------------------<br> The Ido word 'es' is roughly the English word 'is', but be careful as it can<br> also be translated as 'am' or 'are'. For simplicity, what we say in Ido is<br> the equivalent of: I is, You is, he/she/it is, we is, they is, and so on.<br> <br> /Notes/<br> 'Es' is a short form of 'esas', Though 'es' is more convenient, 'esas' is just<br> as common. The learner may suit himself which form of the word he uses.<br> <br> Learn the following words by heart:--------------------------------------------<br> buxo - box, domo -house, gardeno - garden, hundo - dog, kato - cat,<br> muso - mouse, tablo - table, esas/es - is/am/are, me - I/me, vu - you,<br> yuno - teenager/ a youth, yunulo - boy, yunino - girl, en - in,<br> sub - under, sur - on, la - the<br> <br> Exempli:----------------------------------------------------------------------<br> Mary is a girl.- Mary esas/es yuno. // Mary esas/es yunino.<br> Charles is a boy. - Charles esas/es yuno. // Charles esas/es yunulo.<br> The house is in the garden. - La domo esas/es en la gardeno.<br> I am in the garden. - Me esas/es en la gardeno.<br> I am in the house. - Me esas/es en la domo.<br> You are in the house. - Vu esas/es en la domo.<br> You are under the table. - Vu esas/es sub la tablo.<br> A dog is on the table in the house. - Hundo esas/es sur la tablo en la domo.<br> Rex is a dog. - Rex esas/es hundo.<br> William is a cat. - William esas/es kato.<br> The dog is in the house. - La hundo esas/es en la domo.<br> The cat is on the table. - La kato esas/es sur la tablo.<br> The box is under the table. - La buxo esas/es sub la tablo.<br> The cat is on the box. - La kato esas/es sur la buxo.<br> The mouse is in the house. - La muso esas/es en la domo.<br> The mouse is in the box. - La muso esas/es en la buxo.<br> The mouse is under the table. - La muso esas/es sub la tablo.<br> <br> Verbs - Present Tense:---------------------------------------------------------<br> A verb is an 'action' or 'doing' word: see, read, touch. These are all actions.<br> Verbs too, in Ido, can be easily recognised by their endings.<br> The first ones you will learn in this book all have the ending that shows<br> the present tense, that is the ending -AS.<br> The present tense is used when the action in the verb is happening NOW:<br> Me vidas la hundo. - I see the dog.<br> Vu tushas la kato. - You touch the cat.<br> These are actions taking place at the present moment, so the present tense is<br> used. In English there is more than one present tense, but don't let this<br> confuse you: I touch the dog. I am touching the dog.<br> If you think about it, these are both actions taking place in the present.<br> Because the meanings of these two are so similar, Ido says them both in the<br> same way: Me tushas (touch or am touching) la hundo.<br> 'Me lektas la libro' could therefore be either 'I read the book' or<br> 'I am reading the book', (or even 'I do read the book').<br> So remember this, especially when translating English into Ido.<br> Don't translate 'I am touching' or 'you are reading' word for word.<br> Until you can think naturally in Ido, it is best to change them in your mind<br> to 'I touch' and 'you read' and then translate.<br> <br> Ed/e:--------------------------------------------------------------------------<br> The Ido for 'and' is 'ed', but the final 'd', which is part of the root, is<br> often dropped if the following word starts with a consonant. Officially you<br> may suit yourself which word you use. It is a question of which sounds the<br> better. In practice most Idists use 'e' if the following word starts with a<br> consonant, and 'ed' if it starts with a vowel. Note the same thing applies<br> to three other words which you will learn later: a/ad, o/od, ka/kad.<br> <br> Vortaro (Vocabulary):----------------------------------------------------------<br> drinkas - drinks, havas - has (got), lektas - reads, manjas - eats,<br> prizas - likes, promenas - walks/strolls, regardas - looks (at), e/ed - and,<br> tushas - touches, vidas - sees, aquo - water, fenestro - window,<br> lakto - milk, libro - book, pomo - apple, pordo - door, stulo - chair<br> <br> Exempli:--------------------------------------------------<br> I have a dog. - Me havas hundo.<br> I see the dog. - Me vidas la hundo.<br> The dog sees me. - La hundo vidas me.<br> I like the dog. - Me prizas la hundo.<br> I like milk. - Me prizas lakto.<br> The dog has the milk. - La hundo havas la lakto.<br> The cat drinks the milk. - La kato drinkas la lakto.<br> You drink the milk. - Vu drinkas la lakto.<br> I have the apple. - Me havas la pomo.<br> I am eating the apple. - Me manjas la pomo.<br> The boy/girl is eating the apple. - La yuno manjas la pomo.<br> I am looking at the mouse. - Me regardas la muso.<br> The mouse sees the water. - La muso vidas la aquo.<br> The mouse is eating the book. - La muso manjas la libro.<br> The book is on the table. - La libro esas/es sur la tablo.<br> You read the book. - Vu lektas la libro.<br> You are reading the book. - Vu lektas la libro.<br> The cat looks at me. - La kato regardas me.<br> The cat looks at the door. - La kato regardas la pordo.<br> You are touching the door. - Vu tushas la pordo.<br> The cat is touching the window. - La kato tushas la fenestro.<br> I am touching the window. - Me tushas la fenestro.<br> I am walking in the garden. - Me promenas en la gardeno.<br> You and the dog are walking in the garden. -<br> Vu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno.<br> The table and chair are in the house. - <br> La tablo e la stulo esas/es en la domo.<br> <br> Vortaro:- Vocabulary ----------------------------------------------------------<br> Bona jorno - Hello (Good day)<br> Til rivido - Good-bye (Until we meet again)<br> Quale vu standas? - How are you?<br> Tre bone danko - Very well thank you.<br> <br> Now when you meet another Idist, or go to a congress or international gathering<br> you have the beginings of a simple conversation.<br> <br> Konversado:- Conversation -- Here is a conversation between Peter and Mary. ---<br> P: Bona jorno!<br> M: Bona jorno!<br> P: Quale vu standas?<br> M: Tre bone, danko. Quale vu standas?<br> P: Tre bone, danko.<br> M: Til rivido!<br> P: Til rivido!<br> <br> Exerco:- Exercise -------------------------------------------------------------<br> 1) Practice the conversation phrases.<br> 2) Think in Ido of the things you know: Touch the door and say to yourself,<br> 'Me tushas la pordo'; read a book and say 'Me lektas libro'; and so on to<br> include as many of the words learnt as possible.<br> 3) Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible.<br> <br> <br> <br><br> 2042 2005-04-18T12:28:12Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 1 - Unesma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>Nouns</b> <br> The word 'noun' literally means a 'name'. It refers to any thing that you can actually see, hear, touch, or put a name to: table, chair, man, cat. <br> In Ido you will quickly recognise which words are nouns, because they all end with the letter -o: kato (cat), hundo (dog), tablo (table). <br> <br> <br> <b>The Indefinite Article </b><br> The English language uses two little words 'a' and 'an', which do not exist in Ido. <br> In Ido it is enough to say 'ovo' for egg or 'an' egg; 'tablo' for table or 'a' table and so on. <br> You will soon see that it is not necessary to have an indefinite article, and that no confusion ever arises.<br> <br> <br> <b>The Definite Article</b><br> The definite article (the) is 'la': matro - a mother; la matro - the mother <br> <br> <br> <b>Esar </b><br> The Ido word 'es' is roughly the English word 'is', but be careful as it can also be translated as 'am' or 'are'. For simplicity, what we say in Ido is the equivalent of: I is, You is, he/she/it is, we is, they is, and so on.<br> 'Es' is a short form of 'esas', Though 'es' is more convenient, 'esas' is just as common. The learner may suit himself which form of the word he uses. <br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro </b> (Vocabulary) <br> Learn the following words by heart:</font></p> <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">buxo</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">box </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hundo </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dog </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tablo </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">table </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vu</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">you </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunino</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">girl</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sur</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">on</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">domo </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">house</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kato</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">esar </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to be</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yuno </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teenager, a youth </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">en</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">la </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">the</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gardeno </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">garden </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">muso</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">me </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">I/me </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunulo </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">boy </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sub </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">under </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Marie es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo <br> 3. La domo es en la gardeno <br> 4. Me es en la gardeno <br> 5. Me es en la domo. <br> 6. Vu es en la domo <br> 7. Vu es sub la tablo. <br> 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo. <br> 9. Rex es hundo. <br> 10. William es kato. <br> 11. La hundo es en la domo. <br> 12. La kato es sur la tablo. <br> 13. La buxo es sub la tablo. <br> 14. La kato es sur la buxo. <br> 15. La muso es en la domo. <br> 16. La muso es en la buxo. <br> 17. La muso es sub la tablo. <br> <br> <br> <b> Verbs - Present Tense </b><br> A verb is an 'action' or 'doing' word: see, read, touch. These are all actions.<br> Verbs too, in Ido, can be easily recognised by their endings. The first ones you will learn in this book all have the ending that shows the present tense, that is the ending -AS.<br> <br> The present tense is used when the action in the verb is happening NOW: <br> Me vidas la hundo. - I see the dog. <br> Vu tushas la kato. - You touch the cat. <br> <br> These are actions taking place at the present moment, so the present tense is used. In English there is more than one present tense, but don't let this confuse you: I touch the dog. I am touching the dog. <br> If you think about it, these are both actions taking place in the present. Because the meanings of these two are so similar, Ido says them both in the same way: Me tushas (touch or am touching) la hundo. <br> 'Me lektas la libro' could therefore be either 'I read the book' or 'I am reading the book', (or even 'I do read the book').<br> So remember this, especially when translating English into Ido. Don't translate 'I am touching' or 'you are reading' word for word. Until you can think naturally in Ido, it is best to change them in your mind to 'I touch' and 'you read' and then translate. <br> <br> <br> <b>Ed/e</b> <br> The Ido for 'and' is 'ed', but the final 'd', which is part of the root, is often dropped if the following word starts with a consonant. Officially you may suit yourself which word you use. It is a question of which sounds the better. In practice most Idists use 'e' if the following word starts with a consonant, and 'ed' if it starts with a vowel.<br> Note the same thing applies to three other words which you will learn later: a/ad, o/od, ka/kad. </font></p> <p align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <img src="../../imaji/1_1.gif" width="294" height="186" border="2" alt="1_1"> <br> </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Vortaro</b></font></p> <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">drinkar</font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to drink </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">manjar </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to eat </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">prizar </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to like </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">regardar</font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to look (at) </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tushar </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to touch </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">aquo </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">water </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lakto </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">milk </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pomo </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">apple </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">stulo </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chair </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">havar </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to have </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lektar </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to read</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">promenar </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to walk, to stroll</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">e/ed</font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">and </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vidar </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to see </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fenestro </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">window </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">libro </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">book </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pordo </font></td> <td width="73%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">door </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<b> </b><br> 1. Me havas hundo <br> 2. Me vidas la hundo. <br> 3. La hundo vidas me. <br> 4. Me prizas la hundo. <br> 5. Me prizas lakto. <br> 6. La hundo havas la lakto. <br> 7. La kato drinkas la lakto. <br> 8. Vu drinkas lakto. <br> 9. Me havas la pomo. <br> 10. Me manjas la pomo. <br> 11. La yuno manjas la pomo. <br> 12. Me regardas la muso. <br> 13. La muso vidas la aquo. <br> 14. La muso manjas la libro. <br> 15. La libro es sur la tablo. <br> 16. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 17. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 18. La kato regardas me. <br> 19. La kato regardas la pordo. <br> 20. Vu tushas la pordo. <br> 21. La kato tushas la fenestro. <br> 22. Me tushas la fenestro. <br> 23. Me promenas en la gardeno. <br> 24. Vu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno <br> 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo.<br> <br> <br> <b> Vortaro </b></font></p> <table width="64%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="34%" height="17"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Bona jorno</font></td> <td width="66%" height="17"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Hello (Good day) </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Til rivido</font></td> <td width="66%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Good-bye (Until we meet again) </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Quale vu standas?</font></td> <td width="66%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">How are you? </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Tre bone danko</font></td> <td width="66%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Very well thank you. </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> Now when you meet another Idist, or go to a congress or international gathering you have the beginings of a simple conversation. <br> <br> <b><br> Konversado </b>(Here is a conversation between Peter and Mary.)<br> P: Bona jorno! <br> M: Bona jorno! <br> P: Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Til rivido! P: Til rivido! <br> <br> <b><br> Exerco </b><br> 1) Practice the conversation phrases.<br> 2) Think in Ido of the things you know: Touch the door and say to yourself, 'Me tushas la pordo'; read a book and say 'Me lektas libro'; and so on to include as many of the words learnt as possible. <br> 3) Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. <br> </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl.<br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. The house is in the garden.<br> 4. I am in the garden.<br> 5. I am in the house.<br> 6. You are in the house.<br> 7. You are under the table.<br> 8. A dog is on the table in the house.<br> 9. Rex is a dog.<br> 10. William is a cat.<br> 11. The dog is in the house.<br> 12. The cat is on the table.<br> 13. The box is under the table.<br> 14. The cat is on the box.<br> 15. The mouse is in the house.<br> 16. The mouse is in the box.<br> 17. The mouse is under the table.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. I have a dog.<br> 2. I see the dog.<br> 3. The dog sees me.<br> 4. I like the dog.<br> 5. I like milk.<br> 6. The dog has the milk.<br> 7. The cat drinks the milk.<br> 8. You drink the milk.<br> 9. I have the apple.<br> 10. I am eating the apple.<br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple.<br> 12. I am looking at the mouse.<br> 13. The mouse sees the water.<br> 14. The mouse is eating the book.<br> 15. The book is on the table.<br> 16. You read the book.<br> 17. You are reading the book.<br> 18. The cat looks at me.<br> 19. The cat looks at the door.<br> 20. You are touching the door.<br> 21. The cat is touching the window.<br> 22. I am touching the window.<br> 23. I am walking in the garden.<br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden.<br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 3074 2006-03-06T00:44:31Z 81.100.85.143 wikify = Lesson 1 - Unesma Leciono = == Nouns == The word 'noun' literally means a 'name'. It refers to any thing that you can actually see, hear, touch, or put a name to: table, chair, man, cat. <br> In Ido you will quickly recognise which words are nouns, because they all end with the letter -o: kato (cat), hundo (dog), tablo (table). <br> == The Indefinite Article == The English language uses two little words 'a' and 'an', which do not exist in Ido. <br> In Ido it is enough to say 'ovo' for egg or 'an' egg; 'tablo' for table or 'a' table and so on. <br> You will soon see that it is not necessary to have an indefinite article, and that no confusion ever arises.<br> == The Definite Article == The definite article (the) is 'la': matro - a mother; la matro - the mother == Esar == The Ido word 'es' is roughly the English word 'is', but be careful as it can also be translated as 'am' or 'are'. For simplicity, what we say in Ido is the equivalent of: I is, You is, he/she/it is, we is, they is, and so on.<br> 'Es' is a short form of 'esas', Though 'es' is more convenient, 'esas' is just as common. The learner may suit himself which form of the word he uses. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">buxo</td> <td width="79%">box </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hundo</td> <td width="79%">dog </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">tablo</td> <td width="79%">table</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vu</td> <td width="79%">you </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunino</td> <td width="79%">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur</td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">domo </td> <td width="79%">house</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kato</td> <td width="79%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">esar </td> <td width="79%">to be</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuno </td> <td width="79%">teenager, a youth </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">en</td> <td width="79%">in</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">la </td> <td width="79%">the</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">gardeno</td> <td width="79%">garden</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muso</td> <td width="79%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">me </td> <td width="79%">I/me </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunulo</td> <td width="79%">boy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sub </td> <td width="79%">under</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Marie es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo <br> 3. La domo es en la gardeno <br> 4. Me es en la gardeno <br> 5. Me es en la domo. <br> 6. Vu es en la domo <br> 7. Vu es sub la tablo. <br> 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo. <br> 9. Rex es hundo. <br> 10. William es kato. <br> 11. La hundo es en la domo. <br> 12. La kato es sur la tablo. <br> 13. La buxo es sub la tablo. <br> 14. La kato es sur la buxo. <br> 15. La muso es en la domo. <br> 16. La muso es en la buxo. <br> 17. La muso es sub la tablo. <br> == Verbs - Present Tense == A verb is an 'action' or 'doing' word: see, read, touch. These are all actions.<br> Verbs too, in Ido, can be easily recognised by their endings. The first ones you will learn in this book all have the ending that shows the present tense, that is the ending -AS.<br> The present tense is used when the action in the verb is happening NOW: <br> Me vidas la hundo. - I see the dog. <br> Vu tushas la kato. - You touch the cat. <br> These are actions taking place at the present moment, so the present tense is used. In English there is more than one present tense, but don't let this confuse you: I touch the dog. I am touching the dog. If you think about it, these are both actions taking place in the present. Because the meanings of these two are so similar, Ido says them both in the same way: Me tushas (touch or am touching) la hundo. 'Me lektas la libro' could therefore be either 'I read the book' or 'I am reading the book', (or even 'I do read the book'). So remember this, especially when translating English into Ido. Don't translate 'I am touching' or 'you are reading' word for word. Until you can think naturally in Ido, it is best to change them in your mind to 'I touch' and 'you read' and then translate. == Ed/e == The Ido for 'and' is 'ed', but the final 'd', which is part of the root, is often dropped if the following word starts with a consonant. Officially you may suit yourself which word you use. It is a question of which sounds the better. In practice most Idists use 'e' if the following word starts with a consonant, and 'ed' if it starts with a vowel.<br> Note the same thing applies to three other words which you will learn later: a/ad, o/od, ka/kad. <img src="../../imaji/1_1.gif" width="294" height="186" border="2" alt="1_1"> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="27%">drinkar</td> <td width="73%">to drink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">manjar</td> <td width="73%">to eat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">prizar</td> <td width="73%">to like</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">regardar</td> <td width="73%">to look (at) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">tushar</td> <td width="73%">to touch</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">aquo </td> <td width="73%">water</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lakto</td> <td width="73%">milk </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pomo </td> <td width="73%">apple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">stulo</td> <td width="73%">chair</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">havar</td> <td width="73%">to have</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lektar</td> <td width="73%">to read</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">promenar</td> <td width="73%">to walk, to stroll</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">e/ed</td> <td width="73%">and </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">vidar</td> <td width="73%">to see</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">fenestro</td> <td width="73%">window</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">libro</td> <td width="73%">book </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pordo</td> <td width="73%">door </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<b> </b><br> 1. Me havas hundo <br> 2. Me vidas la hundo. <br> 3. La hundo vidas me. <br> 4. Me prizas la hundo. <br> 5. Me prizas lakto. <br> 6. La hundo havas la lakto. <br> 7. La kato drinkas la lakto. <br> 8. Vu drinkas lakto. <br> 9. Me havas la pomo. <br> 10. Me manjas la pomo. <br> 11. La yuno manjas la pomo. <br> 12. Me regardas la muso. <br> 13. La muso vidas la aquo. <br> 14. La muso manjas la libro. <br> 15. La libro es sur la tablo. <br> 16. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 17. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 18. La kato regardas me. <br> 19. La kato regardas la pordo. <br> 20. Vu tushas la pordo. <br> 21. La kato tushas la fenestro. <br> 22. Me tushas la fenestro. <br> 23. Me promenas en la gardeno. <br> 24. Vu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno <br> 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo.<br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="64%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="34%" height="17">Bona jorno</td> <td width="66%" height="17">Hello (Good day) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Til rivido</td> <td width="66%">Good-bye (Until we meet again) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Quale vu standas?</td> <td width="66%">How are you? </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Tre bone danko</td> <td width="66%">Very well thank you. </td> </tr> </table> Now when you meet another Idist, or go to a congress or international gathering you have the beginings of a simple conversation. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == Here is a conversation between Peter and Mary. P: Bona jorno! <br> M: Bona jorno! <br> P: Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Til rivido! P: Til rivido! <br> == Exerco == 1) Practice the conversation phrases.<br> 2) Think in Ido of the things you know: Touch the door and say to yourself, 'Me tushas la pordo'; read a book and say 'Me lektas libro'; and so on to include as many of the words learnt as possible. <br> 3) Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl.<br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. The house is in the garden.<br> 4. I am in the garden.<br> 5. I am in the house.<br> 6. You are in the house.<br> 7. You are under the table.<br> 8. A dog is on the table in the house.<br> 9. Rex is a dog.<br> 10. William is a cat.<br> 11. The dog is in the house.<br> 12. The cat is on the table.<br> 13. The box is under the table.<br> 14. The cat is on the box.<br> 15. The mouse is in the house.<br> 16. The mouse is in the box.<br> 17. The mouse is under the table.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I have a dog.<br> 2. I see the dog.<br> 3. The dog sees me.<br> 4. I like the dog.<br> 5. I like milk.<br> 6. The dog has the milk.<br> 7. The cat drinks the milk.<br> 8. You drink the milk.<br> 9. I have the apple.<br> 10. I am eating the apple.<br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple.<br> 12. I am looking at the mouse.<br> 13. The mouse sees the water.<br> 14. The mouse is eating the book.<br> 15. The book is on the table.<br> 16. You read the book.<br> 17. You are reading the book.<br> 18. The cat looks at me.<br> 19. The cat looks at the door.<br> 20. You are touching the door.<br> 21. The cat is touching the window.<br> 22. I am touching the window.<br> 23. I am walking in the garden.<br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden.<br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> 3075 2006-03-06T00:45:32Z 81.100.85.143 /* Esar */ = Lesson 1 - Unesma Leciono = == Nouns == The word 'noun' literally means a 'name'. It refers to any thing that you can actually see, hear, touch, or put a name to: table, chair, man, cat. <br> In Ido you will quickly recognise which words are nouns, because they all end with the letter -o: kato (cat), hundo (dog), tablo (table). <br> == The Indefinite Article == The English language uses two little words 'a' and 'an', which do not exist in Ido. <br> In Ido it is enough to say 'ovo' for egg or 'an' egg; 'tablo' for table or 'a' table and so on. <br> You will soon see that it is not necessary to have an indefinite article, and that no confusion ever arises.<br> == The Definite Article == The definite article (the) is 'la': matro - a mother; la matro - the mother == Esar == The Ido word 'es' is roughly the English word 'is', but be careful as it can also be translated as 'am' or 'are'. For simplicity, what we say in Ido is the equivalent of: I is, You is, he/she/it is, we is, they is, and so on.<br> 'Es' is a short form of 'esas', though 'es' is more convenient, 'esas' is just as common. The learner may suit himself which form of the word he uses. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">buxo</td> <td width="79%">box </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hundo</td> <td width="79%">dog </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">tablo</td> <td width="79%">table</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vu</td> <td width="79%">you </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunino</td> <td width="79%">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur</td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">domo </td> <td width="79%">house</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kato</td> <td width="79%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">esar </td> <td width="79%">to be</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuno </td> <td width="79%">teenager, a youth </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">en</td> <td width="79%">in</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">la </td> <td width="79%">the</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">gardeno</td> <td width="79%">garden</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muso</td> <td width="79%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">me </td> <td width="79%">I/me </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunulo</td> <td width="79%">boy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sub </td> <td width="79%">under</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Marie es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo <br> 3. La domo es en la gardeno <br> 4. Me es en la gardeno <br> 5. Me es en la domo. <br> 6. Vu es en la domo <br> 7. Vu es sub la tablo. <br> 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo. <br> 9. Rex es hundo. <br> 10. William es kato. <br> 11. La hundo es en la domo. <br> 12. La kato es sur la tablo. <br> 13. La buxo es sub la tablo. <br> 14. La kato es sur la buxo. <br> 15. La muso es en la domo. <br> 16. La muso es en la buxo. <br> 17. La muso es sub la tablo. <br> == Verbs - Present Tense == A verb is an 'action' or 'doing' word: see, read, touch. These are all actions.<br> Verbs too, in Ido, can be easily recognised by their endings. The first ones you will learn in this book all have the ending that shows the present tense, that is the ending -AS.<br> The present tense is used when the action in the verb is happening NOW: <br> Me vidas la hundo. - I see the dog. <br> Vu tushas la kato. - You touch the cat. <br> These are actions taking place at the present moment, so the present tense is used. In English there is more than one present tense, but don't let this confuse you: I touch the dog. I am touching the dog. If you think about it, these are both actions taking place in the present. Because the meanings of these two are so similar, Ido says them both in the same way: Me tushas (touch or am touching) la hundo. 'Me lektas la libro' could therefore be either 'I read the book' or 'I am reading the book', (or even 'I do read the book'). So remember this, especially when translating English into Ido. Don't translate 'I am touching' or 'you are reading' word for word. Until you can think naturally in Ido, it is best to change them in your mind to 'I touch' and 'you read' and then translate. == Ed/e == The Ido for 'and' is 'ed', but the final 'd', which is part of the root, is often dropped if the following word starts with a consonant. Officially you may suit yourself which word you use. It is a question of which sounds the better. In practice most Idists use 'e' if the following word starts with a consonant, and 'ed' if it starts with a vowel.<br> Note the same thing applies to three other words which you will learn later: a/ad, o/od, ka/kad. <img src="../../imaji/1_1.gif" width="294" height="186" border="2" alt="1_1"> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="27%">drinkar</td> <td width="73%">to drink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">manjar</td> <td width="73%">to eat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">prizar</td> <td width="73%">to like</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">regardar</td> <td width="73%">to look (at) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">tushar</td> <td width="73%">to touch</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">aquo </td> <td width="73%">water</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lakto</td> <td width="73%">milk </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pomo </td> <td width="73%">apple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">stulo</td> <td width="73%">chair</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">havar</td> <td width="73%">to have</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lektar</td> <td width="73%">to read</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">promenar</td> <td width="73%">to walk, to stroll</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">e/ed</td> <td width="73%">and </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">vidar</td> <td width="73%">to see</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">fenestro</td> <td width="73%">window</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">libro</td> <td width="73%">book </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pordo</td> <td width="73%">door </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<b> </b><br> 1. Me havas hundo <br> 2. Me vidas la hundo. <br> 3. La hundo vidas me. <br> 4. Me prizas la hundo. <br> 5. Me prizas lakto. <br> 6. La hundo havas la lakto. <br> 7. La kato drinkas la lakto. <br> 8. Vu drinkas lakto. <br> 9. Me havas la pomo. <br> 10. Me manjas la pomo. <br> 11. La yuno manjas la pomo. <br> 12. Me regardas la muso. <br> 13. La muso vidas la aquo. <br> 14. La muso manjas la libro. <br> 15. La libro es sur la tablo. <br> 16. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 17. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 18. La kato regardas me. <br> 19. La kato regardas la pordo. <br> 20. Vu tushas la pordo. <br> 21. La kato tushas la fenestro. <br> 22. Me tushas la fenestro. <br> 23. Me promenas en la gardeno. <br> 24. Vu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno <br> 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo.<br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="64%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="34%" height="17">Bona jorno</td> <td width="66%" height="17">Hello (Good day) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Til rivido</td> <td width="66%">Good-bye (Until we meet again) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Quale vu standas?</td> <td width="66%">How are you? </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Tre bone danko</td> <td width="66%">Very well thank you. </td> </tr> </table> Now when you meet another Idist, or go to a congress or international gathering you have the beginings of a simple conversation. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == Here is a conversation between Peter and Mary. P: Bona jorno! <br> M: Bona jorno! <br> P: Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Til rivido! P: Til rivido! <br> == Exerco == 1) Practice the conversation phrases.<br> 2) Think in Ido of the things you know: Touch the door and say to yourself, 'Me tushas la pordo'; read a book and say 'Me lektas libro'; and so on to include as many of the words learnt as possible. <br> 3) Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl.<br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. The house is in the garden.<br> 4. I am in the garden.<br> 5. I am in the house.<br> 6. You are in the house.<br> 7. You are under the table.<br> 8. A dog is on the table in the house.<br> 9. Rex is a dog.<br> 10. William is a cat.<br> 11. The dog is in the house.<br> 12. The cat is on the table.<br> 13. The box is under the table.<br> 14. The cat is on the box.<br> 15. The mouse is in the house.<br> 16. The mouse is in the box.<br> 17. The mouse is under the table.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I have a dog.<br> 2. I see the dog.<br> 3. The dog sees me.<br> 4. I like the dog.<br> 5. I like milk.<br> 6. The dog has the milk.<br> 7. The cat drinks the milk.<br> 8. You drink the milk.<br> 9. I have the apple.<br> 10. I am eating the apple.<br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple.<br> 12. I am looking at the mouse.<br> 13. The mouse sees the water.<br> 14. The mouse is eating the book.<br> 15. The book is on the table.<br> 16. You read the book.<br> 17. You are reading the book.<br> 18. The cat looks at me.<br> 19. The cat looks at the door.<br> 20. You are touching the door.<br> 21. The cat is touching the window.<br> 22. I am touching the window.<br> 23. I am walking in the garden.<br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden.<br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> 3076 2006-03-06T00:46:07Z 81.100.85.143 /* Esar */ = Lesson 1 - Unesma Leciono = == Nouns == The word 'noun' literally means a 'name'. It refers to any thing that you can actually see, hear, touch, or put a name to: table, chair, man, cat. <br> In Ido you will quickly recognise which words are nouns, because they all end with the letter -o: kato (cat), hundo (dog), tablo (table). <br> == The Indefinite Article == The English language uses two little words 'a' and 'an', which do not exist in Ido. <br> In Ido it is enough to say 'ovo' for egg or 'an' egg; 'tablo' for table or 'a' table and so on. <br> You will soon see that it is not necessary to have an indefinite article, and that no confusion ever arises.<br> == The Definite Article == The definite article (the) is 'la': matro - a mother; la matro - the mother == Esar == The Ido word 'es' is roughly the English word 'is', but be careful as it can also be translated as 'am' or 'are'. <br> For simplicity, what we say in Ido is the equivalent of: I is, You is, he/she/it is, we is, they is, and so on.<br> 'Es' is a short form of 'esas', though 'es' is more convenient, 'esas' is just as common. <br> The learner may suit himself which form of the word he uses. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">buxo</td> <td width="79%">box </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hundo</td> <td width="79%">dog </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">tablo</td> <td width="79%">table</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vu</td> <td width="79%">you </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunino</td> <td width="79%">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur</td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">domo </td> <td width="79%">house</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kato</td> <td width="79%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">esar </td> <td width="79%">to be</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuno </td> <td width="79%">teenager, a youth </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">en</td> <td width="79%">in</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">la </td> <td width="79%">the</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">gardeno</td> <td width="79%">garden</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muso</td> <td width="79%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">me </td> <td width="79%">I/me </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunulo</td> <td width="79%">boy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sub </td> <td width="79%">under</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Marie es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo <br> 3. La domo es en la gardeno <br> 4. Me es en la gardeno <br> 5. Me es en la domo. <br> 6. Vu es en la domo <br> 7. Vu es sub la tablo. <br> 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo. <br> 9. Rex es hundo. <br> 10. William es kato. <br> 11. La hundo es en la domo. <br> 12. La kato es sur la tablo. <br> 13. La buxo es sub la tablo. <br> 14. La kato es sur la buxo. <br> 15. La muso es en la domo. <br> 16. La muso es en la buxo. <br> 17. La muso es sub la tablo. <br> == Verbs - Present Tense == A verb is an 'action' or 'doing' word: see, read, touch. These are all actions.<br> Verbs too, in Ido, can be easily recognised by their endings. The first ones you will learn in this book all have the ending that shows the present tense, that is the ending -AS.<br> The present tense is used when the action in the verb is happening NOW: <br> Me vidas la hundo. - I see the dog. <br> Vu tushas la kato. - You touch the cat. <br> These are actions taking place at the present moment, so the present tense is used. In English there is more than one present tense, but don't let this confuse you: I touch the dog. I am touching the dog. If you think about it, these are both actions taking place in the present. Because the meanings of these two are so similar, Ido says them both in the same way: Me tushas (touch or am touching) la hundo. 'Me lektas la libro' could therefore be either 'I read the book' or 'I am reading the book', (or even 'I do read the book'). So remember this, especially when translating English into Ido. Don't translate 'I am touching' or 'you are reading' word for word. Until you can think naturally in Ido, it is best to change them in your mind to 'I touch' and 'you read' and then translate. == Ed/e == The Ido for 'and' is 'ed', but the final 'd', which is part of the root, is often dropped if the following word starts with a consonant. Officially you may suit yourself which word you use. It is a question of which sounds the better. In practice most Idists use 'e' if the following word starts with a consonant, and 'ed' if it starts with a vowel.<br> Note the same thing applies to three other words which you will learn later: a/ad, o/od, ka/kad. <img src="../../imaji/1_1.gif" width="294" height="186" border="2" alt="1_1"> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="27%">drinkar</td> <td width="73%">to drink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">manjar</td> <td width="73%">to eat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">prizar</td> <td width="73%">to like</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">regardar</td> <td width="73%">to look (at) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">tushar</td> <td width="73%">to touch</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">aquo </td> <td width="73%">water</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lakto</td> <td width="73%">milk </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pomo </td> <td width="73%">apple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">stulo</td> <td width="73%">chair</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">havar</td> <td width="73%">to have</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lektar</td> <td width="73%">to read</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">promenar</td> <td width="73%">to walk, to stroll</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">e/ed</td> <td width="73%">and </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">vidar</td> <td width="73%">to see</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">fenestro</td> <td width="73%">window</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">libro</td> <td width="73%">book </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pordo</td> <td width="73%">door </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<b> </b><br> 1. Me havas hundo <br> 2. Me vidas la hundo. <br> 3. La hundo vidas me. <br> 4. Me prizas la hundo. <br> 5. Me prizas lakto. <br> 6. La hundo havas la lakto. <br> 7. La kato drinkas la lakto. <br> 8. Vu drinkas lakto. <br> 9. Me havas la pomo. <br> 10. Me manjas la pomo. <br> 11. La yuno manjas la pomo. <br> 12. Me regardas la muso. <br> 13. La muso vidas la aquo. <br> 14. La muso manjas la libro. <br> 15. La libro es sur la tablo. <br> 16. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 17. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 18. La kato regardas me. <br> 19. La kato regardas la pordo. <br> 20. Vu tushas la pordo. <br> 21. La kato tushas la fenestro. <br> 22. Me tushas la fenestro. <br> 23. Me promenas en la gardeno. <br> 24. Vu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno <br> 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo.<br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="64%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="34%" height="17">Bona jorno</td> <td width="66%" height="17">Hello (Good day) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Til rivido</td> <td width="66%">Good-bye (Until we meet again) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Quale vu standas?</td> <td width="66%">How are you? </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Tre bone danko</td> <td width="66%">Very well thank you. </td> </tr> </table> Now when you meet another Idist, or go to a congress or international gathering you have the beginings of a simple conversation. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == Here is a conversation between Peter and Mary. P: Bona jorno! <br> M: Bona jorno! <br> P: Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Til rivido! P: Til rivido! <br> == Exerco == 1) Practice the conversation phrases.<br> 2) Think in Ido of the things you know: Touch the door and say to yourself, 'Me tushas la pordo'; read a book and say 'Me lektas libro'; and so on to include as many of the words learnt as possible. <br> 3) Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl.<br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. The house is in the garden.<br> 4. I am in the garden.<br> 5. I am in the house.<br> 6. You are in the house.<br> 7. You are under the table.<br> 8. A dog is on the table in the house.<br> 9. Rex is a dog.<br> 10. William is a cat.<br> 11. The dog is in the house.<br> 12. The cat is on the table.<br> 13. The box is under the table.<br> 14. The cat is on the box.<br> 15. The mouse is in the house.<br> 16. The mouse is in the box.<br> 17. The mouse is under the table.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I have a dog.<br> 2. I see the dog.<br> 3. The dog sees me.<br> 4. I like the dog.<br> 5. I like milk.<br> 6. The dog has the milk.<br> 7. The cat drinks the milk.<br> 8. You drink the milk.<br> 9. I have the apple.<br> 10. I am eating the apple.<br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple.<br> 12. I am looking at the mouse.<br> 13. The mouse sees the water.<br> 14. The mouse is eating the book.<br> 15. The book is on the table.<br> 16. You read the book.<br> 17. You are reading the book.<br> 18. The cat looks at me.<br> 19. The cat looks at the door.<br> 20. You are touching the door.<br> 21. The cat is touching the window.<br> 22. I am touching the window.<br> 23. I am walking in the garden.<br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden.<br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> 3078 2006-03-06T00:52:26Z 81.100.85.143 = Lesson 1 - Unesma Leciono = == Nouns == The word 'noun' literally means a 'name'. It refers to any thing that you can actually see, hear, touch, or put a name to: table, chair, man, cat. <br> In Ido you will quickly recognise which words are nouns, because they all end with the letter -o: kato (cat), hundo (dog), tablo (table). <br> == The Indefinite Article == The English language uses two little words 'a' and 'an', which do not exist in Ido. <br> In Ido it is enough to say 'ovo' for egg or 'an' egg; 'tablo' for table or 'a' table and so on. <br> You will soon see that it is not necessary to have an indefinite article, and that no confusion ever arises.<br> == The Definite Article == The definite article (the) is 'la': matro - a mother; la matro - the mother == Esar == The Ido word 'es' is roughly the English word 'is', but be careful as it can also be translated as 'am' or 'are'. <br> For simplicity, what we say in Ido is the equivalent of: I is, You is, he/she/it is, we is, they is, and so on.<br> 'Es' is a short form of 'esas', though 'es' is more convenient, 'esas' is just as common. <br> The learner may suit himself which form of the word he uses. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">buxo</td> <td width="79%">box </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hundo</td> <td width="79%">dog </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">tablo</td> <td width="79%">table</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vu</td> <td width="79%">you </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunino</td> <td width="79%">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur</td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">domo </td> <td width="79%">house</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kato</td> <td width="79%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">esar </td> <td width="79%">to be</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuno </td> <td width="79%">teenager, a youth </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">en</td> <td width="79%">in</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">la </td> <td width="79%">the</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">gardeno</td> <td width="79%">garden</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muso</td> <td width="79%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">me </td> <td width="79%">I/me </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunulo</td> <td width="79%">boy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sub </td> <td width="79%">under</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Marie es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo <br> 3. La domo es en la gardeno <br> 4. Me es en la gardeno <br> 5. Me es en la domo. <br> 6. Vu es en la domo <br> 7. Vu es sub la tablo. <br> 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo. <br> 9. Rex es hundo. <br> 10. William es kato. <br> 11. La hundo es en la domo. <br> 12. La kato es sur la tablo. <br> 13. La buxo es sub la tablo. <br> 14. La kato es sur la buxo. <br> 15. La muso es en la domo. <br> 16. La muso es en la buxo. <br> 17. La muso es sub la tablo. <br> == Verbs - Present Tense == A verb is an 'action' or 'doing' word: see, read, touch. These are all actions.<br> Verbs too, in Ido, can be easily recognised by their endings. The first ones you will learn in this book all have the ending that shows the present tense, that is the ending -AS.<br> The present tense is used when the action in the verb is happening NOW: <br> Me vidas la hundo. - I see the dog. <br> Vu tushas la kato. - You touch the cat. <br> These are actions taking place at the present moment, so the present tense is used. In English there is more than one present tense, but don't let this confuse you: I touch the dog. I am touching the dog. If you think about it, these are both actions taking place in the present. Because the meanings of these two are so similar, Ido says them both in the same way: Me tushas (touch or am touching) la hundo. 'Me lektas la libro' could therefore be either 'I read the book' or 'I am reading the book', (or even 'I do read the book'). So remember this, especially when translating English into Ido. Don't translate 'I am touching' or 'you are reading' word for word. Until you can think naturally in Ido, it is best to change them in your mind to 'I touch' and 'you read' and then translate. == Ed/e == The Ido for 'and' is 'ed', but the final 'd', which is part of the root, is often dropped if the following word starts with a consonant. Officially you may suit yourself which word you use. It is a question of which sounds the better. In practice most Idists use 'e' if the following word starts with a consonant, and 'ed' if it starts with a vowel.<br> Note the same thing applies to three other words which you will learn later: a/ad, o/od, ka/kad. <img src="../../imaji/1_1.gif" width="294" height="186" border="2" alt="1_1"> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="27%">drinkar</td> <td width="73%">to drink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">manjar</td> <td width="73%">to eat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">prizar</td> <td width="73%">to like</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">regardar</td> <td width="73%">to look (at) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">tushar</td> <td width="73%">to touch</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">aquo </td> <td width="73%">water</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lakto</td> <td width="73%">milk </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pomo </td> <td width="73%">apple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">stulo</td> <td width="73%">chair</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">havar</td> <td width="73%">to have</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lektar</td> <td width="73%">to read</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">promenar</td> <td width="73%">to walk, to stroll</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">e/ed</td> <td width="73%">and </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">vidar</td> <td width="73%">to see</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">fenestro</td> <td width="73%">window</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">libro</td> <td width="73%">book </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pordo</td> <td width="73%">door </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me havas hundo <br> 2. Me vidas la hundo. <br> 3. La hundo vidas me. <br> 4. Me prizas la hundo. <br> 5. Me prizas lakto. <br> 6. La hundo havas la lakto. <br> 7. La kato drinkas la lakto. <br> 8. Vu drinkas lakto. <br> 9. Me havas la pomo. <br> 10. Me manjas la pomo. <br> 11. La yuno manjas la pomo. <br> 12. Me regardas la muso. <br> 13. La muso vidas la aquo. <br> 14. La muso manjas la libro. <br> 15. La libro es sur la tablo. <br> 16. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 17. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 18. La kato regardas me. <br> 19. La kato regardas la pordo. <br> 20. Vu tushas la pordo. <br> 21. La kato tushas la fenestro. <br> 22. Me tushas la fenestro. <br> 23. Me promenas en la gardeno. <br> 24. Vu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno <br> 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo.<br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="64%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="34%" height="17">Bona jorno</td> <td width="66%" height="17">Hello (Good day) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Til rivido</td> <td width="66%">Good-bye (Until we meet again) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Quale vu standas?</td> <td width="66%">How are you? </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Tre bone danko</td> <td width="66%">Very well thank you. </td> </tr> </table> Now when you meet another Idist, or go to a congress or international gathering you have the beginings of a simple conversation. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == Here is a conversation between Peter and Mary. P: Bona jorno! <br> M: Bona jorno! <br> P: Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Til rivido! P: Til rivido! <br> == Exerco == 1) Practice the conversation phrases.<br> 2) Think in Ido of the things you know: Touch the door and say to yourself, 'Me tushas la pordo'; read a book and say 'Me lektas libro'; and so on to include as many of the words learnt as possible. <br> 3) Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl.<br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. The house is in the garden.<br> 4. I am in the garden.<br> 5. I am in the house.<br> 6. You are in the house.<br> 7. You are under the table.<br> 8. A dog is on the table in the house.<br> 9. Rex is a dog.<br> 10. William is a cat.<br> 11. The dog is in the house.<br> 12. The cat is on the table.<br> 13. The box is under the table.<br> 14. The cat is on the box.<br> 15. The mouse is in the house.<br> 16. The mouse is in the box.<br> 17. The mouse is under the table.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I have a dog.<br> 2. I see the dog.<br> 3. The dog sees me.<br> 4. I like the dog.<br> 5. I like milk.<br> 6. The dog has the milk.<br> 7. The cat drinks the milk.<br> 8. You drink the milk.<br> 9. I have the apple.<br> 10. I am eating the apple.<br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple.<br> 12. I am looking at the mouse.<br> 13. The mouse sees the water.<br> 14. The mouse is eating the book.<br> 15. The book is on the table.<br> 16. You read the book.<br> 17. You are reading the book.<br> 18. The cat looks at me.<br> 19. The cat looks at the door.<br> 20. You are touching the door.<br> 21. The cat is touching the window.<br> 22. I am touching the window.<br> 23. I am walking in the garden.<br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden.<br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> 3079 2006-03-06T00:53:49Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco */ = Lesson 1 - Unesma Leciono = == Nouns == The word 'noun' literally means a 'name'. It refers to any thing that you can actually see, hear, touch, or put a name to: table, chair, man, cat. <br> In Ido you will quickly recognise which words are nouns, because they all end with the letter -o: kato (cat), hundo (dog), tablo (table). <br> == The Indefinite Article == The English language uses two little words 'a' and 'an', which do not exist in Ido. <br> In Ido it is enough to say 'ovo' for egg or 'an' egg; 'tablo' for table or 'a' table and so on. <br> You will soon see that it is not necessary to have an indefinite article, and that no confusion ever arises.<br> == The Definite Article == The definite article (the) is 'la': matro - a mother; la matro - the mother == Esar == The Ido word 'es' is roughly the English word 'is', but be careful as it can also be translated as 'am' or 'are'. <br> For simplicity, what we say in Ido is the equivalent of: I is, You is, he/she/it is, we is, they is, and so on.<br> 'Es' is a short form of 'esas', though 'es' is more convenient, 'esas' is just as common. <br> The learner may suit himself which form of the word he uses. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">buxo</td> <td width="79%">box </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hundo</td> <td width="79%">dog </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">tablo</td> <td width="79%">table</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vu</td> <td width="79%">you </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunino</td> <td width="79%">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur</td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">domo </td> <td width="79%">house</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kato</td> <td width="79%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">esar </td> <td width="79%">to be</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuno </td> <td width="79%">teenager, a youth </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">en</td> <td width="79%">in</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">la </td> <td width="79%">the</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">gardeno</td> <td width="79%">garden</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muso</td> <td width="79%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">me </td> <td width="79%">I/me </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yunulo</td> <td width="79%">boy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sub </td> <td width="79%">under</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Marie es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo <br> 3. La domo es en la gardeno <br> 4. Me es en la gardeno <br> 5. Me es en la domo. <br> 6. Vu es en la domo <br> 7. Vu es sub la tablo. <br> 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo. <br> 9. Rex es hundo. <br> 10. William es kato. <br> 11. La hundo es en la domo. <br> 12. La kato es sur la tablo. <br> 13. La buxo es sub la tablo. <br> 14. La kato es sur la buxo. <br> 15. La muso es en la domo. <br> 16. La muso es en la buxo. <br> 17. La muso es sub la tablo. <br> == Verbs - Present Tense == A verb is an 'action' or 'doing' word: see, read, touch. These are all actions.<br> Verbs too, in Ido, can be easily recognised by their endings. The first ones you will learn in this book all have the ending that shows the present tense, that is the ending -AS.<br> The present tense is used when the action in the verb is happening NOW: <br> Me vidas la hundo. - I see the dog. <br> Vu tushas la kato. - You touch the cat. <br> These are actions taking place at the present moment, so the present tense is used. In English there is more than one present tense, but don't let this confuse you: I touch the dog. I am touching the dog. If you think about it, these are both actions taking place in the present. Because the meanings of these two are so similar, Ido says them both in the same way: Me tushas (touch or am touching) la hundo. 'Me lektas la libro' could therefore be either 'I read the book' or 'I am reading the book', (or even 'I do read the book'). So remember this, especially when translating English into Ido. Don't translate 'I am touching' or 'you are reading' word for word. Until you can think naturally in Ido, it is best to change them in your mind to 'I touch' and 'you read' and then translate. == Ed/e == The Ido for 'and' is 'ed', but the final 'd', which is part of the root, is often dropped if the following word starts with a consonant. Officially you may suit yourself which word you use. It is a question of which sounds the better. In practice most Idists use 'e' if the following word starts with a consonant, and 'ed' if it starts with a vowel.<br> Note the same thing applies to three other words which you will learn later: a/ad, o/od, ka/kad. <img src="../../imaji/1_1.gif" width="294" height="186" border="2" alt="1_1"> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="27%">drinkar</td> <td width="73%">to drink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">manjar</td> <td width="73%">to eat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">prizar</td> <td width="73%">to like</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">regardar</td> <td width="73%">to look (at) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">tushar</td> <td width="73%">to touch</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">aquo </td> <td width="73%">water</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lakto</td> <td width="73%">milk </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pomo </td> <td width="73%">apple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">stulo</td> <td width="73%">chair</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">havar</td> <td width="73%">to have</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">lektar</td> <td width="73%">to read</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">promenar</td> <td width="73%">to walk, to stroll</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">e/ed</td> <td width="73%">and </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">vidar</td> <td width="73%">to see</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">fenestro</td> <td width="73%">window</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">libro</td> <td width="73%">book </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="27%">pordo</td> <td width="73%">door </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me havas hundo <br> 2. Me vidas la hundo. <br> 3. La hundo vidas me. <br> 4. Me prizas la hundo. <br> 5. Me prizas lakto. <br> 6. La hundo havas la lakto. <br> 7. La kato drinkas la lakto. <br> 8. Vu drinkas lakto. <br> 9. Me havas la pomo. <br> 10. Me manjas la pomo. <br> 11. La yuno manjas la pomo. <br> 12. Me regardas la muso. <br> 13. La muso vidas la aquo. <br> 14. La muso manjas la libro. <br> 15. La libro es sur la tablo. <br> 16. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 17. Vu lektas la libro. <br> 18. La kato regardas me. <br> 19. La kato regardas la pordo. <br> 20. Vu tushas la pordo. <br> 21. La kato tushas la fenestro. <br> 22. Me tushas la fenestro. <br> 23. Me promenas en la gardeno. <br> 24. Vu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno <br> 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo.<br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="64%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="34%" height="17">Bona jorno</td> <td width="66%" height="17">Hello (Good day) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Til rivido</td> <td width="66%">Good-bye (Until we meet again) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Quale vu standas?</td> <td width="66%">How are you? </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="34%">Tre bone danko</td> <td width="66%">Very well thank you. </td> </tr> </table> Now when you meet another Idist, or go to a congress or international gathering you have the beginings of a simple conversation. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == Here is a conversation between Peter and Mary. P: Bona jorno! <br> M: Bona jorno! <br> P: Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Til rivido! P: Til rivido! <br> == Exerco == 1) Practice the conversation phrases.<br> 2) Think in Ido of the things you know: <br> Touch the door and say to yourself, 'Me tushas la pordo'; <br> read a book and say 'Me lektas libro'; <br> and so on to include as many of the words learnt as possible. <br> 3) Please read aloud every Ido sentence in a lesson as many times as possible. == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl.<br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. The house is in the garden.<br> 4. I am in the garden.<br> 5. I am in the house.<br> 6. You are in the house.<br> 7. You are under the table.<br> 8. A dog is on the table in the house.<br> 9. Rex is a dog.<br> 10. William is a cat.<br> 11. The dog is in the house.<br> 12. The cat is on the table.<br> 13. The box is under the table.<br> 14. The cat is on the box.<br> 15. The mouse is in the house.<br> 16. The mouse is in the box.<br> 17. The mouse is under the table.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_01#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I have a dog.<br> 2. I see the dog.<br> 3. The dog sees me.<br> 4. I like the dog.<br> 5. I like milk.<br> 6. The dog has the milk.<br> 7. The cat drinks the milk.<br> 8. You drink the milk.<br> 9. I have the apple.<br> 10. I am eating the apple.<br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple.<br> 12. I am looking at the mouse.<br> 13. The mouse sees the water.<br> 14. The mouse is eating the book.<br> 15. The book is on the table.<br> 16. You read the book.<br> 17. You are reading the book.<br> 18. The cat looks at me.<br> 19. The cat looks at the door.<br> 20. You are touching the door.<br> 21. The cat is touching the window.<br> 22. I am touching the window.<br> 23. I am walking in the garden.<br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden.<br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> 967 75 2005-04-18T09:20:02Z Josu Lavin 2 **** Lesson 02 - Duesma Leciono ***********************************************<br> <br> Adjectives:--------------------------------------------------------------------<br> Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something:<br> big, small, bad, beautiful, red. Ido adjectives are easily recognised by<br> their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below.<br> <br> Vortaro:-----------------------------------------------------------------------<br> drinkajo - drink, floro - flower, kavalo - horse, manjajo - food, por -for,<br> muro - wall, plado - plate, taso - cup, dormas - sleeps, kompras - buys,<br> lernas [LERR-nas] - learns, habitas - lives, parolas - talks/speaks,<br> pozas - puts, anciena - old (contrary to new), olda - old (of living beings),<br> bela - beautiful, blua - blue, granda - big/large, mikra - little/small,<br> reda - red, yuna - young, anke - also, hike - here, mea - my, vua - your,<br> adhike - 'to' here, adsur - onto/upon<br> <br> Exempli:-----------------------------------------------------------------------<br> You are learning Ido. - Vu lernas Ido. You speak Ido. - Vu parolas Ido.<br> I am learning Ido. - Me lernas Ido. I speak Ido. - Me parolas Ido.<br> I have a beautiful house. - Me havas bela domo.<br> My house is big. - Mea domo esas/es granda.<br> The house is big. - La domo esas/es granda.<br> I live here. - Me habitas hike.<br> I sleep in the garden. - Me dormas en la gardeno.<br> My dog is old. - Mea hundo esas/es olda.<br> My dog also lives here. - Mea hundo anke habitas hike.<br> The dog sleeps in my small garden. - La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno.<br> The little cat looks at the big dog. - La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo.<br> You live in a beautiful house. - Vu habitas en bela domo.<br> You sleep on the beautiful table. - Vu dormas sur la bela tablo.<br> The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower. - La kato dormas sub la bela floro.<br> The horse is old. - La kavalo esas/es olda.<br> The little horse is young. - La mikra kavalo esas/es yuna.<br> The young horse likes the drink. - La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo.<br> You are buying food for the horse. - Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo.<br> I buy food here. - Me kompras manjajo hike.<br> I am putting your plate here. - Me pozas vua plado adhike.<br> The plate is red. - La plado esas/es reda.<br> I am putting food on the plate. - Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado.<br> The old mouse eats the food. - La olda muso manjas la manjajo.<br> A drink is in the small cup. - Drinkajo esas/es en la mikra taso.<br> The blue cup is on the table. - La blua taso esas/es sur la tablo.<br> You see the mouse in the cup. - Vu vidas la muso en la taso.<br> Your milk is also in the cup. - Vua lakto esas/es anke en la taso.<br> I am putting the book on the wall. - Me pozas la libro adsur la muro.<br> <br> The Negative:------------------------------------------------------------------<br> The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'.<br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. But in Ido<br> the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb:<br> Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there.<br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it.<br> <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary,<br> and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> <br> Derivation:--------------------------------------------------------------------<br> The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> <br> Exempli:-----------------------------------------------------------------------<br> I am - Me esas/es, I am not - Me ne esas/es,<br> I have - Me havas, I haven't - Me ne havas,<br> I see - Me vidas, I don't see - Me ne vidas,<br> I like - Me prizas, I don't like - Me ne prizas,<br> I walk - Me promenas, I am not walking - Me ne promenas<br> <br> I am not old. - Me ne esas/es olda.<br> I don't see you. - Me ne vidas vu.<br> You don't see me. - Vu ne vidas me.<br> I don't like the house. - Me ne prizas la domo.<br> I am not eating the food. - Me ne manjas la manjajo.<br> The dog doesn't speak Ido. - La hundo ne parolas Ido.<br> You do not live in London. - Vu ne habitas en London.<br> The dog is not learning Ido. - La hundo ne lernas Ido.<br> Maria doesn't live in Paris. - Maria ne habitas en Paris.<br> You are not looking at Maria. - Vu ne regardas Maria.<br> You are not reading the book. - Vu ne lektas la libro.<br> The plate is not in the house. - La plado ne esas/es en la domo.<br> The dog isn't looking at the horse. - La hundo ne regardas la kavalo.<br> The cat is not sleeping in the box. - La kato ne dormas en la buxo.<br> The boy/girl is not drinking the milk. - La yuno ne drinkas la lakto.<br> <br> Vortaro:-----------------------------------------------------------------------<br> bruna - brown, chasas - chases, do - so/therefore, dop - behind,<br> ek - out of, elu - she/her, felica - happy, feroca - fierce, fisho - fish,<br> foresto - forest, gazoneyo - lawn, grosa - fat, hodie - today, ilu - he/him,<br> magra - thin/lean, nun - now, ofte - often, sama - same, strado - street,<br> tre - very, trista - sad, adsur - onto/upon<br> <br> Exempli:-----------------------------------------------------------------------<br> Felix is a thin old cat. - Felix esas/es magra olda kato.<br> He lives behind your house in the forest. -<br> Ilu habitas dop vua domo en la foresto.<br> He often walks in my large garden. - Ilu ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno.<br> He often sleeps on my lawn. - Ilu ofte dormas sur mea gazoneyo.<br> Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse. -<br> Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso.<br> Today Felix hasn't got any food. - Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> He is very sad. - Ilu esas/es tre trista.<br> So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden. -<br> Do me pozas fisho por ilu adsur plado en la gardeno.<br> Now Felix is very happy. - Nun Felix esas/es tre felica.<br> Maria sees Felix. - Maria vidas Felix.<br> She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden. -<br> Elu ne prizas Felix e chasas ilu ek mea gardeno.<br> Felix is on the street. - Felix esas/es sur la strado.<br> Rex is a fierce dog. - Rex esas/es feroca hundo.<br> He also sees Felix. - Ilu anke vidas Felix.<br> Rex chases him. - Rex chasas ilu.<br> <br> Konversado:- You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. --------<br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<br> <br> Adjectives:- Dropping of the final 'a' ----------------------------------------<br> You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon<br> <br> Konversado: Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary. --------------<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas?<br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu?<br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas?<br> M: Me nomesas Mary.<br> P: Til rivido, Mary!<br> M: Til rivido, Peter!<br> <br> <br> <br><br> 2043 2005-04-18T12:29:24Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>Adjectives</b> <br> Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. <br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro </b> (Vocabulary) <br> Learn the following words by heart: </font></p> <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">drinkajo </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">drink </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">manjajo </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">food </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plado </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plate </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komprar</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to buy </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">parolar</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to talk, to speak </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">olda </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">old (of living beings) </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">granda </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">big, large </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yuna </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">young </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mea </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">my </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sur </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">on</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">floro </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flower </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">por </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">for </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">taso </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cup </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lernar</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to learn </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pozar </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to put </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bela </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">beautiful </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mikra </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">little, small </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">anke </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">also </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vua </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">your </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalo </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horse </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">muro</font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wall </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dormar </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to sleep </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">habitar </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to live </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">anciena </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">old (contrary to new) </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">blua </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">blue </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">reda </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">red </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hike </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adhike </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">'to' here </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adsur </font></td> <td width="79%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onto, upon </font></td> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> <br> <br> <b>The Negative</b> <br> The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> <br> <br> <b>Derivation</b> <br> The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<b> </b><br> 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> <br> <b> Vortaro </b></font></p> <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bruna</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">brown</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">do</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">so, therefore</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ek</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">out of</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">felica</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">happy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gazono</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lawn</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hodie</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">today</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">magra</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">thin, lean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ofte</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">often</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">strado</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">street</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">trista</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sad</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chasar</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to chase</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dop</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">behind</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">el</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">she, her</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">feroca</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fierce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">foresto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forest</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">grosa</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">il</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">he, him</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nun</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">now</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sama</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">same</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tre</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">very</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adsur</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onto, upon</font> </td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b><a name="ex3"></a>Exerco 3<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<b> </b><br> <b> </b>1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> <br> <b><br> Konversado</b> (Conversation) <br> You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> <br> <br> Adjectives <br> </b>You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon<b> <br> <br> <br> Konversado </b>(Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> <br> </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises </b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b> (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3-s"></a>Exerco 3 </b> (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 3064 2006-03-04T20:42:50Z 81.100.85.143 wikify = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3065 2006-03-04T20:45:25Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3066 2006-03-04T20:46:16Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3067 2006-03-04T20:46:46Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3068 2006-03-04T20:47:25Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 1 - Solvi */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3069 2006-03-04T20:47:46Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 2 - Solvi */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3070 2006-03-04T20:48:06Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 3 - Solvi */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3071 2006-03-04T20:49:25Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 1 - Solvi */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3072 2006-03-04T20:49:44Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 2 - Solvi */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 3073 2006-03-04T20:49:59Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 3 - Solvi */ = Lesson 2 - Duesma Leciono = == Adjectives == Adjectives are words which describe the appearance or quality of something: big, small, bad, beautiful, red.<br> Ido adjectives are easily recognised by their -a ending, as in the vocabulary below. == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="21%">drinkajo </td> <td width="79%">drink </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">manjajo </td> <td width="79%">food </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">plado </td> <td width="79%">plate </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">komprar</td> <td width="79%">to buy </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">parolar</td> <td width="79%">to talk, to speak </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">olda </td> <td width="79%">old (of living beings) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">granda </td> <td width="79%">big, large </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">yuna </td> <td width="79%">young </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mea </td> <td width="79%">my </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">sur </td> <td width="79%">on</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">floro </td> <td width="79%">flower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">por </td> <td width="79%">for </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">taso </td> <td width="79%">cup </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">lernar</td> <td width="79%">to learn </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">pozar </td> <td width="79%">to put </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">bela </td> <td width="79%">beautiful </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">mikra </td> <td width="79%">little, small </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anke </td> <td width="79%">also </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">vua </td> <td width="79%">your </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">kavalo </td> <td width="79%">horse </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">muro</td> <td width="79%">wall </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">dormar </td> <td width="79%">to sleep </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">habitar </td> <td width="79%">to live </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">anciena </td> <td width="79%">old (contrary to new) </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">blua </td> <td width="79%">blue </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">reda </td> <td width="79%">red </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">hike </td> <td width="79%">here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adhike </td> <td width="79%">'to' here </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="21%">adsur </td> <td width="79%">onto, upon</td> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): <br> 1. Vu lernas Ido. <br> 2. Vu parolas Ido <br> 3. Me lernas Ido. <br> 4. Me parolas Ido. <br> 5. Me havas bela domo. <br> 6. Mea domo es granda. <br> 7. La domo es granda. <br> 8. Me habitas hike. <br> 9. Me dormas en la gardeno. <br> 10. Mea hundo es olda. <br> 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike <br> 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno. <br> 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo. <br> 14. Vu habitas en bela domo. <br> 15. Vu dormas sur la granda tablo. <br> 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro. <br> 17. La kavalo es olda. <br> 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna <br> 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo. <br> 20. Vu kompras manjajo por la kavalo. <br> 21. Me kompras manjajo hike. <br> 22. Me pozas vua plado adhike. <br> 23. La plado es reda. <br> 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado. <br> 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo. <br> 26. Drinkajo es en la mikra taso. <br> 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo. <br> 28. Vu vidas la muso en la taso. <br> 29. Vua lakto es anke en la taso. <br> 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro. <br> == The Negative == The negative in Ido is formed by using 'ne'. It means 'not'. <br> In English we say 'I am not, I must not, I have not (I haven't)'. <br> But in Ido the word order is as follows, with the 'ne' usually in front of the verb: Me ne es, Me ne havas, but, Me ne mustas - I haven't got to. cf.<br> Me NE mustas irar adibe. - I haven't got to go there. <br> Me mustas NE facar to. - I must not do it. <br> Most verbs in English add 'does' or 'do' to help form the negative:<br> I 'do' not have (I don't have). Peter 'does' not read (doesn't read).<br> But these words are totaly unnecessary, and must never be included in an Ido negative sentence.<br> Ido uses the same pattern for all negatives and simply says:<br> Me ne havas (I do not have), Peter ne lektas (Peter does not read).<br> == Derivation == The adjective in -a forms a noun(person or object) in -o having the same sense:<br> bona - good -> bono - good one/ good man.<br> yuna - young -> yuno - young one/ young boy or girl<br> acesora - accessory -> acesoro - an accessory.<br> Or, vice versa: oro - gold -> ora - golden/ made of gold.<br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Me es - Me ne es <br> 2. Me havas - Me ne havas <br> 3. Me vidas - Me ne vidas <br> 4. Me prizas - Me ne prizas <br> 5. Me promenas - Me ne promenas <br> 6. Me es olda - Me ne es olda. <br> 7. Me ne vidas vu. <br> 8. Vu ne vidas me. <br> 9. Me ne prizas la domo. <br> 10. Me ne manjas la manjajo <br> 11. La hundo ne parolas Ido. <br> 12. Vu ne habitas en London. <br> 13. La kato ne lernas Ido <br> 14. Maria ne habitas en Paris. <br> 15. Vu ne regardas Maria. <br> 16. Vu ne lektas la libro. <br> 17. La plado ne es en la domo.<br> 18. La hundo ne regardas la kavalo. <br> 19. La kato ne dormas en la buxo. <br> 20. La yuno ne drinkas la lakto. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="48%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%"> bruna</td> <td width="33%"> brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> do</td> <td width="33%"> so, therefore</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ek</td> <td width="33%"> out of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> felica</td> <td width="33%"> happy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> fisho</td> <td width="33%"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> gazono</td> <td width="33%"> lawn</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> hodie</td> <td width="33%"> today</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> magra</td> <td width="33%"> thin, lean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> ofte</td> <td width="33%"> often</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> strado</td> <td width="33%"> street</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> trista</td> <td width="33%"> sad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> chasar</td> <td width="33%"> to chase</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> dop</td> <td width="33%"> behind</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> el</td> <td width="33%"> she, her</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> feroca</td> <td width="33%"> fierce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> foresto</td> <td width="33%"> forest</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> grosa</td> <td width="33%"> fat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> il</td> <td width="33%"> he, him</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> nun</td> <td width="33%"> now</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> sama</td> <td width="33%"> same</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> tre</td> <td width="33%"> very</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%"> adsur</td> <td width="33%"> onto, upon</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Felix es magra olda kato. <br> 2. Il habitas dop vua domo en la foresto. <br> 3. Il ofte promenas en mea granda gardeno <br> 4. Il ofte dormas sur mea gazono. <br> 5. Hodie Felix chasas grosa bruna muso. <br> 6. Hodie Felix ne havas manjajo.<br> 7. Il es tre trista. <br> 8. Do me pozas fisho por il adsur plado en la gardeno <br> 9. Nun Felix es tre felica. <br> 10. Maria vidas Felix. <br> 11. El ne prizas Felix e chasas il ek mea gardeno. <br> 12. Felix es sur la strado. <br> 13. Rex es feroca hundo <br> 14. Il anke vidas Felix. <br> 15. Rex chasas il. <br> == Konversado (Conversation) == You will learn later some of the grammatical points here. <br> Good morning! - Bona matino!<br> Good day! - Bona jorno!<br> What is your name? - Quale vu nomesas?<br> My name is Peter. - Me nomesas Peter.<br> How are you? - Quale vu standas?<br> Very well. - Tre bone.<br> Thank you! - Me dankas!<br> Are you tired? - Ka vu esas fatigita?<br> Not at all! - Tote ne!<br> Yes, a little. - Yes, kelkete.<br> No, sir. - No, sioro.<br> If you please. - Me pregas.<br> I am hungry. - Me hungras.<br> Are you thirsty? - Ka vu durstas?<br> Give me a glass. - Donez a me glaso.<br> A cup of tea. - Taso de teo.<br> Do you want...? - Ka vu deziras...?<br> I don't mind. - Me ne objecionas.<br> It does not matter. - Ne importas.<b><br> == Saying adjectives == You may drop the final 'a' of adjectives for euphony: Bona -> Bon == Konversado (Conversation) == (Here is another conversation between Peter and Mary)<br> P: Bon jorno! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Tre bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Me standas bone, danko. Me nomesas Peter. Quale vu nomesas? <br> M: Me nomesas Mary. <br> P: Til rivido, Mary! <br> M: Til rivido, Peter! <br> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. You are learning Ido.<br> 2. You speak Ido.<br> 3. I am learning Ido.<br> 4. I speak Ido.<br> 5. I have a beautiful house.<br> 6. My house is big.<br> 7. The house is big.<br> 8. I live here.<br> 9. I sleep in the garden.<br> 10. My dog is old.<br> 11. My dog also lives here.<br> 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden.<br> 13. The little cat looks at the big dog.<br> 14. You live in a beautiful house.<br> 15. You sleep on the big table.<br> 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower.<br> 17. The horse is old.<br> 18. The little horse is young.<br> 19. The young horse likes the drink.<br> 20. You are buying food for the horse.<br> 21. I buy food here.<br> 22. I am putting your plate here.<br> 23. The plate is red.<br> 24. I am putting food on the plate.<br> 25. The old mouse eats the food.<br> 26. A drink is in the small cup.<br> 27. The blue cup is on the table.<br> 28. You see the mouse in the cup.<br> 29. Your milk is also in the cup.<br> 30. I am putting the book on the wall.<br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am - I am not <br> 2. I have - I haven't<br> 3. I see - I don't see<br> 4. I like - I don't like<br> 5. I walk - I am not walking<br> 6. I am old - I am not old.<br> 7. I don't see you.<br> 8. You don't see me.<br> 9. I don't like the house.<br> 10. I am not eating the food.<br> 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido.<br> 12. You do not live in London.<br> 13. The dog is not learning Ido.<br> 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris.<br> 15. You are not looking at Maria.<br> 16. You are not reading the book.<br> 17. The plate is not in the house.<br> 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse.<br> 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box.<br> 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk.<br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_02#Exerco_3_(Exercise_3)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Felix is a thin old cat.<br> 2. He lives behind your house in the forest.<br> 3. He often walks in my large garden.<br> 4. He often sleeps on my lawn.<br> 5. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse.<br> 6. Today Felix hasn't got any food.<br> 7. He is very sad.<br> 8. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden.<br> 9. Now Felix is very happy.<br> 10. Maria sees Felix.<br> 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden.<br> 12. Felix is on the street.<br> 13. Rex is a fierce dog.<br> 14. He also sees Felix.<br> 15. Rex chases him.<br> 968 2044 2005-04-18T12:24:01Z Josu Lavin 2 A traducer a Interlingua Josu Lavin ==============================================================================<br> "-IDO FOR ALL-" by Niklas ApGawain + P.D. Hugon + J.L. Moore + L. de Beaufront<br> revised by an Idiotist (B.Y.T) with material from various sources, revizita/<br> ata/ota da zeloza Idisti per materii de diversa fonti, ed fakte ja tradukita<br> da li "tote libere" aden kelka sua lingui "segun sua maniero por sua skopi".<br> Lo signifikas ke onu darfas tote libere uzar "Ido For All" por sua skopo segun<br> sua maniero, tradukante la libro aden sua propra linguo pro ke olim Sro Niklas<br> ApGawain per sua grand'anmo permisis me tale ke anke me volas kondutar simile.<br> <br> == Laborinta/anta Idisti por ica lernolibro := ultre B.Y.T.(^_^ Idiotisto) ===<br> Hans STUIFBERGEN : Frank KASPER : Stephen L. RICE (Kapabla Logli ed USAano)<br> == Revizuri ==================================================================<br> 1.0 / 1999-07-26 : 1.1 / 1999-08-03 : 1.2 / 2000-02-29 : 1.3 / 2000-05-10<br> 1.4 / Ups! (Oops!) Pardonez me. 2005-02-13 / ....<br> E 20??-??-?? da qui? Forsan vu hike e vu ibe e vu qua esas lontane..<br> <br> ==============================================================================<br> Just as the Tanakh is a composition of two major sources, this course is also <br> a mixture of two different books by Niklas ApGawain and P.D. Hugon+J.L. Moore+<br> L. de Beaufront. Moreover this "IDO FOR ALL" contains small materials gathered<br> from somewhere by Hans STUIFBERGEN in Holland and Frank KASPER in Germany.<br> ==============================================================================<br> <br> 969 2045 2005-04-18T12:30:41Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 3 - Triesma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>Questions</b> <br> So far we have been making simple statements in Ido, such as: <br> Me vidas la kato or Me tushas la hundo. <br> Now it is time to consider how we can make questions. The English language uses two basic formulae: <br> (1) A few verbs can be put into the question form by changing the word order, for example: <br> 'I must' becomes 'Must I?' 'He is' becomes 'Is he?' and 'They can' becomes 'Can they?'. <br> (2) Then there are other verbs which are turned into the question form by putting 'do' or 'does' at the beginning of the sentece: <br> 'He sings' becomes 'Does he sing?', and 'You come' becomes 'Do you come?' <br> <br> In Ido question-making is much simpler. Firstly the words are kept in exactly the same order as for a statement, but to make it clear that a question is being asked the word 'Ka/Kad' is placed at the beginning of the sentence. <br> 'Ka/Kad' has no equivalent in English: <br> Vu havas kato (You've got a cat) becomes ..... Ka vu havas kato? (Do you have a cat?) Have you got a cat? <br> Me manjas ovo (I am eating an egg) becomes ..... Ka me manjas ovo? (Am I eating an egg?) <br> <br> Note as with 'ed/e', if the following word begins with a vowel then it is usual, though not obligatory, to use 'kad' instead: Il mustas (He must) -> Kad il mustas? (Must he?), or, you may use 'kad' alone irrespective of the following words.<br> <br> Note, if there is a word like who, where, etc., 'ka/kad' is not used: <br> Ube vu habitas? Where do you live? <br> Kad vu komprenis? - Did you understand? <br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b> (Vocabulary) <br> Learn the following words by heart: </font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">a / ad</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">blanka</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">white</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">irar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to go</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nigra</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">black</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">parko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">park</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rivero</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">river</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">venar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to come</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">arboro</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tree</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bruna</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">brown</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jupo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skirt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">no</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">no</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">policisto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">policeman</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">portar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to carry, to wear</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yes</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yes </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bona</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">good</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ibe</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">there </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mala</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bad</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ol</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">it</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ponto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bridge </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ucelo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bird </font> </td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me es, Ka me es? <br> 2. Il es, Kad il es? <br> 3. Vu havas, Ka vu havas? <br> 4. Ka me es bona? No. <br> 5. Ka vu es bela? Yes <br> 6. Ka Mary portas bela jupo? <br> 7. Yes, el portas bela blanka jupo. <br> 8. Ka la policisto es en la parko? <br> 9. Kad il es en la parko? <br> 10. No, il ne es hike hodie. <br> 11. Ka vu havas nigra hundo? <br> 12. No, me havas bruna hundo. <br> 13. Il drinkas. <br> 14. Kad il drinkas? <br> 15. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 16. Yes, me havas blanka kato. <br> 17. Kad el venas? <br> 18. No, el iras a la ponto. <br> 19. Ka la ucelo drinkas? <br> 20. Ka la ucelo es sur la ponto? <br> 21. No, ol ne es ibe. <br> 22. El manjas. <br> 23. Kad el manjas? <br> 24. Kad el manjas fisho? <br> 25. Ka la fisho es en la aquo? <br> 26. Yes, ol es en la aquo, e la hundo anke. <br> <br> <br> <b>The plural</b> <br> In English, to show that we are talking about more than one thing, we usually add an 's', e.g. 'cat' becomes 'cats', 'pig' becomes 'pigs', etc. <br> In Ido, forming the plural is also very simple. The -o ending of the noun is changed to an -i, so that 'kato' (cat) becomes 'kati' (cats), 'hundo' (dog) becomes 'hundi' (dogs) and so on without exception. <br> <br> The adjective is invariable; but when used without a noun, it becomes a noun itself, and takes the plural, if necessary: <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> La blanki e la nigri - The whites and the blacks. <br> <br> <br> <b>The Definite Article:- 'le' for the plural</b> <br> The definite article 'le' is used when there is no other sign of plural: <br> the ayes and the nays - le yes e le no <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> Le blanka e le nigra - The whites and the blacks. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. kato, kati <br> 2. tablo, tabli <br> 3. Me vidas la kato. <br> 4. Vu vidas la kati. <br> 5. La kati es sur la tabli. <br> 6. La kato dormas dop la flori. <br> 7. La libri es nigra. <br> 8. Kad il prizas pomi? <br> 9. La parki es bela. <br> 10. Mary prizas blanka jupi. <br> 11. Ka vu havas bela jupo? <br> 12. La fishi es en la aquo. <br> 13. La policisti ne es grosa. <br> 14. La policisti chasas la yuni. <br> 15. La musi chasas la kato. <br> 16. La uceli es en la arbori. <br> 17. La uceli es sur la ponti. <br> 18. Ka la yuni es en la arbori? <br> 19. La kavali drinkas la aquo. <br> 20. La flori es en la taso sur la tablo. <br> <br> <br> <b> Vortaro </b> </font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">danko</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">thank you</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">durstar</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to be thirsty</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">glaso</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">glass</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kafeo </font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">coffee</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">me pregas</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">please</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">semblas ke</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">it seems that</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ma</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">but</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dezirar</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to desire, to want</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hungrar</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to be hungry</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">glaso de lakto</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">glass of milk</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kafeerio</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cafe</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kuko</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cake </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">taso de kafeo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cup of coffee</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pekunio</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">money</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">esar</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to be</font> </td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b>Konversado</b> (En la kafeerio inter Peter e Mary) <br> P: Bon jorno, Mary! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Bon jorno, Peter! Me standas bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. Ka vu durstas? <br> M: Yes, me durstas. Ube la kafeerio esas? <br> P: Yen la kafeerio! Ka vu deziras taso de kafeo? <br> M: No, danko. Me deziras glaso de lakto, me pregas. <br> P: Ka vu hungras? <br> M: Yes, me hungras. <br> P: Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> M: Yes, me pregas. Me prizas kuki. <br> P: Hm...Mary... Semblas ke me ne havas mea pekunii... Ka vu havas.....pekunio? <br> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3"></a>Exerco 3<br> </b> Answer the questions (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the (posible) answers):<b><br> </b>1. Quale vu nomesas? <br> 2. Quale vu standas? <br> 3. Ka vu ofte drinkas lakto? <br> 4. Ka vu havas bela domo? <br> 5. Ka vu havas gardeno? <br> 6. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 7. Ka vu prizas kati? <br> 8. Ka vu havas granda hundo? <br> 9. Ka vu es en la parko? <br> 10. Ka vu hungras? <br> 11. Ka vu prizas kafeo? <br> 12. Ka vu durstas? <br> 13. Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> 14. Ka vu es bona? <br> 15. Ka vu prizas blanka musi? <br> <br> <b><br> Colours </b></font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">blanka</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">white</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bruna</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">brown</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">griza</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">grey</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">purpura</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">purple</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">reda</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">red</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">verda</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">green</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">blua</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">blue </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flava</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yellow</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nigra</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">black</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">oranjea</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">orange</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rozea</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pink</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">violea</font> </td> <td width="25%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">violet</font> </td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><br> The imperative</b><br> <b> </b>The imperative is the form of the verb used for giving orders and commands. <br> So far we have met the present tense ending -as, as in 'drinkas', 'manjas', etc. <br> To make the above words into commands is easy. You merely exchange the -as ending for -ez. <br> This gives for example: drinkez! (Drink!), manjez! (Eat!), venez! (Come!). <b><br> <br> <br> Vortaro</b></font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">apertez</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">open!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">irez</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">go!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pozez</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">put!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sideskez</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sit down!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tushez</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">touch!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">donez</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">give!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">klozez</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">close!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">levez</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pick up!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">staceskez</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">stand up!</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">krayono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pencil</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adsur</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onto/upon</font> </td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><br> <a name="ex4"></a>Exerco 4<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex4-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Staceskez! <br> 2. Sideskez! <br> 3. Apertez la buxo! <br> 4. Manjez la pomo! <br> 5. Apertez la libro! <br> 6. Apertez la pordo! <br> 7. Klozez la libro! <br> 8. Klozez la fenestro! <br> 9. Tushez la stulo! <br> 10. Tushez la fenestro! <br> 11. Drinkez vua kafeo! <br> 12. Levez la libro! <br> 13. Levez la stulo! <br> 14. Levez la krayono! <br> 15. Donez la libro a me! <br> 16. Pozez la taso adsur la tablo! <br> 17. Pozez la plado adsur la stulo! <br> 18. Pozez la krayono adsur la tablo! <br> 19. Pozez la libro e la krayono adsur la stulo! <br> <br> <br> <b>Animals<br> </b>Note that the following can be either male or female. Distinction is made in the following lesson. </font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">anado</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">duck, drake</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cervo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">deer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gorilo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gorilla</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hundo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dog</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kato</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horsel</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">leopardo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">leopard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">muso</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">porko</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pig</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">simio</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">monkey</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">volfo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wolf</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bovo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cow, bull</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">elefanto</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">elephant</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hen, cock</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kamelo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">camel</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kapro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">goat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">krokodilo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">crocodile</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">leono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mutono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sheep</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tigro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tiger</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">urso</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bear</font> </td> </tr> </table> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. I am, Am I?<br> 2. He is, Is he? <br> 3. You have, Have you? <br> 4. Am I good? No.<br> 5. Are you beautiful? Yes. <br> 6. Is Mary wearing a beautiful skirt? <br> 7. Yes, she is wearing a beautiful white skirt. <br> 8. Is the policeman in the park?<br> 9. Is he in the park? <br> 10. No, he is not here today.<br> 11. Have you got a black dog? <br> 12. No, I have a brown dog.<br> 13. He is drinking. <br> 14. Is he drinking?<br> 15. Have you a cat? <br> 16. Yes, I have a white cat. <br> 17. Is she coming?<br> 18. No, she is going to the bridge. <br> 19. Is the bird drinking? <br> 20. Is the bird on the bridge? <br> 21. No, it is not there.<br> 22. She is eating. <br> 23. Is she eating?<br> 24. Is she eating a fish?<br> 25. Is the fish in the water?<br> 26. Yes, it is in the water, and the dog as well. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. a cat, cats<br> 2. a table, tables<br> 3. I see the cat.<br> 4. You see the cats.<br> 5. The cats are on the tables.<br> 6. The cat is sleeping behind the flowers. <br> 7. The books are black.<br> 8. Does he like apples? <br> 9. The parks are beautiful.<br> 10. Mary likes white skirts.<br> 11. Have you got a beautiful skirt? <br> 12. The fish are in the water.<br> 13. The policemen are not fat.<br> 14. The policemen are chasing the teenagers. <br> 15. The mice are chasing the cat.<br> 16. The birds are in the trees.<br> 17. The birds are on the bridges.<br> 18. Are the children in the trees? <br> 19. The horses are drinking the water. <br> 20. The flowers are in the cup on the table. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3-s"></a>Exerco 3 </b>(Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Me nomesas Bebson Hochfeld <br> 2. Me standas tre bone <br> 3. Yes, me tre ofte drinkas lakto. <br> 4. Yes, me havas bela ma (but) mikra domo. <br> 5. Yes, me havas mikra gardeno. <br> 6. No, me ne havas un <br> 7. No, me ne prizas kati. <br> 8. No, me nek (neither) prizas hundo. <br> 9. Yes, me es en la parko. <br> 10. Yes, me es grosa e sempre hungras. <br> 11. Yes, me tre prizas kafeo. <br> 12. No, me ne durstas ma me hungras. <br> 13. Yes, me multe deziras kuko. <br> 14. Yes, me es tre bona segun me (as far as I know). <br> 15. No, no, me ne prizas musi. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex4-s"></a>Exerco 4 </b>(Click <a href="#ex4"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b><br> </b><b> </b>1. Stand up! <br> 2. Sit down!<br> 3. Open the box! <br> 4. Eat the apple!<br> 5. Open the book! <br> 6. Open the door! <br> 7. Close the book! <br> 8. Close the window! <br> 9. Touch the chair! <br> 10. Touch the window! <br> 11. Drink your coffee! <br> 12. Pick the book up!<br> 13. Pick the chair up! <br> 14. Pick up the pencil! <br> 15. Give the book to me! <br> 16. Put the cup on the table! <br> 17. Put the plate on the chair! <br> 18. Put the pencil on the table! <br> 19. Put the book and the pencil on the chair! </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 3060 2006-03-02T13:39:42Z 85.12.72.1 Complete overhaul - wifified = Lesson 3 - Triesma Leciono = == Questions == So far we have been making simple statements in Ido, such as: <br> Me vidas la kato or Me tushas la hundo. <br> Now it is time to consider how we can make questions. The English language uses two basic formulae: <br> (1) A few verbs can be put into the question form by changing the word order, for example: <br> 'I must' becomes 'Must I?' 'He is' becomes 'Is he?' and 'They can' becomes 'Can they?'. <br> (2) Then there are other verbs which are turned into the question form by putting 'do' or 'does' at the beginning of the sentece: <br> 'He sings' becomes 'Does he sing?', and 'You come' becomes 'Do you come?' <br> In Ido question-making is much simpler. Firstly the words are kept in exactly the same order as for a statement, but to make it clear that a question is being asked the word 'Ka/Kad' is placed at the beginning of the sentence. <br> 'Ka/Kad' has no equivalent in English: <br> Vu havas kato (You've got a cat) becomes ..... Ka vu havas kato? (Do you have a cat?) Have you got a cat? <br> Me manjas ovo (I am eating an egg) becomes ..... Ka me manjas ovo? (Am I eating an egg?) <br> Note as with 'ed/e', if the following word begins with a vowel then it is usual, though not obligatory, to use 'kad' instead: Il mustas (He must) -> Kad il mustas? (Must he?), or, you may use 'kad' alone irrespective of the following words.<br> Note, if there is a word like who, where, etc., 'ka/kad' is not used: <br> Ube vu habitas? Where do you live? <br> Kad vu komprenis? - Did you understand? <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%">a / ad</td> <td width="65%">to</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">blanka</td> <td width="65%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">irar</td> <td width="65%">to go</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">nigra</td> <td width="65%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">parko</td> <td width="65%">park</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">rivero</td> <td width="65%">river</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">venar</td> <td width="65%">to come</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">arboro</td> <td width="65%">tree</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bruna</td> <td width="65%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">jupo</td> <td width="65%">skirt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">no</td> <td width="65%">no</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">policisto</td> <td width="65%">policeman</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">portar</td> <td width="65%">to carry, to wear</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">yes</td> <td width="65%">yes</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bona</td> <td width="65%">good</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ibe</td> <td width="65%">there</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">mala</td> <td width="65%">bad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ol</td> <td width="65%">it</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ponto</td> <td width="65%">bridge</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ucelo</td> <td width="65%">bird</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me es, Ka me es? <br> 2. Il es, Kad il es? <br> 3. Vu havas, Ka vu havas? <br> 4. Ka me es bona? No. <br> 5. Ka vu es bela? Yes <br> 6. Ka Mary portas bela jupo? <br> 7. Yes, el portas bela blanka jupo. <br> 8. Ka la policisto es en la parko? <br> 9. Kad il es en la parko? <br> 10. No, il ne es hike hodie. <br> 11. Ka vu havas nigra hundo? <br> 12. No, me havas bruna hundo. <br> 13. Il drinkas. <br> 14. Kad il drinkas? <br> 15. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 16. Yes, me havas blanka kato. <br> 17. Kad el venas? <br> 18. No, el iras a la ponto. <br> 19. Ka la ucelo drinkas? <br> 20. Ka la ucelo es sur la ponto? <br> 21. No, ol ne es ibe. <br> 22. El manjas. <br> 23. Kad el manjas? <br> 24. Kad el manjas fisho? <br> 25. Ka la fisho es en la aquo? <br> 26. Yes, ol es en la aquo, e la hundo anke. <br> == The plural == In English, to show that we are talking about more than one thing, we usually add an 's', e.g. 'cat' becomes 'cats', 'pig' becomes 'pigs', etc. <br> In Ido, forming the plural is also very simple. The -o ending of the noun is changed to an -i, so that 'kato' (cat) becomes 'kati' (cats), 'hundo' (dog) becomes 'hundi' (dogs) and so on without exception. <br> The adjective is invariable; but when used without a noun, it becomes a noun itself, and takes the plural, if necessary: <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> La blanki e la nigri - The whites and the blacks. <br> == The Definite Article:- 'le' for the plural == The definite article 'le' is used when there is no other sign of plural: <br> the ayes and the nays - le yes e le no <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> Le blanka e le nigra - The whites and the blacks. <br> == Exerco 2 == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. kato, kati <br> 2. tablo, tabli <br> 3. Me vidas la kato. <br> 4. Vu vidas la kati. <br> 5. La kati es sur la tabli. <br> 6. La kato dormas dop la flori. <br> 7. La libri es nigra. <br> 8. Kad il prizas pomi? <br> 9. La parki es bela. <br> 10. Mary prizas blanka jupi. <br> 11. Ka vu havas bela jupo? <br> 12. La fishi es en la aquo. <br> 13. La policisti ne es grosa. <br> 14. La policisti chasas la yuni. <br> 15. La musi chasas la kato. <br> 16. La uceli es en la arbori. <br> 17. La uceli es sur la ponti. <br> 18. Ka la yuni es en la arbori? <br> 19. La kavali drinkas la aquo. <br> 20. La flori es en la taso sur la tablo. <br> == Vortaro == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">danko</td> <td width="33%">thank you</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">durstar</td> <td width="33%">to be thirsty</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">glaso</td> <td width="33%">glass</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kafeo</td> <td width="33%">coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">teo</td> <td width="33%">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">me pregas</td> <td width="33%">please</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">yen</td> <td width="33%">here is</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">semblas ke</td> <td width="33%">it seems that</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">ma</td> <td width="33%">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">dezirar</td> <td width="32%">to desire, to want</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hungrar</td> <td width="32%">to be hungry</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">glaso de lakto</td> <td width="32%">glass of milk</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kafeerio</td> <td width="32%">cafe</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kuko</td> <td width="32%">cake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">taso de kafeo</td> <td width="32%">cup of coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">pekunio</td> <td width="32%">money</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">esar</td> <td width="32%">to be</td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == (En la kafeerio inter Peter e Mary) <br> P: Bon jorno, Mary! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Bon jorno, Peter! Me standas bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. Ka vu durstas? <br> M: Yes, me durstas. Ube la kafeerio esas? <br> P: Yen la kafeerio! Ka vu deziras taso de kafeo? <br> M: No, danko. Me deziras glaso de lakto, me pregas. <br> P: Ka vu hungras? <br> M: Yes, me hungras. <br> P: Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> M: Yes, me pregas. Me prizas kuki. <br> P: Hm...Mary... Semblas ke me ne havas mea pekunii... Ka vu havas.....pekunio? == Exerco 3 == Answer the questions (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the (possible) answers):<b><br> 1. Quale vu nomesas? <br> 2. Quale vu standas? <br> 3. Ka vu ofte drinkas lakto? <br> 4. Ka vu havas bela domo? <br> 5. Ka vu havas gardeno? <br> 6. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 7. Ka vu prizas kati? <br> 8. Ka vu havas granda hundo? <br> 9. Ka vu es en la parko? <br> 10. Ka vu hungras? <br> 11. Ka vu prizas kafeo? <br> 12. Ka vu durstas? <br> 13. Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> 14. Ka vu es bona? <br> 15. Ka vu prizas blanka musi? <br> == Colours == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="25%">blanka</td> <td width="25%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">bruna</td> <td width="25%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">griza</td> <td width="25%">grey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">purpura</td> <td width="25%">purple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">reda</td> <td width="25%">red</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">verda</td> <td width="25%">green</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">blua</td> <td width="25%">blue</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">flava</td> <td width="25%">yellow</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">nigra</td> <td width="25%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">oranjea</td> <td width="25%">orange</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">rozea</td> <td width="25%">pink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">violea</td> <td width="25%">violet</td> </tr> </table> == The imperative == The imperative is the form of the verb used for giving orders and commands. <br> So far we have met the present tense ending -as, as in 'drinkas', 'manjas', etc. <br> To make the above words into commands is easy. You merely exchange the -as ending for -ez. <br> This gives for example: drinkez! (Drink!), manjez! (Eat!), venez! (Come!). <b><br> == Vortaro == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">apertez</td> <td width="33%">open!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">irez</td> <td width="33%">go!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">pozez</td> <td width="33%">put!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">sideskez</td> <td width="33%">sit down!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">tushez</td> <td width="33%">touch!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">donez</td> <td width="32%">give!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">klozez</td> <td width="32%">close!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">levez</td> <td width="32%">pick up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">staceskez</td> <td width="32%">stand up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krayono</td> <td width="32%">pencil</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">adsur</td> <td width="32%">onto/upon </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex4-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Staceskez! <br> 2. Sideskez! <br> 3. Apertez la buxo! <br> 4. Manjez la pomo! <br> 5. Apertez la libro! <br> 6. Apertez la pordo! <br> 7. Klozez la libro! <br> 8. Klozez la fenestro! <br> 9. Tushez la stulo! <br> 10. Tushez la fenestro! <br> 11. Drinkez vua kafeo! <br> 12. Levez la libro! <br> 13. Levez la stulo! <br> 14. Levez la krayono! <br> 15. Donez la libro a me! <br> 16. Pozez la taso adsur la tablo! <br> 17. Pozez la plado adsur la stulo! <br> 18. Pozez la krayono adsur la tablo! <br> 19. Pozez la libro e la krayono adsur la stulo! <br> == Animals == Note that the following can be either male or female. Distinction is made in the following lesson.</p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">anado</td> <td width="33%">duck, drake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">cervo</td> <td width="33%">deer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">gorilo</td> <td width="33%">gorilla</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">hundo</td> <td width="33%">dog</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kato</td> <td width="33%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kavalo</td> <td width="33%">horse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">leopardo</td> <td width="33%">leopard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">muso</td> <td width="33%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">porko</td> <td width="33%">pig</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">simio</td> <td width="33%">monkey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">volfo</td> <td width="33%">wolf</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">bovo</td> <td width="32%">cow, bull</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">elefanto</td> <td width="32%">elephant</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hano</td> <td width="32%">hen, cock</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kamelo</td> <td width="32%">camel</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kapro</td> <td width="32%">goat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krokodilo</td> <td width="32%">crocodile</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">leono</td> <td width="32%">lion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">mutono</td> <td width="32%">sheep</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">tigro</td> <td width="32%">tiger</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">urso</td> <td width="32%">bear</td> </tr> </table> <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. I am, Am I?<br> 2. He is, Is he? <br> 3. You have, Have you? <br> 4. Am I good? No.<br> 5. Are you beautiful? Yes. <br> 6. Is Mary wearing a beautiful skirt? <br> 7. Yes, she is wearing a beautiful white skirt. <br> 8. Is the policeman in the park?<br> 9. Is he in the park? <br> 10. No, he is not here today.<br> 11. Have you got a black dog? <br> 12. No, I have a brown dog.<br> 13. He is drinking. <br> 14. Is he drinking?<br> 15. Have you a cat? <br> 16. Yes, I have a white cat. <br> 17. Is she coming?<br> 18. No, she is going to the bridge. <br> 19. Is the bird drinking? <br> 20. Is the bird on the bridge? <br> 21. No, it is not there.<br> 22. She is eating. <br> 23. Is she eating?<br> 24. Is she eating a fish?<br> 25. Is the fish in the water?<br> 26. Yes, it is in the water, and the dog as well. <br> == Exerco 2 == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. a cat, cats<br> 2. a table, tables<br> 3. I see the cat.<br> 4. You see the cats.<br> 5. The cats are on the tables.<br> 6. The cat is sleeping behind the flowers. <br> 7. The books are black.<br> 8. Does he like apples? <br> 9. The parks are beautiful.<br> 10. Mary likes white skirts.<br> 11. Have you got a beautiful skirt? <br> 12. The fish are in the water.<br> 13. The policemen are not fat.<br> 14. The policemen are chasing the teenagers. <br> 15. The mice are chasing the cat.<br> 16. The birds are in the trees.<br> 17. The birds are on the bridges.<br> 18. Are the children in the trees? <br> 19. The horses are drinking the water. <br> 20. The flowers are in the cup on the table. <br> == Exerco 3 == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Me nomesas Bebson Hochfeld <br> 2. Me standas tre bone <br> 3. Yes, me tre ofte drinkas lakto. <br> 4. Yes, me havas bela ma (but) mikra domo. <br> 5. Yes, me havas mikra gardeno. <br> 6. No, me ne havas un <br> 7. No, me ne prizas kati. <br> 8. No, me nek (neither) prizas hundo. <br> 9. Yes, me es en la parko. <br> 10. Yes, me es grosa e sempre hungras. <br> 11. Yes, me tre prizas kafeo. <br> 12. No, me ne durstas ma me hungras. <br> 13. Yes, me multe deziras kuko. <br> 14. Yes, me es tre bona segun me (as far as I know). <br> 15. No, no, me ne prizas musi. <br> == Exerco 4 == (Click <a href="#ex4"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b><br> 1. Stand up! <br> 2. Sit down!<br> 3. Open the box! <br> 4. Eat the apple!<br> 5. Open the book! <br> 6. Open the door! <br> 7. Close the book! <br> 8. Close the window! <br> 9. Touch the chair! <br> 10. Touch the window! <br> 11. Drink your coffee! <br> 12. Pick the book up!<br> 13. Pick the chair up! <br> 14. Pick up the pencil! <br> 15. Give the book to me! <br> 16. Put the cup on the table! <br> 17. Put the plate on the chair! <br> 18. Put the pencil on the table! <br> 19. Put the book and the pencil on the chair! </p> <hr> 3061 2006-03-02T13:49:28Z 85.12.72.1 = Lesson 3 - Triesma Leciono = == Questions == So far we have been making simple statements in Ido, such as: <br> Me vidas la kato or Me tushas la hundo. <br> Now it is time to consider how we can make questions. The English language uses two basic formulae: <br> (1) A few verbs can be put into the question form by changing the word order, for example: <br> 'I must' becomes 'Must I?' 'He is' becomes 'Is he?' and 'They can' becomes 'Can they?'. <br> (2) Then there are other verbs which are turned into the question form by putting 'do' or 'does' at the beginning of the sentece: <br> 'He sings' becomes 'Does he sing?', and 'You come' becomes 'Do you come?' <br> In Ido question-making is much simpler. Firstly the words are kept in exactly the same order as for a statement, but to make it clear that a question is being asked the word 'Ka/Kad' is placed at the beginning of the sentence. <br> 'Ka/Kad' has no equivalent in English: <br> Vu havas kato (You've got a cat) becomes ..... Ka vu havas kato? (Do you have a cat?) Have you got a cat? <br> Me manjas ovo (I am eating an egg) becomes ..... Ka me manjas ovo? (Am I eating an egg?) <br> Note as with 'ed/e', if the following word begins with a vowel then it is usual, though not obligatory, to use 'kad' instead: Il mustas (He must) -> Kad il mustas? (Must he?), or, you may use 'kad' alone irrespective of the following words.<br> Note, if there is a word like who, where, etc., 'ka/kad' is not used: <br> Ube vu habitas? Where do you live? <br> Kad vu komprenis? - Did you understand? <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%">a / ad</td> <td width="65%">to</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">blanka</td> <td width="65%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">irar</td> <td width="65%">to go</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">nigra</td> <td width="65%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">parko</td> <td width="65%">park</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">rivero</td> <td width="65%">river</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">venar</td> <td width="65%">to come</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">arboro</td> <td width="65%">tree</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bruna</td> <td width="65%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">jupo</td> <td width="65%">skirt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">no</td> <td width="65%">no</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">policisto</td> <td width="65%">policeman</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">portar</td> <td width="65%">to carry, to wear</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">yes</td> <td width="65%">yes</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bona</td> <td width="65%">good</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ibe</td> <td width="65%">there</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">mala</td> <td width="65%">bad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ol</td> <td width="65%">it</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ponto</td> <td width="65%">bridge</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ucelo</td> <td width="65%">bird</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me es, Ka me es? <br> 2. Il es, Kad il es? <br> 3. Vu havas, Ka vu havas? <br> 4. Ka me es bona? No. <br> 5. Ka vu es bela? Yes <br> 6. Ka Mary portas bela jupo? <br> 7. Yes, el portas bela blanka jupo. <br> 8. Ka la policisto es en la parko? <br> 9. Kad il es en la parko? <br> 10. No, il ne es hike hodie. <br> 11. Ka vu havas nigra hundo? <br> 12. No, me havas bruna hundo. <br> 13. Il drinkas. <br> 14. Kad il drinkas? <br> 15. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 16. Yes, me havas blanka kato. <br> 17. Kad el venas? <br> 18. No, el iras a la ponto. <br> 19. Ka la ucelo drinkas? <br> 20. Ka la ucelo es sur la ponto? <br> 21. No, ol ne es ibe. <br> 22. El manjas. <br> 23. Kad el manjas? <br> 24. Kad el manjas fisho? <br> 25. Ka la fisho es en la aquo? <br> 26. Yes, ol es en la aquo, e la hundo anke. <br> == The plural == In English, to show that we are talking about more than one thing, we usually add an 's', e.g. 'cat' becomes 'cats', 'pig' becomes 'pigs', etc. <br> In Ido, forming the plural is also very simple. The -o ending of the noun is changed to an -i, so that 'kato' (cat) becomes 'kati' (cats), 'hundo' (dog) becomes 'hundi' (dogs) and so on without exception. <br> The adjective is invariable; but when used without a noun, it becomes a noun itself, and takes the plural, if necessary: <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> La blanki e la nigri - The whites and the blacks. <br> == The Definite Article:- 'le' for the plural == The definite article 'le' is used when there is no other sign of plural: <br> the ayes and the nays - le yes e le no <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> Le blanka e le nigra - The whites and the blacks. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. kato, kati <br> 2. tablo, tabli <br> 3. Me vidas la kato. <br> 4. Vu vidas la kati. <br> 5. La kati es sur la tabli. <br> 6. La kato dormas dop la flori. <br> 7. La libri es nigra. <br> 8. Kad il prizas pomi? <br> 9. La parki es bela. <br> 10. Mary prizas blanka jupi. <br> 11. Ka vu havas bela jupo? <br> 12. La fishi es en la aquo. <br> 13. La policisti ne es grosa. <br> 14. La policisti chasas la yuni. <br> 15. La musi chasas la kato. <br> 16. La uceli es en la arbori. <br> 17. La uceli es sur la ponti. <br> 18. Ka la yuni es en la arbori? <br> 19. La kavali drinkas la aquo. <br> 20. La flori es en la taso sur la tablo. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">danko</td> <td width="33%">thank you</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">durstar</td> <td width="33%">to be thirsty</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">glaso</td> <td width="33%">glass</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kafeo</td> <td width="33%">coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">teo</td> <td width="33%">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">me pregas</td> <td width="33%">please</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">yen</td> <td width="33%">here is</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">semblas ke</td> <td width="33%">it seems that</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">ma</td> <td width="33%">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">dezirar</td> <td width="32%">to desire, to want</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hungrar</td> <td width="32%">to be hungry</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">glaso de lakto</td> <td width="32%">glass of milk</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kafeerio</td> <td width="32%">cafe</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kuko</td> <td width="32%">cake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">taso de kafeo</td> <td width="32%">cup of coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">pekunio</td> <td width="32%">money</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">esar</td> <td width="32%">to be</td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == (En la kafeerio inter Peter e Mary) <br> P: Bon jorno, Mary! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Bon jorno, Peter! Me standas bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. Ka vu durstas? <br> M: Yes, me durstas. Ube la kafeerio esas? <br> P: Yen la kafeerio! Ka vu deziras taso de kafeo? <br> M: No, danko. Me deziras glaso de lakto, me pregas. <br> P: Ka vu hungras? <br> M: Yes, me hungras. <br> P: Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> M: Yes, me pregas. Me prizas kuki. <br> P: Hm...Mary... Semblas ke me ne havas mea pekunii... Ka vu havas.....pekunio? == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Answer the questions (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the (possible) answers):<b><br> 1. Quale vu nomesas? <br> 2. Quale vu standas? <br> 3. Ka vu ofte drinkas lakto? <br> 4. Ka vu havas bela domo? <br> 5. Ka vu havas gardeno? <br> 6. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 7. Ka vu prizas kati? <br> 8. Ka vu havas granda hundo? <br> 9. Ka vu es en la parko? <br> 10. Ka vu hungras? <br> 11. Ka vu prizas kafeo? <br> 12. Ka vu durstas? <br> 13. Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> 14. Ka vu es bona? <br> 15. Ka vu prizas blanka musi? <br> == Colours == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="25%">blanka</td> <td width="25%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">bruna</td> <td width="25%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">griza</td> <td width="25%">grey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">purpura</td> <td width="25%">purple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">reda</td> <td width="25%">red</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">verda</td> <td width="25%">green</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">blua</td> <td width="25%">blue</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">flava</td> <td width="25%">yellow</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">nigra</td> <td width="25%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">oranjea</td> <td width="25%">orange</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">rozea</td> <td width="25%">pink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">violea</td> <td width="25%">violet</td> </tr> </table> == The imperative == The imperative is the form of the verb used for giving orders and commands. <br> So far we have met the present tense ending -as, as in 'drinkas', 'manjas', etc. <br> To make the above words into commands is easy. You merely exchange the -as ending for -ez. <br> This gives for example: drinkez! (Drink!), manjez! (Eat!), venez! (Come!). <b><br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">apertez</td> <td width="33%">open!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">irez</td> <td width="33%">go!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">pozez</td> <td width="33%">put!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">sideskez</td> <td width="33%">sit down!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">tushez</td> <td width="33%">touch!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">donez</td> <td width="32%">give!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">klozez</td> <td width="32%">close!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">levez</td> <td width="32%">pick up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">staceskez</td> <td width="32%">stand up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krayono</td> <td width="32%">pencil</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">adsur</td> <td width="32%">onto/upon </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex4-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Staceskez! <br> 2. Sideskez! <br> 3. Apertez la buxo! <br> 4. Manjez la pomo! <br> 5. Apertez la libro! <br> 6. Apertez la pordo! <br> 7. Klozez la libro! <br> 8. Klozez la fenestro! <br> 9. Tushez la stulo! <br> 10. Tushez la fenestro! <br> 11. Drinkez vua kafeo! <br> 12. Levez la libro! <br> 13. Levez la stulo! <br> 14. Levez la krayono! <br> 15. Donez la libro a me! <br> 16. Pozez la taso adsur la tablo! <br> 17. Pozez la plado adsur la stulo! <br> 18. Pozez la krayono adsur la tablo! <br> 19. Pozez la libro e la krayono adsur la stulo! <br> == Animals == Note that the following can be either male or female. Distinction is made in the following lesson. <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">anado</td> <td width="33%">duck, drake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">cervo</td> <td width="33%">deer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">gorilo</td> <td width="33%">gorilla</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">hundo</td> <td width="33%">dog</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kato</td> <td width="33%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kavalo</td> <td width="33%">horse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">leopardo</td> <td width="33%">leopard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">muso</td> <td width="33%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">porko</td> <td width="33%">pig</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">simio</td> <td width="33%">monkey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">volfo</td> <td width="33%">wolf</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">bovo</td> <td width="32%">cow, bull</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">elefanto</td> <td width="32%">elephant</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hano</td> <td width="32%">hen, cock</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kamelo</td> <td width="32%">camel</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kapro</td> <td width="32%">goat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krokodilo</td> <td width="32%">crocodile</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">leono</td> <td width="32%">lion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">mutono</td> <td width="32%">sheep</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">tigro</td> <td width="32%">tiger</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">urso</td> <td width="32%">bear</td> </tr> </table> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi== (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. I am, Am I?<br> 2. He is, Is he? <br> 3. You have, Have you? <br> 4. Am I good? No.<br> 5. Are you beautiful? Yes. <br> 6. Is Mary wearing a beautiful skirt? <br> 7. Yes, she is wearing a beautiful white skirt. <br> 8. Is the policeman in the park?<br> 9. Is he in the park? <br> 10. No, he is not here today.<br> 11. Have you got a black dog? <br> 12. No, I have a brown dog.<br> 13. He is drinking. <br> 14. Is he drinking?<br> 15. Have you a cat? <br> 16. Yes, I have a white cat. <br> 17. Is she coming?<br> 18. No, she is going to the bridge. <br> 19. Is the bird drinking? <br> 20. Is the bird on the bridge? <br> 21. No, it is not there.<br> 22. She is eating. <br> 23. Is she eating?<br> 24. Is she eating a fish?<br> 25. Is the fish in the water?<br> 26. Yes, it is in the water, and the dog as well. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. a cat, cats<br> 2. a table, tables<br> 3. I see the cat.<br> 4. You see the cats.<br> 5. The cats are on the tables.<br> 6. The cat is sleeping behind the flowers. <br> 7. The books are black.<br> 8. Does he like apples? <br> 9. The parks are beautiful.<br> 10. Mary likes white skirts.<br> 11. Have you got a beautiful skirt? <br> 12. The fish are in the water.<br> 13. The policemen are not fat.<br> 14. The policemen are chasing the teenagers. <br> 15. The mice are chasing the cat.<br> 16. The birds are in the trees.<br> 17. The birds are on the bridges.<br> 18. Are the children in the trees? <br> 19. The horses are drinking the water. <br> 20. The flowers are in the cup on the table. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Me nomesas Bebson Hochfeld <br> 2. Me standas tre bone <br> 3. Yes, me tre ofte drinkas lakto. <br> 4. Yes, me havas bela ma (but) mikra domo. <br> 5. Yes, me havas mikra gardeno. <br> 6. No, me ne havas un <br> 7. No, me ne prizas kati. <br> 8. No, me nek (neither) prizas hundo. <br> 9. Yes, me es en la parko. <br> 10. Yes, me es grosa e sempre hungras. <br> 11. Yes, me tre prizas kafeo. <br> 12. No, me ne durstas ma me hungras. <br> 13. Yes, me multe deziras kuko. <br> 14. Yes, me es tre bona segun me (as far as I know). <br> 15. No, no, me ne prizas musi. <br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click <a href="#ex4"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b><br> 1. Stand up! <br> 2. Sit down!<br> 3. Open the box! <br> 4. Eat the apple!<br> 5. Open the book! <br> 6. Open the door! <br> 7. Close the book! <br> 8. Close the window! <br> 9. Touch the chair! <br> 10. Touch the window! <br> 11. Drink your coffee! <br> 12. Pick the book up!<br> 13. Pick the chair up! <br> 14. Pick up the pencil! <br> 15. Give the book to me! <br> 16. Put the cup on the table! <br> 17. Put the plate on the chair! <br> 18. Put the pencil on the table! <br> 19. Put the book and the pencil on the chair! </p> <hr> 3062 2006-03-02T13:55:03Z 85.12.72.1 = Lesson 3 - Triesma Leciono = == Questions == So far we have been making simple statements in Ido, such as: <br> Me vidas la kato or Me tushas la hundo. <br> Now it is time to consider how we can make questions. The English language uses two basic formulae: <br> (1) A few verbs can be put into the question form by changing the word order, for example: <br> 'I must' becomes 'Must I?' 'He is' becomes 'Is he?' and 'They can' becomes 'Can they?'. <br> (2) Then there are other verbs which are turned into the question form by putting 'do' or 'does' at the beginning of the sentece: <br> 'He sings' becomes 'Does he sing?', and 'You come' becomes 'Do you come?' <br> In Ido question-making is much simpler. Firstly the words are kept in exactly the same order as for a statement, but to make it clear that a question is being asked the word 'Ka/Kad' is placed at the beginning of the sentence. <br> 'Ka/Kad' has no equivalent in English: <br> Vu havas kato (You've got a cat) becomes ..... Ka vu havas kato? (Do you have a cat?) Have you got a cat? <br> Me manjas ovo (I am eating an egg) becomes ..... Ka me manjas ovo? (Am I eating an egg?) <br> Note as with 'ed/e', if the following word begins with a vowel then it is usual, though not obligatory, to use 'kad' instead: Il mustas (He must) -> Kad il mustas? (Must he?), or, you may use 'kad' alone irrespective of the following words.<br> Note, if there is a word like who, where, etc., 'ka/kad' is not used: <br> Ube vu habitas? Where do you live? <br> Kad vu komprenis? - Did you understand? <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%">a / ad</td> <td width="65%">to</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">blanka</td> <td width="65%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">irar</td> <td width="65%">to go</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">nigra</td> <td width="65%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">parko</td> <td width="65%">park</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">rivero</td> <td width="65%">river</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">venar</td> <td width="65%">to come</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">arboro</td> <td width="65%">tree</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bruna</td> <td width="65%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">jupo</td> <td width="65%">skirt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">no</td> <td width="65%">no</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">policisto</td> <td width="65%">policeman</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">portar</td> <td width="65%">to carry, to wear</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">yes</td> <td width="65%">yes</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bona</td> <td width="65%">good</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ibe</td> <td width="65%">there</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">mala</td> <td width="65%">bad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ol</td> <td width="65%">it</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ponto</td> <td width="65%">bridge</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ucelo</td> <td width="65%">bird</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me es, Ka me es? <br> 2. Il es, Kad il es? <br> 3. Vu havas, Ka vu havas? <br> 4. Ka me es bona? No. <br> 5. Ka vu es bela? Yes <br> 6. Ka Mary portas bela jupo? <br> 7. Yes, el portas bela blanka jupo. <br> 8. Ka la policisto es en la parko? <br> 9. Kad il es en la parko? <br> 10. No, il ne es hike hodie. <br> 11. Ka vu havas nigra hundo? <br> 12. No, me havas bruna hundo. <br> 13. Il drinkas. <br> 14. Kad il drinkas? <br> 15. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 16. Yes, me havas blanka kato. <br> 17. Kad el venas? <br> 18. No, el iras a la ponto. <br> 19. Ka la ucelo drinkas? <br> 20. Ka la ucelo es sur la ponto? <br> 21. No, ol ne es ibe. <br> 22. El manjas. <br> 23. Kad el manjas? <br> 24. Kad el manjas fisho? <br> 25. Ka la fisho es en la aquo? <br> 26. Yes, ol es en la aquo, e la hundo anke. <br> == The plural == In English, to show that we are talking about more than one thing, we usually add an 's', e.g. 'cat' becomes 'cats', 'pig' becomes 'pigs', etc. <br> In Ido, forming the plural is also very simple. The -o ending of the noun is changed to an -i, so that 'kato' (cat) becomes 'kati' (cats), 'hundo' (dog) becomes 'hundi' (dogs) and so on without exception. <br> The adjective is invariable; but when used without a noun, it becomes a noun itself, and takes the plural, if necessary: <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> La blanki e la nigri - The whites and the blacks. <br> == The Definite Article:- 'le' for the plural == The definite article 'le' is used when there is no other sign of plural: <br> the ayes and the nays - le yes e le no <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> Le blanka e le nigra - The whites and the blacks. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. kato, kati <br> 2. tablo, tabli <br> 3. Me vidas la kato. <br> 4. Vu vidas la kati. <br> 5. La kati es sur la tabli. <br> 6. La kato dormas dop la flori. <br> 7. La libri es nigra. <br> 8. Kad il prizas pomi? <br> 9. La parki es bela. <br> 10. Mary prizas blanka jupi. <br> 11. Ka vu havas bela jupo? <br> 12. La fishi es en la aquo. <br> 13. La policisti ne es grosa. <br> 14. La policisti chasas la yuni. <br> 15. La musi chasas la kato. <br> 16. La uceli es en la arbori. <br> 17. La uceli es sur la ponti. <br> 18. Ka la yuni es en la arbori? <br> 19. La kavali drinkas la aquo. <br> 20. La flori es en la taso sur la tablo. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">danko</td> <td width="33%">thank you</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">durstar</td> <td width="33%">to be thirsty</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">glaso</td> <td width="33%">glass</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kafeo</td> <td width="33%">coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">teo</td> <td width="33%">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">me pregas</td> <td width="33%">please</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">yen</td> <td width="33%">here is</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">semblas ke</td> <td width="33%">it seems that</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">ma</td> <td width="33%">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">dezirar</td> <td width="32%">to desire, to want</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hungrar</td> <td width="32%">to be hungry</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">glaso de lakto</td> <td width="32%">glass of milk</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kafeerio</td> <td width="32%">cafe</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kuko</td> <td width="32%">cake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">taso de kafeo</td> <td width="32%">cup of coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">pekunio</td> <td width="32%">money</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">esar</td> <td width="32%">to be</td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == (En la kafeerio inter Peter e Mary) <br> P: Bon jorno, Mary! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Bon jorno, Peter! Me standas bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. Ka vu durstas? <br> M: Yes, me durstas. Ube la kafeerio esas? <br> P: Yen la kafeerio! Ka vu deziras taso de kafeo? <br> M: No, danko. Me deziras glaso de lakto, me pregas. <br> P: Ka vu hungras? <br> M: Yes, me hungras. <br> P: Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> M: Yes, me pregas. Me prizas kuki. <br> P: Hm...Mary... Semblas ke me ne havas mea pekunii... Ka vu havas.....pekunio? == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Answer the questions (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the (possible) answers):<b><br> 1. Quale vu nomesas? <br> 2. Quale vu standas? <br> 3. Ka vu ofte drinkas lakto? <br> 4. Ka vu havas bela domo? <br> 5. Ka vu havas gardeno? <br> 6. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 7. Ka vu prizas kati? <br> 8. Ka vu havas granda hundo? <br> 9. Ka vu es en la parko? <br> 10. Ka vu hungras? <br> 11. Ka vu prizas kafeo? <br> 12. Ka vu durstas? <br> 13. Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> 14. Ka vu es bona? <br> 15. Ka vu prizas blanka musi? <br> == Colours == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="25%">blanka</td> <td width="25%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">bruna</td> <td width="25%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">griza</td> <td width="25%">grey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">purpura</td> <td width="25%">purple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">reda</td> <td width="25%">red</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">verda</td> <td width="25%">green</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">blua</td> <td width="25%">blue</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">flava</td> <td width="25%">yellow</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">nigra</td> <td width="25%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">oranjea</td> <td width="25%">orange</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">rozea</td> <td width="25%">pink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">violea</td> <td width="25%">violet</td> </tr> </table> == The imperative == The imperative is the form of the verb used for giving orders and commands. So far we have met the present tense ending -as, as in 'drinkas', 'manjas', etc. <br> To make the above words into commands is easy. You merely exchange the -as ending for -ez. <br> This gives for example: drinkez! (Drink!), manjez! (Eat!), venez! (Come!). <b><br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">apertez</td> <td width="33%">open!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">irez</td> <td width="33%">go!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">pozez</td> <td width="33%">put!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">sideskez</td> <td width="33%">sit down!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">tushez</td> <td width="33%">touch!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">donez</td> <td width="32%">give!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">klozez</td> <td width="32%">close!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">levez</td> <td width="32%">pick up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">staceskez</td> <td width="32%">stand up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krayono</td> <td width="32%">pencil</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">adsur</td> <td width="32%">onto/upon </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Staceskez! <br> 2. Sideskez! <br> 3. Apertez la buxo! <br> 4. Manjez la pomo! <br> 5. Apertez la libro! <br> 6. Apertez la pordo! <br> 7. Klozez la libro! <br> 8. Klozez la fenestro! <br> 9. Tushez la stulo! <br> 10. Tushez la fenestro! <br> 11. Drinkez vua kafeo! <br> 12. Levez la libro! <br> 13. Levez la stulo! <br> 14. Levez la krayono! <br> 15. Donez la libro a me! <br> 16. Pozez la taso adsur la tablo! <br> 17. Pozez la plado adsur la stulo! <br> 18. Pozez la krayono adsur la tablo! <br> 19. Pozez la libro e la krayono adsur la stulo! <br> == Animals == Note that the following can be either male or female. Distinction is made in the following lesson. <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">anado</td> <td width="33%">duck, drake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">cervo</td> <td width="33%">deer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">gorilo</td> <td width="33%">gorilla</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">hundo</td> <td width="33%">dog</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kato</td> <td width="33%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kavalo</td> <td width="33%">horse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">leopardo</td> <td width="33%">leopard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">muso</td> <td width="33%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">porko</td> <td width="33%">pig</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">simio</td> <td width="33%">monkey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">volfo</td> <td width="33%">wolf</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">bovo</td> <td width="32%">cow, bull</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">elefanto</td> <td width="32%">elephant</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hano</td> <td width="32%">hen, cock</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kamelo</td> <td width="32%">camel</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kapro</td> <td width="32%">goat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krokodilo</td> <td width="32%">crocodile</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">leono</td> <td width="32%">lion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">mutono</td> <td width="32%">sheep</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">tigro</td> <td width="32%">tiger</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">urso</td> <td width="32%">bear</td> </tr> </table> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi== (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_1_(Excercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am, Am I?<br> 2. He is, Is he? <br> 3. You have, Have you? <br> 4. Am I good? No.<br> 5. Are you beautiful? Yes. <br> 6. Is Mary wearing a beautiful skirt? <br> 7. Yes, she is wearing a beautiful white skirt. <br> 8. Is the policeman in the park?<br> 9. Is he in the park? <br> 10. No, he is not here today.<br> 11. Have you got a black dog? <br> 12. No, I have a brown dog.<br> 13. He is drinking. <br> 14. Is he drinking?<br> 15. Have you a cat? <br> 16. Yes, I have a white cat. <br> 17. Is she coming?<br> 18. No, she is going to the bridge. <br> 19. Is the bird drinking? <br> 20. Is the bird on the bridge? <br> 21. No, it is not there.<br> 22. She is eating. <br> 23. Is she eating?<br> 24. Is she eating a fish?<br> 25. Is the fish in the water?<br> 26. Yes, it is in the water, and the dog as well. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_2_(Excercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. a cat, cats<br> 2. a table, tables<br> 3. I see the cat.<br> 4. You see the cats.<br> 5. The cats are on the tables.<br> 6. The cat is sleeping behind the flowers. <br> 7. The books are black.<br> 8. Does he like apples? <br> 9. The parks are beautiful.<br> 10. Mary likes white skirts.<br> 11. Have you got a beautiful skirt? <br> 12. The fish are in the water.<br> 13. The policemen are not fat.<br> 14. The policemen are chasing the teenagers. <br> 15. The mice are chasing the cat.<br> 16. The birds are in the trees.<br> 17. The birds are on the bridges.<br> 18. Are the children in the trees? <br> 19. The horses are drinking the water. <br> 20. The flowers are in the cup on the table. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_3_(Excercise_3)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Me nomesas Bebson Hochfeld <br> 2. Me standas tre bone <br> 3. Yes, me tre ofte drinkas lakto. <br> 4. Yes, me havas bela ma (but) mikra domo. <br> 5. Yes, me havas mikra gardeno. <br> 6. No, me ne havas un <br> 7. No, me ne prizas kati. <br> 8. No, me nek (neither) prizas hundo. <br> 9. Yes, me es en la parko. <br> 10. Yes, me es grosa e sempre hungras. <br> 11. Yes, me tre prizas kafeo. <br> 12. No, me ne durstas ma me hungras. <br> 13. Yes, me multe deziras kuko. <br> 14. Yes, me es tre bona segun me (as far as I know). <br> 15. No, no, me ne prizas musi. <br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_4_(Excercise_4)|here]] to return to the exercise)<b><br> 1. Stand up! <br> 2. Sit down!<br> 3. Open the box! <br> 4. Eat the apple!<br> 5. Open the book! <br> 6. Open the door! <br> 7. Close the book! <br> 8. Close the window! <br> 9. Touch the chair! <br> 10. Touch the window! <br> 11. Drink your coffee! <br> 12. Pick the book up!<br> 13. Pick the chair up! <br> 14. Pick up the pencil! <br> 15. Give the book to me! <br> 16. Put the cup on the table! <br> 17. Put the plate on the chair! <br> 18. Put the pencil on the table! <br> 19. Put the book and the pencil on the chair! </p> <hr> 3063 2006-03-02T14:01:11Z 85.12.72.1 = Lesson 3 - Triesma Leciono = == Questions == So far we have been making simple statements in Ido, such as: <br> Me vidas la kato or Me tushas la hundo. <br> Now it is time to consider how we can make questions. The English language uses two basic formulae: <br> (1) A few verbs can be put into the question form by changing the word order, for example: <br> 'I must' becomes 'Must I?' 'He is' becomes 'Is he?' and 'They can' becomes 'Can they?'. <br> (2) Then there are other verbs which are turned into the question form by putting 'do' or 'does' at the beginning of the sentece: <br> 'He sings' becomes 'Does he sing?', and 'You come' becomes 'Do you come?' <br> In Ido question-making is much simpler. Firstly the words are kept in exactly the same order as for a statement, but to make it clear that a question is being asked the word 'Ka/Kad' is placed at the beginning of the sentence. <br> 'Ka/Kad' has no equivalent in English: <br> Vu havas kato (You've got a cat) becomes ..... Ka vu havas kato? (Do you have a cat?) Have you got a cat? <br> Me manjas ovo (I am eating an egg) becomes ..... Ka me manjas ovo? (Am I eating an egg?) <br> Note as with 'ed/e', if the following word begins with a vowel then it is usual, though not obligatory, to use 'kad' instead: Il mustas (He must) -> Kad il mustas? (Must he?), or, you may use 'kad' alone irrespective of the following words.<br> Note, if there is a word like who, where, etc., 'ka/kad' is not used: <br> Ube vu habitas? Where do you live? <br> Kad vu komprenis? - Did you understand? <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%">a / ad</td> <td width="65%">to</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">blanka</td> <td width="65%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">irar</td> <td width="65%">to go</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">nigra</td> <td width="65%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">parko</td> <td width="65%">park</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">rivero</td> <td width="65%">river</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">venar</td> <td width="65%">to come</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">arboro</td> <td width="65%">tree</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bruna</td> <td width="65%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">jupo</td> <td width="65%">skirt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">no</td> <td width="65%">no</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">policisto</td> <td width="65%">policeman</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">portar</td> <td width="65%">to carry, to wear</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">yes</td> <td width="65%">yes</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bona</td> <td width="65%">good</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ibe</td> <td width="65%">there</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">mala</td> <td width="65%">bad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ol</td> <td width="65%">it</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ponto</td> <td width="65%">bridge</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ucelo</td> <td width="65%">bird</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me es, Ka me es? <br> 2. Il es, Kad il es? <br> 3. Vu havas, Ka vu havas? <br> 4. Ka me es bona? No. <br> 5. Ka vu es bela? Yes <br> 6. Ka Mary portas bela jupo? <br> 7. Yes, el portas bela blanka jupo. <br> 8. Ka la policisto es en la parko? <br> 9. Kad il es en la parko? <br> 10. No, il ne es hike hodie. <br> 11. Ka vu havas nigra hundo? <br> 12. No, me havas bruna hundo. <br> 13. Il drinkas. <br> 14. Kad il drinkas? <br> 15. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 16. Yes, me havas blanka kato. <br> 17. Kad el venas? <br> 18. No, el iras a la ponto. <br> 19. Ka la ucelo drinkas? <br> 20. Ka la ucelo es sur la ponto? <br> 21. No, ol ne es ibe. <br> 22. El manjas. <br> 23. Kad el manjas? <br> 24. Kad el manjas fisho? <br> 25. Ka la fisho es en la aquo? <br> 26. Yes, ol es en la aquo, e la hundo anke. <br> == The plural == In English, to show that we are talking about more than one thing, we usually add an 's', e.g. 'cat' becomes 'cats', 'pig' becomes 'pigs', etc. <br> In Ido, forming the plural is also very simple. The -o ending of the noun is changed to an -i, so that 'kato' (cat) becomes 'kati' (cats), 'hundo' (dog) becomes 'hundi' (dogs) and so on without exception. <br> The adjective is invariable; but when used without a noun, it becomes a noun itself, and takes the plural, if necessary: <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> La blanki e la nigri - The whites and the blacks. <br> == The Definite Article:- 'le' for the plural == The definite article 'le' is used when there is no other sign of plural: <br> the ayes and the nays - le yes e le no <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> Le blanka e le nigra - The whites and the blacks. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. kato, kati <br> 2. tablo, tabli <br> 3. Me vidas la kato. <br> 4. Vu vidas la kati. <br> 5. La kati es sur la tabli. <br> 6. La kato dormas dop la flori. <br> 7. La libri es nigra. <br> 8. Kad il prizas pomi? <br> 9. La parki es bela. <br> 10. Mary prizas blanka jupi. <br> 11. Ka vu havas bela jupo? <br> 12. La fishi es en la aquo. <br> 13. La policisti ne es grosa. <br> 14. La policisti chasas la yuni. <br> 15. La musi chasas la kato. <br> 16. La uceli es en la arbori. <br> 17. La uceli es sur la ponti. <br> 18. Ka la yuni es en la arbori? <br> 19. La kavali drinkas la aquo. <br> 20. La flori es en la taso sur la tablo. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">danko</td> <td width="33%">thank you</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">durstar</td> <td width="33%">to be thirsty</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">glaso</td> <td width="33%">glass</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kafeo</td> <td width="33%">coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">teo</td> <td width="33%">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">me pregas</td> <td width="33%">please</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">yen</td> <td width="33%">here is</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">semblas ke</td> <td width="33%">it seems that</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">ma</td> <td width="33%">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">dezirar</td> <td width="32%">to desire, to want</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hungrar</td> <td width="32%">to be hungry</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">glaso de lakto</td> <td width="32%">glass of milk</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kafeerio</td> <td width="32%">cafe</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kuko</td> <td width="32%">cake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">taso de kafeo</td> <td width="32%">cup of coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">pekunio</td> <td width="32%">money</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">esar</td> <td width="32%">to be</td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == (En la kafeerio inter Peter e Mary) <br> P: Bon jorno, Mary! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Bon jorno, Peter! Me standas bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. Ka vu durstas? <br> M: Yes, me durstas. Ube la kafeerio esas? <br> P: Yen la kafeerio! Ka vu deziras taso de kafeo? <br> M: No, danko. Me deziras glaso de lakto, me pregas. <br> P: Ka vu hungras? <br> M: Yes, me hungras. <br> P: Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> M: Yes, me pregas. Me prizas kuki. <br> P: Hm...Mary... Semblas ke me ne havas mea pekunii... Ka vu havas.....pekunio? == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Answer the questions (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the (possible) answers):<b><br> 1. Quale vu nomesas? <br> 2. Quale vu standas? <br> 3. Ka vu ofte drinkas lakto? <br> 4. Ka vu havas bela domo? <br> 5. Ka vu havas gardeno? <br> 6. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 7. Ka vu prizas kati? <br> 8. Ka vu havas granda hundo? <br> 9. Ka vu es en la parko? <br> 10. Ka vu hungras? <br> 11. Ka vu prizas kafeo? <br> 12. Ka vu durstas? <br> 13. Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> 14. Ka vu es bona? <br> 15. Ka vu prizas blanka musi? <br> == Colours == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="25%">blanka</td> <td width="25%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">bruna</td> <td width="25%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">griza</td> <td width="25%">grey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">purpura</td> <td width="25%">purple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">reda</td> <td width="25%">red</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">verda</td> <td width="25%">green</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">blua</td> <td width="25%">blue</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">flava</td> <td width="25%">yellow</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">nigra</td> <td width="25%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">oranjea</td> <td width="25%">orange</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">rozea</td> <td width="25%">pink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">violea</td> <td width="25%">violet</td> </tr> </table> == The imperative == The imperative is the form of the verb used for giving orders and commands. So far we have met the present tense ending -as, as in 'drinkas', 'manjas', etc. <br> To make the above words into commands is easy. You merely exchange the -as ending for -ez. <br> This gives for example: drinkez! (Drink!), manjez! (Eat!), venez! (Come!). <b><br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">apertez</td> <td width="33%">open!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">irez</td> <td width="33%">go!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">pozez</td> <td width="33%">put!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">sideskez</td> <td width="33%">sit down!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">tushez</td> <td width="33%">touch!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">donez</td> <td width="32%">give!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">klozez</td> <td width="32%">close!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">levez</td> <td width="32%">pick up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">staceskez</td> <td width="32%">stand up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krayono</td> <td width="32%">pencil</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">adsur</td> <td width="32%">onto/upon </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Staceskez! <br> 2. Sideskez! <br> 3. Apertez la buxo! <br> 4. Manjez la pomo! <br> 5. Apertez la libro! <br> 6. Apertez la pordo! <br> 7. Klozez la libro! <br> 8. Klozez la fenestro! <br> 9. Tushez la stulo! <br> 10. Tushez la fenestro! <br> 11. Drinkez vua kafeo! <br> 12. Levez la libro! <br> 13. Levez la stulo! <br> 14. Levez la krayono! <br> 15. Donez la libro a me! <br> 16. Pozez la taso adsur la tablo! <br> 17. Pozez la plado adsur la stulo! <br> 18. Pozez la krayono adsur la tablo! <br> 19. Pozez la libro e la krayono adsur la stulo! <br> == Animals == Note that the following can be either male or female. Distinction is made in the following lesson. <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">anado</td> <td width="33%">duck, drake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">cervo</td> <td width="33%">deer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">gorilo</td> <td width="33%">gorilla</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">hundo</td> <td width="33%">dog</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kato</td> <td width="33%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kavalo</td> <td width="33%">horse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">leopardo</td> <td width="33%">leopard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">muso</td> <td width="33%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">porko</td> <td width="33%">pig</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">simio</td> <td width="33%">monkey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">volfo</td> <td width="33%">wolf</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">bovo</td> <td width="32%">cow, bull</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">elefanto</td> <td width="32%">elephant</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hano</td> <td width="32%">hen, cock</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kamelo</td> <td width="32%">camel</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kapro</td> <td width="32%">goat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krokodilo</td> <td width="32%">crocodile</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">leono</td> <td width="32%">lion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">mutono</td> <td width="32%">sheep</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">tigro</td> <td width="32%">tiger</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">urso</td> <td width="32%">bear</td> </tr> </table> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi== (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am, Am I?<br> 2. He is, Is he? <br> 3. You have, Have you? <br> 4. Am I good? No.<br> 5. Are you beautiful? Yes. <br> 6. Is Mary wearing a beautiful skirt? <br> 7. Yes, she is wearing a beautiful white skirt. <br> 8. Is the policeman in the park?<br> 9. Is he in the park? <br> 10. No, he is not here today.<br> 11. Have you got a black dog? <br> 12. No, I have a brown dog.<br> 13. He is drinking. <br> 14. Is he drinking?<br> 15. Have you a cat? <br> 16. Yes, I have a white cat. <br> 17. Is she coming?<br> 18. No, she is going to the bridge. <br> 19. Is the bird drinking? <br> 20. Is the bird on the bridge? <br> 21. No, it is not there.<br> 22. She is eating. <br> 23. Is she eating?<br> 24. Is she eating a fish?<br> 25. Is the fish in the water?<br> 26. Yes, it is in the water, and the dog as well. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. a cat, cats<br> 2. a table, tables<br> 3. I see the cat.<br> 4. You see the cats.<br> 5. The cats are on the tables.<br> 6. The cat is sleeping behind the flowers. <br> 7. The books are black.<br> 8. Does he like apples? <br> 9. The parks are beautiful.<br> 10. Mary likes white skirts.<br> 11. Have you got a beautiful skirt? <br> 12. The fish are in the water.<br> 13. The policemen are not fat.<br> 14. The policemen are chasing the teenagers. <br> 15. The mice are chasing the cat.<br> 16. The birds are in the trees.<br> 17. The birds are on the bridges.<br> 18. Are the children in the trees? <br> 19. The horses are drinking the water. <br> 20. The flowers are in the cup on the table. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_3_(Exercise_3)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Me nomesas Bebson Hochfeld <br> 2. Me standas tre bone <br> 3. Yes, me tre ofte drinkas lakto. <br> 4. Yes, me havas bela ma (but) mikra domo. <br> 5. Yes, me havas mikra gardeno. <br> 6. No, me ne havas un <br> 7. No, me ne prizas kati. <br> 8. No, me nek (neither) prizas hundo. <br> 9. Yes, me es en la parko. <br> 10. Yes, me es grosa e sempre hungras. <br> 11. Yes, me tre prizas kafeo. <br> 12. No, me ne durstas ma me hungras. <br> 13. Yes, me multe deziras kuko. <br> 14. Yes, me es tre bona segun me (as far as I know). <br> 15. No, no, me ne prizas musi. <br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_4_(Exercise_4)|here]] to return to the exercise)<b><br> 1. Stand up! <br> 2. Sit down!<br> 3. Open the box! <br> 4. Eat the apple!<br> 5. Open the book! <br> 6. Open the door! <br> 7. Close the book! <br> 8. Close the window! <br> 9. Touch the chair! <br> 10. Touch the window! <br> 11. Drink your coffee! <br> 12. Pick the book up!<br> 13. Pick the chair up! <br> 14. Pick up the pencil! <br> 15. Give the book to me! <br> 16. Put the cup on the table! <br> 17. Put the plate on the chair! <br> 18. Put the pencil on the table! <br> 19. Put the book and the pencil on the chair! </p> <hr> 3077 2006-03-06T00:47:33Z 81.100.85.143 /* The Definite Article:- 'le' for the plural */ = Lesson 3 - Triesma Leciono = == Questions == So far we have been making simple statements in Ido, such as: <br> Me vidas la kato or Me tushas la hundo. <br> Now it is time to consider how we can make questions. The English language uses two basic formulae: <br> (1) A few verbs can be put into the question form by changing the word order, for example: <br> 'I must' becomes 'Must I?' 'He is' becomes 'Is he?' and 'They can' becomes 'Can they?'. <br> (2) Then there are other verbs which are turned into the question form by putting 'do' or 'does' at the beginning of the sentece: <br> 'He sings' becomes 'Does he sing?', and 'You come' becomes 'Do you come?' <br> In Ido question-making is much simpler. Firstly the words are kept in exactly the same order as for a statement, but to make it clear that a question is being asked the word 'Ka/Kad' is placed at the beginning of the sentence. <br> 'Ka/Kad' has no equivalent in English: <br> Vu havas kato (You've got a cat) becomes ..... Ka vu havas kato? (Do you have a cat?) Have you got a cat? <br> Me manjas ovo (I am eating an egg) becomes ..... Ka me manjas ovo? (Am I eating an egg?) <br> Note as with 'ed/e', if the following word begins with a vowel then it is usual, though not obligatory, to use 'kad' instead: Il mustas (He must) -> Kad il mustas? (Must he?), or, you may use 'kad' alone irrespective of the following words.<br> Note, if there is a word like who, where, etc., 'ka/kad' is not used: <br> Ube vu habitas? Where do you live? <br> Kad vu komprenis? - Did you understand? <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%">a / ad</td> <td width="65%">to</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">blanka</td> <td width="65%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">irar</td> <td width="65%">to go</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">nigra</td> <td width="65%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">parko</td> <td width="65%">park</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">rivero</td> <td width="65%">river</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">venar</td> <td width="65%">to come</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">arboro</td> <td width="65%">tree</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bruna</td> <td width="65%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">jupo</td> <td width="65%">skirt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">no</td> <td width="65%">no</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">policisto</td> <td width="65%">policeman</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">portar</td> <td width="65%">to carry, to wear</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">yes</td> <td width="65%">yes</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">bona</td> <td width="65%">good</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ibe</td> <td width="65%">there</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">mala</td> <td width="65%">bad</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ol</td> <td width="65%">it</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ponto</td> <td width="65%">bridge</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%">ucelo</td> <td width="65%">bird</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me es, Ka me es? <br> 2. Il es, Kad il es? <br> 3. Vu havas, Ka vu havas? <br> 4. Ka me es bona? No. <br> 5. Ka vu es bela? Yes <br> 6. Ka Mary portas bela jupo? <br> 7. Yes, el portas bela blanka jupo. <br> 8. Ka la policisto es en la parko? <br> 9. Kad il es en la parko? <br> 10. No, il ne es hike hodie. <br> 11. Ka vu havas nigra hundo? <br> 12. No, me havas bruna hundo. <br> 13. Il drinkas. <br> 14. Kad il drinkas? <br> 15. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 16. Yes, me havas blanka kato. <br> 17. Kad el venas? <br> 18. No, el iras a la ponto. <br> 19. Ka la ucelo drinkas? <br> 20. Ka la ucelo es sur la ponto? <br> 21. No, ol ne es ibe. <br> 22. El manjas. <br> 23. Kad el manjas? <br> 24. Kad el manjas fisho? <br> 25. Ka la fisho es en la aquo? <br> 26. Yes, ol es en la aquo, e la hundo anke. <br> == The plural == In English, to show that we are talking about more than one thing, we usually add an 's', e.g. 'cat' becomes 'cats', 'pig' becomes 'pigs', etc. <br> In Ido, forming the plural is also very simple. The -o ending of the noun is changed to an -i, so that 'kato' (cat) becomes 'kati' (cats), 'hundo' (dog) becomes 'hundi' (dogs) and so on without exception. <br> The adjective is invariable; but when used without a noun, it becomes a noun itself, and takes the plural, if necessary: <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> La blanki e la nigri - The whites and the blacks. <br> == The Definite Article - 'le' for the plural == The definite article 'le' is used when there is no other sign of plural: <br> the ayes and the nays - le yes e le no <br> blanka hundi - white dogs, nigra kavali - black horses <br> Le blanka e le nigra - The whites and the blacks. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. kato, kati <br> 2. tablo, tabli <br> 3. Me vidas la kato. <br> 4. Vu vidas la kati. <br> 5. La kati es sur la tabli. <br> 6. La kato dormas dop la flori. <br> 7. La libri es nigra. <br> 8. Kad il prizas pomi? <br> 9. La parki es bela. <br> 10. Mary prizas blanka jupi. <br> 11. Ka vu havas bela jupo? <br> 12. La fishi es en la aquo. <br> 13. La policisti ne es grosa. <br> 14. La policisti chasas la yuni. <br> 15. La musi chasas la kato. <br> 16. La uceli es en la arbori. <br> 17. La uceli es sur la ponti. <br> 18. Ka la yuni es en la arbori? <br> 19. La kavali drinkas la aquo. <br> 20. La flori es en la taso sur la tablo. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">danko</td> <td width="33%">thank you</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">durstar</td> <td width="33%">to be thirsty</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">glaso</td> <td width="33%">glass</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kafeo</td> <td width="33%">coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">teo</td> <td width="33%">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">me pregas</td> <td width="33%">please</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">yen</td> <td width="33%">here is</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">semblas ke</td> <td width="33%">it seems that</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">ma</td> <td width="33%">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">dezirar</td> <td width="32%">to desire, to want</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hungrar</td> <td width="32%">to be hungry</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">glaso de lakto</td> <td width="32%">glass of milk</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kafeerio</td> <td width="32%">cafe</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kuko</td> <td width="32%">cake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">taso de kafeo</td> <td width="32%">cup of coffee</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">pekunio</td> <td width="32%">money</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">esar</td> <td width="32%">to be</td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == (En la kafeerio inter Peter e Mary) <br> P: Bon jorno, Mary! Quale vu standas? <br> M: Bon jorno, Peter! Me standas bone, danko. E vu? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. Ka vu durstas? <br> M: Yes, me durstas. Ube la kafeerio esas? <br> P: Yen la kafeerio! Ka vu deziras taso de kafeo? <br> M: No, danko. Me deziras glaso de lakto, me pregas. <br> P: Ka vu hungras? <br> M: Yes, me hungras. <br> P: Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> M: Yes, me pregas. Me prizas kuki. <br> P: Hm...Mary... Semblas ke me ne havas mea pekunii... Ka vu havas.....pekunio? == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Answer the questions (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the (possible) answers):<b><br> 1. Quale vu nomesas? <br> 2. Quale vu standas? <br> 3. Ka vu ofte drinkas lakto? <br> 4. Ka vu havas bela domo? <br> 5. Ka vu havas gardeno? <br> 6. Ka vu havas kato? <br> 7. Ka vu prizas kati? <br> 8. Ka vu havas granda hundo? <br> 9. Ka vu es en la parko? <br> 10. Ka vu hungras? <br> 11. Ka vu prizas kafeo? <br> 12. Ka vu durstas? <br> 13. Ka vu deziras kuko? <br> 14. Ka vu es bona? <br> 15. Ka vu prizas blanka musi? <br> == Colours == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="25%">blanka</td> <td width="25%">white</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">bruna</td> <td width="25%">brown</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">griza</td> <td width="25%">grey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">purpura</td> <td width="25%">purple</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">reda</td> <td width="25%">red</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">verda</td> <td width="25%">green</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">blua</td> <td width="25%">blue</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">flava</td> <td width="25%">yellow</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">nigra</td> <td width="25%">black</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">oranjea</td> <td width="25%">orange</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">rozea</td> <td width="25%">pink</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="25%">violea</td> <td width="25%">violet</td> </tr> </table> == The imperative == The imperative is the form of the verb used for giving orders and commands. So far we have met the present tense ending -as, as in 'drinkas', 'manjas', etc. <br> To make the above words into commands is easy. You merely exchange the -as ending for -ez. <br> This gives for example: drinkez! (Drink!), manjez! (Eat!), venez! (Come!). <b><br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">apertez</td> <td width="33%">open!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">irez</td> <td width="33%">go!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">pozez</td> <td width="33%">put!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">sideskez</td> <td width="33%">sit down!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">tushez</td> <td width="33%">touch!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">donez</td> <td width="32%">give!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">klozez</td> <td width="32%">close!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">levez</td> <td width="32%">pick up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">staceskez</td> <td width="32%">stand up!</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krayono</td> <td width="32%">pencil</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">adsur</td> <td width="32%">onto/upon </td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Staceskez! <br> 2. Sideskez! <br> 3. Apertez la buxo! <br> 4. Manjez la pomo! <br> 5. Apertez la libro! <br> 6. Apertez la pordo! <br> 7. Klozez la libro! <br> 8. Klozez la fenestro! <br> 9. Tushez la stulo! <br> 10. Tushez la fenestro! <br> 11. Drinkez vua kafeo! <br> 12. Levez la libro! <br> 13. Levez la stulo! <br> 14. Levez la krayono! <br> 15. Donez la libro a me! <br> 16. Pozez la taso adsur la tablo! <br> 17. Pozez la plado adsur la stulo! <br> 18. Pozez la krayono adsur la tablo! <br> 19. Pozez la libro e la krayono adsur la stulo! <br> == Animals == Note that the following can be either male or female. Distinction is made in the following lesson. <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%">anado</td> <td width="33%">duck, drake</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">cervo</td> <td width="33%">deer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">gorilo</td> <td width="33%">gorilla</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">hundo</td> <td width="33%">dog</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kato</td> <td width="33%">cat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">kavalo</td> <td width="33%">horse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">leopardo</td> <td width="33%">leopard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">muso</td> <td width="33%">mouse</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">porko</td> <td width="33%">pig</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">simio</td> <td width="33%">monkey</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%">volfo</td> <td width="33%">wolf</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">bovo</td> <td width="32%">cow, bull</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">elefanto</td> <td width="32%">elephant</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">hano</td> <td width="32%">hen, cock</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kamelo</td> <td width="32%">camel</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">kapro</td> <td width="32%">goat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">krokodilo</td> <td width="32%">crocodile</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">leono</td> <td width="32%">lion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">mutono</td> <td width="32%">sheep</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">tigro</td> <td width="32%">tiger</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%">urso</td> <td width="32%">bear</td> </tr> </table> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi== (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. I am, Am I?<br> 2. He is, Is he? <br> 3. You have, Have you? <br> 4. Am I good? No.<br> 5. Are you beautiful? Yes. <br> 6. Is Mary wearing a beautiful skirt? <br> 7. Yes, she is wearing a beautiful white skirt. <br> 8. Is the policeman in the park?<br> 9. Is he in the park? <br> 10. No, he is not here today.<br> 11. Have you got a black dog? <br> 12. No, I have a brown dog.<br> 13. He is drinking. <br> 14. Is he drinking?<br> 15. Have you a cat? <br> 16. Yes, I have a white cat. <br> 17. Is she coming?<br> 18. No, she is going to the bridge. <br> 19. Is the bird drinking? <br> 20. Is the bird on the bridge? <br> 21. No, it is not there.<br> 22. She is eating. <br> 23. Is she eating?<br> 24. Is she eating a fish?<br> 25. Is the fish in the water?<br> 26. Yes, it is in the water, and the dog as well. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. a cat, cats<br> 2. a table, tables<br> 3. I see the cat.<br> 4. You see the cats.<br> 5. The cats are on the tables.<br> 6. The cat is sleeping behind the flowers. <br> 7. The books are black.<br> 8. Does he like apples? <br> 9. The parks are beautiful.<br> 10. Mary likes white skirts.<br> 11. Have you got a beautiful skirt? <br> 12. The fish are in the water.<br> 13. The policemen are not fat.<br> 14. The policemen are chasing the teenagers. <br> 15. The mice are chasing the cat.<br> 16. The birds are in the trees.<br> 17. The birds are on the bridges.<br> 18. Are the children in the trees? <br> 19. The horses are drinking the water. <br> 20. The flowers are in the cup on the table. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_3_(Exercise_3)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Me nomesas Bebson Hochfeld <br> 2. Me standas tre bone <br> 3. Yes, me tre ofte drinkas lakto. <br> 4. Yes, me havas bela ma (but) mikra domo. <br> 5. Yes, me havas mikra gardeno. <br> 6. No, me ne havas un <br> 7. No, me ne prizas kati. <br> 8. No, me nek (neither) prizas hundo. <br> 9. Yes, me es en la parko. <br> 10. Yes, me es grosa e sempre hungras. <br> 11. Yes, me tre prizas kafeo. <br> 12. No, me ne durstas ma me hungras. <br> 13. Yes, me multe deziras kuko. <br> 14. Yes, me es tre bona segun me (as far as I know). <br> 15. No, no, me ne prizas musi. <br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_03#Exerco_4_(Exercise_4)|here]] to return to the exercise)<b><br> 1. Stand up! <br> 2. Sit down!<br> 3. Open the box! <br> 4. Eat the apple!<br> 5. Open the book! <br> 6. Open the door! <br> 7. Close the book! <br> 8. Close the window! <br> 9. Touch the chair! <br> 10. Touch the window! <br> 11. Drink your coffee! <br> 12. Pick the book up!<br> 13. Pick the chair up! <br> 14. Pick up the pencil! <br> 15. Give the book to me! <br> 16. Put the cup on the table! <br> 17. Put the plate on the chair! <br> 18. Put the pencil on the table! <br> 19. Put the book and the pencil on the chair! </p> <hr> 970 2046 2005-04-18T12:31:49Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>Vortifado</b> (Word Building) <br> -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. <br> For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. <br> <br> The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> <br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary <br> doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> <br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b> (Vocabulary) <br> Learn the following words by heart:</font></p> <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avan</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in front of</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butiko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shop</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">che</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in/at/to (house or business of)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dentisto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dentist</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">familio</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">family</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">frukto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fruit</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-vendisto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butcher</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hundulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dog</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">(male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">katino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cat (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horse (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horse (male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kirko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">church</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ma</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">but</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mediko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">doctor</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">musino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">musulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse (male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nur</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">only</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">preferar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to prefer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">staciono</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">station</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ruro</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">country(side)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozino</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wife</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozulo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">husband</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">urbo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">town</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vendar</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to sell</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vendisto</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">seller</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunino</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">girl</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunulo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">boy/ a youth</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> <br> <br> <b>Possesion</b> <br> In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> <br> <br> <b>Quantity</b> <br> There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). <br> For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). <br> In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. <br> Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b><a name="ex3"></a>Exerco 3<br> </b> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<b><br> </b>1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> <br> <b><br> </b></font><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b> </b><b> Vortaro</b></font></p> <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adube</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to where</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">askoltar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">atraktiva</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">attractive</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> biro</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> beer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bone</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">well (adverb)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">botelo</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bottle</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">de</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (quantity)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">di</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (possession)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">do</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">then/so</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to teach</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktisto</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teacher</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skolo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">school</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tea</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vino</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ca</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">this (adjective)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">li</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><br> <a name="ex4"></a>Exerco 4<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex4-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> <br> <br> Konversado</b> (En la drinkerio) </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> <br> <br> <b>Manjaji </b>(Foods)</font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flor-kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cauliflower</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fromajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cheese</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karoto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">carrot</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ovo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">egg</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cabbage</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konfitajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jam</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kukombro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cucumber</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">latugo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lettuce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarino</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarine</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustardo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b> <br> Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3-s"></a>Exerco 3 </b>(Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex4-s"></a>Exerco 4 </b>(Click <a href="#ex4"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b><br> </b><b> </b>1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<b></b></font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 3042 2006-03-02T01:36:51Z 81.100.85.143 <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>Vortifado</b> (Word Building) <br> -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. <br> For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. <br> <br> The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> <br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary <br> doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> <br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b> (Vocabulary) <br> Learn the following words by heart:</font></p> <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avan</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in front of</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butiko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shop</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">che</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in/at/to (house or business of)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dentisto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dentist</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">familio</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">family</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">frukto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fruit</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-vendisto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butcher</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hundulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dog</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">(male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">katino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cat (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horse (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horse (male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kirko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">church</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ma</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">but</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mediko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">doctor</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">musino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">musulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse (male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nur</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">only</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">preferar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to prefer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">staciono</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">station</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ruro</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">country(side)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozino</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wife</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozulo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">husband</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">urbo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">town</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vendar</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to sell</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vendisto</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">seller</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunino</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">girl</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunulo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">boy/ a youth</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> <br> <br> <b>Possesion</b> <br> In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> <br> <br> <b>Quantity</b> <br> There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). <br> For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). <br> In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. <br> Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. </font></p> <br> == Exerco 3 == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> <br> <br> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Vortaro</b></font></p> <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adube</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to where</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">askoltar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">atraktiva</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">attractive</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> biro</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> beer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bone</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">well (adverb)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">botelo</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bottle</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">de</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (quantity)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">di</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (possession)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">do</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">then/so</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to teach</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktisto</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teacher</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skolo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">school</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tea</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vino</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ca</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">this (adjective)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">li</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><br> == Exerco 4 == </b>Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> <br> <br> Konversado</b> (En la drinkerio) </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> <br> <br> <b>Manjaji </b>(Foods)</font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flor-kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cauliflower</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fromajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cheese</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karoto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">carrot</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ovo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">egg</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cabbage</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konfitajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jam</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kukombro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cucumber</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">latugo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lettuce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarino</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarine</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustardo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b> <br> Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3043 2006-03-02T01:39:09Z 81.100.85.143 = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = Vortifado</b> (Word Building) <br> -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> <br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avan</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in front of</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butiko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shop</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">che</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in/at/to (house or business of)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dentisto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dentist</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">familio</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">family</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">frukto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fruit</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-vendisto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butcher</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hundulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dog</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">(male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">katino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cat (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horse (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kavalulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horse (male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kirko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">church</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ma</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">but</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mediko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">doctor</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">musino</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse (female)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">musulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouse (male)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nur</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">only</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">preferar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to prefer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">staciono</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">station</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ruro</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">country(side)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozino</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wife</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozulo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">husband</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">urbo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">town</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vendar</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to sell</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vendisto</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">seller</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunino</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">girl</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yunulo</font></td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">boy/ a youth</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> <br> <br> <b>Possesion</b> <br> In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> <br> <br> <b>Quantity</b> <br> There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). <br> For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). <br> In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. <br> Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. </font></p> <br> == Exerco 3 == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> <br> <br> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Vortaro</b></font></p> <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adube</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to where</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">askoltar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">atraktiva</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">attractive</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> biro</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> beer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bone</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">well (adverb)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">botelo</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bottle</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">de</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (quantity)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">di</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (possession)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">do</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">then/so</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to teach</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktisto</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teacher</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skolo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">school</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tea</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vino</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ca</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">this (adjective)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">li</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><br> == Exerco 4 == </b>Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> <br> <br> Konversado</b> (En la drinkerio) </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> <br> <br> <b>Manjaji </b>(Foods)</font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flor-kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cauliflower</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fromajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cheese</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karoto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">carrot</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ovo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">egg</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cabbage</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konfitajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jam</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kukombro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cucumber</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">latugo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lettuce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarino</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarine</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustardo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b> <br> Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3044 2006-03-02T01:55:13Z 81.100.85.143 = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). <br> For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). <br> In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. <br> Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. </font></p> <br> == Exerco 3 == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> <br> <br> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Vortaro</b></font></p> <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adube</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to where</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">askoltar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">atraktiva</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">attractive</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> biro</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> beer</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bone</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">well (adverb)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">botelo</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bottle</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">de</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (quantity)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">di</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">of (possession)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">do</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">then/so</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktar</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to teach</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">instruktisto</font> </td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teacher</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skolo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP" height="22"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">school</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teo</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tea</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vino</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ca</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">this (adjective)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">li</font></td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><br> == Exerco 4 == </b>Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> <br> <br> Konversado</b> (En la drinkerio) </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> <br> <br> <b>Manjaji </b>(Foods)</font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flor-kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cauliflower</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fromajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cheese</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karoto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">carrot</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ovo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">egg</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cabbage</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konfitajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jam</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kukombro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cucumber</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">latugo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lettuce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarino</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarine</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustardo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b> <br> Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3045 2006-03-02T02:04:44Z 81.100.85.143 = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"><p>station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> <br> <br> <b>Manjaji </b>(Foods)</font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flor-kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cauliflower</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fromajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cheese</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karoto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">carrot</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ovo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">egg</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cabbage</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konfitajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jam</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kukombro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cucumber</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">latugo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lettuce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarino</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarine</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustardo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b> <br> Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3046 2006-03-02T02:06:01Z 81.100.85.143 /* Vortaro (Vocabulary) */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> </font></p> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> <br> <br> <b>Manjaji </b>(Foods)</font></p> <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">flor-kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cauliflower</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fromajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cheese</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karoto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">carrot</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ovo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">egg</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cabbage</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konfitajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jam</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kukombro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cucumber</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">latugo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lettuce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarino</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarine</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustardo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b> <br> Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3047 2006-03-02T02:11:31Z 81.100.85.143 /* Konversado (En la drinkerio) */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</font> </td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustardo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustard</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b> <br> Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3048 2006-03-02T02:15:13Z 81.100.85.143 /* Manjaji (Foods) */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> <br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. </font></p> <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3049 2006-03-02T02:15:57Z 81.100.85.143 /* Konversado */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3050 2006-03-02T02:17:16Z 81.100.85.143 /* Answers of the Exercises */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> (Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3051 2006-03-02T02:18:32Z 81.100.85.143 /* Answers of the Exercises */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco_1_-_Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco_2_-_Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3052 2006-03-02T02:18:59Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco_2_-_Solvi */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco_1_-_Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3053 2006-03-02T02:19:38Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco_1_-_Solvi */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3054 2006-03-02T02:20:44Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 4 */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onyono</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onion</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bread</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pipro</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pepper</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pizo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pea</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rosto-pano</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toast</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salo</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salt</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauco</font> </td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sauce/gravy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karno-sauco</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gravy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sociso</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sausage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sugar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">supo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soup</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tarto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tart</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">terpomo</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">potato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tomato</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">torto</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinagro</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vinegar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yen</font></td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">here is/are </font></td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3055 2006-03-02T02:24:31Z 81.100.85.143 /* Manjaji (Foods) */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">onyono</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">onion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> bread</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pipro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pepper</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pizo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> rosto-pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> toast</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">salo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">salt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sauce/gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">karno-sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sociso</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sausage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sukro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sugar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">supo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">soup</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tarto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tart</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">terpomo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">potato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">torto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">pie</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">vinagro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">vinegar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">yen</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">here is/are </td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3056 2006-03-02T02:25:23Z 81.100.85.143 /* Exerco 1 - Solvi */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">onyono</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">onion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> bread</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pipro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pepper</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pizo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> rosto-pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> toast</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">salo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">salt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sauce/gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">karno-sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sociso</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sausage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sukro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sugar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">supo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">soup</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tarto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tart</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">terpomo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">potato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">torto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">pie</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">vinagro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">vinegar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">yen</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">here is/are </td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3057 2006-03-02T02:26:36Z 81.100.85.143 = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado (En la drinkerio) == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">onyono</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">onion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> bread</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pipro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pepper</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pizo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> rosto-pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> toast</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">salo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">salt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sauce/gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">karno-sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sociso</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sausage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sukro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sugar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">supo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">soup</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tarto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tart</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">terpomo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">potato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">torto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">pie</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">vinagro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">vinegar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">yen</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">here is/are </td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_(Exercise_3)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_(Exercise_4)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 3059 2006-03-02T02:30:40Z 81.100.85.143 /* Konversado (En la drinkerio) */ = Lesson 4 - Quaresma Leciono = == Vortifado (Word Building) == -in- (female) : yunino (girl), kavalino (mare), hanino (hen). <br> -ul- (male) : yunulo (boy), kavalulo (stallion), hanulo (cock). <br> You may feel that at present you have only a limited vocabulary. <br> Ido, by the logical use of affixes, enables you to make your vocabulary much wider with very little effort. For example it is possible to change 'yuno' (young person) into 'yunulo' which then means 'a boy' or 'a youth'. The addition of '-ul-' makes any person or animal into a male: <br> katulo (from 'kato') - tomcat, hundulo (from 'hundo') - a male dog, etc. <br> The female equivalent is '-in-': <br> yunino (girl), katino (she-cat), hundino (she-dog, bitch), and so on.<br> Lets try some more examples: <br> filio - child, filiulo - son, filiino - daughter<br> kuzo - cousin, kuzulo - male cousin, kuzino - female cousin<br> sekretario - secretary, sekretariulo - man secretary, sekretariino - woman secretary doktoro - doctor, doktorulo - man doctor, doktorino - woman doctor <br> When necessary, the prefix 'ge-' marks common gender (both sexes together): <br> geavi - grandparents, gefilii - children/ sons and daughters. <br> But 'parents' is not 'gepatri' but exceptionally 'genitori'.<br> Note: <br> Gender is usually left unmarked in Ido, as is often the case in English, therefore only use '-ul-' and '-in-' when you want to make the sex of a person or animal clear. Don't use these affixes unnecessarily. <br> A complete list of affixes can be found in any good Ido dictionary. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == Learn the following words by heart: <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">avan</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in front of</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">butiko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">shop</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">che</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">in/at/to (house or business of)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">dentisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dentist</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">familio</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">family</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">frukto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">fruit</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">karno-vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">butcher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">hundulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">dog (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">katino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">cat (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kavalulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">horse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">kirko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">church</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ma</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">but</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">mediko</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">doctor</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (female)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">musulo </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">mouse (male)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">nur</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">only</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">preferar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to prefer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">staciono</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">station</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">ruro</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">country(side)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">wife</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">spozulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">husband</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">urbo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">town</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendar</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">to sell</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">vendisto</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">seller</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunino</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">girl</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE">yunulo</td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE">boy / a youth</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. Mary es yunino. <br> 2. Charles es yunulo. <br> 3. Il havas hundulo. <br> 4. Pomo es frukto. <br> 5. Me nur kompras katino. <br> 6. Me ofte iras a la urbo. <br> 7. Me ofte iras che la dentisto. <br> 8. La karno-vendisto vendas karno. <br> 9. Alan es che la mediko. <br> 10. Me ne kompras ol che la mediko. <br> 11. Vua spozulo nomesas Jack. <br> 12. Mea spozino iras a la butiki. <br> 13. Hodie Lesley iras a la butiki. <br> 14. El kompras karno por la familio. <br> 15. La kavalino ne es en la ruro. <br> 16. Il vendas la kavalulo en la urbo. <br> 17. Paul prizas karno, ma Roger preferas fisho.<br> 18. Me ne kompras mea fisho che la frukto-vendisto. <br> 19. La kirko es en la urbo avan la staciono. <br> 20. Me kompras blanka musino e bruna musulo por vu. <br> == Possesion == In English there are 2 different ways of showing that somebody owns something.<br> For example, if Roger owns a book we can refer to the book either as 'Roger's book' or 'the book of Roger'; or if my wife has a cat I can refer to it either as 'my wife's cat' or 'the cat of my wife'. <br> But in Ido there is only one way of showing possession. This is by using 'di' for 'of', so that 'Peter's book' can only be translated as 'the book of Peter', and becomes 'la libro di Peter'; 'my wife's cat (the cat of my wife)' becomes 'la kato di mea spozino'. <br> == Exerco 2 (Exercise 2) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers): 1. La hundo di Mary. <br> 2. La domo di Peter. <br> 3. La kato di la yunino. <br> 4. La karno di la kato.<br> 5. La karno di la hundo. <br> 6. La kato di Mary. <br> 7. La libro di Mary. <br> 8. La taso di mea spozulo. <br> 9. La familio di la yunuli. <br> 10. La manjajo di la familio. <br> 11. La hundo di la yunulo. <br> 12. La familio di la mediko.<br> 13. La domo di la instruktisto. <br> 14. La yunini di ca skolo. <br> 15. La kato di Philip. <br> == Quantity == There is another word for 'of' in Ido, but this is used to denote a quantity of something. ('di' is for possession only). For example, 'a cup of coffee' is a quantity of coffee (not a cup belonging to coffee), 'a stock of books' is a quantity of books (not a stock belonging to books). In the case of quantity the word for 'of' is 'de', so that 'a stock of books' is 'stoko "de" libri', and 'a cup of coffee' is 'taso "de" kafeo'. Be very careful not to confuse 'de' with 'di'. == Exerco 3 (Exercise 3) == Examples to read and translate. (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. taso de teo. <br> 2. la taso de te. <br> 3. la flori di Mary. <br> 4. buxo de pomi. <br> 5. taso de kafeo. <br> 6. glaso de lakto. <br> 7. glaso de aquo. <br> 8. botelo de vino. <br> 9. botelo de lakto. <br> 10. familio de mediki. <br> 11. La tasi de kafeo di la dentisti. <br> == Vortaro (Vocabulary) == <table width="47%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> adube</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to where</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> askoltar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> to listen to (no extra 'ad' needed)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> atraktiva</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> attractive</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> biro</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> beer</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> bone</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> well (adverb)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> botelo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> bottle</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> de</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (quantity)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> di</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> of (possession)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> do</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> then/so</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">instruktar</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">to teach</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP"> instruktisto</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP"> teacher</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">skolo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">school</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">teo</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">tea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">vino</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">wine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">ca</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">this (adjective)</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="28%" valign="TOP">li</td> <td width="72%" valign="TOP">they (the plural of ilu, elu, olu)</td> </tr> </table> == Exerco 4 (Exercise 4) == Examples to read and translate (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_-_Solvi|here]] to go to the answers):<br> 1. Li instruktas bone. <br> 2. El regardas yunulo. <br> 3. El regardas botelo. <br> 4. Li es tre mala yuni. <br> 5. La yunulo havas botelo de biro. <br> 6. La instruktisti di ca skolo es bona. <br> 7. Ol es la botelo de biro di la instruktisto. <br> 8. La yunulo e la yunino drinkas la biro. <br> 9. Li ne askoltas e do li ne lernas. <br> 10. La atraktiva yunino ne askoltas la mala instruktisto.<b><br> == Konversado - En la drinkerio == <img src="../../imaji/4_1.gif" width="298" height="203" border="2" alt="4_1"> P: Bon vespero, Mary! Quale vu standas hodie? <br> M: Me standas bone, danko. Quale vu standas? <br> P: Tre bone, danko. <br> M: Adube ni iras? - ( 'To' where are we going? ) <br> P: Ni iras a la drinkerio. La drinkerio nomesas la Nigra Porko. Mea amiki dicas ke ol es tre bona drinkerio. <br> M: Me ne savas ube la Nigra Porko esas. Ube ol esas, Peter? <br> P: Ol es dop la domo di Sioro Jones, la dentisto. <br> M: Me rare iras a ta strado. <br> P: Ho, me ofte iras a ta strado, e me ofte drinkas biro en la Nigra Porko. Ha! Yen ol! Ka vu deziras biro, Mary? <br> M: Ka vu havas pekunio? <br> P: Ho, yes! Hodie me havas pekunio. <br> M: Do, me deziras glaso de biro. <br> == Manjaji (Foods) == <table width="39%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> butro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> butter</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fabo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> bean</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fisho</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> fish</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> flor-kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cauliflower</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> fromajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cheese</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karno</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> meat</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> karoto</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> carrot</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> ovo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> egg</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kaulo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cabbage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> konfitajo</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> jam</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="17%" valign="TOP"> kukombro</td> <td width="33%" valign="TOP"> cucumber</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> latugo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> lettuce</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> margarino</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> margarine</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">mustardo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">mustard</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">onyono</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">onion</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> bread</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pipro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pepper</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> pizo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> pea</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP"> rosto-pano</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP"> toast</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">salo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">salt</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sauce/gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">karno-sauco</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">gravy</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sociso</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sausage</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">sukro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">sugar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">supo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">soup</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tarto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tart</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">terpomo</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">potato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">tomato</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">torto</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">pie</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">vinagro</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">vinegar</td> </tr> <tr> <td width="18%" valign="TOP">yen</td> <td width="32%" valign="TOP">here is/are </td> </tr> </table> == Konversado == Give me a fork. - Donez a me forketo. <br> I have no spoon. - Me ne havas kuliero. <br> This knife is not sharp. - Ta kultelo ne esas akuta. <br> Pass me the salt. - Pasigez a me la salo. <br> May I trouble you for the bread? - Kad vu voluntus pasigar la pano? <br> Bring me a bottle of stout. - Adportez a me botelo de nigra biro. <br> Will you have a glass of ale? - Kad vu deziras glaso de flava biro? <br> I only drink water. - Me drinkas nur aquo. <br> Are you a teetotaller? - Kad vu esas ne-alkoholisto? <br> Will you have some salad? - Kad vu deziras salado? <br> Here is a fine lettuce. - Yen bela latugo. <br> Do you take oil and vinegar? - Kad vu prenas oleo e vinagro? <br> Here are the pepper and salt. - Yen la pipro e la salo.<br> A teetotaller used to be 'anti-alkoholisto' but now a simple 'ne-alkoholisto', a person who never drinks alcohol. <hr> == Answers of the Exercises == == Exerco 1 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_1_(Exercise_1)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Mary is a girl. <br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. He has a male dog. <br> 4. An apple is a fruit.<br> 5. I am only buying a female cat. <br> 6. I often go to the town.<br> 7. I often go to the dentist's.<br> 8. The butcher sells meat.<br> 9. Alan is at the doctor's.<br> 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's.<br> 11. Your husband is called Jack.<br> 12. My wife is going to the shops.<br> 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops.<br> 14. She is buying meat for the family. <br> 15. The mare is not in the country.<br> 16. He is selling the stallion in the town.<br> 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish.<br> 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's.<br> 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. <br> 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. <br> == Exerco 2 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_2_(Exercise_2)|here]] to return to the exercise) 1. Mary's dog. <br> 2. Peter's house.<br> 3. The girl's cat. <br> 4. The cat's meat.<br> 5. The dog's meat.<br> 6. The cat of Mary.<br> 7. The book of Mary.<br> 8. My husband's cup.<br> 9. The boys' family.<br> 10. The family's food.<br> 11. The dog of the boy. <br> 12. The doctor's family.<br> 13. The teacher's house. <br> 14. The girls of this school.. <br> 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. <br> == Exerco 3 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_3_(Exercise_3)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. a cup of tea. <br> 2. the cup of tea. <br> 3. Mary's flowers.<br> 4. a box of apples. <br> 5. a cup of coffee.<br> 6. a glass of milk. <br> 7. a glass of water.<br> 8. a bottle of wine.<br> 9. a bottle of milk. <br> 10. a family of doctors. <br> 11. The dentist's cups of coffee.<br> == Exerco 4 - Solvi == (Click [[Curso_04#Exerco_4_(Exercise_4)|here]] to return to the exercise)<br> 1. They teach well. <br> 2. She is looking at a boy. <br> 3. She is looking at a bottle. <br> 4. They are very bad children.<br> 5. The boy has a bottle of beer.<br> 6. The teachers of this school are good.<br> 7. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. <br> 8. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. <br> 9. They are not listening and so they are not learning.<br> 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher.<br> 971 2047 2005-04-18T12:32:47Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 5 - Kinesma Leciono</font><br> <br> <br> </b> <b>Personal Pronouns</b><br> By now most of the personal pronouns have been introduced, but for easy reference they are listed together below.<br> </font> <table> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">me </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> I/me</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tu </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> you</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vu </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> you</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> il, ilu </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> he/him</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102" height="2"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> el, elu </font></td> <td width="211" height="2"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> she/her</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102" height="10"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ol, olu </font></td> <td width="211" height="10"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> it (usually for an inanimate thing)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lu </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> he/she/it</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ni </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> we/us</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vi </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> you</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> li (ili/eli/oli) </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> they/them</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> on </font></td> <td width="211"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> one/they/people</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> When necessary, the gender of they/them may be indicated by using the fuller forms:<br> 'ili' for the masculine<br> 'eli' for the feminine<br> 'oli' for the neuter<br> And similarly in the singular 'lu' is the common gender form of il, el, ol, corresponding to 'li' in the plural; it is convenient in such sentences as:<br> If the reader desires fuller details, let him or her (lu) turn to page XXX.<br> <br> On - one/they/people:<br> On dicez to quon on volas. - Let people say what they like.<br> <br> The reflexive pronoun is 'su': himself/herself/itself/themselves (third person only).<br> Il lavas su. - He washes himself. <br> Li lavas su. - They wash themselves.<br> Il manjis sua pomi, el manjis sui - He ate his apples, she ate hers.<br> But: Me lavas me. - I wash myself. <br> Vu lavas vu. - You wash yourself.<br> <br> Note: <br> 1) 'tu' refers to one person only. It shows affection towards the person addressed, and is therefore only to be used in special circumstances:<br> a) within the family<br> b) between close friends<br> c) when addressing small children <br> d) perhaps when addressing an animal or pet<br> 2) 'vu' also refers to one person only. It is the usual word for 'you'.<br> 3) 'vi' refers to more than one person, and is the plural of both 'tu' and 'vu'.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me<br> 2. Ni<br> 3. El<br> 4. Il<br> 5. Ol<br> 6. Li<br> 7. Tu<br> 8. Vu<br> 9. Tu<br> 10. Vi<br> 11. Ka vu es bona?<br> 12. Me es dentisto.<br> 13. Vu es mediko.<br> 14. Tu es bela.<br> 15. Ol es en la domo.<br> 16. Vi es bona mediki.<br> 17. Il havas bona amiko.<br> 18. Ni lektas vua libri.<br> 19. El prizas bela flori.<br> 20. Li chasas la kavali.<br> <br> <br> <b>Past Tense</b> <br> In the previous lessons we have been using the present tense verb ending '-as' which shows that the action is taking place now. By changing this ending to '-is', we can form the past tense:<br> el kantis - she sang/ she has sung/ she was singing/ she did sing<br> me manjis - I ate/ I have eaten/ I was eating/ I did eat<br> <br> The ending '-is' is used for any action that has happened or was happening in the past, and so it can be translated into English in several different ways.<br> You may think that to cover all these different shades of English meaning with just one tense could cause confusion. On rare occasions this could be so, but you will learn later on other forms of expression which avoid any such possible confusion.<br> The '-is' ending is not the only way of expressing the past, but it is the easiest and most convenient.<br> <br> <br> <b>Verbs</b> <br> The present infinitive of verbs ends in '-ar' (bearing the accent on '-ar'):<br> kredar - to believe<br> donar - to give<br> <br> The present tense ends in '-as':<br> me kredas - I believe<br> me donas - I give<br> <br> The past infinitive ends in '-ir' (accented):<br> kredir - to have believed<br> donir - to have given.<br> <br> The past tense ends in '-is':<br> me kredis - I believed/ I have believed<br> me donis - I gave/ I have given<br> <br> <br> </font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Vortaro</b> (Vocabulary) <br> Learn the following words by heart: </font><br> <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ek </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">out of </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabrikerio </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">factory </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fantomo </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ghost </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">foresto </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forest </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">heme </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">at home </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">malada </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ill, sick </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">multa </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">much, many </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nova </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">new </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pro </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">because of </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">querar </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to fetch </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">restar </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to stay </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tro </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">too (much) </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wiskio </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">whisky </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nam </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">for, since </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pro ke </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">because </font> </td> </tr> </table> <br> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me es.<br> 2. Me esis.<br> 3. Me havas.<br> 4. Me havis.<br> 5. Ni iras, Ni iris.<br> 6. Il iris.<br> 7. Me iras.<br> 8. Me iris.<br> 9. Me vizitis.<br> 10. Il vizitis.<br> 11. Il manjis.<br> 12. Me manjas.<br> 13. El laboras.<br> 14. El laboris.<br> 15. La hundo drinkis.<br> 16. Il havis granda kuko.<br> 17. Me anke drinkis wiskio.<br> 18. Li lektis multa libri.<br> 19. Me iris a la foresto.<br> 20. Me vizitis la fabrikerio.<br> 21. Me iris a la nova drinkerio.<br> 22. Ol drinkis wiskio.<br> 23. Ni iris aden la gardeno.<br> 24. Me drinkis tro multa wiskio.<br> 25. La nova instruktisto vidis vi.<br> 26. Me promenis ek la urbo.<br> 27. La mediko restis heme.<br> 28. Mea hundo queris la mediko.<br> 29. En la foresto me vidis fantomo.<br> 30. El ofte laboris en la fabrikerio.<br> 31. Me esis malada pro la wiskio.<br> 32. Ma la mediko esis anke malada ed il ne venis.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ante nun</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ago</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">amiko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">friend</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dio</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">day</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">facar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to do</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">facila</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">easy</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fine </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">finally</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hour</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ja</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">already</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kelka</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">some</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komencar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to begin</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komprenar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to understand</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kordiala</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cordial</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kurta</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">short</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lektar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to read</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">laute</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">loud (adverb)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lernar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to learn</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">letro</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">letter</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">linguo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">language</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nova</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">new</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">omna-die </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">every day</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pose</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">afterwards</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">saluto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">greeting</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sempre</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">always</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skribar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to write</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">studiar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to study</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">texto</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">text</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">traduko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">translation</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">trovar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to find</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dum</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">for</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ye</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">at, in, on</font> </td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b>Letro</b> (pri linguo internaciona (international language))<br> Ka vu ja lernas la nova linguo internaciona?<br> Me komencis studiar ol ye kelka dii ante nun, e me trovas ke ol esas vere tre facila. <br> Omna-die me lektas texto dum un horo; me sempre lektas laute, nam oportas ke ni tre ofte lektez laute.<br> Pose me facas kurta traduko e fine me skribas letro en la nova linguo.<br> Ka vu komprenas to?<br> Kun kordiala saluto, Vua amiko,<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> Here are some more useful affixes:<br> <br> -er- (one who habitually does something, amateur):<br> fumero - smoker <br> voyajero - traveller<br> <br> -er- (also used for animals or things characterized by an habitual action):<br> reptero - reptile<br> remorkero - tug (-boat)<br> <br> -ist- (meaning: a person who does something professionally):<br> koquisto - a cook<br> instruktisto - a teacher<br> skribisto - a writer<br> artisto - artist<br> dentisto - dentist<br> fotografisto - a professional photographer (Cp. fotografero, an amateur photographer)<br> <br> -ist- (also indicates an adherent of a party or school of thought):<br> Idisto - Idist<br> komunisto - communist<br> socialisto - socialist<br> idealisto - idealist<br> <br> -ism- (system, doctrine, party):<br> socialismo - socialism<br> Katolikismo - Catholicism<br> <br> -an- (member of a community, country, town or body):<br> partisano - partisan<br> societano - society member<br> Parisano - Parisian <br> Kanadano - Canadian<br> <br> -ier- (who or what bears or is characterized by):<br> pomiero - apple-tree<br> roziero - rose-bush<br> milioniero - millionaire<br> <br> -ier- (also in a few words, holder):<br> plumiero - pen-holder<br> sigariero - cigar-holder<br> <br> Note that all suffixes are added to the root of the word they are modifying, i.e. the grammatical ending is removed:<br> skribas (writes), root = skrib, skribisto - writer<br> polico (police), root = polic, policisto - policeman<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b></font><br> <table width="45%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chambro</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">room</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">desneta</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dirty</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dormo-chambro </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bedroom</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">facar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to make</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fakte</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">in fact</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fratulo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">brother</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">heme</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">at home</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hemo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">a home</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kande</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">when</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">koquar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to cook</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">koquero </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cook</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE" height="9"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">laborar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE" height="9"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to work</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ledro</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">leather</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ma</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">but</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">matro</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mother</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">neta</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">clean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">netigar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to clean</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nia</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">our</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nun</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">now</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nur</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">only</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plastiko</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plastic</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">puero</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">child (7 years to adolescence)</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">restar</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to stay</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shuo</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shoe</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shu-fabrikerio </font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shoe factory</font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td width="35%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tota</font> </td> <td width="65%" valign="MIDDLE"> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">all, whole</font> </td> </tr> </table> <br> <br> <b><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Words of one gender</font></b><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> (A few words are of one gender only)<br> As we have seen before, living things can be made male or female by adding the suffixes -ul- or -in-. Originally there were no exceptions to this.<br> However it was found convenient to include in the language one or two very common words of one gender only: patro (father), matro (mother), viro (adult man), muliero (woman)<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> Here are some more useful affixes:<br> <br> -id denotes offspring: <br> Izraelido - Israelite<br> <br> bo- (-in-law): <br> bopatro - father-in-law<br> <br> <br> <b>Mea Matro</b><br> Mea matro restas heme. El laboras en la hemo. El netigas la chambri. Me es neta, ma mea fratulo es tre desneta. Do la matro ofte netigas nia dormo-chambro. Fakte la matro netigas la tota domo. El anke koquas por ni. El es tre bon koquero. Kande me esis puero, el laboris en la shu- fabrikerio. El facis shui ek ledro e plastiko. Nun el ne laboras en la fabrikerio ma el laboras nur por ni. El es tre bona matro.<br> <br> <br> <b>Adverb</b><br> An adverb is a word which describes in some way how, when or where an action is, was, or will be done. If we take for example 'he worked', it may be that 'he worked' + 'well' or 'badly' or 'often' or 'quickly', and so on.<br> In English most adverbs end in -ly, but not all. The equivalent ending in Ido is -e. <br> All Ido adjectives can be made into adverbs by changing the -a ending to -e: <br> mala - bad -> male - badly<br> rapida - fast/rapid -> rapide - rapidly<br> danjeroza - dangerous -> danjeroze - dangerously<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b></font><br> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="75"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rapida </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fast</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="75"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ecelanta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> excellent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="75"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ecelante </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> excellently</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="75"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">multa </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> much</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="75"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">multe </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> a lot</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="75"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">treno </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> train</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b><a name="ex3"></a>Exerco 3<br> </b>Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Il laboras bone.<br> 2. Il instruktas male.<br> 3. La puero es bona.<br> 4. La instruktisto es mala.<br> 5. La treno iris rapide.<br> 6. El koquas ecelante.<br> 7. Li multe prizas kuki.<br> 8. Ni vidis la rapida treno.<br> 9. La koquisto es ecelanta.<br> 10. Il havas multa amiki.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b></font><br> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">alumeto </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> match</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butiko </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> shop</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butikisto </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> shopkeeper</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">certe </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> certainly</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chanco </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> luck</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">desfortunoza </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> unfortunate</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fino </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> end</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">helpar</font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to help</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hiere </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> yesterday</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kliento </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> customer</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kun </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> with</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">matino </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> morning</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">merkato </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> market</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">monato </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> month</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">obliviar </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to forget</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pagar </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to pay</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">paketo </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> packet</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pro </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> because of</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pro quo </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> why</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quo </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> what</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sempre </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> always</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">servar </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to serve</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sigareto </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cigarette</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vakanco </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> holiday</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vetero </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> weather</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="103"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ye </font></td> <td width="91"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> at</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b><br> En la butiko (B=Butikisto, M=Mary)<br> B: Bon matino, Mary! Quon vu deziras?<br> M: Bon matino, Sioro Harris! Me deziras paketo de sigareto e buxo de alumeti por mea matro, ed anke botelo de lakto.<br> B: Ka vu pagas nun o ye la fino di la monato?<br> M: Me ne pagas nun. Me obliviis mea pekunio. Fakte, Peter havas ol, ed il es en la merkato. Ka Siorino Harris ne helpas vu hodie?<br> B: No, el havas vakanco. El iris hiere a London.<br> M: El certe havas bona chanco. La vetero es bela. Pro quo vu ne iris kun el?<br> B: Pro la butiko. Me restas hike e servas la klienti.<br> M: Butikisti es tre desfortunoza.<br> B: Yes, ni sempre laboras.</font><br> <br> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. I/Me<br> 2. We/Us<br> 3. She/Her<br> 4. He/Him<br> 5. It<br> 6. They/Them<br> 7. You (a close friend)<br> 8. You(a complete stranger)<br> 9. You (addressing a friendly dog)<br> 10. You (more than one person)<br> 11. Are you good?<br> 12. I am a dentist.<br> 13. You are a doctor.<br> 14. You are beautiful.<br> 15. It is in the house.<br> 16. You are good doctors.<br> 17. He has a good friend.<br> 18. We are reading your books.<br> 19. She likes beautiful flowers.<br> 20. They are chasing the horses.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. I am.<br> 2. I was.<br> 3. I have.<br> 4. I had.<br> 5. We are going, We went.<br> 6. He was going, He went.<br> 7. I go.<br> 8. I went.<br> 9. I visited.<br> 10. He has visited.<br> 11. He did eat.<br> 12. I am eating.<br> 13. She works.<br> 14. She was working.<br> 15. The dog drank.<br> 16. He had a big cake.<br> 17. I also drank whisky.<br> 18. They read many books.<br> 19. I went to the forest.<br> 20. I visited the factory.<br> 21. I went to the new pub.<br> 22. It was drinking whisky.<br> 23. We went into the garden.<br> 24. I drank too much whisky.<br> 25. The new teacher saw you.<br> 26. I walked out of the town.<br> 27. The doctor stayed at home.<br> 28. My dog fetched the doctor.<br> 29. In the forest I saw a ghost.<br> 30. She often worked in the factory.<br> 31. I was ill because of the whisky.<br> 32. But the doctor was also ill and he didn't come.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3-s"></a>Exerco 3 </b>(Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. He works well.<br> 2. He teaches badly.<br> 3. The child is good.<br> 4. The teacher is bad.<br> 5. The train went fast.<br> 6. She cooks excellently.<br> 7. They like cakes a lot.<br> 8. We saw the fast train.<br> 9. The cook is excellent.<br> 10. He has a good many friends.<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 972 2048 2005-04-18T12:34:12Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"><b><font size="5">Lesson 6 - Sisesma Leciono</font></b></font><b><br> <br> <br> </b> <b><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Interrogative Pronouns (1)</font></b><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> These could possibly present a little difficulty at first, but need not do so if studied carefully.<br> Qua regardas me? - Who is looking at me?<br> Qua amas il? - Who loves him?<br> <br> From the above examples you will see that 'qua' means 'who'. However, if it is known that 'who' is more than one person then 'qui' should be used:<br> Qui regardas me? - Who is looking at me?<br> Qui amas il? - Who loves him?<br> <br> In the case of an unknown object or thing 'quo' is used. It corresponds to 'what' in English.<br> Quo es en la buxo? - What is in the box?<br> Quo eventis? - What happened?<br> <br> Note:<br> In Ido it is not necessary to change the word order when making questions, though it is in English.<br> (English) 'He is' becomes 'Who is he?'<br> (Ido) 'Il es' becomes 'Qua il es?' (Qua es il?)<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Qua il esas?<br> 2. Qua esis malada?<br> 3. Quo es en la gardeno?<br> 4. Qua facis la laboro di George?<br> 5. Qua amas la olda kavalo?<br> 6. Quo manjas mea pomi?<br> 7. Qui venis hike kun la hundo?<br> 8. Qui lernas Ido en la skolo?<br> 9. Qui iris a la skolo kun blanka musi?<br> 10. Qua vizitas la amiki di la olda butikisti?<br> <br> <br> <b>Numerals</b></font><br> <table border="0" width="116"> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">un </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> one</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">du </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> two</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tri </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> three</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> four</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kin </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> five</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sis </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> six</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sep </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> seven</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ok </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> eight</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">non </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> nine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dek </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ten</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me havas dek kati.<br> 2. Me havas un fratulo.<br> 3. Non yunini vizitis me.<br> 4. Mea fratulo vidis tri uceli.<br> 5. Qua havas du boteli de biro?<br> 6. La hundo manjas kin kuki.<br> 7. El ne kompras sis pomi.<br> 8. Ni havas nur quar neta shui.<br> 9. Ka sep flori es en la gardeno?<br> 10 La domo di Mary ne havas ok fenestri.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> -ey- (place or room devoted to some object or action):<br> It is used in the construction of many common words:<br> pregeyo - oratory<br> koqueyo - kitchen (koquas - cooks) <br> tombeyo - cemetery<br> kavaleyo - stable (place for horses)<br> hundeyo - kennel (place for dogs)<br> viteyo - vineyard<br> As well as for others of a more general nature:<br> lerneyo - school-room <br> lojeyo - dwelling place<br> dormeyo - a sleeping place/dormitory<br> Work out for yourself the meaning of the -eyo words elsewhere.<br> As the meaning of this suffix is rather wide, special words are to be used where the sense requires them: <br> universitato, skolo, etc., for lerneyo<br> katedralo, kirko, etc., for pregeyo<br> <br> -uy- (receptacle):<br> inkuyo - inkwell<br> kafeuyo - coffee-box<br> teuyo - tea-caddy<br> sigaruyo - cigar-box<br> NOTE: coffee-pot, tea-pot are kafe-krucho, te-krucho.<br> <br> -i- (domain or sphere of action):<br> dukio - duchy<br> komtio - county<br> episkopio - bishopric<br> <br> -ed- (the full of, amount corresponding to):<br> bokedo - mouthful<br> pinchedo - pinch<br> glutedo - gulp<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b></font><br> <table width="40%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="31%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rezidar</font></td> <td width="69%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to reside, to dwell, to live</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> The following two words are more specific than 'rezidas':<br> lojas - lives for a limited time (in someone else's house etc.)<br> habitas - lives permanently (in one's own house etc.)<br> On lojas tempe (kurte) che altra persono od en gasteyo.<br> On habitas permanente en propra o fixa domo.<br> On habitas urbo, che amiko, parento, en apartamento, en chambro, e.c.</font><br> <br> <table width="40%" border="0"> <tr> <td width="32%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">laborar</font></td> <td width="68%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to work</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="32%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">trovar</font></td> <td width="68%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to find</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="32%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sidar</font></td> <td width="68%"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to sit</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b><a name="ex3"></a>Exerco 3 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. La drinkerio es vua laboreyo.<br> 2. La pueri es en la kavaleyo.<br> 3. Mea hundo ne habitas en hundeyo.<br> 4. Ni havas fisheyo en nia gardeno.<br> 5. La domo havas bela koqueyo.<br> 6. La yuni manjas en la manjeyo.<br> 7. El ne trovis sideyo.<br> 8. Mea domo es la rezideyo di multa musi.<br> 9. Li ne trovis drinkeyo por la kavali.<br> 10. Li ne havas dormeyo en la skolo.<br> <br> <br> <b>Dum, en</b><br> Note the following difference carefully.<br> Me manjis dum la nokto. - I ate during the night. (throughout the whole night).<br> Me manjis en la nokto. - I ate during the night. (at one or more different times during the night).<br> <br> <br> <b>Od/o - or</b><br> Note that as with 'ed/e', 'od' is generally used when the next word starts with a vowel, and 'o' is used when it begins with a consonant.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b> (Adjektivi kun nuanci)<br> -al- (forms adjectives meaning "belonging to" or "relating to"):<br> universala - universal <br> racionala - rational<br> <br> -oz- (means "full of", "containing", "rich in"):<br> poroza - porous<br> sabloza - sandy<br> kurajoza - courageous<br> famoza - famous<br> <br> -em- (means "inclined to"): <br> babilema - talkative <br> ociema - lazy<br> laborema - industrious<br> <br> -ik- (means "sick of", "suffering from"): <br> ftiziiko - consumptive<br> artritiko - arthritic <br> alkoholiko - alcoholic patient<br> <br> -atr- (means "like", "similar to", "-ish"):<br> sponjatra - spongy<br> haratra - hair-like<br> verdatra - greenish<br> <br> -e- (means "having the appearance or colour of"): <br> rozea - rozy, pink<br> violea - violet (-coloured)<br> musea - mouse-coloured<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b></font><br> <table> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">armeo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> army</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">automobilo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> car </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">biciklo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bicycle </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">divenar</font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to become</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dormeyo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sleeping place</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konduktar </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to drive</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">grandega </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> enormous</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kamionisto </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lorry driver</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kamiono </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lorry</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pos </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> after</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">patro </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> father</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">posdimezo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> afternoon</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">soldato </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> soldier</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vespero </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> evening</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ipsa </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> self</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lito </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bed</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">milito </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> war</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nokto </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> night</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">od/o </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> or</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pri </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> about</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dum </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> during, throughout</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="89"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sen </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> without</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <br> <b><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Mea Patro</font></b><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> Mea patro esis soldato dum la milito. En la armeo il lernis pri automobili e kamioni. Il konduktis kamioni. Pos la milito il divenis kamionisto. Il nun konduktas grandega kamioni. Il konduktas dum la matino e dum la posdimezo. Ofte il konduktas kamioni dum la vespero e la nokto sen dormar.<br> Kande me esis puero me ofte iris kun il en la kamiono. Ni vizitis multa urbi. Dum la nokto ni dormis sur lito en la kamiono od en dormeyo por kamionisti. Me ipsa ne konduktas automobilo. Me es tro yuna. Me havas biciklo.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b></font><br> <table width="216"> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">aparar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to appear</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">autuno </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> autumn</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">brilar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to shine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ca </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> this</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dop </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> behind</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">desaparar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to disappear</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">horizonto </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> horizon</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jorno </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> day</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kantar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to sing</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kolda </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cold</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kovrilo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> blanket/cove</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lana </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> woollen</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">luno </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> moon</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nepluse </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> no longer </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plura </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> several</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">printempo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> spring</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">somero </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> summer</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">stelo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> star </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">suno </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sun</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tante </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> so</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">trovar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to find</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ucelo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bird</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">uzar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to use</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">varma </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> warm</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">venar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to come</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vintro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> winter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sama ... kam </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> same ... with</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quale </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> as/like</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b><a name="ex4"></a>Exerco 4 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex4-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Quo es hike?<br> 2. Qua habitas hike?<br> 3. Ube mea lito esas?<br> 4. Ube vua kato es?<br> 5. Quo es en la kamiono?<br> 6. Qui vi esas?<br> 7. Qui li es?<br> 8. Qua havas grandega shui?<br> 9. Qua lojas en la gardeno?<br> 10. Qui havas la reda bicikli?<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex5"></a>Exerco 5 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex5-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Quar varma nokti.<br> 2. Non bruna uceli.<br> 3. Pos tri vesperi.<br> 4. Dek grandega matri.<br> 5. Sis steli brilas.<br> 6. Ok lana kovrili.<br> 7. La sama sep kovrili.<br> 8. Du malada soldati rezidis hike.<br> 9. Kin kavali dormis en ca lito.<br> 10. Un feroca olda kato esis sub la lito.<br> <br> <br> <b>Bona Nokto</b><br> Dum la jorno la suno brilas. En la vespero la suno desaparas dop la horizonto. La uceli nepluse kantas. Li trovas dormeyo en la arbori e li dormas. La nokto venas. En la nokto la luno aparas e la steli brilas. En la nokto me iras a lito e lektas libro dum un horo ante dormar (before falling asleep).<br> Me havas grandega lito qua es en mea dormo-chambro. Mea chambro ne es varma dum la printempo e me uzas kin kovrili. Dum la somero la vetero es varma e mea chambro ne es kolda. Me uzas nur un kovrilo. En la autuno la vetero divenas kolda. Me uzas plura kovrili. Me uzas sis lana kovrili. Dum la vintro la vetero es tante kolda ke me uzas dek kovrili, e mea du granda hundi dormas en la sama lito kam la mea (quale me).<br> <br> <br> <b>La familio</b> (the family)</font><br> <table border="0" width="272"> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> grandparent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> grandmother</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> grandfather</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">patro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> father</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">matro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mother</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">genitoro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> parent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">parento </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> relative</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> spouse</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> wife</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spozulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> husband</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">filio </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> son/daughter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">filiino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> daughter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">filiulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> son</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gefilii </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> son(s) and daughter(s)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">frato </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> brother/sister</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fratino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sister</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fratulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> brother</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nepoto </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> grandchild</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nepotino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> granddaughter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nepotulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> grandson</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onklo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> uncle/aunt</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onklino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> aunt</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onklulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> uncle</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kuzo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cousin</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kuzino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cousin (female)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kuzulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cousin (male)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nevo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> nephew/niece </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nevino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> niece</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nevulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> nephew</font></td> </tr> </table> <br> <br> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Who is he?<br> 2. Who was ill?<br> 3. What is in the garden? <br> 4. Who did George's work?<br> 5. Who loves the old horse?<br> 6. What is eating my apples?<br> 7. Who came here with the dog?<br> 8. Who is learning Ido in this school?<br> 9. Who went to the school with white mice?<br> 10. Who visits the friends of the old shopkeeper? <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. I have ten cats.<br> 2. I have one brother.<br> 3. Nine girls visited me.<br> 4. My brother saw three birds.<br> 5. Who has two bottles of beer?<br> 6. The dog is eating five cakes.<br> 7. She is not buying six apples.<br> 8. We have only four clean shoes.<br> 9. Are seven flowers in the garden?<br> 10 Mary's house hasn't got eight windows.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3-s"></a>Exerco 3 </b>(Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. The pub is your place of work.<br> 2. The children are in the stable.<br> 3. My dog doesn't live in a kennel.<br> 4. We have a fish pond in our garden.<br> 5. The house has a beautiful kitchen.<br> 6. The children eat in the dining hall.<br> 7. She didn't find a sitting place (seat).<br> 8. My house is the dwelling place of many mice.<br> 9. They didn't find a drinking place for the horses.<br> 10. They don't have a place to sleep (dormitory) in the school.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex4-s"></a>Exerco 4 </b>(Click <a href="#ex4"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. What is here?<br> 2. Who lives here?<br> 3. Where is my bed?<br> 4. Where is your cat?<br> 5. What is in the lorry?<br> 6. Who (plural) are you?<br> 7. Who (plural) are they?<br> 8. Who has enormous shoes?<br> 9. Who lives in the garden?<br> 10. Who (plural) has the red bicycles?<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex5-s"></a>Exerco 5 </b>(Click <a href="#ex5"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. Four warm nights.<br> 2. Nine brown birds..<br> 3. After three evenings.<br> 4. Ten enormous mothers.<br> 5. Six stars are shining.<br> 6. Eight woollen blankets.<br> 7. The same seven blankets.<br> 8. Two sick soldiers lived here.<br> 9. Five horses slept in this bed.<br> 10. One fierce old cat was under the bed. <br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 973 2049 2005-04-18T12:36:18Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 7 - Sepesma Leciono</font></b></font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <br> <b>Future Tense</b><br> The future tense is used when something will or shall happen. The ending for the future is -os:<br> Me iros - I will go.<br> Ni vidos - We shall see.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">armoro </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cupboard</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">audar </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to hear</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">batar </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to beat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dansar </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to dance</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dansisto </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dancer</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dop </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> behind</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fumar </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to smoke</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gustar </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to taste</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">juar </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to enjoy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">klimar </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to climb</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">klimero </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> climber</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kolino </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hill</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">monto </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mountain</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">morge </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tomorrow</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vilajo </font></td> <td width="76"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> village</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me esas, Me esis, Me esos.<br> 2. Vu havas, Vu havis, Vu havos.<br> 3. Il regardas, Il regardis, Il regardos.<br> 4. Tu dansas bone.<br> 5. La automobilo es granda.<br> 6. IMe batos vi.<br> 7. Me helpos il. / Me helpos ad il.<br> 8. Me ne fumas.<br> 9. Ka vu manjos hodie?<br> 10. La klimero venos.<br> 11. Ka ni dansos morge?<br> 12. Me gustos la kuko.<br> 13. Tu juos la biro.<br> 14. La instruktisto fumis.<br> 15. Me divenos dentisto.<br> 16. La vetero es varma hodie.<br> 17. Ka ni fumos sigareto?<br> 18. La hundo di Philip audis la yunino.<br> 19. La uceli kantos morge.<br> 20. La instruktisto ne audis li.<br> 21. Il ne batos la mikra hundo.<br> 22. La dansisto ne dansos hodie.<br> 23. Il pozis la manjajo aden la armoro.<br> 24. La grosa muso manjos la pomo.<br> 25. La porko ne dormos en mea lito!<br> 26. La kamionisto drinkos la wiskio.<br> 27. La fantomo ne aparos dum la jorno.<br> 28. La yuna klimero helpis (a) la olda soldato.<br> 29. El ne klimos la kolino dop la vilajo.<br> 30. La klimero klimos la monto dum la nokto.<br> <br> <br> <b>Cardinal Numbers</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">1 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> un</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">2 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> du</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">3 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tri</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">4 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">5 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kin</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">6 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sis</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">7 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sep</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">8 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ok</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">9 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> non </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">10 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">11 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e un</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">12 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e du</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">13 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e tri</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">14 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e quar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">15 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e kin</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">16 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e sis</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">17 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e sep</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">18 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e ok</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">19 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dek e non</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">20 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duadek</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">21 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duadek e un</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">22 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duadek e du</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">23 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duadek e tri</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">30 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> triadek</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">40 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quaradek</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">50 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kinadek </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">60 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sisadek </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">70 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sepadek</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">80 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> okadek</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">90 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> nonadek</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">99 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> nonadek e non</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">100 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">101 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cent e un</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">124 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cent e duadek e quar</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">200 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duacent </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">400 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quaracent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">1000 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mil</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">2000 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duamil</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">3700 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> triamil e sepacent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="82"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">1,000,000 </font></td> <td width="148"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> miliono</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">In lesson 6 you learnt the numbers 1-10. As you can see from the above examples the rest are easy. 'Eleven' is 'dek e un' (literally 'ten and one'), 'twelve' is 'dek e du', and so on up to nineteen (dek e non). 'Twenty' - 'duadek' is simply 'dua' (two times) '-dek' (ten), i.e. twenty. 'Thirty' is 'tria-dek', 'forty' is 'quara-dek', and so on. 'Forty one' (four times ten plus one) is 'quaradek e un', 556 (five times a hundred and five times ten and six) is 'kinacent e kinadek e sis'.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0" width="238"> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">amorar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to love</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">banano </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> banana</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ca </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> this (adjective)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">disko </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> disc</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">durstoza </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> thirsty</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forketo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> table fork</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fratino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sister</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">klaso </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> class</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fratulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> brother</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gorilo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> gorilla</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hungroza </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hungry</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="15"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kantisto </font></td> <td height="15"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> singer</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">infanto </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> child (under 7)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kopiuro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> copy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kuliero </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> spoon</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kultelo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> knife</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lampo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lamp/light</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">letro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> letter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">letro-portisto</font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">postman</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lia </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> their</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">onklino </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> aunt</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pantalono </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> trousers</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pendar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to hang (up or down)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">per </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> with/by</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plafono </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ceiling</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">planko-sulo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">floor</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ta </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> that</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tir-kesto</font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">drawer</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sua </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> his/her/their own</font></td> </tr> </table> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Note:<br> (1) 'Amoras' means 'loves' (the affection a man and a woman feel for each other). There is also 'amas' which is the affection a mother feels for for her child, or a sister for a brother etc.<br> (2) 'Per' means 'with' in the sense of 'by means of':<br> Il batis me per bastono. - He beat me with a stick.<br> It should not be confused with 'kun' which means 'with' in the sense of 'in the company of':<br> Il iris kun el a la parko. - He went with her to the park.<br> Sometimes English 'with' corresponds to some other prepositon:<br> cf. Havez pacienteso a me. - Have patience 'with' me.<br> (3) 'Pantalono' - trousers is a singular word in Ido because it constitutes only one object.<br> 'Pantaloni' would be pairs of trousers.<br> Also 'binoklo' - a pair of glasses<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Duadek kavali.<br> 2. Triadek infanti.<br> 3. Cent kulteli.<br> 4. Quaradek e quar letri.<br> 5. Kinadek e ok kulieri.<br> 6. Sisadek e tri kopiuri.<br> 7. Nonadek e un gorili.<br> 8. Mea matro havas dek e sis kati.<br> 9. Lia instruktisto havas okadek diski.<br> 10. Mea onklino havas sepadek e un flori.<br> 11. Morge me skribos dek e du letri.<br> 12. La gorilo di mea onklino manjis dek e kin banani.<br> 13. La triadek soldati dormis sur la planko-sulo.<br> 14. Triadek e sis lampi pendis de la plafono.<br> 15. En ta urbo laboras sepadek e sis durstoza letro-portisti.<br> 16. La quaradek kulteli esis en la tir-kesto di ca tablo.<br> 17. Hodie la yuni di ca klaso fumis duadek sigareti.<br> 18. Mea yuna fratino trovis cent e du forketi en la armoro.<br> 19. La nonacent e nonadek e non hungroza infanti batis la tablo per sua kulieri.<br> 20. La 2 kantisti vendis duacenta-mil kopiuri de sua nova disko, 'Me amoras tu'.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> -il- (instrument for doing the action shown in the root word):<br> pektas - combs : pektilo - a comb<br> skribas - writes : skribilo - something to write with; pen, pencil, etc.<br> brosas - brushes : brosilo - a brush<br> plugas - ploughs : plugilo - a plough<br> pafas - shoots : pafilo - a fire-arm<br> baras - bars : barilo - barrier<br> fotografas - photographs : fotografilo - camera<br> <br> Many special names of instruments exist:<br> klefo - key, martelo - hammer.<br> The verbs can be formed by compounding them with the root -ag to do, act:<br> klefagar - to lock martelagar - to hammer<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> mixar - to mixe<br> tranchar - to cut<br> brosar - to brush<br> fotografar - to photograph<br> ludar - to play<br> apertar - to open<br> natar - to swim<br> <br> Note that suffixes can often be used to make an approximate word when the correct one is not known.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3"></a>Exerco 3 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. tranchilo<br> 2. mixilo<br> 3. brosilo<br> 4. fotografilo<br> 5. natili<br> 6. ludilo<br> 7. apertilo<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro<br> </b></font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">amiko </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> friend</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chokolado </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> chocolate</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">demandar </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to ask</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">donacajo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> present (gift)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hiere </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> yesterday</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ja </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> already</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komprenende </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> of course</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kunportar </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to bring</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ludilo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> toy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nasko</font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dio </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nia </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> our</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">omna </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> all</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">peco </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> piece</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">partio </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> party</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">prenez! </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> take!</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">saluto! </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hello!/hi! </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sukrajo </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> a sweet</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">til </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> until</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tua </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> your</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120" height="2"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vere </font></td> <td width="122" height="2"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> really</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">yaro </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> year</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Quante tu evas? </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> How old are you?</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="120"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Me evas sep yari. </font></td> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> I'm seven.</font></td> </tr> </table> <p> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b>Konversado</b><br> Sur la strado (A=Alan, B=Bob)<br> A: Saluto, Bob! Quale tu standas?<br> B: Saluto, Alan! Hodie es mea nasko-dio.<br> A: Vere? Quante tu evas?<br> B: Me evas non yari. Me havis multa ludili: Kamiono, automobilo, soldati e sukraji. Morge me havos mea partio. Ka tu venos? Mea matro ja demandis a tua matro.<br> A: Ka mea matro dicis 'yes'?<br> B: Komprenende!<br> A: Qui venas a la partio?<br> B: Omna nia amiki. Li kunportos donacaji. Yen, prenez sukrajo e peco de chokolado!<br> A: Danko.<br> B: Til la partio.<br> A: Til la partio.<br> <br> <br> <b>General Questions </b><br> Note:<br> </font> <table width="215"> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Quakolora? </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> What colour?</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Ube? </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Where?</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Che vu </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> At your house</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Posdimezo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Afternoon</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Vespero </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Evening</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Qua? </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Who?</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Quo? </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> What?</font></td> </tr> </table> <p><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> 01) Quakolora es la pordo? -> Ol es blanka quale nivo (as white as snow).<br> 02) Ube vu dormas? -> En la lito kun mea amorata (loved) spozino.<br> 03) Ka vu dormas dum la jorno? -> No, kompreneble ne. Me sempre devas laborar.<br> 04) Ka vu havas blua automobilo? -> Yes, nam la blua esis chipa.<br> 05) Ka vu drinkas biro? -> No, me esas anti-alkoholisto.<br> 06) Ka vu havas fisheyo che vu? -> Fisheyo che me? Ho, no, ridinde no.<br> 07) Ka vu promenas en la nokto? -> Promenar? No, me pavoras de la nokto.<br> 08) Ka vu laboras en la posdimezo? -> Yes, komprenende. Qua laboras por me?<br> 09) Ka vu drinkas kafeo en la matino? -> Yes, matine kafeo komplete vekigas me.<br> 10) Quakolora es kafeo? -> Generale ol es nigra ma bruna kande kun lakto.<br> 11) Ka vu iras a la skolo en la vespero? -> No, me ne prizas skoli.<br> 12) Quo es sur la tablo? -> Mea libri. Me lektas libri pri vasta temi.<br> 13) Qua lojas che vu? -> Nulu lojas che me. Mea domo es tre mikra.<br> 14) Ube vu habitas? -> En la strado di Ben-Yehuda.<br> 15) Ka vu havas fratino? -> Yes, me havas un fratino.<br> <br> <br> <b>Forms of Transport</b></font> <table border="0" width="241"> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">aero-navo</font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">airship </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> aeroplano </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> aeroplane</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> auto(mobilo) </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> car</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> balonego </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> balloon</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> batelo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> boat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> biciklo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bicycle</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dilijenco </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> stage coach</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> furgono </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> van</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fuzeo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> rocket</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> helikoptero </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> helicopter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kamiono </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lorry</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="9"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lokomotivo </font></td> <td height="9"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> locomotive</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> motorbiciklo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> motorbike</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> navo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ship</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> omnibuso </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bus</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> spaco-navo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spaceship</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> submerso-navo</font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">submarine </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> treno </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> train</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vagono </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> (railway) carriage</font></td> </tr> </table> <p>&nbsp; </p> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. I am, I was, I will be.<br> 2. You have, You had, You will have.<br> 3. He is looking, He was looking, He will look.<br> 4. You dance well.<br> 5. The car is big.<br> 6. I will beat you.<br> 7. I will help him.<br> 8. I am not smoking. <br> 9. Will you eat today?<br> 10. The climber will come.<br> 11. Will we dance tomorrow?<br> 12. I shall taste the cake.<br> 13. You will enjoy the beer.<br> 14. The teacher was smoking.<br> 15. I shall become a dentist.<br> 16. The weather is warm today.<br> 17. Shall we smoke a cigarette?<br> 18. Philip's dog heard the girl.<br> 19. The birds will sing tomorrow.<br> 20. The teacher did not hear them.<br> 21. He will not beat the small dog.<br> 22. The dancer will not dance today.<br> 23. He put the food in the cupboard. <br> 24. The fat mouse will eat the apple. <br> 25. The pig will not sleep in my bed!<br> 26. The lorry driver will drink the whisky. <br> 27. The ghost will not appear during the day.<br> 28. The young climber helped the old soldier. <br> 29. She will not climb the hill behind the village.<br> 30. The climber will climb the mountain during the night.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Twenty horses.<br> 2. Thirty children.<br> 3. A hundred knives.<br> 4. Forty-four letters.<br> 5. Fifty-eight spoons.<br> 6. Sixty-three copies.<br> 7. Ninty-one gorillas.<br> 8. My mother has sixteen cats.<br> 9. Their teacher has eighty discs.<br> 10. My aunt has seventy-one flowers.<br> 11. Tomorrow I shall write twelve letters.<br> 12. My aunt's gorilla ate fifteen bananas.<br> 13. The thirty soldiers slept on the floor.<br> 14. Thirty-six lamps hung form the ceiling.<br> 15. Seventy-six thirsty postmen work in that town.<br> 16. The forty knives were in the drawer of this table.<br> 17. Today the children of this class smoked twenty cigarettes.<br> 18. My young sister found a hundred and two forks in the cupboard. <br> 19. The 999 hungry children beat the table with their spoons.<br> 20. The two singers sold 200,000 copies of their new disc, "I love you". <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3-s"></a>Exerco 3 </b>(Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. knife<br> 2. a mixer<br> 3. brush <br> 4. camera<br> 5. fish's fins, frogman's flippers<br> 6. toy<br> 7. door handle<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 974 2050 2005-04-18T12:37:33Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><font size="5">Lesson 08 - Okesma Leciono</font></b><br> <br> <br> <b>Ordinal Numbers</b><br> In English these are slightly irregular.<br> From 'one' we get 'first', from 'two' - 'second', 'three' - 'third', 'four' - 'fourth', 'five' - 'fifth', and so on.<br> In Ido all ordinal numbers are regular; -esma is added to the cardinal number:<br> </font> <table border="0" width="319"> <tr> <td width="77"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">first </font></td> <td width="232"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> un + esma = unesma (1ma)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="77"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> second </font></td> <td width="232"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duesma (2ma)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="77"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> third </font></td> <td width="232"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> triesma (2ma)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="77"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> twentieth </font></td> <td width="232"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> duadekesma (20ma)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="77"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> 144th </font></td> <td width="232"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cent e quaradek e quaresma (144ma</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b>Monati (Months)</b><br> </font> <table border="0" width="180"> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">januaro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> January</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> februaro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> February</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> marto </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> March</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> aprilo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> April</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mayo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> May</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> junio </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> June</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> julio </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> July</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> agosto </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> August</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> septembro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> September</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> oktobro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> October</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> novembro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> November</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> decembro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> December</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b>Dati (Dates)</b><br> (1) The word for 'of' - 'di' may be omitted, although we do not recommend this style:<br> la quaresma (di) mayo - The fourth of May.<br> (2) With dates 'es' can mean 'it is'. There is no need for an additonal word for 'it':<br> Es la dek e nonesma (di) junio - It's the nineteeth of June.<br> (3) 'Ye' is used for 'on' in expressions of time:<br> Ye la duadek e okesma di februaro - on the 28th of February.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Es la kinesma di marto.<br> 2. Es la duesma di januaro.<br> 3. Hiere esis la kinesma di julio.<br> 4. Il ne esis hike ye la kinesma di julio.<br> 5. Esos morge la okesma di mayo.<br> 6. Esos la nonesma di junio morge.<br> 7. Esis la sepesma di agosto hiere.<br> 8. Mea nasko-dio esis ye la unesma di oktobro.<br> 9. La letro venis ye la unesma di februaro.<br> 10. La suno brilis ye la duadekesma di novembro.<br> 11. La yunuli ne laboros ye la quaresma di aprilo.<br> 12. Mea matro venos ye la dekesma di septembro.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> -eri- (establishment where something is made or done, implied by the root, though not necessarily manufacturing or producing it):<br> drinkerio - public house<br> agenterio - agency (agento - an agent)<br> fabrikerio - factory (fabrikas - manufactures)<br> lakterio - dairy<br> restorerio - restaurant<br> rafinerio - refinery<br> chapelerio - hat factory<br> distilerio - distillery<br> <br> Note: -eri- and -ey- are sometimes confused. The former is an establishment, the latter is a place, For example:<br> imprimas - prints (verb)<br> imprimerio - printing works (including offices etc)<br> imprimeyo - the part of the works, the place/room where the printing takes place<br> <br> <br> <b>Vesti (Clothes)</b><br> </font> <table border="0" width="323"> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">boto </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> boot</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ganto </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> glove</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kalzego </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tights/pantyhose (US)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kalzeto </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sock</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kalzo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> stocking</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> robo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dress</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sharpo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> scarf</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> shuo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> shoe</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> chapelo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> jaketo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> (woman's) coat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kamizo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> shirt</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kravato </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tie</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> paltoto </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> (over)coat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pantalono </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> trousers</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> subvesto </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> under garment</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> surtuto </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> (long)coat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vestono </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> (man's) jacket</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> jupo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> skirt</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> jileto </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> waistcoat</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> korsajo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> blouse</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> trikoturo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pullover</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> manu</font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sako </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> subjupo </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> slip</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="92"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kalsono </font></td> <td width="221"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> knickers/pants/(US)briefs/panties</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <b><br> Interrogative Pronouns (2) (Accusative Form)</b><br> So far we have learnt:<br> Qua? - Who<br> Qui? - Who?<br> Quo? - What?<br> Qua manjas? - Who is eating?<br> Qui venis? - Who (plural) came?<br> Quo facas la bruiso? - What is making the noise?<br> <br> In all the above examples the 'who' or 'what' is doing the action indicated by the verb. However there are occasions when the 'who' or 'what' will in some way receive the action:<br> Whom do you see?<br> What are you eating?<br> In these two sentences the 'you' is doing the action.<br> In the first one the 'whom' is receiving the action by being seen, and in the second the 'what' is receiving the action by being eaten.<br> Just as 'who' in English takes an ending and becomes 'whom', so 'qua' and 'qui' take an ending and become 'quan' and 'quin'.<br> However, although 'what' in English remains unchanged, 'quo' in Ido follows the same pattern as 'quan' and 'quin', and becomes 'quon'.<br> The use of the accusative ending -n is to make it absolutely clear who is doing the action and who is receiving it.<br> La viro quan vu vidis. - The man whom you saw.<br> Quin vu vidas? - Whom (plural) do you see?<br> Quon il dicis? - What did he say?<br> Me ne audis (to) quon il dicis. - I did not hear what he said.<br> <br> Note that in this construction the English word order changes, and 'do' or 'does' may be inserted, but the Ido word order remains the same:<br> English: <br> 'You see' becomes 'Whom do you see?' or 'What do you see?'<br> 'You are eating' becomes 'What are you eating?'<br> Ido: <br> 'Vu vidas' becomes 'Quan vu vidas?' or 'Quon vu vidas?'<br> 'Tu manjas' becomes 'Quon tu manjas?'<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Qua vidas me?<br> 2. Quan me vidas?<br> 3. Qua povas vidar li?<br> 4. Quan il povas vidar?<br> 5. Quon vu prizas?<br> 6. Quo manjis mea shui?<br> 7. Quo es en la buxo?<br> 8. Quo drinkis la lakto?<br> 9. Quon vu koquas?<br> 10. Quo es en la domo?<br> 11. Qua manjas la fisho?<br> 12. Qua manjas la karno?<br> 13. Quan la fisho manjas?<br> 14. Quon la ucelo manjas?<br> 15. Quon vu donis a li?<br> 16. Quon vu donis a John?<br> 17. Qui prizas pomi?<br> 18. Qui prizas la uceli?<br> 19. Quin li vidis?<br> 20. Quin mea amiki vidis?<br> <br> <b><br> Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0" width="346"> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adreso </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> address</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> antea </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> previous</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> apud </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> next to</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> atesto </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> certificate</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bezonar </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to need</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> biblioteko </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> library</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bone </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> well</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> brular </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to burn</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">centro</font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">centre</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cinemo </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cinema</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dil = di la </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> of the</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">direte</font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">directly</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> drinkerio </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pub</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> eventar </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to happen</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">employo-agenterio</font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">employment agency</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fakte </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> in fact</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> homo </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> person</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hotelestro </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hotel manager</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hotelo </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hotel</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> incendio </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fire </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kom </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> as</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> incendio-domo</font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fire station</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> klerko </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> clerk</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> koquisto </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cook</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> laboro </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> work</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lando </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> country/land </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> listo </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> list</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> livar </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to leave</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> naskis </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to be born </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> onklulo </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> uncle </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> rejala </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> royal </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">evar</font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to be aged</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> serchar </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to look for</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> restorerio </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> restaurant </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> staciono </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> station</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tota </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> all, the whole</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vartez! </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> wait! </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ye </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> at/in/on a precise place or time</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fairo </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fire</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quanta? </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> how many? </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quante? </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> how many? </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="128"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kalsono </font></td> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> knickers/pants/(US)briefs/panties</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">Note<br> 1) 'Incendio' is a destructive fire, deliberate or accidental. There is also 'fairo' which is fire in general, and sort found in the home.<br> 2) 'Konocas' is 'knows' in the sense of 'being aquainted with'. Therefore only used for to 'know a person or a place': <br> Me konocas Mary.<br> 'Savas' is used for to 'know a fact: <br> Me savas ke il es stupida.<br> 3) 'Evar' is 'to be so many years old, to be aged so many years' as in:<br> Me evas 51 (kinadek-e-un) yari. - I am 51 years old.<br> 4) quanta? (adjective) - how many/much?, quante? (adverb) - how many/much?<br> Quanta homi mortis? - How many people have died?<br> Quante to kustas? - How much does this cost?<br> Quante vu evas? - How old are you?<br> <br> <b><br> Konversado</b><br> En la employo-agenterio (K=Klerko, A=Albert)<br> K: Bon jorno, Sioro.<br> A: Bon jorno, Sioro. Me nomesas Albert Smith. Me serchas laboro kom koquisto. Yen mea atesti.<br> K: Hm. Albert Smith. Yes. Quo es vua adreso?<br> A: Me habitas ye kin, Couturat Strado.<br> K: Hm, yes. Quante vu evas?<br> A: Me evas triadek e sis yari.<br> K: Ed ube vu naskis? En ca lando?<br> A: Yes, me naskis en London.<br> K: Hm, yes. Ka vu havas familio?<br> A: Yes, me havas spozino e tri infanti. Mea onklulo anke lojas en la domo kun ni.<br> K: Hm, yes. Pro quo vu livis vua antea laboro?<br> A: Incendio eventis en la koqueyo e la restorerio brulis. Fakte la tota strado brulis.<br> K: Hm, hm, yes. Vartez! Me serchos laboro por vu en mea listi. Ha, yes! Ka vu konocas la Rejala Hotelo? La hotelestro bezonas bona koquisto.<br> A: No, me ne konocas ol.<br> K: Hm. Ka vu konocas la centro dil urbo?<br> A: Me nur konocas la cinemo, la butiki, la biblioteko, e la drinkerii.<br> K: Ka vu konocas Nova Strado? La staciono es en Nova Strado.<br> A: Yes.<br> K: Bone, en ta strado es la Rejala Hotelo. Ol es direte apud la incendio-domo.<br> </font><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b><a name="q1"></a>Questioni 1 (Questions 1) </b><br> (Click <a href="#q1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 01) Quale la koquisto nomesas? <br> 02) Ube il esas? <br> 03) Quon il serchas?<br> 04) Qua parolas ad Albert? <br> 05) Ube Albert habitas?<br> 06) Quante il evas?<br> 07) Ube il naskis? <br> 08) Albert havas quanta infanti? <br> 09) Quanta homi rezidas che Albert? <br> 10) Quo eventis en la koqueyo dil restorerio?<br> 11) Kad Albert konocas la Rejala Hotelo? <br> 12) Qua bezonas bona koquisto? <br> 13) Quon il konocas en la centro dil urbo? <br> 14) Ube la staciono es? <br> 15) Quo es direte apud la Rejala Hotelo? <br> <br> <br> <b>Homi (People)</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">viro </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> man (adult male)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> muliero </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> woman (adult female)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> homo </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> human being/person</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> homino </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> female person</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> homulo </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> male person</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> yuno </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> young person (adolescence upwards)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> yunino </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> young person (female)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> yunulo </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> young person (male)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> geyuni </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> young persons (male and female)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> puero </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> child (7 to adolescence)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> puerino </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> small girl</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> puerulo </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> small boy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infanto </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infant (up to 7 years)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infantino </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infant girl</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infantulo </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infant boy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="90"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infanteto </font></td> <td width="268"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> baby</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> </font> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises/Questions</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. It is the fifth of March.<br> 2. It is the second of January.<br> 3. Yesterday it was the fifth of July.<br> 4. He was not here on the fifth of July.<br> 5. It will be the eighth of May tomorrow.<br> 6. It will be the ninth of June tomorrow.<br> 7. It was the seventh of August yesterday.<br> 8. My birthday was on the first of October.<br> 9. The letter came on the first of February.<br> 10. The sun shone on the twentieth of November.<br> 11. The boys will not work on the fourth of April.<br> 12. My mother will come on the tenth of September.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Who sees me? <br> 2. Whom do I see?<br> 3. Who can see him? <br> 4. Whom can he see? <br> 5. What do you like? <br> 6. What ate my shoes? <br> 7. What is in the box? <br> 8. What drank the milk? <br> 9. What are you cooking? <br> 10. What is in the house? <br> 11. Who is eating the fish? <br> 12. Who is eating the meat? <br> 13. Whom is the fish eating? <br> 14. What is the bird eating? <br> 15. What did you give to them? <br> 16. What did you give to John? <br> 17. Who (plural) likes apples? <br> 18. Who (plural) likes the birds? <br> 19. Whom (plural) have they seen? <br> 20. Whom (plural) did my friends see? <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="q1-s"></a>Questions 1 </b>(Click <a href="#q1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the questions)<br> 01) Il nomesas Albert Smith.<br> 02) Il esas en la employo-agenterio.<br> 03) Il serchas laboro kom koquisto.<br> 04) La klerko ibe.<br> 05) Il habitas ye kin, Couturat Strado.<br> 06) Il evas triadek e sis yari.<br> 07) Il naskis en London.<br> 08) Il havas tri infanti.<br> 09) Sis homi rezidas ibe.<br> 10) Incendio eventis.<br> 11) No, il ne konocas.<br> 12) La hotelestro di la Rejala Hotelo.<br> 13) La cinemo, la butiki etc.<br> 14) Olu esas en Nova Strado.<br> 15) La incendio-domo esas ibe.<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> </font></div> 975 2051 2005-04-18T12:38:39Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 09 - Nonesma Leciono</font></b><br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> des- (This suffix is used for making the direct opposite of the root word):<br> bona - good -&gt; desbona - bad (mala)<br> bela - beautiful -&gt; desbela - ugly (leda)<br> facila - easy -&gt; desfacila - difficult<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chipa </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cheap </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">freque </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> frequently</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forta </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> strong</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">harda </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hard</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">richa </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> rich</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fortuno </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fortune</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">helpo </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> help </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">honoro </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> honour</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">neta </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> clean </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="87"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ordino </font></td> <td width="45"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> order</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> From the above vocabulary make words for the following (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. rarely <br> 2. soft <br> 3. expensive <br> 4. dirty <br> 5. dishonour <br> 6. weak<br> 7. disorder<br> 8. misfortune <br> 9. hindrance <br> 10. poor <br> <br> <br> <b>The Infinitive</b><br> Here are some examples of English verb infinitives: to eat, to sing, to clean.<br> As can be seen, English uses two words, to + whatever the verb happens to be.<br> Ido, however, uses only one word and indicates the infinitive by the ending - ar:<br> manjar - to eat, kantar - to sing, netigar - to clean<br> (Don't forget that with an infinitive the stress no longer falls on the penultimate syllable, but is on the -ar itself: manjar', kantar').<br> <br> Hidden Infinitives: Note that English does not always use the full infinitive, occasionally dropping the 'to':<br> 'I must go', 'I can go', which logically speaking should be 'I must to go'<br> 'I can to go', on the same pattern as 'I want to go', and 'I try to go'<br> (Ido: Me mustas irar, me povas irar, me volas irar, me esforcas irar)<br> <br> <br> Three types of Infinitives:<br> (bearing the accent or stress of voice on the last syllable -AR, -IR, -OR)<br> <br> The PRESENT INFINITIVE of verbs ends in -ar (accented):<br> kredar - to believe; donar - to give<br> cf. The present tense ends in -as:<br> me kredas - I believe<br> me donas - I give<br> <br> The PAST INFINITIVE ends in -ir (accented):<br> kredir - to have believed<br> donir - to have given<br> cf. The past tense ends in -is:<br> Me kredis - I believed./ I have believed<br> Me donis - I gave. / I have given<br> <br> The FUTURE INFINITIVE of verbs ends in -or (accented):<br> kredor - to be about to believe<br> donor - to be about to give<br> cf. The future tense ends in -os:<br> Me kredos - I shall believe<br> Me donos - I shall give<br> <br> Common Mistakes<br> (1) You cannot have two 's' endings together, such as 'El mustas iras', 'Il ne povis venas'. The second verb must be an infinitive:<br> El mustas irar. Il ne povis venar.<br> (2) Avoid the temptation to use 'a' or 'ad' with an infinitive.<br> 'El volas ad iras' or 'El volas ad irar' is nonsense.<br> The 'to' of 'She wants to go' is already conveyed by the -ar ending.<br> <br> (On rare occasions 'por' may be used for 'to' where it really means 'in order to': Me laboras por vivar. - I work (in order) to live. However this construction is not included in the following examples.)<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">darfar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to be allowed to (may)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">esar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to be</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">esforcar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to try</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komprar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to buy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">konduktar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to drive</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mustar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to have to (must)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">povar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to be able to (can)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">prizar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to like</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">regardas </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to look at</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">savar </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to know</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="107"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">televiziono </font></td> <td width="167"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> television</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. Me mustas irar.<br> 2. Vu mustas venar.<br> 3. Me volas savar.<br> 4. Il ne povas koquar.<br> 5. Il volas savar.<br> 6. Il mustas esar bona.<br> 7. Il darfas havar la hundo.<br> 8. Me povas konduktar kamiono.<br> 9. La mediko ne povas venar.<br> 10. Mea onklulo volas manjar.<br> 11. Vi darfas manjar la pomi.<br> 12. Mea fratino prizas kantar.<br> 13. El darfas komprar ol.<br> 14. Me esforcis koquar la karno.<br> 15. Me prizas vizitar mea fratino.<br> 16. Me esforcos skribar a tu.<br> 17. Kad il darfas regardar la televiziono?<br> 18. La yunulo volas komprar ca automobilo.<br> 19. Li esforcas regardar la televiziono.<br> 20. Ni ne darfas vizitar la malada yuno.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">an </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> at </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">arivar </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to arrive</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">berjero </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> armchair</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">binoklo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> spectacles</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chefa </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> main/chief</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chino </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Chinaman </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dineo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dinner</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">agar </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to do</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fairo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fire</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">filiino </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> daughter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">filiulo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> son</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">formulo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> formula</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forsar </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to force</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">furioza </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> furious</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ganar </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to win</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ibe </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> there</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ilua </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> his</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kande </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> when</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">karto </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> card </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lasta </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> last</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">longa </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> long</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lore </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> then</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">manuo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hand </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nam </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> for</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nivo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> snow</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quale </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> as</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">romano </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> novel</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sempre </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> always</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">trans </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> across</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vere </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> really</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vers </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> towards </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">viro </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> man</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ludar </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to play </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">detektivo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> detective </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komfortoza </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> comfortable</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">du kloki </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> two o'clock</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">misterioza </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> misterious </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pedbalono </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> football </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pistolo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pistol </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sekreta </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> secret </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sidar </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to be sitting</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">siorino </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Mrs. </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sideskar </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to sit down</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">de tempo a tempo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> from time to time</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rakonto </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tale</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vestibulo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hall</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sun-binoklo </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sun glasses</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tamen </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> however</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cirkum </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> about</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sua </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> his/her/their own</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="142"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dil = di la </font></td> <td width="156"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> of the</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b>Rakonto por Infanti</b><br> Hiere pos dineo me lektis romano a mea filiino qua evas dek yari. Mea filiulo ne esis ibe. Il evas dek-e-quar yari e preferas ludar pedbalono kun sua amiki kam (than/to) askoltar (listening to) la romano.<br> Yen parto dil romano:<br> 'Esis kolda nokto en la vintro e Siorino Gato esis en lito sub multa varma kovrili. Tamen en la koqueyo la lampo brilis. Ibe, Henriko la filiulo di Siorino Gato, e la tri detektivi gardis sekreta formulo (formula). Henriko e Konor sidis an la tablo. Li ludis karti kun Adolfus, grosa gorilo qua portis(wore) sun-binoklo. De tempo a tempo Henriko manjis banano e Konor e la gorilo drinkis biro. Henriko esis furioza, nam, quale sempre, la gorilo ganis.<br> La lasta detektivo qua esis magra chino e qua nomesis Wong, dormis en komfortoza berjero avan la fairo. Ma ye cirkum du kloki en la matino, misterioza viro venis trans la nivo vers la domo. Il forsis la chefa pordo, iris trans la longa vestibulo e lore apertis la pordo dil koqueyo. En sua manuo il havis pistolo.'<br> <br> <b><a name="q1"></a>Questioni 1 (Questions 1) </b><br> (Click <a href="#q1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 01) Ka la suno brilis?<br> 02) Ube Siorino Gato esis?<br> 03) Ube esis Henriko e Konor?<br> 04) Quon la detektivi gardis? <br> 05) Quon li ludis? <br> 06) Quo esis Adolfus?<br> 07) Qua portis (wore) sun-binoklo?<br> 08) Quon Henriko manjis de tempo a tempo? <br> 09) Qui drinkis biro?<br> 10) Pro quo Henriko esis furioza?<br> 11) Quale la chino nomesis?<br> 12) Quon Wong agis?<br> 13) Ube Wong esis?<br> 14) Kande la misterioza viro arivis?<br> 15) Quale la viro venis en la domo? <br> 16) Quon il havis en sua manuo?<br> <br> <br> <b>Titles (abbreviations in brackets)</b><br> (1) Sioro (Sro) : Mr/Mrs/Miss/Master/Sir/Madam<br> In theory this can be used to address either a man or a woman, married or single, irrespective of age. For example in a business letter:<br> Estimata Sioro - Dear Sir/Madam<br> (2) Siorulo (S-ulo) : Mr/Master/Sir<br> In practice this is not often used, Sioro being sufficient.<br> (3) Siorino (S-ino) : Mrs/Miss/Madam<br> In practice Sioro is not often used for women, Siorino being prefered. This is partly as a compliment to the female sex and partly to help distinguish between different members of the same family:<br> Sro e S-ino Smith - Mr. and Mrs. Smith<br> Any woman has the right to be addressed as Sioro, should she so desire it.<br> Note that Siorino can refer to both married and single women.<br> (4) Damzelo (Dzlo) : Miss/ young lady:<br> Should circumstances require it, an unmarried lady may be addressed as damzelo:<br> Damzelo Jones, Yen S-ino e Dzlo Smith - Here are Mrs. and Miss Smith.<br> La damzelo (qua esas) ibe - The young lady over there.<br> (5) Damo : This cannot be used as a title to address somebody. It refers to a married or widowed woman:<br> La damo ibe - The lady over there.<br> <br> <b><br> ** You don't have to learn the following words; they are just for reference. **</b><br> <br> <b>En la domo</b> <br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avana-chambro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">front room </font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">-> </font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avan-chambro</font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">somewhere in front of a room</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avana-pordo</font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">front door</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">-></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avan-pordo</font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">somewhere in front of a door</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">balno-chambro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bathroom</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chambro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> room</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dopa-chambro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> back room</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dopa-pordo </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> back door</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dormo-chambro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bedroom</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">eskalero </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> stairs/staircase</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fenco </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fence</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fenestro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> window</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fluro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> landing</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gardeno </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> garden</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">garden</font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pordo </font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">grado </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> step</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">koqueyo </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kitchen</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">latrino </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> toilet/w.c.</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">manjo-chambro </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dining room</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">moblo </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> piece of furniture</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plafono </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ceiling</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">planko-sulo </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> floor</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pordo </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> door</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">salono </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> parlour/ sitting room</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tekto </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> roof</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teraso </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> terrace</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="122"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vestibulo </font></td> <td width="131"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hall</font></td> <td width="23"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="93"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> <td width="187"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"></font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b>La Homala Korpo (The Human Body)</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">head </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kapo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hair (single strand) </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> haro</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hair (collective) </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hararo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forehead </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fronto</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">eye </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> okulo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">eyebrow </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> brovo </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ear </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> orelo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">noze </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> nazo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cheek </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vango</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">beard </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> barbo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mouth </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> boko</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lip </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> labio</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tooth </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dento</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tongue </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lango</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">moustache </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> labio-barbo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">neck </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kolo </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shoulder </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> shultro </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chest </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pektoro </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">back </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dorso </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">breast </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mamo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">belly </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ventro</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">waist </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tayo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hip </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hancho</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">muscle </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> muskulo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">bone </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> osto</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skin </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pelo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">arm </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> brakio</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">upper arm </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dopa-brakio</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">elbow </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kudo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forearm </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> avana-brakio</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">wrist </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> karpo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hand </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> manuo </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">thumb </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> polexo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">finger </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fingro</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">leg </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> gambo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">thigh </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kruro</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">knee </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> genuo </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">shin </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tibio</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">calf </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> suro</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ankle </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pedo-kolo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">foot </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pedo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">heel </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> talono</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sole </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> plando</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">big toe </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> haluxo</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">toe </font></td> <td width="119"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ped-fingro</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> </font> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises/Questions</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. desfreque<br> 2. desharda<br> 3. deschipa<br> 4. desneta<br> 5. deshonoro<br> 6. desforta<br> 7. desordino<br> 8. desfortuno<br> 9. deshelpo<br> 10. desricha<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. I must go.<br> 2. You must come.<br> 3. I want to know.<br> 4. He cannot cook.<br> 5. He wants to know.<br> 6. He must be good.<br> 7. He may have the dog.<br> 8. I can drive a lorry.<br> 9. The doctor can't come.<br> 10. My uncle wants to eat.<br> 11. You may eat the apples.<br> 12. My sister likes to sing.<br> 13. She is allowed to buy it.<br> 14. I tried to cook the meat.<br> 15. I like to visit my sister.<br> 16. I will try to write to you.<br> 17. May he watch the television?<br> 18. The youth wants to buy this car.<br> 19. They are trying to watch television. <br> 20. We are not allowed to visit the sick boy/girl.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="q1-s"></a>Questions 1 </b>(Click <a href="#q1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the questions)<br> 01) No, esis kolda nokto.<br> 02) El esis en lito sub multa varma kovrili.<br> 03) Li esis en la koqueyo.<br> 04) Li gardis sekreta formulo.<br> 05) Du de li ludis karti.<br> 06) Lu esas grosa gorilo.<br> 07) Adolfus, grosa gorilo, portis olu.<br> 08) Ilu manjis banano.<br> 09) Konor ed Adolfus.<br> 10) Nam ilu perdis la ludo.<br> 11) Lu nomesis Wong.<br> 12) Lu dormis.<br> 13) Lu esis en komfortoza berjero avan la fairo.<br> 14) Ye cirkum du kloki en la matino.<br> 15) Ilu forsis la chefa pordo.<br> 16) Ilu havis pistolo en sua manuo.<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> </font></div> 976 2052 2005-04-18T12:39:53Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="5"><b>Lesson 10 - Dekesma Leciono</b></font><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <br> <b>Possessive Pronouns</b><br> These are the same as the personal pronouns, except that the adjectival ending -a is added. (See also note below).<br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="58"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mea </font></td> <td width="273"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> my/mine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="58"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tua </font></td> <td width="273"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> thy/thine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="58"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vua </font></td> <td width="273"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> your/yours (belonging to one person)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="58"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lua </font></td> <td width="273"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> his/her/hers/its</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> When necessary use: <br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="57"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ilua </font></td> <td width="272"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> his</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="57"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">elua </font></td> <td width="272"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> her/hers</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="57"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">olua </font></td> <td width="272"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> its</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="57"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sua </font></td> <td width="272"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> his own/her own/its own/their own</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="57"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nia </font></td> <td width="272"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> our/ours</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="57"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">via </font></td> <td width="272"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> your/yours (more than one person)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="57"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lia </font></td> <td width="272"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> their/theirs</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> When necessary use:<br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="58"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ilia </font></td> <td width="274"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> their (belonging to men)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="58"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">elia </font></td> <td width="274"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> their (belonging to women)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="58"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">olia </font></td> <td width="274"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> their (belonging to things)</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> Note that 'me' gives 'mea', 'tu' gives 'tua', but 'il', 'el', 'ol' give 'ilua', 'elua', 'olua'.<br> This is because the full forms for he, she, it are 'ilu', 'elu', 'olu'. 'Il', 'el', 'ol' are convenient short forms.<br> <br> Me vizitis mea dentisto - I went to see my dentist. <br> Il vizitis lua (sua)matro - He visited his (his own) mother. <br> El perdis ilua parapluvo - She lost his umbrella.<br> Li admiris sua chapeli - They admired their (own) hats.<br> Ili admiris elia chapeli - They (the men) admired their (the women's) hats.<br> <br> A possessive pronoun always implies the definite article; thus 'mea amiko' is 'my friend', 'the friend I spoke of', while 'a friend of mine' is translated 'amiko di me'.<br> <br> <br> <b>Conditional Mood</b><br> The conditional mood is formed with the ending -us:<br> Me venus, ma me ne havas biciklo. - I would come, but I haven't got a bike.<br> Il manjus - He would eat, El drinkus - She would drink.<br> <br> As you can see it means 'would', but care must be taken not to confuse two different English tenses using the same construction: When I was young, I would swim in the river.<br> Here 'would swim' is used instead of 'used to swim' or 'swam', and is therefore really the past tense: <br> Kande me esis yuna, me natis en la rivero.<br> <br> As the name suggests there is a condition in this tense, I would run if..., I would sing, but...<br> It is in this type of construction that the -us ending must be used.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">alonge </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> along</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">altra </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> other</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">balde </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> soon</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">balnar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to bathe</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">desegnar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to draw</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">filiino </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> daughter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">finar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to finish</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">imajo </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> picture</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komencar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to begin</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lavar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to wash</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">nazo </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> noze</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">paketo </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> package</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">obliviar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to forget</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">perdar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to lose</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">repozar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to rest </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ruptar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to break</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sendar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to send</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">spegulo </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mirror</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">servar </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to serve</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tro </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> too</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="99"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">voyo </font></td> <td width="102"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> road/way</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> Note: <br> povar - to be able<br> povus - could (would be able)<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> 1. Me komencus la laboro.<br> 2. El perdus la pekunio.<br> 3. Il ruptus la spegulo.<br> 4. Lia onklino oblivius ol.<br> 5. Olua nazo esus tro mikra.<br> 6. Li finus la drinkaji.<br> 7. Me venus balde, se me povus.<br> 8. Vu desegnus altra imajo.<br> 9. Me ne servus altra damo.<br> 10. La muso manjus la banani.<br> 11. La viro ganus tro multa karti.<br> 12. La matro sendus sua filiino.<br> 13. Me oblivius irar alonge la voyo.<br> 14. Se me povus, me komprus altra domo.<br> 15. La klerko komencus laborar se il povus.<br> 16. Mary repozus, ma el ne havas la tempo.<br> 17. Elua filiino irus, ma la voyo es tro longa.<br> 18. Vu balnus en la rivero, ma es tro kolda.<br> 19. Me lavus la hundo, ma me ne havas la tempo.<br> 20. Li sendus la paketo, ma John perdis ol.<br> <br> <br> <b>Comparison of adjectives</b><br> (1) big -- bigger -- biggest : granda -- plu granda -- maxim granda<br> (2) beautiful - more beautiful - most beautiful : bela -- plu bela -- maxim bela<br> <br> As you can see from the above examples, in English there are two different systems for comparing adjectives. <br> Ido has only one method of comparison which is equivalent to the English in the second example above.<br> This means that instead of 'bigger' Ido says 'more big' (plu granda), instead of 'prettiest', 'most pretty' (maxim beleta) and so on.<br> <br> Adjectives are thus compared by:<br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plu . . . kam </font></td> <td width="124"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> more . . . than</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">min . . . kam </font></td> <td width="124"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> less . . . than</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tam . . . kam </font></td> <td width="124"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> as . . . as</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ne tam . . . kam </font></td> <td width="124"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> not so . . . as</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">maxim . . . de </font></td> <td width="124"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> most . . . of</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">minim . . . de </font></td> <td width="124"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> least . . . of</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">tre </font></td> <td width="124"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> very</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> El esas PLU granda KAM me. - She is taller than I (am).<br> Me esas TAM richa KAM il. - I am as rich as he (is).<br> Ol esas la MAXIM bela de omni. - It is the finest of all.<br> Il esas TRE brava. - He is very brave.<br> Me preferas ico KAM ito. - I prefer this to that.<br> <br> Translate 'as good as possible' and similar phrases thus: maxim bona posible.<br> <br> Here are some more examples:<br> Me es leda. - I am ugly.<br> Il es tam leda kam me. - He is as ugly as me.<br> El es plu leda kam vu. - She is more ugly (uglier) than you.<br> El es la maxim leda. - She is the most ugly (ugliest).<br> <br> Note that KAM means both AS and THAN:<br> KAM is used in making comparisons, even where English does not use 'than'.<br> <br> Since ADVERBS of manner are formed from adjectives by changing -a into -e ( bona - good : bone - well, fina - final : fine - finally ), they are compared like adjectives: Il lektas plu bone - He reads better.<br> <br> <b><br> Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">alta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> high</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chipa </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cheap</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">danjeroza </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dangerous</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fresha </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fresh</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">inteligenta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> intelligent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">interesanta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> interesting</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kontenta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> contented</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kurta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> short</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">larja </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> wide </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">leda </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ugly </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mola </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> soft</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">povra </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> poor</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">plena (de) </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> full (of)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pura </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pure </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quieta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quiet</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">simpla </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> simple </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">stupida </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> stupid</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">vakua </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> empty</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> 1. La arbori es alta.<br> 2. Ta rivero es plu larja.<br> 3. La pomi es chipa.<br> 4. Ca laboro es plu simpla.<br> 5. La banani es plu chipa.<br> 6. Ta aquo es la maxim pura.<br> 7. Ca buxo es plena de banani.<br> 8. Ca voyo es tro danjeroza.<br> 9. Il desegnas la vakua botelo.<br> 10. Ta infanto es tam quieta kam muso.<br> 11. La karno es plu fresha kam la fisho.<br> 12. Mea domo es plu alta kam vua domo.<br> 13. Ilua hundo es la maxim feroca en la urbo.<br> 14. El es la maxim leda puerino en la butiko.<br> 15. Il es la maxim povra instruktisto en ca urbo.<br> 16. La nazo di Jane es plu kurta kam la nazo di Mary.<br> 17. Li es la maxim kontenta viri en la drinkerio.<br> 18. Ca berjero es plu mola kam ta berjero.<br> 19. Me lektis la maxim interesanta libro en la butiko.<br> 20. Nia filiino es la maxim inteligenta yuno en ta skolo.<br> <br> <br> <b>Edifici (Buildings)</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">arto-galerio </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> art gallery </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">balno-baseno </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> swimming pool</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">biblioteko </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> library </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">drinkerio </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pub </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fabrikerio </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> factory </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">farmo-domo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> farmhouse</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">incendio-domo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fire station </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kirko </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> church </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">policeyo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> police station </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">posto-kontoro </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> post office </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hospitalo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hospital </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">restorerio </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> restaurant </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">urbo-domo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> town hall</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">banko </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bank </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butiko </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> shop </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">cinemo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cinema </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">domo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> house</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">hotelo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hotel</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dometo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cottage </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">faro </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lighthouse </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">moskeo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mosque</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">palaco </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> palace</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">muzeo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> museum </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">teatro </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> theatre </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">gareyo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> garage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">edifico </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> building </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kafeerio </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> café</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kastelo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> castle</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">katedralo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cathedral</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kazerno </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> barracks</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kontoro </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> office</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">laverio </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> laundry</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">staciono </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> station</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">templo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> temple</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kapelo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> chapel</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="125"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">skolo </font></td> <td width="137"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> school</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> -estr- (Head of, chief of): <br> polico - police, policestro - police chief<br> skolo - school, skolestro - headmaster<br> urbo - town, urbestro - mayor<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">al = a la </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to the</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">altra </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> other</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">apologiar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to apologise</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kom </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> as/for</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">chera </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dear/expensive</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">dejuno </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lunch</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">esperar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to hope</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">maro </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sea</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">facar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to do/make</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forsan </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> perhaps </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">fru-dejuneto </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> breakfast</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">garsono </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> waiter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">intencar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to intend</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">ja </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> already</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">jeristo </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> manager</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">juar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to enjoy </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kelka </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> some</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kelke </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> rather</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">komprenar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to understand</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">kredar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to believe</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">omnibuso </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bus</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lasar falar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to let fall/to drop</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pano </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bread</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">parolar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to speak</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">pasar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to pass</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">per </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> by means of</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quala? </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> how?</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quik </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> at once</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sat </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> enough</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sonar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to ring</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">to </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> that (noun)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">telefonilo </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> telephone </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">neglijar </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to neglect/to treat carelessly</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">adibe </font></td> <td width="189"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> 'to' there (that place)</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b>Konversado</b><br> En la hotelo (J=jeristo, M=Sioro Morgan)<br> J: Bon jorno, Sioro Morgan! Me esperas ke vu pasis bona nokto hike en la Rejala Hotelo.<br> M: Yes, sat bona. Ma la lito ne es tre mola. Ol es kelke harda.<br> J: Me apologias. Me ne komprenas pro quo. Forsan ulu neglijis sua laboro. Ni donos a vu altra chambro kun nova lito. Ka vu ja manjis fru-dejuneto? Me esperas ke vu juis ol.<br> M: Fakte no! La ovi esis kolda e la garsono lasis falar kelka kafeo sur mea pano! Do, me intencas manjar mea dejuno en restorerio.<br> J: Me parolos quik al garsono. Altra garsono servos vu.<br> M: Bone, forsan me manjos hike. Me ne savas. Me vizitas hodie la maro. Me prizas balnar. Me iras de hike per la treno.<br> J: Me kredas ke la treno es chera. La omnibuso es plu chipa. Ho! Pardonez a me! La telefonilo sonas. Til rivido, Sioro Morgan!<br> <br> <b><a name="q1"></a>Questioni 1 (Questions 1) </b><br> (Click <a href="#q1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 01) Quale nomesas la hotelo? <br> 02) Ka Sioro Morgan pasis bona nokto? <br> 03) Quala esis ilua lito? <br> 04) Quon Sro Morgan manjis kom fru-dejuneto?<br> 05) Kad il juis ilua fru-dejuneto? <br> 06) Qua lasis falar la kafeo sur ilua pano? <br> 07) Adube Sro Morgan iras hodie? <br> 08) Quon il prizas facar? <br> 09) Quale il iras adibe? <br> 10) Ka la treno es plu chipa kam la omnibuso? <br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">butro </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> butter</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">febla </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> weak</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">forta </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> strong</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">grava </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> heavy</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">homo </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> person</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lejera </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> light</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">lenta </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> slow </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">margarino </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> margarine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">piro </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pear </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">preferar A (kam B) </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to prefer A (to B)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">rapida </font></td> <td width="136"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fast</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <br> <b>Generala Questioni</b><br> 01) Kad elefanto es plu granda kam muso? -> Yes, multople plu granda kam muso.<br> 02) Ka muso es plu lejera kam hundo? -> Yes, plu lejera kam hundo.<br> 03) Ka hotelo es plu mikra kam domo? -> No, genarale plu granda kam domo.<br> 04) Ka vu es la maxim grava homo en vua domo? -> Kompreneble, yes!<br> 05) Ka treno es plu lenta kam biciklo? -> No, treno es plu rapida.<br> 06) Ka homo es plu forta kam gorilo? -> No, homo es multe plu febla kam gorilo.<br> 07) Ka butro es plu chera kam margarino? -> Yes, margarino es plu chipa.<br> 08) Ka vu preferas pomo kam piro? -> Yes, pomo kam piro.<br> 09) Ka la televiziono es plu bona kam la cinemo? -> No, kompreninde ne.<br> 10) Ka vu es la maxim inteligenta homo en vua familio? -> No, regretinde ne.<br> <br> </font> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises/Questions</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. I would begin the work.<br> 2. She would lose the money.<br> 3. He would break the mirror.<br> 4. Their aunt would forget it.<br> 5. Its nose would be too small.<br> 6. They would finish the drinks.<br> 7. I would come soon, if I could.<br> 8. You would draw another picture.<br> 9. I would not serve another lady. <br> 10. The mouse would eat the bananas. <br> 11. The man would win too many cards.<br> 12. The mother would send her daughter.<br> 13. I would forget to go along the road.<br> 14. If I could, I would buy another house. <br> 15. The clerk would begin to work if he could. <br> 16. Mary would rest, but she does not have the time.<br> 17. Her daughter would go, but the road is too long. <br> 18. You would bathe in the river, but it is too cold. <br> 19. I would wash the dog, but I haven't got the time. <br> 20. They would send the package, but John has lost it.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. The trees are high.<br> 2. That river is wider.<br> 3. The apples are cheap.<br> 4. This work is simpler.<br> 5. The bananas are cheaper. <br> 6. That water is the purest. <br> 7. This box is full of bananas.<br> 8. This road is too dangerous. <br> 9. He is drawing the empty bottle. <br> 10. That child is as quiet as a mouse.<br> 11. The meat is fresher than the fish. <br> 12. My house is higher than your house.<br> 13. His dog is the fiercest in the town.<br> 14. She is the ugliest girl in the shop. <br> 15. He is the poorest teacher in this town. <br> 16. Jane's nose is shorter than Mary's nose. <br> 17. They are the most contented men in the pub. <br> 18. This armchair is softer than that armchair. <br> 19. I read the most interesting book in the shop.<br> 20. Our daughter is the most intelligent girl in that school. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="q1-s"></a>Questions 1 </b>(Click <a href="#q1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the questions)<br> 01) Ol nomesas la Rejala Hotelo.<br> 02) Yes, sat bone.<br> 03) Ol esis kelke harda.<br> 04) Ilu manjis ovi.<br> 05) No, ilu ne juis ol.<br> 06) La garsono.<br> 07) Ilu iras a la maro.<br> 08) Ilu prizas balnar en la maro.<br> 09) Ilu iras per la treno.<br> 10) No, plu chera.<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 977 2053 2005-04-18T12:40:55Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 11 - Dek e unesma Leciono</font></b><br> <br> <br> <b>Days of the week</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><i>Noun Form </i></font></td> <td width="300"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><i>Adverbial Form / Another Form</i></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lundio - Monday </font></td> <td width="300"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lundie / ye lundio - on Monday(s)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mardio - Tuesday</font></td> <td width="300"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">mardie / ye mardio - on Tuesday(s)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> merkurdio - Wednesday </font></td> <td width="300"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> merkurdie / ye merkurdio - on Wednesday(s)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> jovdio - Thursday</font></td> <td width="300"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> jovdie / ye jovdio - on Thursday(s)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> venerdio - Friday</font></td> <td width="300"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">venerdie / ye venerdio - on Friday(s)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> saturdio - Saturday</font></td> <td width="300"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> saturdie / ye saturdio - on Saturday(s)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sundio - Sunday</font></td> <td width="300"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">sundie / ye sundio - on Sunday(s)</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Note that capital letters are not used for days or months in Ido. <br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table> <tr> <td width="81"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">furtisto </font></td> <td width="121"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> thief </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="81"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> policestro </font></td> <td width="121"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> police chief </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="81"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> falar </font></td> <td width="121"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to fall</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="81"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> horlojeto </font></td> <td width="121"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> watch </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="81"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> de </font></td> <td width="121"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> of/from </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="81"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> envenar </font></td> <td width="121"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to come in/enter</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> 1. Ye sundio ni ne laboras.<br> 2. El multe prizas mardii.<br> 3. Lundie me iris a London.<br> 4. Il ne venos ye lundio.<br> 5. Me restis en lito jovdie.<br> 6. Merkurdie me iros a Paris.<br> 7. Ka tu kompros la manjajo ye saturdio?<br> 8. Me naskis ye venerdio, la okesma di mayo.<br> 9. Li desaparis ye jovdio en la cinemo.<br> 10. Ye lundio furtisto pren- ganis la horlojeto di la policestro.<br> <br> <br> <b>Time (1)</b><br> </font> <table border="0" width="224"> <tr> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">Qua kloko es? </font></td> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> What time is it? </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> Es tri kloki. </font></td> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> It's three o'clock.</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> Es un kloko. </font></td> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> It's one o'clock.</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> Es non kloki. </font></td> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> It's nine o'clock.</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> Ye un kloko </font></td> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> At one o'clock.</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> Ye sep kloki </font></td> <td><font size="3" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"> At seven o'clock.</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Note<br> (1) O'clock is expressed by 'kloko', which when used with any number above one becomes 'kloki': un kloko, du kloki, tri kloki, etc.<br> (2) Ido often uses the 24-hour clock, duadek kloki - 8 o'clock (p.m.)<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2"></a>Exerco 2 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex2-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> 1. Qua kloko es?<br> 2. Es tri kloki.<br> 3. Vi manjis ye kin kloki.<br> 4. No, il venas ye non kloki.<br> 5. Me komencis laborar ye sep kloki.<br> 6. Ye dek kloki me falis de mea lito.<br> 7. Ye du kloki li trovis la kafeerio.<br> 8. Ka la letro-portisto venas ye ok kloki?<br> 9. Esis sis kloki kande lia filiino envenis.<br> 10. Ye quar kloki, lundie, la triadekesma di agosto el naskis.<br> <br> <br> <b>La Voyajo</b><br> Me arivis a la staciono. La veturo haltis. Portisto advenis.<br> "Adube vu iras?" il questionis. "Me iras a Paris." me respondis.<br> "Ka vu havas vua bilieto?" - "No!" - "Venez komprar ol en la kontoro."<br> Me pagis la veturisto. Me donis ad il gratifikuro (tip).<br> "Hastez!" klamis la portisto. La treno departos sen vu."<br> "On devas vendar la bilieti plu rapide! Me volus komprar jurnalo.<br> Ube esas la jurnal-vendeyo? Ho no! Me perdabis mea monetuyo (purse)!"<br> Esas tri kloki. La treno departas. Mea kofro (trunk) esas en la pako-vagono.<br> Me dicis en la kordio a mea kofro: "Til la rivido!"<br> <br> <br> <b>Relative Pronouns</b><br> Singular:<br> la yunino QUA amoras me - the girl THAT (or WHO) loves me<br> la hundo QUA atakis me - the dog THAT (or WHICH) attacked me<br> <br> Plural:<br> la yunini QUI amoras me - the girls THAT (or WHO) love me<br> la hundi QUI atakis me - the dogs THAT (or WHICH) attacked me<br> <br> Note:<br> (1) Don't let the fact that there is more than one possibility in English confuse you. WHO and WHICH can both be replaced by THAT.<br> (2) Take care not to confuse the relative pronouns with the interrogative pronouns. (In questions QUO is used for WHAT, and QUA and QUI for WHO.)<br> (3) As can be seen from the above examples, when THAT is one person or object then QUA is used, but when it is more than one then QUI must be used.<br> <br> As with the interrogarive pronouns, if the THAT is having the action done to it by someone or something in the second part of the sentence then an -n ending is added:<br> Singular<br> la yunino QUAN me amoras - the girl THAT (or WHOM) I love<br> la hundo QUAN me atakis - the dog THAT (or WHICH) I attacked<br> <br> Plural<br> la yunini QUIN me amoras - the girls THAT (or WHOM) I love<br> la hundi QUIN me atakis - the dogs THAT (or WHICH) I attacked<br> <br> (In these sentences above 'I' is doing the action to 'that'.)<br> <br> Note:<br> (4) In English it is very often possible to omit WHOM/THAT/WHICH:<br> The girl (that) I love. 'Quan' and 'quin' must never be omitted in Ido.<br> (5) There is also a conjunction 'ke' which means 'that'. This is used when the action in the first verb does not directly affect anyone or anything in the second part of the sentence:<br> He says that he is ill - Il dicas 'ke' il es malada.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3"></a>Exerco 3 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex3-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> 1. What happened?.<br> 2. Who (plural) spoke?<br> 3. Who is there?<br> 4. Whom (plural) do you see?<br> 5. What did he say?<br> 6. The man who spoke.<br> 7. The men who spoke.<br> 8. The man whom you saw.<br> 9. The accidents that took place.<br> 10. I did not hear what he said.<br> <br> <br> </font><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Qua is also used as an adjective: Qua viro parolis? Which man spoke?<br> We will learn more about this in Lesson 12.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table border="0"> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">avertar </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to warn</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> avulo </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> grandfather</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> danjero </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> danger</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kurar </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to run</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kustar </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to cost</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lago </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> lake</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> linguo </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> language</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mashino </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> machine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> navo </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ship</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> oldo </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> old person </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> plura </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> several</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> posho </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pocket</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pri </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> concerning/about</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quante? </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> how much?</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> stacar </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to be standing</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> staceskar </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to stand up</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> stranja </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> strange</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="86"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> tante </font></td> <td width="78"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> so</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b><a name="ex4"></a>Exerco 4 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex4-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> 1. La yunini quin il amas.<br> 2. La mashino quan me vidis.<br> 3. La yunini qui amas il.<br> 4. La lagi quin el prizas.<br> 5. La mediko qua habitas hike.<br> 6. La linguo quan il parolas.<br> 7. La olda viro qua dormas hike.<br> 8. La policisto qua kuras.<br> 9. La furtisto qua staceskas.<br> 10. La automobilo quan la soldato kompris.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex5"></a>Exerco 5 </b><br> Examples to read and translate (Click <a href="#ex5-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):</font> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> 1. La stranja homi qui staceskis esis policisti.<br> 2. La oldo qua stacis sur la tablo falis.<br> 3. La mashino quan il kompris kustis multa pekunio.<br> 4. Me ne deziras parolar linguo qua es tante leda.<br> 5. Elua onklulo qua naskis en Derby havis plura hundi.<br> 6. Balde me vizitos mea avulo qua habitas en York.<br> 7. Me ne kuros a mea patro qua falis aden la aquo.<br> 8. La navo quan ni deziris vidar iras alonge la rivero.<br> 9. Quante kustis la libri quin tu havas en tua posho?<br> 10. Il avertis la yuni qui natis en la lago pri la danjero.<br> <br> <br> <b>Countries</b><br> So as to have a more international form, the names of countries and continents are an exception to the rule that all singular nouns end with -o.<br> <br> The Ido forms are modified from one of the following groups.<br> <br> (1) A number of countries have an internationally known latinised form which ends in -a or -ia:<br> Italia, Amerika, Yugoslavia, Austria, Andora, Angola, Chinia, Japonia.<br> (2) Many countries, including nearly all recent and emerging states are known throughout the world by their national names and the stress falls on the last syllable, as if those names would end with -ia:<br> Peru [pe-RU], Portugal [porr-tu-GAL], Pakistan [pa-kis-TAN], Viet Nam [vyet-NAM], but Chili [CHI-li]<br> (3) Those countries ending in -land take normal -o ending, Finlando.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro </b><br> </font> <table> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">aero </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> air </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> aranjar </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to arrange</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bone </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> okay</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> bonega </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> excellent</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> explorar </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to explore</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> gareyo </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> garage</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Idisto </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Idist </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> maro </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sea</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> monto </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mountain </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> montrar </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to show </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> natar </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to swim</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> omno </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> everything</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> opinionar </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to think</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pluvo </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> rain</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> propozar </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to propose </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> restar </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to stay</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> that (pronoun)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vakanco </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> holiday</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vento </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> wind</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vera </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> true</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> varmeta </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mild/ luke warm</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vidajo </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> view</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> voyajo </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> journey</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quale (used before a sentence) </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> like/how</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> quala (before a noun) </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> as/like</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Anglia </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> England</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Dania </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Denmark </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Hispania </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Spain </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Portugal </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Portugal</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Suedia </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Sweden</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Suisa </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Swiss</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Suisia </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Switzerland </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="208"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Suisiano </font></td> <td width="97"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Swiss</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b>To Think</b><br> pensar - to think = to use the brain:<br> Me pensas pri Jane. - I am thinking about Jane.<br> <br> opinionar - to think = to be of a certain opinion:<br> Me opinionas ke el es bela. - I think that she is beautiful.<br> <br> kredar - to believe can also be used:<br> Me kredas ke la buxo es vakua. - I think/believe that the box is empty.<br> <br> <br> <b>Konversado</b><br> (P=Peter, M=Mary)<br> P: Adube ni iros dum la vakanco?<br> M: Ni certe ne restos en Anglia. Me ne prizas la pluvo e la vento. Me multe preferas la suno. Ni iros a varma lando quala Hispania o Portugal.<br> P: Ta landi es por me tro varma. Me preferas varmeta lando quala (ne quale) Suedia o Dania. [quale on preferas ...] La vetero povas esar bonega ibe.<br> M: Quon tu opinonas pri voyajo en la monti? La fresha aero, la foresti, la bela vidaji................<br> P: No, me preferas la maro. Me deziras natar (swim).<br> M: Ma, tu povas natar en la lagi (lakes).<br> P: To es vera. Yes, bone, ni exploros (explore) la monti (mountains).<br> M: A qua lando ni iros?<br> P: Me propozas Suisia. Es multa Idisti en Suisia. Multi de li es bona amiki. Me aranjos omno. La Suisiana Idisti montros a ni sua bela lando.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="q1"></a>Questioni 1 (Questions 1) </b><br> (Click <a href="#q1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 01) A qua Peter parolas? <br> 02) Ka Mary prizas pluvo? <br> 03) Quon el preferas? <br> 04) Ka Hispania es kolda lando? <br> 05) Ube es la fresha aero? <br> 06) Ka Peter prizas natar? <br> 07) Quon Peter e Mary exploros? <br> 08) Adube li iros? <br> 09) Qua aranjos la vakanco? <br> 10) Qui montros Suisia a Peter e Mary? <br> <br> <b><br> Generala Questioni</b><br> 01) Adube vu iros dum la vakanco? -> Me iros a Grekia.<br> 02) Ka vu prizas la suno? -> Yes, nam me esas nordala Europano.<br> 03) Ka la fresha aero es bona por vu? -> Yes, tre bona por me.<br> 04) Ka vu parolas multa lingui? -> Yes, me bezonas parolar multa lingui.<br> 05) Ka vu havas botelo de lakto en vua posho? -> No, sur la tablo.<br> 06) Ka sep e non es dek? -> 7+9=10? No, to es dek-e-sis.<br> 07) Ka vua automobilo es en la staciono od en la gareyo? -> En mea gareyo.<br> 08) Ube vu sidas? -> En la berjero (arm-chair).<br> 09) Ka vu intencas manjar balde? -> Yes, nam mea laboro nun fineskas.<br> 10) Ka vu skribas a plura Idisti? -> Yes, specale ad Idisti en USA.<br> <br> </font> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises/Questions</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. On Sunday we do not work.<br> 2. She likes Thursdays a lot.<br> 3. On Monday I went to London.<br> 4. He will not come on Monday.<br> 5. I stayed in bed on Thursday.<br> 6. On Wednesday I will go to Paris.<br> 7. Will you buy the food on Saturday? <br> 8. I was born on Friday, the eighth of May.<br> 9. They disappeared on Thursday in the cinema.<br> 10. On Monday a thief took the police chief's watch. <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex2-s"></a>Exerco 2 </b>(Click <a href="#ex2"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. What time is it?<br> 2. It's three o'clock.<br> 3. You ate at five o'clock.<br> 4. No, he comes at nine o'colck.<br> 5. I began to work at seven o'clock.<br> 6. At ten o'clock I fell from my bed. <br> 7. At two o'clock they found the cafe. <br> 8. Does the postman come at eight o'clock?<br> 9. It was six o'clock when their daughter came in.<br> 10. At four o'clock, on Monday the thirtieth of August she was born.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex3-s"></a>Exerco 3 </b>(Click <a href="#ex3"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. Quo eventis?<br> 2. Qui parolis?<br> 3. Qua esas ibe?<br> 4. Quin vu vidas?<br> 5. Quon il dicis?<br> 6. La viro qua parolis.<br> 7. La viri qui parolis.<br> 8. La viro quan vu vidis.<br> 9. La acidenti qui eventis. <br> 10. Me ne audis (to) quon il dicis.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex4-s"></a>Exerco 4 </b>(Click <a href="#ex4"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. The girls he loves.<br> 2. The machine that I saw.<br> 3. The girls that love him.<br> 4. The lakes that she likes. <br> 5. The doctor that lives here.<br> 6. The language that he speaks.<br> 7. The old man who sleeps here.<br> 8. The policeman that is running. <br> 9. The thief that is standing up.<br> 10. The car that the soldier bought.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex5-s"></a>Exerco 5 </b>(Click <a href="#ex5"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<b> </b><br> 1. The strange men who stood up were policemen. <br> 2. The old man/woman who stood on the table fell. <br> 3. The machine that he bought cost a lot of money. <br> 4. I don't want to speak a language that is so ugly.<br> 5. Her uncle who was born in Derby had several dogs. <br> 6. Soon I shall visit my grandfather who lives in York. <br> 7. I will not run to my father who has fallen in the water. <br> 8. The ship that we wanted to see is going along the river. <br> 9. How much did the books cost that you have in your pocket? <br> 10. He warned the children who were swimming in the lake about the danger.<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="q1-s"></a>Questions 1 </b>(Click <a href="#q1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the questions)<br> 01) Ilu parolas a Mary.<br> 02) No, elu ne prizas olu.<br> 03) Elu preferas la suno.<br> 04) No, olu es varma lando.<br> 05) Olu es en la monti.<br> 06) Yes, multe.<br> 07) Li exploros la monti.<br> 08) Li iros a Suisa.<br> 09) Peter aranjos omno.<br> 10) La Idisti di Suisia.<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 978 2054 2005-04-18T12:42:21Z Josu Lavin 2 <p align="left"> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><font size="5">Lesson 12 - Dek e duesma Leciono</font></b><br> <br> <br> <b>The Negative for auxiliary and quasi-auxiliary verbs</b><br> The negative in Ido is usually formed by putting 'ne' in front of the verb.<br> But as far as auxiliary verbs are concerned, you should be very careful, for we do not have in English the following nuances and style peculiar to Ido.<br> <br> Mustar - must (expresas neceseso absoluta, senkondiciona e nerezistebla.)<br> Vu mustas NE acendar alumeto, nam la chambro es plena de gaso. - You must not light a match; the room is full of gas.<br> Vu NE mustas acendar alumeto, nam me povas vidar suficante bone. - You haven't got to light a match; I can see well enough.<br> <br> Devar - ought to (konvenas ad omna ed omnaspeca obligesi moral od altra.)<br> Me NE devas helpar vu. - I haven't got any obligation to help you.<br> Vu devas Ne adulterar. - You should not (ought not to) commit adultery.<br> <br> Darfar - may (=havar la yuro o permiso, kontre l'ideo di interdikto.)<br> Me NE darfas fumar hike. - I may not smoke here. I must not smoke here.<br> Me darfas NE asistar skolo. - I am allowed to stay away from school.<br> <br> Povar - can (=esar en la stando necesa por agar e facar ulo.)<br> Me NE povas pagar imposturi. - I can not pay taxes.<br> Me povas NE pagar imposturi. - I can evade paying taxes.<br> <br> Bezonar - need<br> Ilu NE bezonis facar ol. - He didn't need to do it. So he didn't do it.<br> Ilu NE bezonas facir ol. - He need not have done it, though he did it.<br> Ilu bezonas NE facir ol. - He shouldn't have done it. Too late.<br> <br> Audacar - dare<br> Me NE audacas informar il pri la mala nuntio*. - I do not dare to inform him of the bad news.<br> El audacis NE askoltar mea konsilo. - She dared to ignore my advice.<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortifado</b><br> -eg- (This increases the size or intensity of the root word):<br> bona - good -&gt; bonega - excellent<br> varma - warm -&gt; varmega - hot<br> domo - house -&gt; domego - mansion<br> dormar - to sleep -&gt; dormegar - to sleep heavily<br> <br> -et- (This decreases the size or intensity of the root word):<br> varma - warm -&gt; varmeta - lukewarm/mild<br> domo - house -&gt; dometo - cottage<br> dormar - to sleep -&gt; dormetar - to doze<br> ridar - to raugh -&gt; ridetar - to smile<br> forko - garden fork -&gt; forketo - table fork<br> <br> <br> <b>Time (2)</b><br> So far we have only learnt o'clock.<br> 06:05 = sis kloki kin<br> 06:25 = sis kloki duadek e kin<br> 06:50 = sis kloki kinadek<br> 03:30 = tri kloki e duimo<br> 01:15 = un kloko e quarimo<br> 01:45 = un kloko e tri quarimi<br> <br> From the above examples you will see that all minutes are calculated past the hour. Minutes to the hour are never used in Ido:<br> du kloki kin (02:05) - five past two, literally 2 o'clock five (minutes)<br> du kloki duadek (02:20) - twenty past two<br> du kloki kinadek e kin (02:55) - five to three<br> non kloki quaradek e non (09:49) - eleven minutes to ten<br> <br> For 'half past' use 'e duimo':<br> quar kloki e duimo - half past four, lit. 4 o'clock and a half (hour)<br> kin kloki e duimo - half past five : The 'e' is important, as 'kin kloki duimo' could possibly be mistaken for 'half a minute past five'.<br> The same applies to 'quarter past' and 'quarter to':<br> sis kloki e quarimo - quarter past six, lit. 6 o'clock and a quarter (hour)<br> sis kloki e tri quarimi - quarter to seven, lit. 6 o'clock and 3/4 (hour)<br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1"></a>Exerco 1 (Exercise 1) </b><br> From the above vocabulary make words for the following (Click <a href="#ex1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 1. 2:05 <br> 2. 3:40 <br> 3. 17:00 <br> 4. 14:47 <br> 5. two o'clock (02:00) <br> 6. five past nine (09:05) <br> 7. quarter past six (06:15) <br> 8. quarter to seven (06:45) <br> 9. twenty five to elven (10:35) <br> 10. seven minutes to seven (06:53) <br> <br> <br> <b>'Qua' as an interrogative adjective</b><br> 'Qua' as we have seen can mean 'who/which/that'. There is however one remaining use of 'qua'. <br> When placed before a singular or plural noun it then means 'what?' or 'which?':<br> Qua hundo? - What dog/ Which dog? <br> Qua hundi? - What dogs/ Which dogs?<br> <br> Qua, qui, quo (summary)<br> Questions:<br> Singular --: Qua viro venas? - What man is coming?<br> Plural ----: Qua viri venas? - What men are coming?<br> Singular --: Qua venas? - Who is coming?<br> Plural ----: Qui venas? - Who is coming?<br> Sing/Plur.-: Quo venas? - What is coming?<br> <br> Relative:<br> Singular --: La viro qua venas - The man that is coming.<br> Plural ----: La viri qui venas - The men that are coming.<br> Singular --: La treno qua iras - The train that is going.<br> Plural ----: La treni qui iras - The trains that are going.<br> <br> <br> <b>Weather</b><br> Verbs in Ido relating to weather are impersonal.<br> The 'it' used in English does not really refer to anything, and must not be translated in Ido by 'ol' or any other word:<br> Pluvas - It's raining (pluvo - rain)<br> Nivas - It's snowing (nivo - snow)<br> Frostas - It's freezing (frosto - a freeze)<br> Ventas - It's windy (vento - wind)<br> Pruinas - It's frosty/ There's a frost. (pruino - frost)<br> <br> <br> <b>Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">agnoskar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to admit/acknowledge</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ankore </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> still/yet</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> audar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to hear </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> avino </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> grandmother </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cayare </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> this year (adverb) </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> danko pro </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> thanks for </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> decidar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to decide </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> divenar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to become </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ecepte </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> except </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> esforcar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to try </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fortunoza </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fortunate </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> fotografuro </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> a photograph </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> gambo </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> leg </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ja </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> already </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hospitalo </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> hospital </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> infanteto </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> baby </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> invitar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to invite </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kozo </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> thing </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kara </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> dear (affection) </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> kuzo </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> cousin</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> loko </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> place</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> mortar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to die </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> nomo </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> name</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> omni </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> everybody</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> pluvar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to rain</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> post-karto </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> post card </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> praktikar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to practise </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> prezente </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> at present </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> respondo </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> answer </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> se </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> if </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> ruptar </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to break </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> saluto </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> greeting</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Skotia </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> Scotland</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> trista </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> sad/sorry</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> til nun </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> as yet/ so far</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> vakance </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> on holiday</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="100"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> venonta yaro </font></td> <td width="169"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> next year</font></td> </tr> </table> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> <br> <b>Letro ad Amiko</b><br> La 27ma di agosto<br> Kara Maria<br> Danko pro la interesanta letro e la bela post-karti quin tu sendis a me.<br> Me es tre trista audar ke tua avino ruptis gambo kande el esforcis klimar Blanka Monto (Mont Blanc) cayare. El es tre fortunoza ke el ne mortis. <br> Me havas kuzo qua deziras divenar klimero, ma prezente il nur evas ok yari. Il praktikas sur la muro en la gardeno. Til nun il ne falis. <br> Adube tu iros vakance en la venonta yaro? Se tu ne ja decidis, me invitas tu a Skotia. Ofte pluvas hike en Skotia, me agnoskas to, ma es multa interesanta loki e kozi quin ni povos vidar. Ni certe vizitos Edinburgh. <br> Tu volis vidar mea familio. Do me sendas a tu fotografuro. Tu ja konocas la nomi di omni ecepte la infanteto qua nomesas Paul. <br> Skribez balde tua respondo. Mea saluti a tua avino e la familio. <br> Tua amiko, Roger <br> <br> <b><br> Vortaro</b><br> </font> <table> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3">quala? </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> what like?</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> renkontrar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to meet</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> abonar </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> to subscribe to</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> revuo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> magazine</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> membro </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> member</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> societo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> society</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> libro-listo </font></td> <td><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"> book-list</font></td> </tr> </table> <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> </font> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b><a name="q1"></a>Questioni 1 (Questions 1) </b><br> (Click <a href="#q1-s"><b>here</b></a> to go to the answers):<br> 01) Quala es la post-karti de Maria? <br> 02) Qua ruptis gambo?<br> 03) Quon el klimis? <br> 04) Kad el mortis? <br> 05) Qua deziras divenar klimero? <br> 06) Quante il evas? <br> 07) Sur quo il praktikas? <br> 08) Kad il falis? <br> 09) Se Maria venos a Skotia, kad el e Roger vizitos Edinburgh? <br> 10) Quon Roger sendas a Maria? <br> 11) Quale nomesas la infanteto?<br> 12) Quon Roger esperas recevar balde? <br> <br> <b><br> Generala Questioni</b><br> 01) Ka vu parolas Ido bone? -> Yes, nam Ido es marveloze facila.<br> 02) Ka vu ofte lektas Ido? -> Yes, me prizas lektar libri en Ido.<br> 03) Ka vu povas skribar Ido? -> Komprenende yes ed anke devas me.<br> 04) Ka vu skribas ad Idisti en altra landi? -> Yes, kelkatempe.<br> 05) Ka vu renkontras altra Idisti? -> No, tre rare. Nam ne esas multa Idisti.<br> 06) Kad es multa Ido-libri en vua domo? -> No, nur kelka libri che me.<br> 07) Ka vu kompros altra Ido-libri? -> Yes, me intencas komprar oli.<br> 08) Ka vu havas libro-listo? -> Yes, la listo de Cardiff.<br> 09) Ka vu abonis Ido-revui? -> Yes, kelka revui.<br> 10) Ka vu es membro dil Ido-Societo? -> Yes, membro di Germana Ido-Societo.<br> <br> <br> <b>De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 01</b><br> La jorno e la nokto. La somero e la vintro. La vorti e la frazi. Un homo havas un boko e du oreli. Du homi havas du boki e quar oreli. Un manuo havas kin fingri. Du manui havas dek fingri e povas aplaudar altri. Granda e mikra. Multa o poka. Bela o leda. Mea amiko havas du granda domi. Multa domi havas poka pekunio. Li havas bela flori en la gardeno. Il havas altra laboro.<br> <br> <br> <b>De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 02</b><br> Ante parolar on devas pensar. Me volas lernar la linguo Ido. Tu venas por laborar. Adube tu volas irar? Me volas kelke promenar. Singla homo havas nur un boko por parolar, ma du oreli por audar. La infanti sekrete ludas dop la domo. Quon facas la genitori? La patro skribas plura letri e la matro lektas bela libro.<br> <br> <b><br> De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 03</b><br> Li ne esas hike. Tu ne esas ibe. Ube il esas? Ni ne savas. Vi promenas ofte. Me ne esas en la domo. Kad il komprenas to? No, il ne komprenas. Ka la infanti ploras? No, li ne ploras, kontree li ridas. Kad omna homi esas kontenta? No, nur tre poka homi esas kontenta.<br> <br> Komprero: "Ica piri ne esas manjebla, li esas acerba (sour)."<br> Vendisto: "Yes, me savas lo, ma me ne manjas li, me vendas li."<br> <br> "Neteso esas tre importanta. Me balnas omnayare adminime (at least) unfoye, tote indiferenta kad [lo] esas necesa o ne."<br> <br> <br> <b>De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 04</b><br> Mea kuzino havas tri kati, el multe amas li. Il ne pluse parolas kun el. Karlo havas du bela libri, lu ofte lektas oli. Ka vu savas Ido? - No, ne ja (=ankore ne), ma me lernas ol.<br> <br> Viri e mulieri es en la restorerio, ili drinkas vino, eli drinkas kafeo kun lakto. Gasto: "Pro quo en ica urbo la reda vino es plu chera kam la blanka?" Restoristo: "Ka vu opinionas ke ni recevas la farbo gratuite?"<br> <br> - "Me ne povas dicernar vua jemeli, quankam (although) me vidas li omnadie."<br> - "Ma es ya tre simpla, la una nomesas Henriko, e la altra nomesas Alberto."<br> - (Ma es ya tre simpla dicernar mea jemeli, Henriko e Alberto.)<br> <br> <b><br> De certena lektolibro - Lektajo 05 (parenti - relatives)</b><br> La vorti di la frazo. Mea patro evas quaradek yari. Tua biciklo es ankore nova. Me ne havas tempo por vizitar vu che vua domo. La pordo di la domo es klozita. Ni volas nun parolar pri nia linguo Ido. Via genitori prestis a me parapluvo. Li sendas pekunio per la posto a lia parenti. El ne volas dicar ol ad il. A qua apartenas (belongs) ica krayono? Me ne savas a qua ol apartenas. Ni vidas la flori di la gardeno. Ilua bona patro es ja mortinta (dead). Patro: "Ka tu nun savas pro quo me batas tu?" "Yes", singlutas (sobs) Pauleto, "pro ke tu es plu forta kam me."<br> <br> <br> <b>Rezumo di la Reguli pri la Puntizado</b><br> La punto (.) uzesas por separar la frazi<br> Komo (,) por separar la propozicioni<br> La punto komo (;) por separar frazi gramatikale nedependanta, ma ligita per la senco<br> La bipunto (:) por anuncar expliko o citajo<br> La klamo-punto (!) pozesas pos frazo klamanta<br> La question-punto (?) pozesas pos propoziciono direte questionanta (ne pos propoziciono subordinita)<br> La cito-hoketi (" ") uzesas por inkluzar omna citajo<br> La parentezi ( ) inkluzas frazo o vorto separenda de la cetera texto<br> La kramponi [ ] ed embracili { } havas analoga roli<br> Un embracio { juntas plura linei (dextre) ad una (sinistre)<br> La streketo (-) unionas la parti di vorto kompozita; ol indikas anke la seko di vorto inter du linei<br> La streko (--) indikas chanjo di parolanto; ol devas sempre uzesar en dialogi<br> On ne darfas uzar ol vice la parentezi, o vice la puntaro<br> La puntaro (...) indikas interrupto di la penso<br> L'alineo (new paragraph) indikas chanjo di temo o nova ordino di pensi<br> La noti (infre di la pagini) devas referesar per numeri (ne per steli, kruci, etc.)<br> <br> </font> <hr> <p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><b>Answers of the Exercises/Questions</b> <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="ex1-s"></a>Exerco 1</b> (Click <a href="#ex1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the exercise)<br> 1. du kloki kin<br> 2. tri kloki quaradek<br> 3. dek e sep kloki<br> 4. dek e quar kloki quaradek e sep<br> 5. du kloki<br> 6. non kloki kin<br> 7. sis kloki e quarimo<br> 8. sis kloki e tri quarimi<br> 9. dek kloki triadek e kin<br> 10. sis kloki kinadek e tri <br> <br> <br> <b><a name="q1-s"></a>Questions 1 </b>(Click <a href="#q1"><b>here</b></a> to return to the questions)<br> 01) Ol es interesanta.<br> 02) Avino di Maria.<br> 03) El klimis Blanka Monto.<br> 04) No, fortunoze el ne mortis.<br> 05) Kuzo di Roger.<br> 06) Il evas ok yari.<br> 07) Sur la muro en la gardeno.<br> 08) No, til nun il ne falis.<br> 09) Ho, yes.<br> 10) Fotografuro di/pri la familio di Roger.<br> 11) Lu nomesas Paul.<br> 12) Respondo de Maria.<br> </font></p> <hr> <div align="center"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif" size="3"><br> <!-- #EndDate --> </font></div> <p align="left">&nbsp;</p> 979 2055 2005-04-18T14:16:45Z Josu Lavin 2 Lección Uno - Una leciono (Sustantivos - Artículo - Presente - Conversación)> Un sustantivo se usa para poder referirse a algo que puedes ver, oir, tocar, pensar, etc. Como habrás notado, todos los sustantivos acaban en -o, con lo que ya sabes cómo localizar un sustantivo en una frase. Veamos algunos nombres: hundo - un perro domo - una casa pomo - una manzana animalo - un animal frukto - una fruta libro - un libro Como puedes ver, en Ido no existe artículo indeterminado (un, una, unos, unas). Ya verás que nunca se produce confusión. Ahora, vamos a trabajar con el verbo esar (ser, estar) y vamos a conjugarlo en presente, obteniendo esas (soy, eres, es, somos, sois, son): Hundo esas animalo - Un perro es un animal. Pomo esas frukto - Una manzana es una fruta. Como la forma "esas" se emplea muchas veces, se suele abreviar a es. Cualquiera de las dos formas es válida. Para formar el plural de los sustantivos, cambia la -o por una -i: libri - unos libros amiki - unos/as amigos/as En Ido no existe género (sólo las palabras como viro - hombre, varón, muliero - mujer, y unas pocas más): ¡no tienes que diferenciar entre masculino y femenino!. Además, sólo hay un artículo: la, que es el determinado y el mismo para todos los géneros y números. Por tanto, se traduce por el, la, los, las. El artículo indeterminado un, una, unos, unas, como ya dijimos, no existe en Ido, con lo que si no se especifica ningún artículo se sobreentiende el indeterminado: la hundo - el perro la domo - la casa la hundi - los perros la domi - las casas Para poder completar un poco el significado de los sustantivos, vamos a utilizar los adjetivos (palabras que describen a los sustantivos). Todos los adjetivos acaban en –a; los puedes poner antes o después del sustantivo y no concuerdan ni en género ni en número con él: dolca - dulce bela - bello/a, bonito/a, hermoso/a mikra - pequeño/a kelka - un/unos poco/os floro - flor La bela flori esas sur la tablo - las bellas flores están sobre la mesa La pomi esas dolca hike - las manzanas son dulces aquí La libri esas en la domo e kelka hundi esas hike - los libroos están en la casa y unos pocos perros están aquí la granda hundi - los grandes perros la domo bela - la casa hermosa/bonita/bella Veamos unas pocas palabras útiles: en - en sur - sobre (posición de algo/alguien) e/ed - y ("ed" se suele usar cuando la siguiente palabra comienza por vocal) hike - aquí La hundi esas en la domo - Los perros están en la casa La pomo esas sur la tablo - La manzana está sobre la mesa La libri esas hike - los libros están aquí El infinitivo de los verbos en Ido acaba siempre en "-ar". Para formar el presente se usa la terminación "-as". Estas dos cosas se aplican sin excepción a todos los verbos; así que, ¡no hay verbos irregulares!. El tiempo presente se usa cuando la acción expresada por el verbo sucede ahora, en este mismo instante de tiempo: havar - tener esar - ser, estar amar - amar dicar - decir finar - finalizar, acabar ludar - jugar sidar - estar sentado prenar - coger, tomar, asir lektar - leer irar - ir La patro lektas la libro - El padre lee el libro La hundo prenas la pomo - El perro coge la manzana La kato sidas sur la bela tablo - El gato está sentado sobre la hermosa mesa La kato ludas kun la hundo - El gato juega con el perro La granda domo esas bela - La gran casa es hermosa La mondo esas bela e granda - El mundo es grande y hermoso En Ido no existe diferencia entre el presente (yo como) y el presente continuo (yo estoy comiendo), ya que, en realidad, las dos acciones tienen lugar en el presente (hay idiomas que no hacen distinción entre estas dos formas, con lo que en Ido se ha optado por lo más fácil). Esta característica deberás tenerla en cuenta, sobre todo cuando traduzcas de español a Ido. Para acabar la primera lección vamos a ver algunas frases muy útiles para hablar con un idista: Bona matino! - ¡Buenos días! ("buena mañana") Bona jorno! - ¡Buen día! Quale tu standas? - ¿Cómo estás? Tre bone, danko - Muy bien, gracias Yes/No - Sí/No Quale tu nomesas? - ¿Cómo te llamas? (observa que es igual que en español) Me nomesas José - Me llamo José Con todo esto ya podemos hacer algunas frases sencillas. Todo lo que pensaste que podía mejorarse cuando aprendes un idioma está plasmado en Ido de la forma más sencilla, internacional y asequible posible. Para ir cogiendo práctica, seguidamente se propone una relación de ejercicios básicos. Ejercicios - exerci VOCABULARIO - VORTARO (ejercicio 1): buxo (caja), domo (casa), gardeno (jardín), hundo (perro), kato (gato), muso (ratón), tablo (mesa), es (soy, eres, es, somos, sois, son), me (yo/me/a mí), tu (tú/te/a ti), yuno (adolescente/joven), yunulo (chico), yunino (chica), en (en), sub (debajo de), sur (sobre), la (el/la/los/las). 1) Traduce de español a Ido: 1. María es una chica 2. Carlos es un chico 3. La casa está en el jardín 4. Estoy en el jardín 5. Estoy en la casa 6. Estas en la casa 7. Estas debajo de la mesa 8. Un perro está sobre la mesa en la casa 9. Rex es un perro 10. Guillermo es un gato 11. El perro está en la casa 12. El gato está sobre la mesa 13. La caja está debajo de la mesa 14. El gato está sobre la caja 15. El ratón está en la casa 16. El ratón está en la caja 17. El ratón está debajo de la mesa VORTARO (ejercicio 2): drinkar (beber), havar (tener), lektar (leer), manjar (comer), prizar (apreciar, estimar), promenar (caminar, pasearse), regardar (mirar, dirigir la mirada a), tushar (tocar), aquo (agua), fenestro (ventana), lakto (leche), pordo (puerta), stulo (silla), tablo (mesa) 2) Traduce de español a Ido (si usas la solución puedes hacer la operación inversa): 1. Tengo un perro 2. Veo el perro 3. El perro me ve 4. Aprecio el perro 5. Me gusta la leche 6. El perro tiene la leche 7. El gato bebe la leche 8. Tú estas bebiendo la leche 9. Tengo la manzana 10. Me estoy comiendo la manzana 11. El/la chico/a se está comiendo la manzana 12. Estoy mirando al ratón 13. El ratón ve el agua 14. El ratón se está comiendo el libro 15. El libro está sobre la mesa 16. Tú lees el libro 17. Tú estás leyendo el libro 18. El gato me mira 19. El gato mira (a) la puerta 20. Está tocando la puerta 21. El gato está tocando la ventana 22. Estoy tocando la ventana 23. Me estoy paseando por/en el jardín 24. Tú y el perro os estáis paseando por/en el jardín 25. La mesa y la silla están en la casa VORTARO (exerco 3): drinkajo (bebida), floro (flor), kavalo (caballo), prizar (apreciar, gustar), manjajo (comida), por (para), muro (muro, pared), plado (plato donde se come), taso (taza), dormar (dormir), komprar (comprar), habitar (vivir), parolar (hablar), pozar (poner, colocar), anciena (antiguo, viejo - NO de edad), oldda (viejo, anciano), regardar (mirar, dirigir la mirada a), tablo (mesa), blua (azul), granda (grande), mikra (pequeño/a), reda (rojo), yuna (joven), anke (también), hike (aquí), mea (mi, mío/a), tua (tu, tuyo/a), adhike (aquí, indicando el movimiento/acción de colocar aquí), adsur (sobre, indicando el movimiento/acción de colocar sobre) 3) Traduce de español a Ido (puedes practicar traduciendo al contrario): 1. Estás aprendiendo Ido 2. Hablas Ido 3. Estoy aprendiendo Ido 4. Hablo Ido 5. Tengo una casa bonita 6. Mi casa es grande 7. La casa es grande 8. Vivo aquí 9. Duermo en el jardín 10. Mi perro es viejo 11. Mi perro también vive aquí 12. El perro duerme en mi pequeño jardín 13. El pequeño gato mira al gran perro 14. Vives en una bonita casa 15. Duermes en una mesa bonita 16. El gato duerme debajo de la bella flor 17. El caballo es viejo 18. El pequeño caballo es joven 19. Al joven caballo le gusta/aprecia la bebida 20. Estás comprando comida para el caballo 21. Compro comida aquí 22. Pongo tu plato aquí 23. El plato es rojo 24. Estoy poniendo comida sobre/en el plato 25. El viejo ratón se come la comida 26. Una bebida está en la taza pequeña 27. La taza azul está sobre la mesa 28. Ves el ratón en la taza 29. Tu leche está también en la taza 30. Estoy poniendo el libro sobre/en el muro 4) Lee en voz alta todas las palabras y frases que has visto en esta lección hasta hacerlo fluidamente. Haz lo mismo en todas las lecciones que siguen. 5) Piensa en Ido en las cosas que conoces: Toca la puerta y dítelo a ti mismo, "Me tushas la pordo"; lee un libro y di "Me lektas libro"; y así sucesivamente incluyendo todas las palabras que has aprendido. 6) Practica la conversación (última parte de la lección). Este ejercicio lo puedes repetir siempre que aparezcan nuevas conversaciones. SOLUCIONES: Ejercicio 1: 1. María es yunino ("yuno" si no quieres distinguir sexo) 2. Carlos es yunulo ("yuno" si no quieres distinguir sexo) 3. La domo es en la gardeno 4. Me es en la gardeno 5. Me es en la domo 6. Vu es en la domo 7. Vu es sub la tablo 8. Hundo es sur la tablo en la domo 9. Rex es hundo 10. Guillermo es kato 11. La hundo es en la domo 12. La kato es sur la tablo 13. La buxo es sub la tablo 14. La kato es sur la buxo 15. La muso es en la domo 16. La muso es en la buxo 17. La muso es sub la tablo Ejercicio 2: 1. Me havas hundo 2. Me vidas la hundo 3. La hundo vidas me 4. Me prizas la hundo 5. Me prizas lakto 6. La hundo havas la lakto 7. La kato drinkas la lakto 8. Tu drinkas la lakto 9. Me havas la pomo 10. Me manjas la pomo 11. La yuno manjas la pomo 12. Me regardas la muso 13. La muso vidas la aquo 14. La muso manjas la libro 15. La libro es sur la tablo 16. Tu lektas la libro 17. Tu lektas la libro 18. La kato regardas me 19. La kato regardas la pordo 20. Vu tushas la pordo 21. La kato tushas la fenestro 22. Me tushas la fenestro 23. Me promenas en la gardeno 24. Tu e la hundo promenas en la gardeno 25. La tablo e la stulo es en la domo Ejercicio 3: 1. Tu lernas Ido 2. Tu parolas Ido 3. Me lernas Ido 4. Me parolas Ido 5. Me havas bela domo 6. Mea domo es granda 7. La domo es granda 8. Me habitas hike 9. Me dormas en la gardeno 10. Mea hundo es olda 11. Mea hundo anke habitas hike 12. La hundo dormas en mea mikra gardeno 13. La mikra kato regardas la granda hundo 14. Tu habitas en bela domo 15. Tu dormas sur la bela tablo 16. La kato dormas sub la bela floro 17. La kavalo es olda 18. La mikra kavalo es yuna 19. La yuna kavalo prizas la drinkajo 20. Tu kompras manjajo por la kavalo 21. Me kompras manjajo hike 22. Me pozas tua plado adhike 23. La plado es reda 24. Me pozas manjajo adsur la plado 25. La olda muso manjas la manjajo 26. Drinkajo es en la taso mikra 27. La blua taso es sur la tablo 28. Tu vidas la muso en la taso 29. Tua lakto es anke en la taso 30. Me pozas la libro adsur la muro 980 77 2005-04-18T21:20:57Z Josu Lavin 2 Lección Veinte - Duadeka leciono (Sólo hay textos para leer y/o traducir) Ésta es la última lección del nivel intermedio. Aunque pueda parecer que no sabes mucho sobre Ido, ¡ya tienes un nivel tan alto como para traducir cualquier texto en Ido sin problemas!. Así que, ya sabes, puedes ir a cualquier grupo de discusión sobre Ido y podrás entender todo lo que dicen, así como podrás también decir lo que piensas. Ejercicios - exerci 1) Lectura 11 (continuación de la lección 19): Lektajo 11:- La tri guti (gota de un líquido) ---------------------------- Alba, la bona feino [fe-I-no] (hada), qua protektas (proteger) la fianciti (novio), Alba, qua habitas la pupilo (pupilo) blua di la virgini (virgen) inocenta, pasante ulmatine proxim rozo (rosa), audis sua nomo enuncesar da tri guti. Proximigante su e sideskante en la kordio dil floro, el questionis gracioze: "Quon vi deziras de me, guti brilanta?" "Venez por solvar (resolver) questiono", dicis l'UNESMA. Alba: "Pri quo vi parolas?" "Ni esas tri guti diferanta, de origini diversa; ni deziras ke tu dicez, qua de ni esas la maxim meritoza (meritorio), la maxim pura." Konseque Alba dicis, "Me konsentas (consentir). Parolez, guto brilanta." E la UNESMA guto dicis: "Me venas ek la nubi alta, me esas filiino di la granda mari. Me naskis en la granda oceano antiqua e potenta. Vizitante maro-rivi (costa) e litori (litoral), sukusite (sacudir, agitar) en mil tempesti, me absorbesis da la nubo. Me iris til l'alta regioni ube la steli brilas, e de ibe rulante (rodando) inter la fulmini (relámpago), me falis aden la floro en qua me nun repozas. Me reprezentas la maro.", finis la UNESMA. "Nun esas tua foyo, guto brilanta," la feino [fe-I-no] dicis a la DUESMA. "Me esas la roso (rocío), qua entras la lilii [LI-lii]; me esas la fratino dil opalea (del color del ópalo) lumo dil luno, la filiino dil nebulo, qua difuzesas kande la nokto obskurigas la naturo. Me reprezentas l'auroro (aurora)." "E tu?" Alba questionis la TRIESMA, la guto minim granda e lore tacanta. "Me havas nula merito (mérito)." Alba: "Parolez! De ube tu venas?" "Ek la okuli di fiancitino (novia); me esis la rideto, me esis la kredo, me esis la espero, pose me esis l'amoro ... cadie me esas lakrimo (lágrima)." L'altri ridis pri la guteto, ma Alba, apertante sua brakii, prenis el kun su e dicis: "Ica esas la maxim meritoza, ica esas la maxim pura." L'UNESMA : "Ma me esis la maro!" La DUESMA : "E me l'atmosfero!" "To esas vera; ma ica esas la kordio..", dicis e taceskis (callarse) Alba. Ed el desaparis en l'azuro (azul, celeste), kunportante la TRIESMA, la humila (humilde) guto. 2) Lectura 12: Lektajo 12:- Lingui internaciona/interkomprenigilo (Medios de comunicación) --- La lingui di preske (casi, apenas) omna nacioni de India til Atlantiko decendas de komuna origin-linguo. Ica linguo diferenciesis, e la nacioni separis su. La relati kun stranjera landi esis neimportanta en anciena tempi, pro ke la moyeni (medios) dil cirkulado (circulación) esis primitiva. Tamen sempre existis lingui qui mediacis la trafiko, precipue la komerco. To pruvas ke linguo internaciona esas necesa e nekareebla (indispensable). La linguo dil Greki dominacis (había predominado) longatempe en l'oriento. Interne di la frontieri dil Romana imperio la Latina divenis dominacanta; ol restis la linguo di la cienco (ciencia) en preske tota Europa til aden la moderna tempo. La Latina ankore uzesas ekleziale mem hodie. En la 17. e 18. yarcenti, Francia atingis (lograr) la kulmino (culminación) di sua povo, la Franca divenis la linguo dil dipolomacisti (diplomáticos) e nobeli. Nuntempe la linguo dil Angli havas la prerango en la mondo-komerco. Ma anke la Germana esas ample difuzita: en Austria, Hungaria, Polonia, Rusia, ed en l'esto di Europa, ol ofte esas l'interkomprenigilo por multa mikra nacioni. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. ** (->Lektajo 13) Futurale la konkurenco (rivalidad) dil naturala lingui en la mondo-trafiko cesos (cesar). Nula de li esas sat (suficientemente) facila, exakta e bela ke ol povus divenar (convertirse en) internaciona helpolinguo. Lo rekomendas Ido kom la solvuron. En Berlin, London e New-York, en Arjentinia e Japonia, omnaloke (todo lugar), adube komercisti e ciencisti voyajos, Ido komprenesos e parolesos. Ultre to omna naciono kultivos e konservos la pureso e beleso di sua matrolinguo. En irga fora futuro existos 'nova linguo por omni', unesme (en primer lugar) kom komercala linguo, pose generale kom linguo dil mentala komunikado, tam certe kam ultempe existos aernavigado. (escrito hace 80 años en Alemania) ** La Hispana esas anke tre importanta ;-) 3) Lectura 13: Lektajo 13:- Vestaro --- Bezonesas dicernar (distinguir) 'portar' e 'tragar*'.---------- Me volas vizitar cavespere la teatro; pro to me mustas quik chanjar mea vesti. Ube esas la kamizo (camisa) e la kalzi (media, calceta)? La kamizo esas male glatigita (planchada); mem butono mankas (faltar). Yen agulo (aguja) e filo (hilo, hebra), sutez (coser) nova butono an la kamizo! Ka la boti (bota) esas cirajizita (pulido)? Ka la vesti (ropa) esas brosita (cepillado)? Donez a me la pantalono (pantalón), la vestono (chaqueta) e la flava jileto (chaleco)! La kolumo (collar, cuello) esas sordida, me metos (ponerse) un neta. La bruna kravato (corbata) ne plezas (agradar, gustar) a me, me preferas la verda. Nun me ornas (adornar) me per l'arjenta (plata) kateno (cadena) dil horlojeto (reloj). Posh-tukon (=naz-tuko - pañuelo) e gantin (guantes) me ne darfas obliviar. Mea klefi (llave) e la burso (cartera, bolso) esas en la posho (bolsillo). La felta chapelo (sombrero de fieltro) e la mantelo (manto, mantel) pendas an la vesto-portilo (percha). La fuluro (pliegue, arruga <- fular+ur) dil mantelo esas lacerita (rasgado). Portez (llevar, no llevar puesto) ol morge al talioro (sastre) por ke il reparez ol. Se mea salario (sueldo, salario) esus plu granda, me komprus peliso (pelliza) e shapko (gorra de piel), nam la vetero koldeskas. La furisto (peletero) demandas tro chera preco. La siorini ofte iras aden la teatro, vestizita per veluro (terciopelo) e silko, o li tragas* precoza denteli (cordón-trabajo¿?). Tala luxon (lujo) me ne amas. Nivas, metez (ponerse) la kauchuka (engomado) surshui (sobrezapato) e la getri (polaina)! Yen la parapluvo (paraguas). Granda plezuro! Proverbi (ek: Proverbaro da Peus). Ne omno oresas quo brilas. - No es oro todo lo que brilla. Omnu havas sua propra gusto. - Sobre gustos no hay nada escrito. L'unesma ateston esas la vesto. - Fine clothes make the man. Defekton di naturo ne kovras veluro (terciopelo). - You can't make a silk purse out of a sow's ear. Extere ornita (adornado), interna sordida (sucio, sórdido). - A wolf in sheep's clothing. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. - Tread on a worm and it will turn. La maxim mikra haro (pelo) jetas sua ombro. - Even a worm will turn. 4) Lectura 14: Lektajo 14:- En la teatro --- (staco-placo = galerio [ga-LE-rio] - galería )--- La reprezento komencas precize ye 6:30 kloki (sis kloki e duimo). La demando pri l'eniro-bilieti esas tre granda. Se on volas obtenar bilieto an la gicheto (taquilla), on mustas ibe instalar su (encolarse) ye ja duima horo (30 minutos) ante olua aperto. "Me demandas bilieto por la duesma rango (fila), sinistra latero, staco-placo." "Me regretas, ica plasi esas parvendita, nur partero (platea) - lojio (palco) esas ankore recevebla.", "Quante kustas la bilieto?" "9.50 mark inkluzinte la taxo po l'uzo di la vesteyo (vestuario)." On pleas la kanto-maestri de Nuernberg da Richard Wagner. Me preferas opero kam dramato e komedio kam tragedio. La kurteno (cortina, telón) levesas. La ceneyo vidigas l'internajo di kirko. Kantistino kantas per sonora voco. Anke la tenoro kantas ecelante. L'orkestro-chefo direktas tre vivace (vivamente). Omna muzikisti di ca orkestro esas artisti. Pos singla akto eventas pauzo. Aparte la 3. akto esas belega. On vidas la gaya Johannis-festo sur la prato. Walter ganas per sua premio-kanto la filiino dil or-forjisto (orfebre). La kurteno abasesas (es bajada). La audantaro (audiencia, público) aplaudas (aplaudir) entuziasmigite (entusiásticamente), la kantisti dankas joyoze. Wagner ne nur esis genio (genio) kom kompozisto ma anke bona poeto. En 1825 Goethe dicis ad Eckermann: "Ta, qua esas ne tote blazita (rendido) e suficante yuna, ne facile trovas loko, ube lu povas esar tam bone sorgata kam en la teatro. On postulas de vi tote nulo; vi ne bezonas apertar la boko, se vi ne volas. Kontree vi sidas tote komfortoze (confortablemente) quale rejo ed IGAS '(a) vi' komode (adecuadamente) REPREZENTAR omno (comportarse como un rey), e REGALAR (regalar) via spirito e sensi, quale vi nur povas dezirar to. Yen poezio, pikt-arto, kant-arto e muziko, arto dramatala e mem plu multo. Se omna ica arti e charmi di yuneso e beleso agas kune dum un vespero, sur alta nivelo dil arto, lore to esas festo nekomparebla ad irga altra." 5) Lectura 15: Lektajo 15:- La muso e la leono (da Aesopos) ---------------------------------- Leono dormis en sua kaverno (caverna); cirkum lu trupo de gaya musi ludis. Un/Una de li jus esis kliminta adsur salianta (saliente, sobresaliente) rokaji, falis adinfre e vekigis la leono qua retenis (retener) lu per sua grandega pedo. "Ho ve", la muso pregis, "esez jeneroza a me kompatinda, neimportanta kreuro! me ne volis ofensar tu, me nur facis mispazo e falis de la rokajo. Quale mea morto utilesus a tu? Lasez vivar me /Lasez (a) me vivar/, e me volas esor/esur gratitudoza a tu dum mea tota vivo!, se me vivus." "Forirez!", la leono dicis jeneroze e lasis forkurar la museto. Ma pose lu ridis e dicis: "Esor gratitudoza! Nu, ton me dezirus vidar, quale museto povus manifestar sua gratitudo a leono. To ne semblas esor posibla" Pos kurta tempo la sama muso kuris tra la foresto e serchis nuci (nuez) por su. Subite (de repente) lu audis la plendala mujado (rugido) di leono. "Lu certe esas en danjero!" la muso parolis en su ed iris a la loko, de qua la mujado sonis. Ibe lu trovis la jeneroza (generoso) leono cirkumplektita (entrelazar) da forta reto (red) quan la chasisto pozabis injenioze por kaptar (capturar) per to animali granda e forta. La kordi (trozos de cuerda) tante kontraktesabis (encoger) ke la leono povis uzar nek sua denti nek la forteso di sua pedi por lacerar (rasgar) li. "Vartez, amiko," dicis la museto, "cakaze me povas helpar probable maxim bone." Lu adkuris, parrodis (roer completamente) la kordi qui entravis (engrillar) lua avana pedi, e fine divenis ke li (la pedi) esas libera. La leono laceris la cetera (restante) reto e riatingis tale sua libereso per la helpo da la museto di qua vivon olim lu ipsa sparis sualatere. Nobla esez la homo, helpema e bona, nam to distingas lu de omna enti quin ni konocas. (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749-1832) 6) Lectura 16: Lektajo 16:- Du komercala letri ----------------------------------------------- Milano, 16. marto 1921. Sioro Zahn e kompanio, mashin-fabrikerio Mannheim (Germania) Me dankas pro la sendo dil preco-listo. Nuntempe agrokultivala (agrícola) mashini demandesas tante multe ke me mustas balde riplenigar (recambiar) mea magazino (almacén). Nia kompristo (comprador) vizitos vu pos kelka dii; il havas la promiso (=expekto - expectación) komendar (encomendar) pasable (justamente) granda nombro de mashini, se vu grantos konvenanta rabato (discuento) ed avantajoza pago-kondicioni. Specale me bezonas motor-plugili (arado), semo-mashini (máquina sembradora), falcho-mashini (segadora), fen (heno)-rastili (rastrillo) e drash-mashini (trilladora). Konsiderante la plucherigo (subida, aumento) extraordinara pro la transporto-preco ed importaco-taxo, me nur povas komprar, se la preco kalkulesos ad/kom/ye la maxim basa [preco kam] posible. Me ja recevis avatajoza ofri da Angla firmi; tamen me havas l'espero agreabla, filigar (hilar, hacer hilos/hebras) per ica kompro la relati aferala qui existis ante la milito inter nia firmi, por la profito di la du parti. Kun granda estimo, Giovanni Rienzi, Dante-strado 17, Milano (Italia) ----------------------------------------------------------------- Mainz, 8. februaro 1921. Sioro P. Thorbecke, Rembrandt-placo 11, Amsterdam (Nederlando). Vua sendajo del 29. januaro arivis cadie. La vari esas nereprochebla, pezo e nombro esis justa. Me komisis (apuntar, señalar) la Rhenana banko asignar a vu la sumo de 2864 florini. Me pregas vu quik sendar a me la sequanta vari: 500 kilogrami de rizo, singla kg po 4 mark; 100 kg de kakao, maxim bona qualeso; 200 kg de saguto (sagú); 220 kg de Braziliana kafeo; 90 kg de teo, mezvalora mixuro (mezcla); 4000 buxi de lakto sukrizita (azucarada); 360 kg de fromajo (queso) de Edam; 50 litri de palm-oleo (aceita de palmera); fine 5 kg de pipro (pimienta) muelita. Koncerne la preci me fidas a vu pro mea multyara experienco pri la loyaleso di vua firmo, e me supozas, ke la livrajo (entrega) esos tam bona kam la lasta. Kun respektoza saluti, vua devota (devoto, fiel), Walter Schutz La pasero e la kolombo ----------------------------------------- Puerulo kaptabis pasero (gorrión) e vidis pose kolombo (paloma) sur la tekto. "Ita esas plu bona", il pensis, lasis riflugar la pasero ed acensis la tekto, por kaptar vice (=anstat* - en lugar de) lu la kolombo. Ma ica ne vartis il, ma lu forflugis. Sidante sur la tekto, sen pasero e sen kolombo, la puerulo memoris la proverbo: Plu bona (esas) pasero en la manuo kam kolombo sur la tekto. 7) Lectura 17: Lektajo 17:- Linguala stilo --------------------------------------------------- La skopo (fin) di la linguo internaciona esas l'interkompreno adminime en Europa. Ne suficas havar internaciona vortaro e gramatiko inter lingui Europala, se la frazi ne esas omnaloke komprenebla (por diferanta nacionani). La vortordino esez naturala segun la reguli dil Ido-gramatiko. La maxim bona moyeno por komprenesar esas facar kurta frazi. Qua bone skribas, facas multa punti. Ne akumulez la subordinita frazi. Anke en Ido existas bona e mala stilo. La naturala lingui havas multa idiomaji (modismo, frase hecha), quin on devas uzar, mem se li esas nelogikala. "Ido ne havas idiomaji*", singla nociono (concepto) havas un vorto e singla vorto signifikas nur un nociono. Do on evitez l'idiomaji dil naturala lingui; li ne komprenesas en omna landi. Skribez simple e klare, lore tu espereble skribos en bona stilo. --- * Ma poke fanfaronanta reklamajo por Ido da olima Idisto Germana, --- --- nam omna lingui sur la tero havas plu o min idiomaji e ne-logikeso, --- --- quin tamen Ido adminime esforcas eskapar per sua anmo por facileso. --- 8) Lectura 18: Lektajo 18:- Pri Idiomaji e propra kustumo (comtumbre) di naturala lingui -------- Lernar stranjera lingui esas multe desfacila por ordinara populi (=plebeyi). Nam sempre restas/os nekonteble multa neregulozeso (irregularidad) gramatikala ed anke en dicmanieri, idiomaji nacionala, pos 'omna esforcado (esfuerzo)' bone lernar la linguo di irga intereso ed importo. Logikeso ne suficas ma la rezulton decidos nur suficanta tempo e pekunio por parlernar la linguo. Quale onu povus facile memorar omna idiomaji di linguo lernata? Exemple: rain cats and dogs, fight like Kilkenny cats, let the cat out of the bag... Quale onu povus facile dicernar (discernir) per dicionario la korekta signifiko di frazo? Kande USAani dicas "I'm MAD about the event.", onu ne povas komprenar la vera signifiko per simple konsultar la dicionario; mad - fola Advere (en verdad) la frazo ne signifikas ke "Me esas FOLA pri l'evento" ma to dicas ke "Me IRACAS pri l'evento." ed altrafoye "Me ENTUZIASMAS pri l'evento." ... HoLala! Tala kozi numeroza abundas e nule cesas kande onu lernas irga stranjera linguo. Advere nur la richi povas facile lernar sua stranjera linguo, se li deziras. La plebeyi nur povus disponar sua bona logikeso, sen havar suficanta pekunio. Ido esas/os la unika internaciona linguo por omna laboristi sur la mondo, pro ke onu povas facile lernar Ido inter sua limitizita tempo e pekunio. Do ni lernez Ido, Ido mustos kultivar nia mento per sua logikeso por omni. ......skribita da laboristo, Idisto ed Idiotisto, Bebson Y. Hochfeld TRADUCCIONES: Lectura 11: Lectura 11:- Las tres gotas ---------------------------- Alba, la buena hada, que protege a los novios, Alba, que vive en el pupilo azul de la virgen inocente, al pasar una mañana cerca de una rosa, oyó ser enunciado su nombre por tres gotas. Aproximándose y sentándose en el corazón de la flor, ella preguntó graciosamente: "¿Qué deseáis de mi, gotas brillantes?" "Ven para resolver una cuestión", dijo la PRIMERA. Alba: "¿Sobre qué habláis?" "Somos tres gotas diferentes, de orígenes diversos; deseamos que digas, cuál de nosotras es la más meritoria, la más pura." Seguidamente Alba dijo, "Acepto/consiento. Habla, gota brillante." Y la PRIMERA gota dijo: "Vengo de las nubes altas, soy hija de los grandes mares. Nací en el gran océano antiguo y poderoso. Visitando costas y litorales, sacudida en mil tempestades, fui absorbida por la nube. Fui hasta las altas regiones donde las estrellas brillan, y de allí rodando entre los relámpagos, caí en la flor en la que ahora reposo. Represento el mar.", acabó la PRIMERA. "Ahora es tu turno, gota brillante," el hada dijo a la SEGUNDA. "Soy el rocío, que entras la lilii¿?; soy la hermana de la luz "opalácea" de la luna, la hija de la nebulosa, que se difumina cuando la noche hace oscurecer la naturaleza. Represento la aurora." "¿Y tú?" Alba preguntó a la TERCERA, la gota menos grande y entonces callando. "No tengo ningún mérito." Alba: "¡Habla! ¿De dónde vienes?" "De los ojos de una novia; fui la sonrisa, fui la creencia, fui la esperanza, después fui el amor ... hoy soy una lágrima." Las otras se rieron de la gotita, pero Alba, abriendo sus brazos, la tomó consigo y dijo: "Ésta es la más meritoria, ésta es la más pura." La PRIMERA: "¡Pero yo soy el mar!" La SEGUNDA : "¡Y yo la atmósfera!" "Eso es verdad; pero ésta es el corazón..", dijo y se calló Alba. Y ella desapareció en el azul/celeste, llevándose con ella la TERCERA, la humilde gota. Lectura 12: Lectura 12:- Lenguas internacionales / medios de comunicación. ------- Las lenguas de casi todas las naciones de India hasta el Atlántico descienden de una lengua común originaria. Esta lengua se diversificaron¿?, y las naciones se separaron. Las relaciones con países extranjeros no eran importantes en tiempos antiguos, porque los medios de circulación eran primitivos. Sin embargo siempre existían lenguas que intermediaban el tránsito/trato, principalmente el comercio. Eso prueba que una lengua internacional es necesaria e indispensable. La lengua de los Griegos había predominado mucho tiempo en oriente. En el interior de las fronteras del imperio Romano el Latín se volvió dominante; permaneció como la lengua de la ciencia en casi toda Europa hasta en tiempo moderno. El latín aún se usa eclesialmente incluso hoy. En los siglos 17 y 18, Francia logró la culminación de su poder, el francés se convirtió en la lengua de los diplomáticos y nobles. Hoy día la lengua de los ingleses tiene el predominio en el comercio mundial. Pero también el alemán está ampliamente difundido: en Austria, Hungría, Polonia, Rusia, y en el este de Europa, a menudo es el medio de comunicación para muchas pequeñas naciones. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. ** (->Lectura 13) En el futuro la rivalidad de las lenguas naturales en el tráfico mundial cesará. Ninguna de ellas es lo suficientemente fácil, exacta y bella como para que pueda convertirse en una lengua internacional de ayuda. Ello encomienda a Ido como la solución. En Berlín, Londres y Nueva York, en Argentina y Japón, todo lugar, hacia donde comerciantes y científicos viajen, Ido será comprendido y hablado. Además de eso toda nación cultivará y conservará la pureza y belleza de su lengua materna. En cualquier futuro lejano existirá una "nueva lengua para todos", en primer lugar como lengua comercial, después generalmente como lengua de la comunicación mental, tan cierto como que en algún momento existirá la navegación aérea. (escrito hace 80 años en Alemania) ** El español es hoy también muy importante ;-) Lectura 13: Lectura 13:- Vestuario --- Es necesario distinguir 'llevar' y 'llevar puesto'.------ Quiero visitar esta tarde el teatro; por eso debo cambiar rápidamente mis ropas. ¿Dónde está la camisa y las medias? La camisa está mal planchada; incluso falta un botón. Aquí hay una aguja e hilo, ¡cose un nuevo botón en la camisa! ¿Las botas están abrillantadas/pulidas? ¿La ropa está cepillada? ¡Dame el pantalón, la chaqueta y el chaleco amarillo! El cuello está sucio, me pondré uno limpio. La corbata marrón no me agrada, prefiero la verde. Ahora me adornaré/arreglaré con la cadena de plata del reloj. Pañuelo (de bolsillo) y guantes no puedo olvidar. Mis llaves y la cartera/bolso están en el bolsillo. El sombrero de fieltro y el manto cuelgan de la percha. El pliegue/arruga del manto está rasgado. Llévalo (llevar, no llevar puesto encima) mañana al sastre para que él lo repare. Si mi sueldo fuera más grande, compraría una pelliza y una gorra de piel, porque empieza a hacer frío. El peletero pide un precio demasiado caro/alto. Las señoritas a menudo van al teatro, vestidas con terciopelo y seda, o llevan puestas unos preciosos denteli (cordón-trabajo¿?). Tal lujo no lo quiero. Nieva, ¡ponte las botas/sobrezapato de goma y las polainas! Aquí está el paraguas. ¡Que disfrutes! Proverbios (de: Conjunto de proverbios de Peus). Ne omno oresas quo brilas - No es oro todo lo que brilla/reluce. Omnu havas sua propra gusto - Sobre gustos no hay nada escrito. L'unesma ateston esas la vesto - El hábito no hace al monje (no muy seguro ;-). Defekton di naturo ne kovras veluro (terciopelo) - Aunque la mona se vista de seda, mona se queda. Extere ornita (adornado), interna sordida (sucio, sórdido) - Un lobo con piel de oveja. Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten - Tread on a worm and it will turn (¿alguna sugerencia?). La maxim mikra haro (pelo) lanza/desprende sua sombra - Even a worm will turn (¿kelka ideo?). Lectura 14: Lectura 14:- En el teatro ---------------------------------- La representación comienza exactamente a las 6:30 horas (seis y media). La solicitud de billetes de entrada es muy grande. Si uno quiere obtener un billete en la taquilla, uno debe encolarse allí media hora (30 minutos) antes de su apertura. "Desearía un billete para la segunda fila, lateral izquierdo, galería." "Lo siento, estos lugares están completamente vendidos, sólo una platea - palco es todavía "receptivo" (está libre).", "¿Cuánto cuesta el billete?" "9.50 markos incluído el impuesto por el uso del vestuario (para guardar la ropa)." Se tocarán los cánticos maestros de Nuernberg, de Richard Wagner. Prefiero una ópera a un drama y una comedio a una tragedia. El telón se levanta. El escenario deja ver el interior de una iglesia. La cantante canta con una voz armoniosa/sonora. También el tenor canta excelentemente. El director de la orquesta dirige muy vivamente. Todos los músicos de esta orquesta son artistas. Después de cada acto hay una pausa. Aparte el tercer acto es muy bello. Se ve la alegre fiesta de Juan sobre el prado. Walter gana con su premio de canto a la hija del orfebre. El telón se baja. El público aplaude entusiásticamente, los cantantes dan gracias alegremente. Wagner no era sólo un genio como compositor, sino también un buen poeta. En 1825 Goethe dijo a Eckermann: "Eso, que no está totalmente rendido y no es suficientemente joven, no encuentra un lugar, donde pueda estar tan bien custodiado como en el teatro. No se exige de vosotros absolutamente nada; vosotros no necesitáis abrir la boca, si no queréis. Por contra estáis sentados muy confortablemente como un rey y hacéis adecuadamente representar todo y regalar vuestro espíritu y sentidos, como sólo vosotros podéis desear eso. He aquí poesía, pintura, canción y música, un arte dramático e incluso mucho más. Si todos estos artes y encantos de juventud y belleza obraran juntos durante una tarde, sobre un alo nivel del arte, entonces eso es una fiesta incomparable a cualquier otra." Lectura 15: Lectura 15:- El ratón y el león (por Aesopos) ---------------------------------- Un león dormía en su guarida; alrededor de él una tropa/rebaño de alegres ratones jugaban. Uno de ellos ahora mismo había trepado sobre unas rocas salientes, cayó abajo e hizo despertar al león que lo retuvo con su grandioso pie. "¡Por poco!", el ratón rogó, "¡sed generoso conmigo, una creación sin importancia y digna de ser compadecida¿?! no quería ofenderte, sólo di un mal paso y caí desde las rocas. ¿Cómo te sería útil mi muerte? ¡Permíteme vivir, y seré agradecido contigo durante toda mi vida!, ¡si vivo!." "¡Íos!", el león dijo generosamente y dejó correr lejos al ratoncito. Pero después se rió y dijo: "¡Ser agradecido! Nu, eso desearía ver, cómo un ratón puede manifestar su gratitud a un león. Eso no parece ser posible" Después de un rato el mismo ratón corría a través del bosque y buscaba nueces para sí. De repente oyó el rugido de queja de un león. "¡Ciertamente está en peligro!" el ratón habló para sí y fue al lugar, desde el cual el rugido sonó. Allí halló al generoso león enredado por una fuerte red que un cazador había puesto ingeniosamente para capturar mediante ella a animales grandes y fuertes. Los trozos de cuerda tanto se habían ajustado que el león no podía usar ni sus dientes ni la fuerza de sus pies para rasgarlos. "Espera, amigo," dijo el ratoncito, "en este caso puedo ayudar probablemente de la mejor forma." Él corrió (hacia el león), royó completamente los trozos de cuerda que engrillaban sus patas delanteras, y finalmente se hizo que ellos (los pies) estuvieran libres. El león rasgó la restante red y riatingis¿? tale su libertad gracias a la ayuda del ratoncito cuya vida antaño él mismo salvó por su parte. Noble sea el hombre, ayudante y bueno, puesto que eso lo distingue de otros seres conocemos. (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749-1832) Lectura 16: Lectura 16:- Dos cartas comerciales ----------------------------------------------- Milán, 16 de marzo de 1921. Señor Zahn y compañía, fábrica de maquinaria de Mannheim (Alemania) Gracias por el envío de la lista de precios. En estos tiempos las máquinas agrícolas son demandadas tanto que debo recambiar/rellenar mi almacén pronto. Nuestro comprador le visitará después de algunos días; él tiene la promesa de hacer un encargo justamente un gran número de máquinas, si usted me concede un descuento conveniente y ventajosas condiciones de pago. Especialmente necesito "arados motorizados", máquinas sembradoras, segadoras, "rastrillos para heno" y trilladoras; Considerando la subida extraordinaria por el precio de transporte y el impuesto de importación, sólo puedo comprar, si el precio será/fuera calculado como el más bajo posible. Ya recibí ventajosas ofertas/ofrecimientos de unas casas de comercio inglesas; sin embargo tengo la esperanza agradable, de hilar/estrechar/unir mediante esta compra las relaciones de negocios que existían antes de la guerra entre nuestras firmas, para el beneficio de las dos partes. Con gran estima, Giovanni Rienzi, Calle Dante 17, Milán (Italia) ----------------------------------------------------------------- Mainz, 8. febrero 1921. Señor P. Thorbecke, plaza Rembrandt 11, Amsterdam (Holanda). Su envío del 29 de enero llegó hoy. Las mercancías son irreprochables, el peso y número era justo. Indiqué al banco Rhenano asignarle la suma de 2864 florines. Le ruego enviarme rápidamente las siguientes mercancías: 500 kilogramos de arroz, cada Kg. por 4 marcos; 100 Kg. de cacao, de la mejor calidad; 200 Kg. de sagú; 220 Kg. de café brasileño; 90 Kg. de té, mezcla de medio valor; 4000 cajas de leche azucarada; 360 Kg. de queso de Edam; 50 litros de aceita de palmera; finalmente 5 Kg. de pimienta molida. Con respecto a los precios me fío de usted por mis muchos años de experiencia con la lealtad de su firma, y supongo, que la entrega será tan buena como la última. Con saludos respetuosos, su fiel, Walter Schutz El gorrión y la paloma ----------------------------------------- Un niño había capturado un gorrión y vio después una paloma sobre el tejado. "Eso es mejor", pensó, dejó "revolar" al gorrión y subió al tejado, para capturar en lugar de él a la paloma. Pero ésta no lo esperó, sino que voló fuera. Estando sentado sobre el tejado, sin gorrión y sin paloma, el niño se acordó del proverbio: Mejor gorrión en la mano que paloma sobre el tejado (Más vale pájaro en mano que ciento volando). Lectura 17: Lectura 17:- Estilo lingüístico --------------------------------------------------- El fin de la lengua internacional es la "intercomprensión" al menos en Europa. No basta tener con un conjunto de palabras internacional y una gramática entre las lenguas europeas, si las frases no son en todo lugar comprensibles (para diferentes ciudadanos de una nación). El orden de las palabras sea/será natural según las reglas de las gramática de Ido. El mejor medio para ser comprendidos es hacer frases cortas. Quien bien escribe, usa muchos puntos. No acumule las frases subordinadas. También en Ido existe un buen y mal estilo. Las lenguas naturales tienen muchos modismos/frases hechas, que uno debería usar, aún cuando son ilógicos. "Ido no tiene modismos*", cada concepto tiene una palabra y cada palabra significa sólo un concepto. Por tanto evite las frases hechas de las lenguas naturales; no son comprendidas en todos los países. Escriba de forma simple y clara, entonces esperanzadamente escribirás con un buen estilo. --- * Pero brevemente un consejo jocoso para Ido de un antiguo Idista alemán, puesto que todas las lenguas sobre la tierra tiene más o menos frases hechas y "ilogicidad", las cuales sin embargo Ido al menos se esfuerza en escapar (de ellas) por medio de su alma/espíritu para la facilidad. --- N. del T.: Esta traducción es bastante literal, digamos que se podría haber hecho una mejor y más clara, pero se ha preferido dejarla para ver la transmisión de la idea :-) Lectura 18: Lectura 18:- Sobre modismos y propia costumbre de las lenguas naturales -------- Aprender una lengua extranjera es en gran modo difícil para la gente ordinaria. Porque siempre quedan/quedarán muchas incontables irregularidades gramaticales y también en maneras de decir, modismos nacionales, después de 'todo esfuerzo' aprender bien la lengua de cualquier interés e importancia. La lógica no basta sino que sólo el suficiente tiempo y dinero para aprender completamente la lengua decidirá el resultado. ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente memorizar todo modismo de una lengua aprendida? Por ejemplo (están en ingles: lo siento, no sé qué significan :-): rain cats and dogs, fight like Kilkenny cats, let the cat out of the bag... ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente discernir mediante un diccionario el correcto significado de una frase? Cuando los estadounidenses dicen "I'm MAD about the event.", uno no puede comprender el significado verdadero por medio de simplemente consultar el diccionario; mad - loco. En verdad la frase no significa que "Estoy loco por el evento", sino que dice que "Yo estoy enfadado por el evento" y en otro momento "Estoy entusiasmado por el evento." ... ¡Olala! Tales cosas numerosas abundan y de ninguna forma cesan cuando uno aprende cualquier lengua extranjera. En verdad sólo los ricos pueden fácilmente aprender su lengua extranjera, si lo desean. La gente corriente sólo podrían disponer de su buena lógica, sin tener bastante dinero. Ido es/será la única lengua internacional para todos los trabajadores sobre el mundo, porque uno puede fácilmente aprender Ido entre su limitado tiempo y dinero. Por tanto aprendamos Ido, Ido deberá cultivar nuestra mente por medio de su lógica para todos. ......escrito por un trabajador, Idista e "Idiotista", Bebson Y. Hochfeld 2056 2005-04-18T22:35:14Z Josu Lavin 2 LECCIÓN VEINTE – DUADEKESMA LECIONO TEXTOS PARA LEER Y TRADUCIR Ésta es la última lección del nivel intermedio. Aunque pueda parecer que no sabes mucho sobre Ido, ¡ya tienes un nivel tan alto como para traducir cualquier texto en Ido sin problemas!. Así que, ya sabes, puedes ir a cualquier grupo de discusión sobre Ido y podrás entender todo lo que dicen, así como podrás también decir lo que piensas. EJERCICIOS - EXERCI Lectura 11 (continuación de la lección 19): (traduce esta lectura y las siguientes de Ido a español y viceversa): Lektajo 11:- La tri guti (gota de un líquido) Alba, la bona feino [fe-I-no] (hada), qua protektas (proteger) la fianciti (novio), Alba, qua habitas la pupilo (pupilo) blua di la virgini (virgen) inocenta, pasante ulmatine proxim rozo (rosa), audis sua nomo enuncesar da tri guti. Proximigante su e sideskante en la kordio dil floro, el questionis gracioze: "Quon vi deziras de me, guti brilanta?" "Venez por solvar (resolver) questiono", dicis l'UNESMA. Alba: "Pri quo vi parolas?" "Ni esas tri guti diferanta, de origini diversa; ni deziras ke tu dicez, qua de ni esas la maxim meritoza (meritorio), la maxim pura." Konseque Alba dicis, "Me konsentas (consentir). Parolez, guto brilanta." E la UNESMA guto dicis: "Me venas ek la nubi alta, me esas filiino di la granda mari. Me naskis en la granda oceano antiqua e potenta. Vizitante maro-rivi (costa) e litori (litoral), sukusite (sacudir, agitar) en mil tempesti, me absorbesis da la nubo. Me iris til l'alta regioni ube la steli brilas, e de ibe rulante (rodando) inter la fulmini (relámpago), me falis aden la floro en qua me nun repozas. Me reprezentas la maro.", finis la UNESMA. "Nun esas tua foyo, guto brilanta," la feino [fe-I-no] dicis a la DUESMA. "Me esas la roso (rocío), qua entras la lilii [LI-lii]; me esas la fratino dil opalea (del color del ópalo) lumo dil luno, la filiino dil nebulo, qua difuzesas kande la nokto obskurigas la naturo. Me reprezentas l'auroro (aurora)." "E tu?" Alba questionis la TRIESMA, la guto minim granda e lore tacanta. "Me havas nula merito (mérito)." Alba: "Parolez! De ube tu venas?" "Ek la okuli di fiancitino (novia); me esis la rideto, me esis la kredo, me esis la espero, pose me esis l'amoro ... cadie me esas lakrimo (lágrima)." L'altri ridis pri la guteto, ma Alba, apertante sua brakii, prenis el kun su e dicis: "Ica esas la maxim meritoza, ica esas la maxim pura." L'UNESMA : "Ma me esis la maro!" La DUESMA : "E me l'atmosfero!" "To esas vera; ma ica esas la kordio..", dicis e taceskis (callarse) Alba. Ed el desaparis en l'azuro (azul, celeste), kunportante la TRIESMA, la humila (humilde) guto. Lectura 11:- Las tres gotas Alba, la buena hada, que protege a los novios, Alba, que vive en la pupila azul de las virgenes inocentes, al pasar una mañana cerca de una rosa, oyó ser enunciado su nombre por tres gotas. Aproximándose y sentándose en el corazón de la flor, ella preguntó graciosamente: "¿Qué deseáis de mi, gotas brillantes?" "Ven para resolver una cuestión", dijo la PRIMERA. Alba: "¿Sobre qué habláis?" "Somos tres gotas diferentes, de orígenes diversos; deseamos que digas, cuál de nosotras es la más meritoria, la más pura." Seguidamente Alba dijo, "Acepto/consiento. Habla, gota brillante." Y la PRIMERA gota dijo: "Vengo de las nubes altas, soy hija de los grandes mares. Nací en el gran océano antiguo y poderoso. Visitando costas y litorales, sacudida en mil tempestades, fui absorbida por la nube. Fui hasta las altas regiones donde las estrellas brillan, y de allí rodando entre los relámpagos, caí en la flor en la que ahora reposo. Represento el mar.", acabó la PRIMERA. "Ahora es tu turno, gota brillante," el hada dijo a la SEGUNDA. "Soy el rocío, que entras las azucenas; soy la hermana de la luz opalina de la luna, la hija de la nebulosa, que se difumina cuando la noche hace oscurecer la naturaleza. Represento la aurora." "¿Y tú?" Alba preguntó a la TERCERA, la gota menos grande y entonces callada. "No tengo ningún mérito." Alba: "¡Habla! ¿De dónde vienes?" "De los ojos de una novia; fui la sonrisa, fui la creencia, fui la esperanza, después fui el amor ... hoy soy una lágrima." Las otras se rieron de la gotita, pero Alba, abriendo sus brazos, la tomó consigo y dijo: "Ésta es la más meritoria, ésta es la más pura." La PRIMERA: "¡Pero yo soy el mar!" La SEGUNDA : "¡Y yo la atmósfera!" "Eso es verdad; pero ésta es el corazón..", dijo y se calló Alba. Y ella desapareció en el azul/celeste, llevándose con ella la TERCERA, la humilde gota. Lectura 12: Lektajo 12:- Lingui internaciona/interkomprenigilo (Instrumento para la intercomprensión) La lingui di preske (casi, apenas) omna nacioni de India til Atlantiko decendas de komuna origin-linguo. Ica linguo diferenciesis, e la nacioni separis su. La relati kun stranjera landi esis neimportanta en anciena tempi, pro ke la moyeni (medios) dil cirkulado (circulación) esis primitiva. Tamen sempre existis lingui qui mediacis la trafiko, precipue la komerco. To pruvas ke linguo internaciona esas necesa e nekareebla (indispensable). La linguo dil Greki dominacis (había predominado) longatempe en l'oriento. Interne di la frontieri dil Romana imperio la Latina divenis dominacanta; ol restis la linguo di la cienco (ciencia) en preske tota Europa til aden la moderna tempo. La Latina ankore uzesas ekleziale mem hodie. En la 17. e 18. yarcenti, Francia atingis (lograr) la kulmino (culminación) di sua povo, la Franca divenis la linguo dil dipolomacisti (diplomáticos) e nobeli. Nuntempe la linguo dil Angli havas la prerango en la mondo-komerco. Ma anke la Germana esas ample difuzita: en Austria, Hungaria, Polonia, Rusia, ed en l'esto di Europa, ol ofte esas l'interkomprenigilo por multa mikra nacioni. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. ** (-Lektajo 13) Futurale la konkurenco (rivalidad) dil naturala lingui en la mondo-trafiko cesos (cesar). Nula de li esas sat (suficientemente) facila, exakta e bela ke ol povus divenar (convertirse en) internaciona helpolinguo. Lo rekomendas Ido kom la solvuron. En Berlin, London e New-York, en Arjentinia e Japonia, omnaloke (todo lugar), adube komercisti e ciencisti voyajos, Ido komprenesos e parolesos. Ultre to omna naciono kultivos e konservos la pureso e beleso di sua matrolinguo. En irga fora futuro existos 'nova linguo por omni', unesme (en primer lugar) kom komercala linguo, pose generale kom linguo dil mentala komunikado, tam certe kam ultempe existos aernavigado. (escrito hace 80 años en Alemania) ** La Hispana esas anke tre importanta ;-) Lectura 12:- Lenguas internacionales / Instrumento para la intercomprensión. Las lenguas de casi todas las naciones de India hasta el Atlántico descienden de una lengua común originaria. Esta lengua se diversificó, y las naciones se separaron. Las relaciones con países extranjeros no eran importantes en tiempos antiguos, porque los medios de circulación eran primitivos. Sin embargo siempre existían lenguas que intermediaban el tránsito/trato, principalmente el comercio. Eso prueba que una lengua internacional es necesaria e indispensable. La lengua de los Griegos había predominado mucho tiempo en oriente. En el interior de las fronteras del imperio Romano el Latín se volvió dominante; permaneció como la lengua de la ciencia en casi toda Europa hasta en tiempo moderno. El latín aún se usa eclesialmente incluso hoy. En los siglos 17 y 18, Francia logró la culminación de su poder, el francés se convirtió en la lengua de los diplomáticos y nobles. Hoy día la lengua de los ingleses tiene el predominio en el comercio mundial. Pero también el alemán está ampliamente difundido: en Austria, Hungría, Polonia, Rusia, y en el este de Europa, a menudo es el medio de comunicación para muchas pequeñas naciones. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. ** (-Lectura 13) (hasta el pelo más pequeño tiene su sombra) En el futuro la rivalidad de las lenguas naturales en el tráfico mundial cesará. Ninguna de ellas es lo suficientemente fácil, exacta y bella como para que pueda convertirse en una lengua internacional de ayuda. Ello encomienda a Ido como la solución. En Berlín, Londres y Nueva York, en Argentina y Japón, todo lugar, hacia donde comerciantes y científicos viajen, Ido será comprendido y hablado. Además de eso toda nación cultivará y conservará la pureza y belleza de su lengua materna. En cualquier futuro lejano existirá una "nueva lengua para todos", en primer lugar como lengua comercial, después generalmente como lengua de la comunicación mental, tan cierto como que en algún momento existirá la navegación aérea. (escrito hace 80 años en Alemania) ** El español es hoy también muy importante ;-) Lectura 13: Lektajo 13:- Vestaro - Bezonesas dicernar (distinguir) 'portar' e 'tragar*'. Me volas vizitar cavespere la teatro; pro to me mustas quik chanjar mea vesti. Ube esas la kamizo (camisa) e la kalzi (media, calceta)? La kamizo esas male glatigita (planchada); mem butono mankas (faltar). Yen agulo (aguja) e filo (hilo, hebra), sutez (coser) nova butono an la kamizo! Ka la boti (bota) esas cirajizita (pulido)? Ka la vesti (ropa) esas brosita (cepillado)? Donez a me la pantalono (pantalón), la vestono (chaqueta) e la flava jileto (chaleco)! La kolumo (collar, cuello) esas sordida, me metos (ponerse) un neta. La bruna kravato (corbata) ne plezas (agradar, gustar) a me, me preferas la verda. Nun me ornas (adornar) me per l'arjenta (plata) kateno (cadena) dil horlojeto (reloj). Posh-tukon (=naz-tuko - pañuelo) e gantin (guantes) me ne darfas obliviar. Mea klefi (llave) e la burso (cartera, bolso) esas en la posho (bolsillo). La felta chapelo (sombrero de fieltro) e la mantelo (manto, mantel) pendas an la vesto-portilo (percha). La fuluro (pliegue, arruga <- fular+ur) dil mantelo esas lacerita (rasgado). Portez (llevar, no llevar puesto) ol morge al talioro (sastre) por ke il reparez ol. Se mea salario (sueldo, salario) esus plu granda, me komprus peliso (pelliza) e shapko (gorra de piel), nam la vetero koldeskas. La furisto (peletero) demandas tro chera preco. La siorini ofte iras aden la teatro, vestizita per veluro (terciopelo) e silko, o li tragas* precoza denteli (puntillas, encajes). Tala luxon (lujo) me ne amas. Nivas, metez (ponerse) la kauchuka (engomado) surshui (sobrezapato) e la getri (polaina)! Yen la parapluvo (paraguas). Granda plezuro! Proverbi (ek: Proverbaro da Peus). Ne omno oresas quo brilas. - No es oro todo lo que brilla (o reluce). Omnu havas sua propra gusto. - Sobre gustos no hay nada escrito. L'unesma ateston esas la vesto. – La primera impresión es la que cuenta. Defekton di naturo ne kovras veluro (terciopelo). – Aunque la mona se vista de seda mona se queda.Extere ornita (adornado), interna sordida (sucio, sórdido). - Un lobo con piel de oveja. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. = La maxim mikra haro (pelo) jetas sua ombro. – Hasta el más pequeño pelo tiene su sombra. Lectura 13:- Vestuario - Es necesario distinguir 'llevar' y 'llevar puesto'. Quiero visitar esta tarde el teatro; por eso debo cambiar rápidamente mis ropas. ¿Dónde está la camisa y las medias? La camisa está mal planchada; incluso falta un botón. Aquí hay una aguja e hilo, ¡cose un nuevo botón en la camisa! ¿Las botas están abrillantadas/pulidas? ¿La ropa está cepillada? ¡Dame el pantalón, la chaqueta y el chaleco amarillo! El cuello está sucio, me pondré uno limpio. La corbata marrón no me agrada, prefiero la verde. Ahora me adornaré/arreglaré con la cadena de plata del reloj. Pañuelo (de bolsillo) y guantes no puedo olvidar. Mis llaves y la cartera/bolso están en el bolsillo. El sombrero de fieltro y el manto cuelgan de la percha. El pliegue/arruga del manto está rasgado. Llévalo (llevar, no llevar puesto encima) mañana al sastre para que él lo arregle. Si mi sueldo fuera más grande, compraría una pelliza y una gorra de piel, porque empieza a hacer frío. El peletero pide un precio demasiado caro/alto. Las señoritas a menudo van al teatro, vestidas con terciopelo y seda, o llevan puestas unos preciosos encajes. Tal lujo no lo quiero. Nieva, ¡ponte las botas/sobrezapato de goma y las polainas! Aquí está el paraguas. ¡Que disfrutes! Proverbios (de: Conjunto de proverbios de Peus). Ne omno oresas quo brilas. - No es oro todo lo que brilla (o reluce). Omnu havas sua propra gusto. - Sobre gustos no hay nada escrito. L'unesma ateston esas la vesto. – La primera impresión es la que cuenta. Defekton di naturo ne kovras veluro (terciopelo). – Aunque la mona se vista de seda mona se queda.Extere ornita (adornado), interna sordida (sucio, sórdido). - Un lobo con piel de oveja. - Das kleinste Haar wirft seinen Schatten. = La maxim mikra haro (pelo) jetas sua ombro. – Hasta el más pequeño pelo tiene su sombra. Lectura 14: Lektajo 14:- En la teatro --- (staco-placo = galerio [ga-LE-rio] - galería )--- La reprezento komencas precize ye 6:30 kloki (sis kloki e duimo). La demando pri l'eniro-bilieti esas tre granda. Se on volas obtenar bilieto an la gicheto (taquilla), on mustas ibe instalar su (ponerse a la cola) ye ja duima horo (30 minutos) ante olua aperto. "Me demandas bilieto por la duesma rango (fila), sinistra latero, staco-placo." "Me regretas, ica plasi esas parvendita, nur partero (platea) - lojio (palco) esas ankore recevebla.", "Quante kustas la bilieto?" "9.50 mark inkluzinte la taxo po l'uzo di la vesteyo (vestuario)." On pleas la kanto-maestri de Nuernberg da Richard Wagner. Me preferas opero kam dramato e komedio kam tragedio. La kurteno (cortina, telón) levesas. La ceneyo vidigas l'internajo di kirko. Kantistino kantas per sonora voco. Anke la tenoro kantas ecelante. L'orkestro-chefo direktas tre vivace (vivamente). Omna muzikisti di ca orkestro esas artisti. Pos singla akto eventas pauzo. Aparte la 3. akto esas belega. On vidas la gaya Johannis-festo sur la prato. Walter ganas per sua premio-kanto la filiino dil or-forjisto (orfebre). La kurteno abasesas (es bajada). La audantaro (audiencia, público) aplaudas (aplaudir) entuziasmigite (entusiásticamente), la kantisti dankas joyoze. Wagner ne nur esis genio (genio) kom kompozisto ma anke bona poeto. Lectura 14:- En el teatro La representación comienza exactamente a las 6:30 horas (seis y media). La solicitud de billetes de entrada es muy grande. Si uno quiere obtener un billete en la taquilla, uno debe encolarse allí media hora (30 minutos) antes de su apertura. "Desearía un billete para la segunda fila, lateral izquierdo, galería." "Lo siento, estos lugares están completamente vendidos, sólo una platea - palco es todavía "receptivo" (está libre).", "¿Cuánto cuesta el billete?" "9.50 marcos incluido el impuesto por el uso del vestuario (para guardar la ropa)." Se tocarán los cánticos maestros de Nuernberg, de Richard Wagner. Prefiero una ópera a un drama y una comedio a una tragedia. El telón se levanta. El escenario deja ver el interior de una iglesia. La cantante canta con una voz armoniosa/sonora. También el tenor canta excelentemente. El director de la orquesta dirige muy vivamente. Todos los músicos de esta orquesta son artistas. Después de cada acto hay una pausa. Aparte el tercer acto es muy bello. Se ve la alegre fiesta de Juan sobre el prado. Walter gana con su premio de canto a la hija del orfebre. El telón se baja. El público aplaude entusiásticamente, los cantantes dan gracias alegremente. Wagner no era sólo un genio como compositor, sino también un buen poeta. Lectura 15: Lektajo 15:- La muso e la leono (da Aesopos) Leono dormis en sua kaverno (caverna); cirkum lu trupo de gaya musi ludis. Un/Una de li jus esis kliminta adsur salianta (saliente, sobresaliente) rokaji, falis adinfre e vekigis la leono qua retenis (retener) lu per sua grandega pedo. "Ho ve", la muso pregis, "esez jeneroza a me kompatinda, neimportanta kreuro! me ne volis ofensar tu, me nur facis mispazo e falis de la rokajo. Quale mea morto utilesus a tu? Lasez vivar me /Lasez (a) me vivar/, e me volas esor/esur gratitudoza a tu dum mea tota vivo!, se me vivus." "Forirez!", la leono dicis jeneroze e lasis forkurar la museto. Ma pose lu ridis e dicis: "Esor gratitudoza! Nu, ton me dezirus vidar, quale museto povus manifestar sua gratitudo a leono. To ne semblas esor posibla" Pos kurta tempo la sama muso kuris tra la foresto e serchis nuci (nuez) por su. Subite (de repente) lu audis la plendala mujado (rugido) di leono. "Lu certe esas en danjero!" la muso parolis en su ed iris a la loko, de qua la mujado sonis. Ibe lu trovis la jeneroza (generoso) leono cirkumplektita (entrelazar) da forta reto (red) quan la chasisto pozabis injenioze por kaptar (capturar) per to animali granda e forta. La kordi (trozos de cuerda) tante kontraktesabis (encoger) ke la leono povis uzar nek sua denti nek la forteso di sua pedi por lacerar (rasgar) li. "Vartez, amiko," dicis la museto, "cakaze me povas helpar probable maxim bone." Lu adkuris, parrodis (roer completamente) la kordi qui entravis (trabar) lua avana pedi, e fine divenis ke li (la pedi) esas libera. La leono laceris la cetera (restante) reto e riatingis tale sua libereso per la helpo da la museto di qua vivon olim lu ipsa sparis sualatere. Nobla esez la homo, helpema e bona, nam to distingas lu de omna enti quin ni konocas. (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749-1832) Lectura 15:- El ratón y el león (por Esopo) Un león dormía en su guarida; alrededor de él una tropa de alegres ratones jugaban. Uno de ellos en ese instante había trepado sobre unas rocas salientes, cayó abajo y despertó al león que lo retuvo con su enorme pie. "¡Ay!", el ratón rogó, "¡sed generoso conmigo, una creación sin importancia y digna de compasión! no quería ofenderte, sólo di un mal paso y caí desde las rocas. ¿Cómo te sería útil mi muerte? ¡Permíteme vivir, y seré agradecido contigo durante toda mi vida!, ¡si vivo!." "¡Fuera!", el león dijo generosamente y dejó correr lejos al ratoncito. Pero después se rió y dijo: "¡Ser agradecido! Bien, eso desearía ver, cómo un ratón puede manifestar su gratitud a un león. Eso no parece que vaya a ser posible" Después de un rato el mismo ratón corría a través del bosque y buscaba nueces para sí. De repente oyó el rugido de queja de un león. "¡Ciertamente está en peligro!" el ratón habló para sí y fue al lugar, desde el cual el rugido sonó. Allí halló al generoso león enredado por una fuerte red que un cazador había puesto ingeniosamente para capturar mediante ella a animales grandes y fuertes. Los trozos de cuerda tanto se habían ajustado que el león no podía usar ni sus dientes ni la fuerza de sus pies para rasgarlos. "Espera, amigo," dijo el ratoncito, "en este caso puedo ayudar probablemente de la mejor forma." Él corrió (hacia el león), royó completamente los trozos de cuerda que trababan sus patas delanteras, y finalmente hizo que ellas (las patas) estuvieran libres. El león rasgó la restante red y de esta forma recuperó su libertad gracias a la ayuda del ratoncito cuya vida antaño él mismo salvó por su parte. Noble sea el hombre, ayudante y bueno, puesto que eso lo distingue de otros seres queconocemos. (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749-1832) Lectura 16: Lektajo 16:- Du komercala letri Milano, 16. marto 1921. Sioro Zahn e kompanio, mashin-fabrikerio Mannheim (Germania) Me dankas pro la sendo dil preco-listo. Nuntempe agrokultivala (agrícola) mashini demandesas tante multe ke me mustas balde riplenigar (recambiar) mea magazino (almacén). Nia kompristo (comprador) vizitos vu pos kelka dii; il havas la promiso (=expekto - expectación) komendar (encomendar) pasable (regularmente) granda nombro de mashini, se vu grantos konvenanta rabato (discuento) ed avantajoza pago-kondicioni. Specale me bezonas motor-plugili (arado), semo-mashini (máquina sembradora), falcho-mashini (segadora), fen (heno)-rastili (rastrillo) e drash-mashini (trilladora). Konsiderante la plucherigo (subida, aumento) extraordinara pro la transporto-preco ed importaco-taxo, me nur povas komprar, se la preco kalkulesos ad/kom/ye la maxim basa [preco kam] posible. Me ja recevis avatajoza ofri da Angla firmi; tamen me havas l'espero agreabla, filigar (hilar, hacer hilos/hebras) per ica kompro la relati aferala qui existis ante la milito inter nia firmi, por la profito di la du parti. Kun granda estimo, Giovanni Rienzi, Dante-strado 17, Milano (Italia) ----------------------------------------------------------------- Mainz, 8. februaro 1921. Sioro P. Thorbecke, Rembrandt-placo 11, Amsterdam (Nederlando). Vua sendajo del 29. januaro arivis cadie. La vari esas nereprochebla, pezo e nombro esis justa. Me komisis (apuntar, señalar) la Rhenana banko asignar a vu la sumo de 2864 florini. Me pregas vu quik sendar a me la sequanta vari: 500 kilogrami de rizo, singla kg po 4 mark; 100 kg de kakao, maxim bona qualeso; 200 kg de saguto (sagú); 220 kg de Braziliana kafeo; 90 kg de teo, mezvalora mixuro (mezcla); 4000 buxi de lakto sukrizita (azucarada); 360 kg de fromajo (queso) de Edam; 50 litri de palm-oleo (aceita de palmera); fine 5 kg de pipro (pimienta) muelita. Koncerne la preci me fidas a vu pro mea multyara experienco pri la loyaleso di vua firmo, e me supozas, ke la livrajo (entrega) esos tam bona kam la lasta. Kun respektoza saluti, vua devota (devoto, fiel), Walter Schutz La pasero e la kolombo Puerulo kaptabis pasero (gorrión) e vidis pose kolombo (paloma) sur la tekto. "Ita esas plu bona", il pensis, lasis riflugar la pasero ed acensis la tekto, por kaptar vice (=anstat* - en lugar de) lu la kolombo. Ma ica ne vartis il, ma lu forflugis. Sidante sur la tekto, sen pasero e sen kolombo, la puerulo memoris la proverbo: Plu bona (esas) pasero en la manuo kam kolombo sur la tekto. Lectura 16:- Dos cartas comerciales Milán, 16 de marzo de 1921. Señor Zahn y compañía, fábrica de maquinaria de Mannheim (Alemania) Gracias por el envío de la lista de precios. En estos tiempos las máquinas agrícolas son demandadas tanto que debo recambiar/rellenar mi almacén pronto. Nuestro comprador le visitará dentro de algunos días; él tiene la promesa de encargar regularmente un gran número de máquinas, si usted me concede un descuento conveniente y ventajosas condiciones de pago. Especialmente necesito "arados motorizados", máquinas sembradoras, segadoras, "rastrillos para heno" y trilladoras; Considerando la subida extraordinaria por el precio de transporte y el impuesto de importación, sólo puedo comprar, si el precio será/fuera calculado como el más bajo posible. Ya recibí ventajosas ofertas/ofrecimientos de unas casas de comercio inglesas; sin embargo tengo la esperanza agradable, de estrechar/unir mediante esta compra las relaciones de negocios que existían antes de la guerra entre nuestras firmas, para el beneficio de las dos partes. Con gran estima, Giovanni Rienzi, Calle Dante 17, Milán (Italia) ----------------------------------------------------------------- Mainz, 8. febrero 1921. Señor P. Thorbecke, plaza Rembrandt 11, Amsterdam (Holanda). Su envío del 29 de enero llegó hoy. Las mercancías son irreprochables, el peso y número era justo. Indiqué al banco Rhenano que le asignara la suma de 2864 florines. Le ruego enviarme rápidamente las siguientes mercancías: 500 kilogramos de arroz, cada Kg. por 4 marcos; 100 Kg. de cacao, de la mejor calidad; 200 Kg. de sagú; 220 Kg. de café brasileño; 90 Kg. de té, mezcla de medio valor; 4000 cajas de leche azucarada; 360 Kg. de queso de Edam; 50 litros de aceita de palmera; finalmente 5 Kg. de pimienta molida. Con respecto a los precios me fío de usted por mis muchos años de experiencia con la lealtad de su firma, y supongo, que la entrega será tan buena como la última. Con saludos respetuosos, su fiel, Walter Schutz El gorrión y la paloma Un niño había capturado un gorrión y vio después una paloma sobre el tejado. "Eso es mejor", pensó, dejó volver a volar al gorrión y subió al tejado, para capturar en lugar de él a la paloma. Pero ésta no lo esperó, sino que se escapó volando. Estando sentado sobre el tejado, sin gorrión y sin paloma, el niño se acordó del proverbio: Mejor gorrión en la mano que paloma sobre el tejado (Más vale pájaro en mano que ciento volando). Lectura 17: Lektajo 17:- Linguala stilo La skopo (fin) di la linguo internaciona esas l'interkompreno adminime en Europa. Ne suficas havar internaciona vortaro e gramatiko inter lingui Europala, se la frazi ne esas omnaloke komprenebla (por diferanta nacionani). La vortordino esez naturala segun la reguli dil Ido-gramatiko. La maxim bona moyeno por komprenesar esas facar kurta frazi. Qua bone skribas, facas multa punti. Ne akumulez la subordinita frazi. Anke en Ido existas bona e mala stilo. La naturala lingui havas multa idiomaji (modismo, frase hecha), quin on devas uzar, mem se li esas nelogikala. "Ido ne havas idiomaji*", singla nociono (concepto) havas un vorto e singla vorto signifikas nur un nociono. Do on evitez l'idiomaji dil naturala lingui; li ne komprenesas en omna landi. Skribez simple e klare, lore tu espereble skribos en bona stilo. --- * Ma poke fanfaronanta reklamajo por Ido da olima Idisto Germana,nam omna lingui sur la tero havas plu o min idiomaji e ne-logikeso, quin tamen Ido adminime esforcas eskapar per sua anmo por facileso. Lectura 17:- Estilo lingüístico El fin de la lengua internacional es la "intercomprensión" al menos en Europa. No basta tener con un conjunto de palabras y una gramática internacional entre las lenguas europeas, si las frases no son en todo lugar comprensibles (para diferentes ciudadanos de una nación). El orden de las palabras sea/será natural según las reglas de la gramática de Ido. El mejor medio para ser comprendidos es hacer frases cortas. Quien bien escribe, usa muchos puntos. No acumule las frases subordinadas. También en Ido existe un buen y mal estilo. Las lenguas naturales tienen muchos modismos/frases hechas, que uno debería usar, aún cuando son ilógicos. "Ido no tiene modismos*", cada concepto tiene una palabra y cada palabra significa sólo un concepto. Por tanto evite las frases hechas de las lenguas naturales; no son comprendidas en todos los países. Escriba de forma simple y clara, entonces esperanzadamente escribirás con un buen estilo. --- * Pero brevemente un consejo jocoso para Ido de un antiguo Idista alemán, puesto que todas las lenguas sobre la tierra tiene más o menos frases hechas e "ilogicidad", las cuales sin embargo Ido al menos se esfuerza en escapar (de ellas) por medio de su alma/espíritu para la facilidad. N. del T.: Esta traducción es bastante literal, digamos que se podría haber hecho una mejor y más clara, pero se ha preferido dejarla para ver la transmisión de la idea :-) Lectura 18: Lektajo 18:- Pri Idiomaji e propra kustumo (comtumbre) di naturala lingui Lernar stranjera lingui esas multe desfacila por ordinara populi (=plebeyi). Nam sempre restas/os nekonteble multa neregulozeso (irregularidad) gramatikala ed anke en dicmanieri, idiomaji nacionala, pos 'omna esforcado (esfuerzo)' bone lernar la linguo di irga intereso ed importo. Logikeso ne suficas ma la rezulton decidos nur suficanta tempo e pekunio por parlernar la linguo. Quale onu povus facile memorar omna idiomaji di linguo lernata? Exemple: tener pelos en la lengua, tener un corazón de oro, soltar la pasta... Quale onu povus facile dicernar (discernir) per dicionario la korekta signifiko di frazo? Kande USAani dicas "I'm MAD about the event.", onu ne povas komprenar la vera signifiko per simple konsultar la dicionario; mad - fola Advere (en verdad) la frazo ne signifikas ke "Me esas FOLA pri l'evento" ma to dicas ke "Me IRACAS pri l'evento." ed altrafoye "Me ENTUZIASMAS pri l'evento." ... HoLala! Tala kozi numeroza abundas e nule cesas kande onu lernas irga stranjera linguo. Advere nur la richi povas facile lernar sua stranjera linguo, se li deziras. La plebeyi nur povus disponar sua bona logikeso, sen havar suficanta pekunio. Ido esas/os la unika internaciona linguo por omna laboristi sur la mondo, pro ke onu povas facile lernar Ido inter sua limitizita tempo e pekunio. Do ni lernez Ido, Ido mustos kultivar nia mento per sua logikeso por omni. ......skribita da laboristo, Idisto ed Idiotisto, Bebson Y. Hochfeld Lectura 18:- Sobre modismos y propia costumbre de las lenguas naturales Aprender lenguas extranjeras es muy difícil para la gente ordinaria. Porque siempre quedan/quedarán muchas incontables irregularidades gramaticales y también en maneras de decir, modismos nacionales, después de 'todo esfuerzo' aprender bien la lengua de cualquier interés e importancia. La lógica no basta sino que sólo el suficiente tiempo y dinero para aprender completamente la lengua decidirá el resultado. ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente memorizar todo modismo de una lengua aprendida? Por ejemplo: tener pelos en la lengua, tener un corazón de oro, soltar la pasta... ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente discernir mediante un diccionario el correcto significado de una frase? Cuando los estadounidenses dicen "I'm MAD about the event.", no se puede comprender el significado verdadero por medio de consultar simplemente el diccionario; mad - loco. En verdad la frase no significa que "Estoy loco por el evento", sino que dice que "Yo estoy enfadado por el evento" y en otro momento "Estoy entusiasmado por el evento." ... ¡Olala! Tales cosas numerosas abundan y de ninguna forma cesan cuando uno aprende cualquier lengua extranjera. En verdad sólo los ricos pueden fácilmente aprender su lengua extranjera, si lo desean. La gente corriente sólo podrían disponer de su buena lógica, sin tener bastante dinero. Ido es/será la única lengua internacional para todos los trabajadores sobre el mundo, porque uno puede fácilmente aprender Ido entre su limitado tiempo y dinero. Por tanto aprendamos Ido, Ido deberá cultivar nuestra mente por medio de su lógica para todos. ......escrito por un trabajador, Idista e "Idiotista", Bebson Y. Hochfeld 981 118 2005-04-18T22:44:03Z Josu Lavin 2 ===INTERLINGUA=== ===ESPANIOL=== Lectura 18:- Sobre modismos y propia costumbre de las lenguas naturales Aprender lenguas extranjeras es muy difícil para la gente ordinaria. Porque siempre quedan/quedarán muchas incontables irregularidades gramaticales y también en maneras de decir, modismos nacionales, después de 'todo esfuerzo' aprender bien la lengua de cualquier interés e importancia. La lógica no basta sino que sólo el suficiente tiempo y dinero para aprender completamente la lengua decidirá el resultado. ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente memorizar todo modismo de una lengua aprendida? Por ejemplo: tener pelos en la lengua, tener un corazón de oro, soltar la pasta... ¿Cómo podría uno fácilmente discernir mediante un diccionario el correcto significado de una frase? Cuando los estadounidenses dicen "I'm MAD about the event.", no se puede comprender el significado verdadero por medio de consultar simplemente el diccionario; mad - loco. En verdad la frase no significa que "Estoy loco por el evento", sino que dice que "Yo estoy enfadado por el evento" y en otro momento "Estoy entusiasmado por el evento." ... ¡Olala! Tales cosas numerosas abundan y de ninguna forma cesan cuando uno aprende cualquier lengua extranjera. En verdad sólo los ricos pueden fácilmente aprender su lengua extranjera, si lo desean. La gente corriente sólo podrían disponer de su buena lógica, sin tener bastante dinero. Ido es/será la única lengua internacional para todos los trabajadores sobre el mundo, porque uno puede fácilmente aprender Ido entre su limitado tiempo y dinero. Por tanto aprendamos Ido, Ido deberá cultivar nuestra mente por medio de su lógica para todos. ......escrito por un trabajador, Idista e "Idiotista", Bebson Y. Hochfeld ===IDO=== Lektajo 18:- Pri Idiomaji e propra kustumo (comtumbre) di naturala lingui Lernar stranjera lingui esas multe desfacila por ordinara populi (=plebeyi). Nam sempre restas/os nekonteble multa neregulozeso (irregularidad) gramatikala ed anke en dicmanieri, idiomaji nacionala, pos 'omna esforcado (esfuerzo)' bone lernar la linguo di irga intereso ed importo. Logikeso ne suficas ma la rezulton decidos nur suficanta tempo e pekunio por parlernar la linguo. Quale onu povus facile memorar omna idiomaji di linguo lernata? Exemple: tener pelos en la lengua, tener un corazón de oro, soltar la pasta... Quale onu povus facile dicernar (discernir) per dicionario la korekta signifiko di frazo? Kande USAani dicas "I'm MAD about the event.", onu ne povas komprenar la vera signifiko per simple konsultar la dicionario; mad - fola Advere (en verdad) la frazo ne signifikas ke "Me esas FOLA pri l'evento" ma to dicas ke "Me IRACAS pri l'evento." ed altrafoye "Me ENTUZIASMAS pri l'evento." ... HoLala! Tala kozi numeroza abundas e nule cesas kande onu lernas irga stranjera linguo. Advere nur la richi povas facile lernar sua stranjera linguo, se li deziras. La plebeyi nur povus disponar sua bona logikeso, sen havar suficanta pekunio. Ido esas/os la unika internaciona linguo por omna laboristi sur la mondo, pro ke onu povas facile lernar Ido inter sua limitizita tempo e pekunio. Do ni lernez Ido, Ido mustos kultivar nia mento per sua logikeso por omni. ......skribita da laboristo, Idisto ed Idiotisto, Bebson Y. Hochfeld 2057 2005-04-19T23:23:11Z Josu Lavin 2 A deler 982 2058 2005-04-19T10:30:25Z Josu Lavin 2 ===EXERCITIO 01=== 1. Mary is a girl.<br> 2. Charles is a boy. <br> 3. The house is in the garden.<br> 4. I am in the garden.<br> 5. I am in the house.<br> 6. You are in the house.<br> 7. You are under the table.<br> 8. A dog is on the table in the house.<br> 9. Rex is a dog.<br> 10. William is a cat.<br> 11. The dog is in the house.<br> 12. The cat is on the table.<br> 13. The box is under the table.<br> 14. The cat is on the box.<br> 15. The mouse is in the house.<br> 16. The mouse is in the box.<br> 17. The mouse is under the table.<br> ===EXERCITIO 02=== 1. I have a dog.<br> 2. I see the dog.<br> 3. The dog sees me.<br> 4. I like the dog.<br> 5. I like milk.<br> 6. The dog has the milk.<br> 7. The cat drinks the milk.<br> 8. You drink the milk.<br> 9. I have the apple.<br> 10. I am eating the apple.<br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple.<br> 12. I am looking at the mouse.<br> 13. The mouse sees the water.<br> 14. The mouse is eating the book.<br> 15. The book is on the table.<br> 16. You read the book.<br> 17. You are reading the book.<br> 18. The cat looks at me.<br> 19. The cat looks at the door.<br> 20. You are touching the door.<br> 21. The cat is touching the window.<br> 22. I am touching the window.<br> 23. I am walking in the garden.<br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden.<br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> 983 78 2005-04-19T12:52:24Z Josu Lavin 2 ===EXERCITIO 01=== 01. Mary is a girl. <br> 02. Charles is a boy. <br> 03. The house is in the garden. <br> 04. I am in the garden. <br> 05. I am in the house. <br> 06. You are in the house. <br> 07. You are under the table. <br> 08. A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. Rex is a dog. <br> 10. William is a cat. <br> 11. The dog is in the house. <br> 12. The cat is on the table. <br> 13. The box is under the table. <br> 14. The cat is on the box. <br> 15. The mouse is in the house. <br> <b>16. Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> <b>17. Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> 79 2005-04-19T14:56:48Z Josu Lavin 2 ===EXERCITIO 01=== <b>01. Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> <b>02. Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> <b>03. Le domo es in le jardino.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> <b>04. Io es in le jardino.</b> I am in the garden. <br> <b>05. Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> <b>06. Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> <b>07. Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> <b>08. Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> <b>09. Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> <b>10. William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> <b>11. Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> <b>12. Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> <b>13. Le casso es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> <b>14. Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> <b>15. Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> <b>16. Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> <b>17. Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> 80 2005-04-19T14:58:13Z Josu Lavin 2 ===EXERCITIO 01=== <b>01. Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> <b>02. Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> <b>03. Le domo es in le jardino.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> <b>04. Io es in le jardino.</b> I am in the garden. <br> <b>05. Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> <b>06. Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> <b>07. Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> <b>08. Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> <b>09. Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> <b>10. William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> <b>11. Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> <b>12. Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> <b>13. Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> <b>14. Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> <b>15. Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> <b>16. Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> <b>17. Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> 81 2005-04-19T16:59:35Z Josu Lavin 2 ===From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia=== ==Exercise 01== 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> 82 2005-04-19T17:02:16Z Josu Lavin 2 ==Exercise 01== 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> 83 2005-04-19T17:10:30Z Josu Lavin 2 == Exercise 01 == 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> 84 2005-04-19T17:23:42Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> 85 2005-04-19T17:29:40Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio_01_ra ROMANICA]] 86 2005-04-19T17:31:38Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> ROMANICA: [[Exercitio 01 ra]] 97 2005-04-19T17:34:52Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 ra|ROMANICA]] 100 2005-04-19T21:42:30Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] 106 2005-04-19T21:58:00Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 111 2005-04-19T22:53:58Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 142 2005-04-19T23:13:52Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Mary is a girl. 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 143 2005-04-21T16:32:30Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b><br> ra: <b>Mary est una puera.</b><br> en: Mary is a girl.<br> es: María es una chica.<br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 144 2005-04-21T16:33:52Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b><br> ra: <b>Mary est una puera.</b><br> en: Mary is a girl.<br> es: María es una chica.<br> <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> I am in the house. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> You are under the table. 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 157 2005-04-21T16:47:44Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b><br> ra: <b>Mary est una puera.</b><br> en: Mary is a girl.<br> es: María es una chica.<br> <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b><br> ra: <b>Charles est un puero.</b><br> en: Charles is a boy.<br> es: Carlos es un chico.<br> <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b><br> ra: <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b><br> en: The house is in the garden.<br> es: La casa está en el jardín.<br> <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b><br> ra: <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b><br> en: I am in the garden.<br> es: Yo estoy en el jardín.<br> <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b><br> ra: <b>Io soi in le domo.</b><br> en: I am in the house.<br> es: yo estoy en la casa.<br> <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b><br> en: You are in the house.<br> es: Tú estás en la casa.<br> <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b><br> ra: <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b><br> en: You are under the table.<br> es: Tu estás debajo de la mesa.<br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex is a dog. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William is a cat. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> The box is under the table. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] 2059 2005-04-22T17:04:36Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b><br> ra: <b>Mary est una puera.</b><br> en: Mary is a girl.<br> <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b><br> ra: <b>Charles est un puero.</b><br> en: Charles is a boy.<br> <br> 03. <b>Le domo es in le jardin.</b><br> ra: <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b><br> en: The house is in the garden.<br> <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b><br> ra: <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b><br> en: I am in the garden.<br> <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b><br> ra: <b>Io soi in le domo.</b><br> en: I am in the house.<br> <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b><br> en: You are in the house.<br> <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b><br> ra: <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b><br> en: You are under the table.<br> <br> 08. <b>Un can es sur le tabula in le domo.</b><br> ra: <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b><br> en: A dog is on the table in the house.<br> <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b><br> ra: <b>Rex est un can.</b><br> en: Rex is a dog.<br> <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b><br> ra: <b>William est un catto.</b><br> es: William is a cat.<br> <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b><br> ra: <b>Le can est in le domo.</b><br> es: The dog is in the house.<br> <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b><br> ra: <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b><br> es: The cat is on the table.<br> <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b><br> ra: <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b><br> es: The box is under the table.<br> <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b><br> ra: <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b><br> es: The cat is on the box.<br> <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b><br> ra: <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b><br> es: The mouse is in the house.<br> <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cassa.</b><br> ra: <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b><br> es: The mouse is in the box.<br> <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b><br> ra: <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b><br> es: The mouse is under the table.<br> <br> <br> [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] 984 103 2005-04-19T12:54:29Z Josu Lavin 2 ===EXERCITIO 02=== <b>01. Io ha un can = Io habe un can.</b> I have a dog. <br> 02. I see the dog. <br> 03. The dog sees me. <br> 04. I like the dog. <br> 05. I like milk. <br> 06. The dog has the milk. <br> 07. The cat drinks the milk. <br> 08. You drink the milk. <br> 09. I have the apple. <br> 10. I am eating the apple. <br> 11. The boy/girl is eating the apple. <br> 12. I am looking at the mouse. <br> 13. The mouse sees the water. <br> 14. The mouse is eating the book. <br> 15. The book is on the table. <br> 16. You read the book. <br> 17. You are reading the book. <br> 18. The cat looks at me. <br> 19. The cat looks at the door. <br> 20. You are touching the door. <br> 21. The cat is touching the window. <br> 22. I am touching the window. <br> 23. I am walking in the garden. <br> 24. You and the dog are walking in the garden. <br> 25. The table and chair are in the house. <br> 114 2005-04-19T22:45:16Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 02= 01. <b>Io ha un can.</b> I have a dog. 02. <b>interlingua.</b> I see the dog. 03. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog sees me. 04. <b>interlingua.</b> I like the dog. 05. <b>interlingua.</b> I like milk. 06. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog has the milk. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat drinks the milk. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> You drink the milk. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> I have the apple. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> I am eating the apple. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> The boy/girl is eating the apple. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> I am looking at the mouse. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> The mouse sees the water. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> The mouse is eating the book. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> The book is on the table. 16. <b>interlingua.</b> You read the book. 17. <b>interlingua.</b> You are reading the book. 18. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat looks at me. 19. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat looks at the door. 20. <b>interlingua.</b> You are touching the door. 21. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat is touching the window. 22. <b>interlingua.</b> I am touching the window. 23. <b>interlingua.</b> I am walking in the garden. 24. <b>interlingua.</b> You and the dog are walking in the garden. 25. <b>interlingua.</b> The table and chair are in the house. [[Exercitio 02 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 02 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 02 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 02 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 02 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 02 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 02 pt |PORTUGESE]] 2060 2005-04-19T23:15:57Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Io ha un can.</b> I have a dog. 02. <b>interlingua.</b> I see the dog. 03. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog sees me. 04. <b>interlingua.</b> I like the dog. 05. <b>interlingua.</b> I like milk. 06. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog has the milk. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat drinks the milk. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> You drink the milk. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> I have the apple. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> I am eating the apple. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> The boy/girl is eating the apple. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> I am looking at the mouse. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> The mouse sees the water. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> The mouse is eating the book. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> The book is on the table. 16. <b>interlingua.</b> You read the book. 17. <b>interlingua.</b> You are reading the book. 18. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat looks at me. 19. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat looks at the door. 20. <b>interlingua.</b> You are touching the door. 21. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat is touching the window. 22. <b>interlingua.</b> I am touching the window. 23. <b>interlingua.</b> I am walking in the garden. 24. <b>interlingua.</b> You and the dog are walking in the garden. 25. <b>interlingua.</b> The table and chair are in the house. [[Exercitio 02 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 02 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 02 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 02 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 02 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 02 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 02 pt |PORTUGESE]] 985 87 2005-04-19T17:37:53Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01 en= 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] 88 2005-04-19T19:43:38Z 83.195.187.112 =Exercise 01 en= 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA - En]] [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA - Es]] 95 2005-04-19T19:44:59Z 83.195.187.112 =Exercise 01 en= 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] 98 2005-04-19T21:31:49Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01 en= 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] 101 2005-04-19T21:43:29Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01 en= 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] 105 2005-04-19T21:58:45Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01 en= 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. <br> 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. <br> 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. <br> 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. <br> 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. <br> 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. <br> 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. <br> 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. <br> 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. <br> 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. <br> 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. <br> 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. <br> 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. <br> 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. <br> 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 112 2005-04-19T22:52:16Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01 en= 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 2061 2005-04-19T23:14:35Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Mary est una puera.</b> Mary is a girl. 02. <b>Charles est un puero.</b> Charles is a boy. 03. <b>Le domo est in le jardin.</b> The house is in the garden. 04. <b>Io soi in le jardin.</b> I am in the garden. 05. <b>Io soi in le domo.</b> I am in the house. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> You are in the house. 07. <b>Tu es sub la tabula.</b> You are under the table. 08. <b>Un can est sur la tabula in le domo.</b> A dog is on the table in the house. 09. <b>Rex est un can.</b> Rex is a dog. 10. <b>William est un catto.</b> William is a cat. 11. <b>Le can est in le domo.</b> The dog is in the house. 12. <b>Le catto est sur la tabula.</b> The cat is on the table. 13. <b>La cassa est sub la tabula.</b> The box is under the table. 14. <b>Le catto est sur la cassa.</b> The cat is on the box. 15. <b>Le mus est in le domo.</b> The mouse is in the house. 16. <b>Le mus est in la cassa.</b> The mouse is in the box. 17. <b>Le mus est sub la tabula.</b> The mouse is under the table. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 986 89 2005-04-19T19:56:37Z 83.195.187.112 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Maria es una chica. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. <br> 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tu estas en la casa. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tu estas bajo la mesa. <br> 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.b> Un perro esta en el jardín de la casa. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.b> El ratón esta en la cocina. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. <br> 94 2005-04-19T19:59:22Z 83.195.187.112 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> Maria es una chica. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. <br> 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tu estas en la casa. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tu estas bajo la mesa. <br> 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro esta en el jardín de la casa. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón esta en la cocina. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. <br> 96 2005-04-19T21:30:22Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> María es una chica. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. <br> 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tú estas en la casa. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tú estás bajo la mesa. <br> 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro está en el jardín de la casa. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón está en la cocina. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. <br> 99 2005-04-19T21:33:36Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> María es una chica. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. <br> 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tú estas en la casa. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tú estás bajo la mesa. <br> 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro está en el jardín de la casa. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón está en la cocina. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] 102 2005-04-19T21:45:00Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> María es una chica. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. <br> 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tú estas en la casa. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tú estás bajo la mesa. <br> 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro está en el jardín de la casa. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón está en la cocina. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] 104 2005-04-19T21:59:27Z Josu Lavin 2 =Exercise 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> María es una chica. <br> 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. <br> 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. <br> 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. <br> 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. <br> 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tú estas en la casa. <br> 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tú estás bajo la mesa. <br> 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro está en el jardín de la casa. <br> 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. <br> 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. <br> 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. <br> 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. <br> 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. <br> 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. <br> 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. <br> 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón está en la cocina. <br> 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. <br> [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 107 2005-04-19T22:50:35Z Josu Lavin 2 =Ejercicio 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> María es una chica. 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tú estas en la casa. 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tú estás bajo la mesa. 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro está en el jardín de la casa. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón está en la cocina. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 113 2005-04-19T22:54:38Z Josu Lavin 2 =Ejercicio 01= 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> María es una chica. 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tú estas en la casa. 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tú estás bajo la mesa. 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro está en el jardín de la casa. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón está en la cocina. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 2062 2005-04-19T23:15:14Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>Mary es un puera.</b> María es una chica. 02. <b>Charles es un puero.</b> Carlos es un chico. 03. <b>Le domo ha un jardin.<b> La casa tiene un jardín. 04. <b>Io es in le jardin.</b> Yo estoy en el jardín. 05. <b>Io es in le domo.</b> Yo estoy en la casa. 06. <b>Tu es in le domo.</b> Tú estas en la casa. 07. <b>Tu es sub le tabula.</b> Tú estás bajo la mesa. 08. <b>Un can es in le jardin del domo.</b> Un perro está en el jardín de la casa. 09. <b>Rex es un can.</b> Rex es un perro. 10. <b>William es un catto.</b> William es un gato. 11. <b>Le can es in le domo.</b> El perro está en la casa. 12. <b>Le catto es sur le tabula.</b> El gato está sobre la mesa. 13. <b>Le cassa es sub le tabula.</b> La caja está bajo la mesa. 14. <b>Le catto es sur le cassa.</b> El gato está sobre la caja. 15. <b>Le mus es in le domo.</b> El ratón esta en la casa. 16. <b>Le mus es in le cocina.</b> El ratón está en la cocina. 17. <b>Le mus es sub le tabula.</b> El ratón esta bajo la mesa. [[Exercitio 01 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 01 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 01 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 01 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 01 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 01 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 01 pt |PORTUGESE]] 987 108 2005-04-19T23:04:15Z Josu Lavin 2 01. You are learning Ido. 02. You speak Ido. 03. I am learning Ido. 04. I speak Ido. 05. I have a beautiful house. 06. My house is big. 07. The house is big. 08. I live here. 09. I sleep in the garden. 10. My dog is old. 11. My dog also lives here. 12. The dog sleeps in my small garden. 13. The little cat looks at the big dog. 14. You live in a beautiful house. 15. You sleep on the big table. 16. The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower. 17. The horse is old. 18. The little horse is young. 19. The young horse likes the drink. 20. You are buying food for the horse. 21. I buy food here. 22. I am putting your plate here. 23. The plate is red. 24. I am putting food on the plate. 25. The old mouse eats the food. 26. A drink is in the small cup. 27. The blue cup is on the table. 28. You see the mouse in the cup. 29. Your milk is also in the cup. 30. I am putting the book on the wall. 115 2005-04-19T23:10:22Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>interlingua.</b> You are learning Ido. 02. <b>interlingua.</b> You speak Ido. 03. <b>interlingua.</b> I am learning Ido. 04. <b>interlingua.</b> I speak Ido. 05. <b>interlingua.</b> I have a beautiful house. 06. <b>interlingua.</b> My house is big. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> The house is big. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> I live here. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> I sleep in the garden. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> My dog is old. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> My dog also lives here. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog sleeps in my small garden. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> The little cat looks at the big dog. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> You live in a beautiful house. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> You sleep on the big table. 16. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower. 17. <b>interlingua.</b> The horse is old. 18. <b>interlingua.</b> The little horse is young. 19. <b>interlingua.</b> The young horse likes the drink. 20. <b>interlingua.</b> You are buying food for the horse. 21. <b>interlingua.</b> I buy food here. 22. <b>interlingua.</b> I am putting your plate here. 23. <b>interlingua.</b> The plate is red. 24. <b>interlingua.</b> I am putting food on the plate. 25. <b>interlingua.</b> The old mouse eats the food. 26. <b>interlingua.</b> A drink is in the small cup. 27. <b>interlingua.</b> The blue cup is on the table. 28. <b>interlingua.</b> You see the mouse in the cup. 29. <b>interlingua.</b> Your milk is also in the cup. 30. <b>interlingua.</b> I am putting the book on the wall. 2063 2005-04-19T23:17:05Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>interlingua.</b> You are learning Ido. 02. <b>interlingua.</b> You speak Ido. 03. <b>interlingua.</b> I am learning Ido. 04. <b>interlingua.</b> I speak Ido. 05. <b>interlingua.</b> I have a beautiful house. 06. <b>interlingua.</b> My house is big. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> The house is big. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> I live here. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> I sleep in the garden. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> My dog is old. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> My dog also lives here. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog sleeps in my small garden. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> The little cat looks at the big dog. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> You live in a beautiful house. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> You sleep on the big table. 16. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat sleeps under the beautiful flower. 17. <b>interlingua.</b> The horse is old. 18. <b>interlingua.</b> The little horse is young. 19. <b>interlingua.</b> The young horse likes the drink. 20. <b>interlingua.</b> You are buying food for the horse. 21. <b>interlingua.</b> I buy food here. 22. <b>interlingua.</b> I am putting your plate here. 23. <b>interlingua.</b> The plate is red. 24. <b>interlingua.</b> I am putting food on the plate. 25. <b>interlingua.</b> The old mouse eats the food. 26. <b>interlingua.</b> A drink is in the small cup. 27. <b>interlingua.</b> The blue cup is on the table. 28. <b>interlingua.</b> You see the mouse in the cup. 29. <b>interlingua.</b> Your milk is also in the cup. 30. <b>interlingua.</b> I am putting the book on the wall. [[Exercitio 03 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 03 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 03 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 03 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 03 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 03 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 03 pt |PORTUGESE]] 988 109 2005-04-19T23:05:41Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I am - I am not 02. I have - I haven't 03. I see - I don't see 04. I like - I don't like 05. I walk - I am not walking 06. I am old - I am not old. 07. I don't see you. 08. You don't see me. 09. I don't like the house. 10. I am not eating the food. 11. The dog doesn't speak Ido. 12. You do not live in London. 13. The dog is not learning Ido. 14. Maria doesn't live in Paris. 15. You are not looking at Maria. 16. You are not reading the book. 17. The plate is not in the house. 18. The dog isn't looking at the horse. 19. The cat is not sleeping in the box. 20. The boy/girl is not drinking the milk. 116 2005-04-19T23:12:10Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>interlingua.</b> I am - I am not 02. <b>interlingua.</b> I have - I haven't 03. <b>interlingua.</b> I see - I don't see 04. <b>interlingua.</b> I like - I don't like 05. <b>interlingua.</b> I walk - I am not walking 06. <b>interlingua.</b> I am old - I am not old. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> I don't see you. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> You don't see me. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> I don't like the house. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> I am not eating the food. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog doesn't speak Ido. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> You do not live in London. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog is not learning Ido. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> Maria doesn't live in Paris. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> You are not looking at Maria. 16. <b>interlingua.</b> You are not reading the book. 17. <b>interlingua.</b> The plate is not in the house. 18. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog isn't looking at the horse. 19. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat is not sleeping in the box. 20. <b>interlingua.</b> The boy/girl is not drinking the milk. 2064 2005-04-19T23:18:03Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>interlingua.</b> I am - I am not 02. <b>interlingua.</b> I have - I haven't 03. <b>interlingua.</b> I see - I don't see 04. <b>interlingua.</b> I like - I don't like 05. <b>interlingua.</b> I walk - I am not walking 06. <b>interlingua.</b> I am old - I am not old. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> I don't see you. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> You don't see me. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> I don't like the house. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> I am not eating the food. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog doesn't speak Ido. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> You do not live in London. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog is not learning Ido. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> Maria doesn't live in Paris. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> You are not looking at Maria. 16. <b>interlingua.</b> You are not reading the book. 17. <b>interlingua.</b> The plate is not in the house. 18. <b>interlingua.</b> The dog isn't looking at the horse. 19. <b>interlingua.</b> The cat is not sleeping in the box. 20. <b>interlingua.</b> The boy/girl is not drinking the milk. [[Exercitio 04 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 04 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 04 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 04 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 04 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 04 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 04 pt |PORTUGESE]] 989 110 2005-04-19T23:06:54Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Felix is a thin old cat. 02. He lives behind your house in the forest. 03. He often walks in my large garden. 04. He often sleeps on my lawn. 05. Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse. 06. Today Felix hasn't got any food. 07. He is very sad. 08. So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden. 09. Now Felix is very happy. 10. Maria sees Felix. 11. She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden. 12. Felix is on the street. 13. Rex is a fierce dog. 14. He also sees Felix. 15. Rex chases him. 117 2005-04-19T23:13:21Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>interlingua.</b> Felix is a thin old cat. 02. <b>interlingua.</b> He lives behind your house in the forest. 03. <b>interlingua.</b> He often walks in my large garden. 04. <b>interlingua.</b> He often sleeps on my lawn. 05. <b>interlingua.</b> Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse. 06. <b>interlingua.</b> Today Felix hasn't got any food. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> He is very sad. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> Now Felix is very happy. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> Maria sees Felix. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> Felix is on the street. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> Rex is a fierce dog. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> He also sees Felix. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> Rex chases him. 2065 2005-04-19T23:18:44Z Josu Lavin 2 01. <b>interlingua.</b> Felix is a thin old cat. 02. <b>interlingua.</b> He lives behind your house in the forest. 03. <b>interlingua.</b> He often walks in my large garden. 04. <b>interlingua.</b> He often sleeps on my lawn. 05. <b>interlingua.</b> Today Felix is chasing a fat brown mouse. 06. <b>interlingua.</b> Today Felix hasn't got any food. 07. <b>interlingua.</b> He is very sad. 08. <b>interlingua.</b> So I put a fish for him on a plate in the garden. 09. <b>interlingua.</b> Now Felix is very happy. 10. <b>interlingua.</b> Maria sees Felix. 11. <b>interlingua.</b> She doesn't like Felix and chases him out of my garden. 12. <b>interlingua.</b> Felix is on the street. 13. <b>interlingua.</b> Rex is a fierce dog. 14. <b>interlingua.</b> He also sees Felix. 15. <b>interlingua.</b> Rex chases him. [[Exercitio 05 |INTERLINGUA]] [[Exercitio 05 |ANGLESE]] [[Exercitio 05 ra |ROMANICA]] [[Exercitio 05 es |ESPANIOL]] [[Exercitio 05 fr |FRANCESE]] [[Exercitio 05 it |ITALIANO]] [[Exercitio 05 pt |PORTUGESE]] 990 2066 2005-04-20T09:10:59Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I am, Am I? 02. He is, Is he? 03. You have, Have you? 04. Am I good? No. 05. Are you beautiful? Yes. 06. Is Mary wearing a beautiful skirt? 07. Yes, she is wearing a beautiful white skirt. 08. Is the policeman in the park? 09. Is he in the park? 10. No, he is not here today. 11. Have you got a black dog? 12. No, I have a brown dog. 13. He is drinking. 14. Is he drinking? 15. Have you a cat? 16. Yes, I have a white cat. 17. Is she coming? 18. No, she is going to the bridge. 19. Is the bird drinking? 20. Is the bird on the bridge? 21. No, it is not there. 22. She is eating. 23. Is she eating? 24. Is she eating a fish? 25. Is the fish in the water? 26. Yes, it is in the water, and the dog as well. 991 2067 2005-04-20T09:13:11Z Josu Lavin 2 01. a cat, cats 02. a table, tables 03. I see the cat. 04. You see the cats. 05. The cats are on the tables. 06. The cat is sleeping behind the flowers. 07. The books are black. 08. Does he like apples? 09. The parks are beautiful. 10. Mary likes white skirts. 11. Have you got a beautiful skirt? 12. The fish are in the water. 13. The policemen are not fat. 14. The policemen are chasing the teenagers. 15. The mice are chasing the cat. 16. The birds are in the trees. 17. The birds are on the bridges. 18. Are the children in the trees? 19. The horses are drinking the water. 20. The flowers are in the cup on the table. 992 2068 2005-04-20T09:14:19Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Stand up! 02. Sit down! 03. Open the box! 04. Eat the apple! 05. Open the book! 06. Open the door! 07. Close the book! 08. Close the window! 09. Touch the chair! 10. Touch the window! 11. Drink your coffee! 12. Pick the book up! 13. Pick the chair up! 14. Pick up the pencil! 15. Give the book to me! 16. Put the cup on the table! 17. Put the plate on the chair! 18. Put the pencil on the table! 19. Put the book and the pencil on the chair! 993 2069 2005-04-20T09:16:31Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Mary is a girl. 02. Charles is a boy. 03. He has a male dog. 04. An apple is a fruit. 05. I am only buying a female cat. 06. I often go to the town. 07. I often go to the dentist's. 08. The butcher sells meat. 09. Alan is at the doctor's. 10. I don't buy it at the doctor's. 11. Your husband is called Jack. 12. My wife is going to the shops. 13. Today Lesley is going to the shops. 14. She is buying meat for the family. 15. The mare is not in the country. 16. He is selling the stallion in the town. 17. Paul likes meat, but Roger prefers fish. 18. I do not buy my fish at the greengrocer's. 19. The church is in the town in front of the station. 20. I am buying a white female mouse and a brown male mouse for you. 994 2070 2005-04-20T09:17:44Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Mary's dog. 02. Peter's house. 03. The girl's cat. 04. The cat's meat. 05. The dog's meat. 06. The cat of Mary. 07. The book of Mary. 08. My husband's cup. 09. The boys' family. 10. The family's food. 11. The dog of the boy. 12. The doctor's family. 13. The teacher's house. 14. The girls of this school.. 15. The cat of Philip. Philip's cat. 995 2071 2005-04-20T09:19:09Z Josu Lavin 2 01. a cup of tea. 02. the cup of tea. 03. Mary's flowers. 04. a box of apples. 05. a cup of coffee. 06. a glass of milk. 07. a glass of water. 08. a bottle of wine. 09. a bottle of milk. 10. a family of doctors. 11. The dentist's cups of coffee. 996 2072 2005-04-20T09:20:07Z Josu Lavin 2 01. They teach well. 02. She is looking at a boy. 03. She is looking at a bottle. 04. They are very bad children. 05. The boy has a bottle of beer. 06. The teachers of this school are good. 07. It is the teacher's bottle of beer. 08. The boy and the girl are drinking the beer. 09. They are not listening and so they are not learning. 10. The attractive girl is not listening to the bad teacher. 997 123 2005-04-20T09:21:13Z Josu Lavin 2 A deler postea per me. A prender de curso 5 Nota personal de Josu Lavin 2073 2005-04-20T11:16:35Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I/Me 02. We/Us 03. She/Her 04. He/Him 05. It 06. They/Them 07. You (a close friend) 08. You(a complete stranger) 09. You (addressing a friendly dog) 10. You (more than one person) 11. Are you good? 12. I am a dentist. 13. You are a doctor. 14. You are beautiful. 15. It is in the house. 16. You are good doctors. 17. He has a good friend. 18. We are reading your books. 19. She likes beautiful flowers. 20. They are chasing the horses. 998 2074 2005-04-20T11:17:52Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I am. 02. I was. 03. I have. 04. I had. 05. We are going, We went. 06. He was going, He went. 07. I go. 08. I went. 09. I visited. 10. He has visited. 11. He did eat. 12. I am eating. 13. She works. 14. She was working. 15. The dog drank. 16. He had a big cake. 17. I also drank whisky. 18. They read many books. 19. I went to the forest. 20. I visited the factory. 21. I went to the new pub. 22. It was drinking whisky. 23. We went into the garden. 24. I drank too much whisky. 25. The new teacher saw you. 26. I walked out of the town. 27. The doctor stayed at home. 28. My dog fetched the doctor. 29. In the forest I saw a ghost. 30. She often worked in the factory. 31. I was ill because of the whisky. 32. But the doctor was also ill and he didn't come. 999 2075 2005-04-20T11:18:47Z Josu Lavin 2 01. He works well. 02. He teaches badly. 03. The child is good. 04. The teacher is bad. 05. The train went fast. 06. She cooks excellently. 07. They like cakes a lot. 08. We saw the fast train. 09. The cook is excellent. 10. He has a good many friends. 1000 2076 2005-04-20T11:20:24Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Who is he? 02. Who was ill? 03. What is in the garden? 04. Who did George's work? 05. Who loves the old horse? 06. What is eating my apples? 07. Who came here with the dog? 08. Who is learning Ido in this school? 09. Who went to the school with white mice? 10. Who visits the friends of the old shopkeeper? 1001 2077 2005-04-20T11:21:19Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I have ten cats. 02. I have one brother. 03. Nine girls visited me. 04. My brother saw three birds. 05. Who has two bottles of beer? 06. The dog is eating five cakes. 07. She is not buying six apples. 08. We have only four clean shoes. 09. Are seven flowers in the garden? 10 Mary's house hasn't got eight windows. 1002 2078 2005-04-20T11:22:20Z Josu Lavin 2 01. The pub is your place of work. 02. The children are in the stable. 03. My dog doesn't live in a kennel. 04. We have a fish pond in our garden. 05. The house has a beautiful kitchen. 06. The children eat in the dining hall. 07. She didn't find a sitting place (seat). 08. My house is the dwelling place of many mice. 09. They didn't find a drinking place for the horses. 10. They don't have a place to sleep (dormitory) in the school. 1003 2079 2005-04-20T11:23:08Z Josu Lavin 2 01. What is here? 02. Who lives here? 03. Where is my bed? 04. Where is your cat? 05. What is in the lorry? 06. Who (plural) are you? 07. Who (plural) are they? 08. Who has enormous shoes? 09. Who lives in the garden? 10. Who (plural) has the red bicycles? 1004 2080 2005-04-20T11:23:52Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Four warm nights. 02. Nine brown birds.. 03. After three evenings. 04. Ten enormous mothers. 05. Six stars are shining. 06. Eight woollen blankets. 07. The same seven blankets. 08. Two sick soldiers lived here. 09. Five horses slept in this bed. 10. One fierce old cat was under the bed. 1005 2081 2005-04-20T11:25:41Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I am, I was, I will be. 02. You have, You had, You will have. 03. He is looking, He was looking, He will look. 04. You dance well. 05. The car is big. 06. I will beat you. 07. I will help him. 08. I am not smoking. 09. Will you eat today? 10. The climber will come. 11. Will we dance tomorrow? 12. I shall taste the cake. 13. You will enjoy the beer. 14. The teacher was smoking. 15. I shall become a dentist. 16. The weather is warm today. 17. Shall we smoke a cigarette? 18. Philip's dog heard the girl. 19. The birds will sing tomorrow. 20. The teacher did not hear them. 21. He will not beat the small dog. 22. The dancer will not dance today. 23. He put the food in the cupboard. 24. The fat mouse will eat the apple. 25. The pig will not sleep in my bed! 26. The lorry driver will drink the whisky. 27. The ghost will not appear during the day. 28. The young climber helped the old soldier. 29. She will not climb the hill behind the village. 30. The climber will climb the mountain during the night. 1006 2082 2005-04-20T11:26:35Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Twenty horses. 02. Thirty children. 03. A hundred knives. 04. Forty-four letters. 05. Fifty-eight spoons. 06. Sixty-three copies. 07. Ninty-one gorillas. 08. My mother has sixteen cats. 09. Their teacher has eighty discs. 10. My aunt has seventy-one flowers. 11. Tomorrow I shall write twelve letters. 12. My aunt's gorilla ate fifteen bananas. 13. The thirty soldiers slept on the floor. 14. Thirty-six lamps hung form the ceiling. 15. Seventy-six thirsty postmen work in that town. 16. The forty knives were in the drawer of this table. 17. Today the children of this class smoked twenty cigarettes. 18. My young sister found a hundred and two forks in the cupboard. 19. The 999 hungry children beat the table with their spoons. 20. The two singers sold 200,000 copies of their new disc, "I love you". 1007 2083 2005-04-20T11:27:55Z Josu Lavin 2 01. knife 02. a mixer 03. brush 04. camera 05. fish's fins, frogman's flippers 06. toy 07. door handle 1008 2084 2005-04-20T11:29:19Z Josu Lavin 2 01. It is the fifth of March. 02. It is the second of January. 03. Yesterday it was the fifth of July. 04. He was not here on the fifth of July. 05. It will be the eighth of May tomorrow. 06. It will be the ninth of June tomorrow. 07. It was the seventh of August yesterday. 08. My birthday was on the first of October. 09. The letter came on the first of February. 10. The sun shone on the twentieth of November. 11. The boys will not work on the fourth of April. 12. My mother will come on the tenth of September. 1009 2085 2005-04-20T11:30:18Z Josu Lavin 2 01. Who sees me? 02. Whom do I see? 03. Who can see him? 04. Whom can he see? 05. What do you like? 06. What ate my shoes? 07. What is in the box? 08. What drank the milk? 09. What are you cooking? 10. What is in the house? 11. Who is eating the fish? 12. Who is eating the meat? 13. Whom is the fish eating? 14. What is the bird eating? 15. What did you give to them? 16. What did you give to John? 17. Who (plural) likes apples? 18. Who (plural) likes the birds? 19. Whom (plural) have they seen? 20. Whom (plural) did my friends see? 1010 2086 2005-04-20T11:32:43Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I must go. 02. You must come. 03. I want to know. 04. He cannot cook. 05. He wants to know. 06. He must be good. 07. He may have the dog. 08. I can drive a lorry. 09. The doctor can't come. 10. My uncle wants to eat. 11. You may eat the apples. 12. My sister likes to sing. 13. She is allowed to buy it. 14. I tried to cook the meat. 15. I like to visit my sister. 16. I will try to write to you. 17. May he watch the television? 18. The youth wants to buy this car. 19. They are trying to watch television. 20. We are not allowed to visit the sick boy/girl. 1011 2087 2005-04-20T11:35:10Z Josu Lavin 2 01. I would begin the work. 02. She would lose the money. 03. He would break the mirror. 04. Their aunt would forget it. 05. Its nose would be too small. 06. They would finish the drinks. 07. I would come soon, if I could. 08. You would draw another picture. 09. I would not serve another lady. 10. The mouse would eat the bananas. 11. The man would win too many cards. 12. The mother would send her daughter. 13. I would forget to go along the road. 14. If I could, I would buy another house. 15. The clerk would begin to work if he could. 16. Mary would rest, but she does not have the time. 17. Her daughter would go, but the road is too long. 18. You would bathe in the river, but it is too cold. 19. I would wash the dog, but I haven't got the time. 20. They would send the package, but John has lost it. 1012 2088 2005-04-20T11:36:10Z Josu Lavin 2 01. The trees are high. 02. That river is wider. 03. The apples are cheap. 04. This work is simpler. 05. The bananas are cheaper. 06. That water is the purest. 07. This box is full of bananas. 08. This road is too dangerous. 09. He is drawing the empty bottle. 10. That child is as quiet as a mouse. 11. The meat is fresher than the fish. 12. My house is higher than your house. 13. His dog is the fiercest in the town. 14. She is the ugliest girl in the shop. 15. He is the poorest teacher in this town. 16. Jane's nose is shorter than Mary's nose. 17. They are the most contented men in the pub. 18. This armchair is softer than that armchair. 19. I read the most interesting book in the shop. 20. Our daughter is the most intelligent girl in that school. 1013 2089 2005-04-20T11:39:18Z Josu Lavin 2 01. On Sunday we do not work. 02. She likes Thursdays a lot. 03. On Monday I went to London. 04. He will not come on Monday. 05. I stayed in bed on Thursday. 06. On Wednesday I will go to Paris. 07. Will you buy the food on Saturday? 08. I was born on Friday, the eighth of May. 09. They disappeared on Thursday in the cinema. 10. On Monday a thief took the police chief's watch. 1014 2090 2005-04-20T11:40:09Z Josu Lavin 2 01. What time is it? 02. It's three o'clock. 03. You ate at five o'clock. 04. No, he comes at nine o'colck. 05. I began to work at seven o'clock. 06. At ten o'clock I fell from my bed. 07. At two o'clock they found the cafe. 08. Does the postman come at eight o'clock? 09. It was six o'clock when their daughter came in. 10. At four o'clock, on Monday the thirtieth of August she was born. 1015 2091 2005-04-20T11:41:25Z Josu Lavin 2 01. What happened?. 02. Who (plural) spoke? 03. Who is there? 04. Whom (plural) do you see? 05. What did he say? 06. The man who spoke. 07. The men who spoke. 08. The man whom you saw. 09. The accidents that took place. 10. I did not hear what he said. 1016 2092 2005-04-20T11:42:26Z Josu Lavin 2 01. The girls he loves. 02. The machine that I saw. 03. The girls that love him. 04. The lakes that she likes. 05. The doctor that lives here. 06. The language that he speaks. 07. The old man who sleeps here. 08. The policeman that is running. 09. The thief that is standing up. 10. The car that the soldier bought. 1017 2093 2005-04-20T11:43:25Z Josu Lavin 2 01. The strange men who stood up were policemen. 02. The old man/woman who stood on the table fell. 03. The machine that he bought cost a lot of money. 04. I don't want to speak a language that is so ugly. 05. Her uncle who was born in Derby had several dogs. 06. Soon I shall visit my grandfather who lives in York. 07. I will not run to my father who has fallen in the water. 08. The ship that we wanted to see is going along the river. 09. How much did the books cost that you have in your pocket? 10. He warned the children who were swimming in the lake about the danger. 1018 2094 2005-04-20T12:08:22Z Josu Lavin 2 01. You must not light a match; the room is full of gas. 02. You haven't got to light a match; I can see well enough. 03. I haven't got any obligation to help you. 04. You should not (ought not to) commit adultery. 05. I may not smoke here. I must not smoke here. 06. I am allowed to stay away from school. 07. I can not pay taxes. 08. I can evade paying taxes. 09. He didn't need to do it. So he didn't do it. 10. He need not have done it, though he did it. 11. He shouldn't have done it. Too late. 12. I do not dare to inform him of the bad news. 13. She dared to ignore my advice. 14. Two o'clock (02:00) 15. Five past nine (09:05) 16. Quarter past six (06:15) 17. Quarter to seven (06:45) 18. Twenty five to elven (10:35) 19. seven minutes to seven (06:53) 20. What dog/ Which dog? 21. What dogs/ Which dogs? 22. What man is coming? 23. What men are coming? 24. Who is coming? 25. What is coming? 26. The man that is coming. 27. The men that are coming. 28. The train that is going. 29. The trains that are going. 30. It's raining 31. It's snowing 32. It's freezing 33. It's windy 34. It's frosty/ There's a frost. 1019 2095 2005-04-20T14:24:06Z Josu Lavin 2 <CENTER> <H1 align=center>The Interlingua Alphabet </H1></CENTER> <P align=left><BR><BR> <HR> <BR><BR> <CENTER> <TABLE cellSpacing=4 border=1> <TR> <TD> <TD> <TD center>The Interlingua Alphabet <TD></TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Letter </TD> <TD>Name </TD> <TD>Sound </TD> <TD>As in</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Aa </TD> <TD>ah </TD> <TD>a </TD> <TD>cat </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Bb </TD> <TD>bay </TD> <TD>b </TD> <TD>boy</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Cc </TD> <TD>say </TD> <TD>c </TD> <TD>car, before e or i like zz in pizza or c in city</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Dd </TD> <TD>day </TD> <TD>d </TD> <TD>dog</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Ee </TD> <TD>ay </TD> <TD>e </TD> <TD>hey</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Ff </TD> <TD>eff </TD> <TD>f </TD> <TD>find</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Gg </TD> <TD>gay </TD> <TD>g </TD> <TD>officially like Go in all situations except words ending in -age, but optionally before e or i like j</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Hh </TD> <TD>hasha </TD> <TD>h </TD> <TD>hi</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Ii </TD> <TD>ee </TD> <TD>i </TD> <TD>machine</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Jj </TD> <TD>jotta </TD> <TD>j </TD> <TD>s in pleasure</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Kk </TD> <TD>kah </TD> <TD>k </TD> <TD>king</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Ll </TD> <TD>ell </TD> <TD>l </TD> <TD>love</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Mm </TD> <TD>emm </TD> <TD>m </TD> <TD>man</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Nn </TD> <TD>enn </TD> <TD>n </TD> <TD>now</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Oo </TD> <TD>oh </TD> <TD>o </TD> <TD>obey</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Pp </TD> <TD>pay </TD> <TD>p </TD> <TD>put</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Qq </TD> <TD>koo </TD> <TD>qu </TD> <TD>quick, in one syllable words just k</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Rr </TD> <TD>err </TD> <TD>r </TD> <TD>trilled </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Ss </TD> <TD>ess </TD> <TD>s </TD> <TD>soft, between vowels like s in cousin</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Tt </TD> <TD>tay </TD> <TD>t </TD> <TD>tea</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Uu </TD> <TD>oo </TD> <TD>u </TD> <TD>o in who</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Vv </TD> <TD>vay </TD> <TD>v </TD> <TD>very</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Ww </TD> <TD>doopla vay</TD> <TD>w</TD> <TD>way</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Xx </TD> <TD>eeks </TD> <TD>x </TD> <TD>example</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Yy </TD> <TD>eepsilon or ee greck </TD> <TD>y </TD> <TD>yes or pretty</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>Zz </TD> <TD>zed or zeta </TD> <TD>z </TD> <TD>zebra</TD></TR></TABLE><BR><BR> <TABLE cellSpacing=3 border=1> <TR> <TH>Consonant Clusters</TH> <TR> <TD>cc </TD> <TD>cc in</TD> <TD>accent</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>ch </TD> <TD>ch in</TD> <TD>Christ or enchanté <TD></TD> <TR> <TD>ph </TD> <TD>is like</TD> <TD>f</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>th </TD> <TD>is just</TD> <TD>t </TD></TR></TABLE><BR><BR> <TABLE cellSpacing=3 border=1> <TR> <TH>Dipthongs</TH> <TR> <TD>ai </TD> <TD>is</TD> <TD>I <TR></TR> <TR> <TD>au </TD> <TD>is ow</TD> <TD>in cow <TR></TR> <TR> <TD>ei </TD> <TD>is ei</TD> <TD>in reign <TR></TR> <TR> <TD>oi </TD> <TD>is oy</TD> <TD>in choice <TR></TR></TABLE><BR><BR> <HR> <CENTER> <HR> <BR><BR> <TABLE cellSpacing=2 border=1> <TR> <TH>Le Numeros<BR>The Numbers</TH> <TR> <TD>0 </TD> <TD>zero </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1 </TD> <TD>un </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>2 </TD> <TD>duo </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>3 </TD> <TD>tres </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>4 </TD> <TD>quatro </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>5 </TD> <TD>cinque </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>6 </TD> <TD>sex </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>7 </TD> <TD>septe </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>8 </TD> <TD>octo </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>9 </TD> <TD>nove </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>10 </TD> <TD>dece </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>11 </TD> <TD>dece-un </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>12 </TD> <TD>dece-duo </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>13 </TD> <TD>dece-tres </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>14 </TD> <TD>dece-quatro</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>15 </TD> <TD>dece-cinque </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>16 </TD> <TD>dece-sex </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>17 </TD> <TD>dece-septe </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>18 </TD> <TD>dece-octo </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>19 </TD> <TD>dece-nove </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>20 </TD> <TD>vinti </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>21 </TD> <TD>vinti-un </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>22 </TD> <TD>vinti-duo </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>25 </TD> <TD>vinti-cinque </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>30 </TD> <TD>trenta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>40 </TD> <TD>quaranta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>50 </TD> <TD>cinquanta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>60 </TD> <TD>sexanta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>70 </TD> <TD>septanta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>80 </TD> <TD>octanta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>90 </TD> <TD>novanta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>100 </TD> <TD>cento </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>101 </TD> <TD>cento un </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>102 </TD> <TD>cento duo </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>121 </TD> <TD>cento vinti-un</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>150 </TD> <TD>cento cinquanta </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>200 </TD> <TD>duo centos </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>201 </TD> <TD>duo centos un </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>300 </TD> <TD>tres centos </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>381 </TD> <TD>tres centos octanta-un </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1000 </TD> <TD>mille </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1001 </TD> <TD>mille un </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1995 </TD> <TD>dece-nove centos novanta-cinque</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1962 </TD> <TD>dece-nove centos sexanta-duo</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>2000 </TD> <TD>duo milles </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1.000.000 </TD> <TD>million</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1.000.000.000 </TD> <TD>billion </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1.000.000.000.000 </TD> <TD>trillion</TD></TR></TABLE><BR></TABLE> <HR> </CENTER> <CENTER> <HR> <BR> <TABLE cellSpacing=2 border=1> <TR> <TH>Ordinal Numbers</TH> <TR> <TD>1me <TD>prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>2de <TD>secunde </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>3tie <TD>tertie </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>4te <TD>quarte </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>5te <TD>quinte </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>6te <TD>sexte </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>7me <TD>septime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>8ve <TD>octave </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>9ne <TD>none </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>10me <TD>decime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>11me <TD>dece-prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>12de <TD>dece-secunde </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>13tie <TD>dece-tertie </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>14te <TD>dece-quarte</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>15te <TD>dece-quinte </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>16te </TD> <TD>dece-sexte </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>17me </TD> <TD>dece-septime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>18ve </TD> <TD>dece-octave </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>19ne </TD> <TD>dece-none </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>20me </TD> <TD>vintesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>21me </TD> <TD>vinti-prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>22de </TD> <TD>vinti-secunde </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>25te </TD> <TD>vinti-quinte</TD></TR> <TR> <TD>30me </TD> <TD>trentesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>40me </TD> <TD>quarantesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>50me </TD> <TD>cinquantesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>60me </TD> <TD>sexantesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>70me </TD> <TD>septantesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>80me </TD> <TD>octantesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>90me </TD> <TD>novantesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>100me </TD> <TD>centesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>101me </TD> <TD>cento prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>102de </TD> <TD>cento secunde </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>121me </TD> <TD>cento vinti-prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>150me </TD> <TD>cento cinquantesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>200me </TD> <TD>duo centesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>201me </TD> <TD>duo centos prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>300me </TD> <TD>tres centesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>381me </TD> <TD>tres centos octanta-prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1000me </TD> <TD>millesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1001me </TD> <TD>mille prime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>2000me </TD> <TD>duo millesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1.000.000me</TD> <TD>millionesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1.000.000.000me</TD> <TD>billionesime </TD></TR> <TR> <TD>1.000.000.000.000me </TD> <TD>trillionesime</TD></TR></TABLE></CENTER><BR> 1020 149 2005-04-20T20:48:43Z Josu Lavin 2 <html> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> <meta name="FORMATTER" content="Microsoft FrontPage 2.0"> <meta name="Author" content="Ensjo (Emerson Jos&eacute; Silveira da Costa)"> <meta name="GENERATOR" content="Microsoft FrontPage 3.0"> <title>Breve Grammatica de Interlingua</title> </head> <body style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" alink="#40c0ff" link="#000080" vlink="#000080"> <p><br> </p> <p><a name="alto"></a></p> <p><br> </p> <div align="center"> <center> <table style="width: 629px; height: 4778px;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="center" valign="top" width="100"> <a href="http://www.europarl.eu.int" target="_blank"><br> </a><br> </td> <td valign="top" width="500"> <table style="width: 626px; height: 4694px;" border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="6"> <tbody> <tr> <td colspan="2" align="right" valign="bottom" width="100%"><b><tt>R E F E R E N T I A</tt></b> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nic cade quasi sempre super le vocal ante le <u>u</u>ltime consonante. Pro facilitar vostre lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>a</u> le vocal t<u>o</u>nic.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>Le gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illos de <u>a</u>ltere "linguas international", es tamben basate s<u>u</u>per un evalutation objective de illo que es de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que le the<u>o</u>ricos pensa que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode e Blair diceva: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que es incontrate in tote le linguas-fontes esser<u>a</u> retenite in le grammatica de... [Interlingua]; o negativemente, necun character<u>i</u>stica grammatical esser<u>a</u> retenite si illo es absente in al minus un del linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractive e felice de isto es que, durante que le grande internationalitate del parolas europ<u>e</u>e ha date a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, le internationalitate defective del finales grammatical lo ha fornite un gramm<u>a</u>tica de extreme simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definite es <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite es <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post cononante, <strong>-es</strong>. Un parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere o n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante o post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo es absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per le addition de <strong>-mente</strong> o, post un final <strong>-c</strong>, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviemente, il ha varie adverbios "primari" que non es derivate de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personal</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tbody> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessive</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculin</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminin</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutre</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminate</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas o animales cuje sexo es inc<u>o</u>gnite:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> es usate pro <em>persona indeterminate</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duo formas de possessivo. Le forma plus curte es usate ante le substantivo e sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In altere casos, on usa le forma plus longe:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In le conjugation del verbos il non ha terminationes personal. Le verbo assume solmente 7 formas differente, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passate</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Alcun rar verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forma participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usate como substantivo; le participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> habe formas alternative in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>ltere formas alternative:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> es le imperativo e subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfecte con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar le voce passive con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Iste duo verbos pote esser miscite in formationes plus complexe:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le pronunciation de Interlingua es multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano o espaniol. <p>Casos que merita nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> e derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirate; optionalmente mute.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in le parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> o <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine del parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </center> </div> </body> </html> 150 2005-04-21T23:05:52Z Josu Lavin 2 <td colspan="2" align="right" valign="bottom" width="100%"><b><tt>R E F E R E N T I A</tt></b> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nic cade quasi sempre super le vocal ante le <u>u</u>ltime consonante. Pro facilitar vostre lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>a</u> le vocal t<u>o</u>nic.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>Le gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illos de <u>a</u>ltere "linguas international", es tamben basate s<u>u</u>per un evalutation objective de illo que es de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que le the<u>o</u>ricos pensa que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode e Blair diceva: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que es incontrate in tote le linguas-fontes esser<u>a</u> retenite in le grammatica de... [Interlingua]; o negativemente, necun character<u>i</u>stica grammatical esser<u>a</u> retenite si illo es absente in al minus un del linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractive e felice de isto es que, durante que le grande internationalitate del parolas europ<u>e</u>e ha date a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, le internationalitate defective del finales grammatical lo ha fornite un gramm<u>a</u>tica de extreme simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definite es <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite es <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post cononante, <strong>-es</strong>. Un parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere o n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante o post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo es absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per le addition de <strong>-mente</strong> o, post un final <strong>-c</strong>, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviemente, il ha varie adverbios "primari" que non es derivate de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personal</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tbody> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessive</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculin</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminin</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutre</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminate</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas o animales cuje sexo es inc<u>o</u>gnite:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> es usate pro <em>persona indeterminate</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duo formas de possessivo. Le forma plus curte es usate ante le substantivo e sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In altere casos, on usa le forma plus longe:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In le conjugation del verbos il non ha terminationes personal. Le verbo assume solmente 7 formas differente, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passate</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>Alcun rar verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forma participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usate como substantivo; le participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> habe formas alternative in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>ltere formas alternative:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> es le imperativo e subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfecte con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar le voce passive con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Iste duo verbos pote esser miscite in formationes plus complexe:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le pronunciation de Interlingua es multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano o espaniol. <p>Casos que merita nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> e derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirate; optionalmente mute.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in le parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> o <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine del parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </center> </div> </body> </html> 2096 2005-04-21T23:15:23Z Josu Lavin 2 <td colspan="3"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nic cade quasi sempre super le vocal ante le <u>u</u>ltime consonante. Pro facilitar vostre lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>a</u> le vocal t<u>o</u>nic.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>Le gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illos de <u>a</u>ltere "linguas international", es tamben basate s<u>u</u>per un evalutation objective de illo que es de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que le the<u>o</u>ricos pensa que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode e Blair diceva: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que es incontrate in tote le linguas-fontes esser<u>a</u> retenite in le grammatica de... [Interlingua]; o negativemente, necun character<u>i</u>stica grammatical esser<u>a</u> retenite si illo es absente in al minus un del linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractive e felice de isto es que, durante que le grande internationalitate del parolas europ<u>e</u>e ha date a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, le internationalitate defective del finales grammatical lo ha fornite un gramm<u>a</u>tica de extreme simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definite es <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite es <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post cononante, <strong>-es</strong>. Un parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere o n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante o post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo es absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per le addition de <strong>-mente</strong> o, post un final <strong>-c</strong>, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviemente, il ha varie adverbios "primari" que non es derivate de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personal</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessive</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculin</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminin</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutre</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminate</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas o animales cuje sexo es inc<u>o</u>gnite:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> es usate pro <em>persona indeterminate</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duo formas de possessivo. Le forma plus curte es usate ante le substantivo e sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In altere casos, on usa le forma plus longe:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In le conjugation del verbos il non ha terminationes personal. Le verbo assume solmente 7 formas differente, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passate</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </table> <p>Alcun rar verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forma participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usate como substantivo; le participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> habe formas alternative in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>ltere formas alternative:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> es le imperativo e subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfecte con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar le voce passive con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Iste duo verbos pote esser miscite in formationes plus complexe:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le pronunciation de Interlingua es multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano o espaniol. <p>Casos que merita nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> e derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirate; optionalmente mute.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in le parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> o <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine del parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> </tr> 1021 136 2005-04-20T23:31:51Z Josu Lavin 2 =CENTO SEXANTA E SEPTE= <b>§167</b><br> <br> <b><i>Nota:</i> Como dictate per requirimentos practic, il es possibile usar duo prepositiones insimul secundo le modello del anglese 'in between' que differe de prepositiones composite como 'into' e 'upon' mermente per le orthographia separate del duo elementos.</b><br> <i>Note:</i> As dictated by practical requirements, it is possible to use two prepositions together after the pattern of English 'in between' which differs from compound prepositions like 'into' and 'upon' merely through the separate spelling of the two elements.<br> <br> <I><b>Io va a in le foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I go into (to in) the forest'<br> <br> <I><b>Io va in le foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I walk in the forest' or 'I walk into the forest')<br> <br> <I><b>illo cadeva a inter le libros</I></b><br> <br> 'It fell down (to a place) in between the books'<br> <br> <I><b>illa te accompaniara usque a trans le montanias</I></b><br> <br> 'She will accompany you to (a place) beyond the mountains'<br> [[167_ra | ROMANICA]] 2097 2005-04-21T12:47:28Z Josu Lavin 2 =CENTO SEXANTA SEPTE= <b>§167</b><br> <br> <b><i>Nota:</i> Como dictate per requirimentos practic, il es possibile usar duo prepositiones insimul secundo le modello del anglese 'in between' que differe de prepositiones composite como 'into' e 'upon' mermente per le orthographia separate del duo elementos.</b><br> <i>Note:</i> As dictated by practical requirements, it is possible to use two prepositions together after the pattern of English 'in between' which differs from compound prepositions like 'into' and 'upon' merely through the separate spelling of the two elements.<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Io va a in le foresta</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Io vai a in la foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I go into (to in) the forest'<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Io va in le foresta</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Io vai in la foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I walk in the forest' or 'I walk into the forest')<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Illo cadeva a inter le libros</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Illo cadeva a inter los libros</I></b><br> <br> 'It fell down (to a place) in between the books'<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Illa te accompaniara usque a trans le montanias</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Illa te accompaniara usque a trans las montanias</I></b><br> <br> 'She will accompany you to (a place) beyond the mountains'<br> [[167_ra | ROMANICA]] 1022 137 2005-04-21T06:57:13Z Josu Lavin 2 =CENTO SEXANTA ET SEPTE= <b>§167</b><br> <br> <b><i>Nota:</i> Como dictato per requirimentos practicos, il est possibile usar duas prepositiones insimul secundo le modello del anglese 'in between' que differen de prepositiones compositas como 'into' et 'upon' meramente per la orthographia separata de los duos elementos.</b><br> <i>Note:</i> As dictated by practical requirements, it is possible to use two prepositions together after the pattern of English 'in between' which differs from compound prepositions like 'into' and 'upon' merely through the separate spelling of the two elements.<br> <br> <I><b>Io vai a in la foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I go into (to in) the forest'<br> <br> <I><b>Io vai in la foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I walk in the forest' or 'I walk into the forest')<br> <br> <I><b>illo cadeva a inter los libros</I></b><br> <br> 'It fell down (to a place) in between the books'<br> <br> <I><b>illa te accompaniara usque a trans las montanias</I></b><br> <br> 'She will accompany you to (a place) beyond the mountains'<br> [[167 | INTERLINGUA]] 138 2005-04-21T12:49:21Z Josu Lavin 2 =CENTO SEXANTA SEPTE= <b>§167</b><br> <br> <b><i>Nota:</i> Como dictato per requirimentos practicos, il est possibile usar duas prepositiones insimul secundo le modello del anglese 'in between' que differen de prepositiones compositas como 'into' et 'upon' meramente per la orthographia separata de los duos elementos.</b><br> <i>Note:</i> As dictated by practical requirements, it is possible to use two prepositions together after the pattern of English 'in between' which differs from compound prepositions like 'into' and 'upon' merely through the separate spelling of the two elements.<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Io va a in le foresta</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Io vai a in la foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I go into (to in) the forest'<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Io va in le foresta</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Io vai in la foresta</I></b><br> <br> 'I walk in the forest' or 'I walk into the forest')<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Illo cadeva a inter le libros</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Illo cadeva a inter los libros</I></b><br> <br> 'It fell down (to a place) in between the books'<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Illa te accompaniara usque a trans le montanias</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Illa te accompaniara usque a trans las montanias</I></b><br> <br> 'She will accompany you to (a place) beyond the mountains'<br> [[167 | INTERLINGUA]] 2098 2005-04-21T14:43:20Z Josu Lavin 2 =CENTO SEXANTA SEPTE= <b>§167</b><br> <br> <b><i>Nota:</i> Como dictato per requirimentos practicos, il est possibile usar duas prepositiones insimul secundo le modello del anglese 'in between' que differen de prepositiones compositas como 'into' et 'upon' meramente per la orthographia separata de los duos elementos.</b><br> <i>Note:</i> As dictated by practical requirements, it is possible to use two prepositions together after the pattern of English 'in between' which differs from compound prepositions like 'into' and 'upon' merely through the separate spelling of the two elements.<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Io va a in le foresta</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Io vai a in la foresta</I></b><br> en: I go into (to in) the forest<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Io va in le foresta</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Io vai in la foresta</I></b><br> en: I walk in the forest <i>or</i> I walk into the forest<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Illo cadeva a inter le libros</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Illo cadeva a inter los libros</I></b><br> en: It fell down (to a place) in between the books<br> <br> ia: <I><b>Illa te accompaniara usque a trans le montanias</I></b><br> ra: <I><b>Illa te accompaniara usque a trans las montanias</I></b><br> en: She will accompany you to (a place) beyond the mountains<br> [[167 | INTERLINGUA]] 1023 127 2005-04-21T09:17:29Z Josu Lavin 2 =ia: Grammatica de Interlingua e de Romanica= =ra: Grammatica de Interlingua et de Romanica= 156 2005-04-21T10:40:38Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_en|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ia|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua_ra|1. GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 2099 2005-04-22T11:35:37Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Grammatica_de_Interlingua|GRAMMATICA DE INTERLINGUA]] 1024 128 2005-04-21T10:38:56Z Josu Lavin 2 ===INTERLINGUA GRAMMAR=== ===CONTENTS=== *[[Preface|1. PREFACE]] *[[Introduction:_General Principles|2. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL PRINCIPLES]] *[[Spelling_and_Pronunciation|3. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION]] *[[Parts_of_Speech|4. PARTS OF SPEECH]] *[[Grammatical_Words|5. GRAMMATICAL WORDS]] *[[Word_Building|6. WORD BUILDING]] *[[Alphabetical_Index|7. ALPHABETICAL INDEX]] *[[Numerical_Index|8. NUMERICAL INDEX]] ===APPENDICES=== *[[Double-Stem_Verbs|1. DOUBLE-STEM VERBS]] *[[English-Interlingua_Word_List|2. ENGLISH INTERLINGUA WORD LIST]] *[[Sample_Texts|3. SAMPLE TEXTS]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 2100 2005-04-21T10:52:29Z Josu Lavin 2 ===INTERLINGUA GRAMMAR=== ===CONTENTS=== *[[Preface_en|1. PREFACE]] *[[Introduction:_General Principles_en|2. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL PRINCIPLES]] *[[Spelling_and_Pronunciation_en|3. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION]] *[[Parts_of_Speech_en|4. PARTS OF SPEECH]] *[[Grammatical_Words_en|5. GRAMMATICAL WORDS]] *[[Word_Building_en|6. WORD BUILDING]] *[[Alphabetical_Index_en|7. ALPHABETICAL INDEX]] *[[Numerical_Index_en|8. NUMERICAL INDEX]] ===APPENDICES=== *[[Double-Stem_Verbs_en|1. DOUBLE-STEM VERBS]] *[[English-Interlingua_Word_List_en|2. ENGLISH INTERLINGUA WORD LIST]] *[[Sample_Texts_en|3. SAMPLE TEXTS]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 1025 2101 2005-04-21T10:42:34Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Preface to the Second Edition</b><br> <br> The Preface to the First Edition of this Grammar has been read with approval by a number of individuals known for their contributions in the field of interlinguistic experimentation. They have authorized the use of their names in this place because they believe, as the authors do, that the unity of the auxiliary-language movement depends on neither more nor less than unanimity in principle regarding the ultimate bases of the modern interlingua, for these bases are strong enough for the most complete freedom of choice in operational procedures to become beneficial rather than detrimental to the common cause. The signers have not seen the manuscript of the grammar itself and their endorsement as here presented may not be construed as applying to anything but the guiding ideas of the Preface. It must also be understood that the signers were approached as individuals and not as members of a particular group. As a matter of fact, it was felt best to forgo the inclusion in the list not only of all organizations but also of those of their members whose representation in this place might conceivably be misconstrued as involving more than their personal points of view.<br> <br> Henk Bijlsma<br> <br> Aldo Lavagnini<br> <br> Henrik Molenaar<br> <br> A. De Belie<br> <br> Campos Lima<br> <br> Engelbert Pigal<br> <br> Walter Hinde<br> <br> Paul Mitrovich<br> <br> André Schild<br> <br> ______________________________________________________________________<br> <br> When this book was first published in 1951, the language it describes was a project. Today, little more than three years later, it is a functioning reality.<br> <br> In 1953 the International Auxiliary Language Association -- under whose sponsorship all the research and all the laboratory work which culminated in the formulation of Interlingua had been carried out -- turned over the task of promoting the practical utilization of the new language to Science Service, the Institution for the Popularization of Science. In two years of operation the Interlingua Division of Science Service has succeeded in demonstrating the practical value of Interlingua as a tool of international communication, especially in science and most particularly in medicine. Numerous journals have adopted Interlingua as a secondary editorial language for abstracts and summaries, and several international congresses -- notably the Second World Congress of Cardiology in 1954 in Washington -- have found it useful as a substitute for multiple translation in their programs. <br> <br> The phenomenal progress of Interlingua is proof of the soundness of its underlying principles, but without the wise guidance and the contagious drive of one man -- Mr. Watson Davis, Director of Science Service -- we would not and could not be where we actually are. <br> <br> This Second Edition of our Interlingua Grammar is a carefully corrected reprint of the first. In its preparation we have gratefully made use of comments from many students of Interlingua, especially Mr. Erich Berger of New York City, Mr. Woodruff W. Bryne of Caracas, and Dr. Eugen Wiister of Vienna. <br> <br> The text of the Preface to the First Edition follows unchanged in substance. <br> <br> This grammar is designed to function in conjunction with the international vocabulary contained in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. (Interlingua-English, a Dictionary of the International Language, prepared by the research staff of the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D. 480 pp. Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.) <br> <br> The Dictionary contains a copious all-purpose vocabulary of about 27,000 international words and includes an Introduction with a detailed analysis of the methods employed in gathering and standardizing so comprehensive a body of terms which owe their representation in a variety of national languages to the fact that, with regard to considerable portions of their vocabularies, the languages of Western civilization may be viewed as so many variants or dialects of a common standard. <br> <br> There can be no practical auxiliary language in modern times which does not make use in one way or another of the existing international vocabulary. This implies that the Interlingua-English Dictionary -- which represents a collection of the international vocabulary -- may be expected to prove useful from the viewpoint of most, if not all, auxiliary-language systems now extant, in so far as they are based on, or are influenced by, the principle of actual internationality of words. <br> <br> Whether other auxiliary-language systems will use the material embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary in its present state or with minor or major modifications and qualifications, the result will be a welcome rapprochement of the several systems and projects which may thus be more clearly recognized as what they really are: variants or dialects of the same interlingua. <br> <br> This grammar of the international language is recommended as a convenient system to operate the vocabulary of the Interlingua-English Dictionary. It is a practical and simple system, but all its advantages cannot make us overlook the fact that the auxiliary-language project it represents is but one variant or dialect of the type referred to above. This point bears so much stressing because it is of great practical importance that the reader should understand in what sense he is not to be introduced here to a brand-new language practiced by a handful of eager pioneers, but that the use of this grammar will make him a member of a sizable community of auxiliary-language advocates in all parts of the world who speak and write the same language with more or less striking deviations. It is in the nature of this language that it can be managed with a good deal of elasticity according to one or another of kindred grammatical systems, just as it is in the nature of any ethnic language that it can be used in regional, social, or individual variations. <br> <br> As a matter of fact, the grammar here presented -- while completely unambiguous in its individual rules -- makes provision for at least one collateral variant as covered by<br> <br> §15 Note <br> <br> §57 Note<br> <br> §79 Note<br> <br> §97<br> <br> §116 Note<br> <br> §134 end of introductory note<br> <br> §148 Note<br> <br> It is important that an ever-increasing number of people all over the world should learn to communicate with other nationals by means of the common international language. We hope that many will do so on the basis of this grammar, but it was with considered care that we called it a grammar of the international language, which is to imply that other grammars and other variants of the same language are not only possible but highly welcome. <br> <br> A.G.<br> <br> H. E. B. <br> <br> 1026 129 2005-04-21T10:50:24Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Introduction: Principios General</b><br> Introduction: General Principles<br> <b>"Vocabulario" e "grammatica" non es duo categorias hermeticamente isolate. Si le grammatica describe le structura de un lingua, il va sin dicer que nulle tal description pote offerer se sin constante referentia a materia lexic illustrante varie tractos structural. Sed il es etiam ver que il non poter haber un dictionario de vocabulos presentate como amorphe crude materia. Registrationes lexic son necessarimente possedite de structura e le structura de vocabulos e phrases es un cosa del grammatica.</b><br> <br> "Vocabulary" and "grammar" are not hermetically sealed-off categories. If grammar describes the structure of a language, it goes without saying that no such description can be offered without constant reference to word material illustrative of various structural features. But it is also true that there can be no dictionary of words presented as amorphous raw material. Lexical listings are necessarily possessed of structure, and the structure of words and phrases is a matter of grammar.<br> <br> <b>Iste observationes non es facite pro suggerer que le distinction inter vocabulario e grammatica sia abandonate, ni que lor tractamento sub testas separate es exclusivemente un acto de convenientia practic. Illos es facite solmente pro reaffirmar le facto que le vocabulario e le grammatica de un particular lingua es interdependente como aspectos natural- e necessemente compatibile de un singule phenomeno. Ultra isto illos pote relevar le question qual special characteristicas distingue le relationes inter le vocabulario e le grammatica in le caso de un lingua projectate.</b><br> <br> These observations are not to suggest that the distinction between vocabulary and grammar might be abandoned, nor even that their treatment under separate heads is exclusively a matter of practical convenience. They are merely to restate the fact that the vocabulary and the grammar of a particular language are interdependent as naturally and necessarily compatible aspects of one and the same phenomenon. Beyond this they may raise the question as to what special characteristics distinguish the relationship of vocabulary and grammar in the case of a planned interlingua.<br> <br> <b>Le character basic de qualcunque lingua es amplemente determinate per tractos de natura structural, i.e. grammatical. Le dictionario de un lingua pote esser invadite per torrentes de vocabulos extranier, sed si su patronos de structura lexic e syntactic remane intacte, le materia extranier essera finalmente assimilate e le character basic del lingua supervivera essentialmente inalterate.</b><br> <br> The basic character of any language is largely determined by features of a structural, i.e., a grammatical nature. Let the dictionary of a language be invaded by hordes of foreign words, as long as its patterns of word and sentence structure stay intact, the foreign material will eventually be assimilated and the basic character of the language will survive essentially unchanged.<br> <br> <b>Iste principio applicabile a omne linguages, es impressivemente illustrate per le anglese con su considerabile vocabulario romance assimilate verso un base germanic.</b><br> <br> This principle, applicable to all languages, is strikingly illustrated by English with its very considerable Romance vocabulary assimilated to a Teutonic base.<br> <br> <b>Il non ha un ration apparente que linguas projectate esserea governate per leges fundamentalmente differente. Totevia a un vista superficial lor situation pare completemente reverse. Il habeva un ample possibilitate que, un vice que accordo super le vocabulario le melior possibile pro un lingua auxiliar es assecurate, opiniones differente con respecto a problemas grammatic duce a nihil altere que variantes parallel de un singule lingua general. Sed isto non se presenta proque le structura grammatical de un lingua projectate es minus significante que illo de linguas natural; illo se presenta proque un establite vocabulario implica le poner de si multe questiones de structura, i.a. de grammatica, que le remanente tractos grammatic joca necessarimente un parte subordinate e dependente.</b><br> <br> There is no apparent reason that planned auxiliary languages should be governed by fundamentally different laws. Yet superficially their situation does look completely reversed. There has been ample opportunity to observe that once agreement on the best possible vocabulary for an auxiliary language is assured, diversities of opinion in regard to grammatical problems lead to nothing more than parallel variants of one general language. But this is not so because the grammatical structure of planned languages is less significant than that of natural languages; it is so because an established vocabulary implies the settlement of so many questions of structure, i.e., of grammar, that the remaining grammatical features play of necessity a subordinate and dependent role.<br> <br> <b>Il es, alora, solmente un apparente inversion del principio del precedentia del grammatica super le vocabulario que post le determination de un projectate lingua auxiliar, omne cosas que remane a dicer via le grammatica debe completemente subordinar se al characteristicas del vocabulario. Le structura grammatical de un lingua natural face lo. Sed le determination del vocabulario lassa pauc questiones grammatic toto indeterminate.</b><br> <br> It is, then, only a seeming reversal of the principle of grammar's precedence over vocabulary that after the vocabulary of a planned auxiliary language has been determined all that remains to be said by way of grammar must be completely subordinated to the structural characteristics of the vocabulary. The grammatical structure of a planned language determines its basic character precisely as does the structure of a natural language But the determination of the vocabulary leaves few grammatical questions wholly indeterminate.<br> <br> <b>Le vocabulario del forma del interlingua proponite per le IALA es incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. Le principio fundamental del grammatica correspondente debe esser que iste grammatica sia le minimo del systema le plus possibilemente simple, e apte pro guidar le uso del vocabulario selegite in linguage coherente.</b><br> <br> The vocabulary of IALA's form of the interlingua is that embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. The fundamental principle of the corresponding grammar must be that this grammar shall be the minimum or simplest possible system fit to govern the use of the chosen vocabulary in coherent speech.<br> <br> <b>Le tentativa del IALA a compilar un dictionario de parolas generalmente international duceva necessarimente al collection de un vocabulario essentialmente romance. Le linguas fonte a cuje sphera cerca e recerca pote restringer se securmente, esseva espaniol e portugese, italiano, francese e anglese, con germano e russo como possibile substitutos.</b><br> <br> IALA's endeavor to compile a dictionary of generally international words led of necessity to the assembly of a basically Romance vocabulary. The source languages to whose domain search and research could safely be restricted were Spanish and Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian as possible substitutes. (For further details, see Interlingua-English Dictionary, "Introduction").<br> <br> <b>Per consequentia un solide principio de operation in le elaboration del systema IALA de grammatica es que le termino "grammatica minimal" non permittera le suppression de qualcunque tracto grammatic que secundo le testimonio del linguas fonte es indispensabile in le governamento de lor vocabularios e consequentemente del vocabulario del interlingua incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. In altere terminos, cata tracto grammatic que se trova in tote le linguas fonte essera retenite in le grammatica del interlingua, o inversemente nulle tracto grammatic essera retenite, si illo manca in un del linguas fonte. Assi, per exemplo, le tracto de un distincte forma plural del substantivos debe esser retenite proque illo se monstra exister in tote linguas fonte,durante que le tracto de generes grammatic pote esser omittite proque illo manca in un lingua fonte, a saper in anglese.</b><br> <br> Hence a sound working principle in the elaboration of IALA's system of grammar is that the term "minimum grammar" shall not permit the suppression of any grammatical feature which according to the testimony of the source languages is indispensable in the government of their vocabularies and hence of the vocabulary of the interlingua embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. In other words, every grammatical feature which is encountered in all the source languages shall be retained in the grammar of the interlingua, or negatively, no grammatical feature shall be so retained if it is missing from as much as one of the source languages. Thus, for instance, the feature of a distinctive plural form of nouns must be retained because it is found to exist in all the source languages while the feature of grammatical gender can be dispensed with because it is missing in one of the source languages, i.e., in English.<br> <br> <b>Le determination de qual tractos grammatic es retenite in le interlingua, lassa aperte le question del formas que es usate pro representar lo. Le formas de tractos grammatic es determinate tanto como possibile per le medio del methodo elaborate pro le "standardisation" de formas de parolas como analysate in le Introduction al Interlingua-English Dictionary.</b><br> <br> The determination of what grammatical features are to be retained in the interlingua leaves open the question of the forms which are to be used to represent them. The forms of grammatical features are determined as far as possible by means of the method worked out for the "standardization" of forms of words as analyzed in the Introduction to the Interlingua-English Dictionary.<br> <br> <b>Si le material del sequente grammatica pare esser organisate de un maniera pauco orthodoxe, le ration es simplemente que certe capitulos generalmente representate in grammaticas conventional poterea esser omittite in le caso presente perque su materia es completemente coperite per le Dictionario. Assi le grammatica non contine, per exemplo, alicun discussion special de prepositiones e conjunctiones excepto un paragrapho in le titulo de construction de parolas. Il essera mesmo notate que il non ha alicun section concernente le problemas del syntaxe. Tal problemas realmente existe in Interlingua, sed il pareva opportun tractar los in connection con plure partes del phrase cuje functiones in le parola pote esser facite pro implicar tote le questiones syntactic de importantia practic. - Le apparato technic del Dictionario (le lista de abbreviationes, etc.) es applicate mesmo al Grammatica e illo non ha essite includite novemente in le paginas sequente.</b><br> <br> If the material of the following grammar appears to be organized in a somewhat unorthodox way, the reason is simply that certain chapters ordinarily represented in conventional grammars could be omitted in the present instance because their subject matter is completely covered by the Dictionary. Thus the grammar contains, for example, no special discussion of prepositions and conjunctions except for a paragraph under the heading of word building. It will also be noted that there is no section concerned with problems of syntax. Such problems do exist in Interlingua, but it seemed expedient to treat them in connection with the various parts of speech whose functions in the sentence can be made to involve all syntactic questions of practical import. - The technical apparatus of the Dictionary (list of abbreviations, etc.) applies to the Grammar as well and has not been included again in the following pages. <br> 2102 2005-04-21T10:54:00Z Josu Lavin 2 A deler A deler 1027 2103 2005-04-21T10:53:14Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Introduction: Principios General</b><br> Introduction: General Principles<br> <b>"Vocabulario" e "grammatica" non es duo categorias hermeticamente isolate. Si le grammatica describe le structura de un lingua, il va sin dicer que nulle tal description pote offerer se sin constante referentia a materia lexic illustrante varie tractos structural. Sed il es etiam ver que il non poter haber un dictionario de vocabulos presentate como amorphe crude materia. Registrationes lexic son necessarimente possedite de structura e le structura de vocabulos e phrases es un cosa del grammatica.</b><br> <br> "Vocabulary" and "grammar" are not hermetically sealed-off categories. If grammar describes the structure of a language, it goes without saying that no such description can be offered without constant reference to word material illustrative of various structural features. But it is also true that there can be no dictionary of words presented as amorphous raw material. Lexical listings are necessarily possessed of structure, and the structure of words and phrases is a matter of grammar.<br> <br> <b>Iste observationes non es facite pro suggerer que le distinction inter vocabulario e grammatica sia abandonate, ni que lor tractamento sub testas separate es exclusivemente un acto de convenientia practic. Illos es facite solmente pro reaffirmar le facto que le vocabulario e le grammatica de un particular lingua es interdependente como aspectos natural- e necessemente compatibile de un singule phenomeno. Ultra isto illos pote relevar le question qual special characteristicas distingue le relationes inter le vocabulario e le grammatica in le caso de un lingua projectate.</b><br> <br> These observations are not to suggest that the distinction between vocabulary and grammar might be abandoned, nor even that their treatment under separate heads is exclusively a matter of practical convenience. They are merely to restate the fact that the vocabulary and the grammar of a particular language are interdependent as naturally and necessarily compatible aspects of one and the same phenomenon. Beyond this they may raise the question as to what special characteristics distinguish the relationship of vocabulary and grammar in the case of a planned interlingua.<br> <br> <b>Le character basic de qualcunque lingua es amplemente determinate per tractos de natura structural, i.e. grammatical. Le dictionario de un lingua pote esser invadite per torrentes de vocabulos extranier, sed si su patronos de structura lexic e syntactic remane intacte, le materia extranier essera finalmente assimilate e le character basic del lingua supervivera essentialmente inalterate.</b><br> <br> The basic character of any language is largely determined by features of a structural, i.e., a grammatical nature. Let the dictionary of a language be invaded by hordes of foreign words, as long as its patterns of word and sentence structure stay intact, the foreign material will eventually be assimilated and the basic character of the language will survive essentially unchanged.<br> <br> <b>Iste principio applicabile a omne linguages, es impressivemente illustrate per le anglese con su considerabile vocabulario romance assimilate verso un base germanic.</b><br> <br> This principle, applicable to all languages, is strikingly illustrated by English with its very considerable Romance vocabulary assimilated to a Teutonic base.<br> <br> <b>Il non ha un ration apparente que linguas projectate esserea governate per leges fundamentalmente differente. Totevia a un vista superficial lor situation pare completemente reverse. Il habeva un ample possibilitate que, un vice que accordo super le vocabulario le melior possibile pro un lingua auxiliar es assecurate, opiniones differente con respecto a problemas grammatic duce a nihil altere que variantes parallel de un singule lingua general. Sed isto non se presenta proque le structura grammatical de un lingua projectate es minus significante que illo de linguas natural; illo se presenta proque un establite vocabulario implica le poner de si multe questiones de structura, i.a. de grammatica, que le remanente tractos grammatic joca necessarimente un parte subordinate e dependente.</b><br> <br> There is no apparent reason that planned auxiliary languages should be governed by fundamentally different laws. Yet superficially their situation does look completely reversed. There has been ample opportunity to observe that once agreement on the best possible vocabulary for an auxiliary language is assured, diversities of opinion in regard to grammatical problems lead to nothing more than parallel variants of one general language. But this is not so because the grammatical structure of planned languages is less significant than that of natural languages; it is so because an established vocabulary implies the settlement of so many questions of structure, i.e., of grammar, that the remaining grammatical features play of necessity a subordinate and dependent role.<br> <br> <b>Il es, alora, solmente un apparente inversion del principio del precedentia del grammatica super le vocabulario que post le determination de un projectate lingua auxiliar, omne cosas que remane a dicer via le grammatica debe completemente subordinar se al characteristicas del vocabulario. Le structura grammatical de un lingua natural face lo. Sed le determination del vocabulario lassa pauc questiones grammatic toto indeterminate.</b><br> <br> It is, then, only a seeming reversal of the principle of grammar's precedence over vocabulary that after the vocabulary of a planned auxiliary language has been determined all that remains to be said by way of grammar must be completely subordinated to the structural characteristics of the vocabulary. The grammatical structure of a planned language determines its basic character precisely as does the structure of a natural language But the determination of the vocabulary leaves few grammatical questions wholly indeterminate.<br> <br> <b>Le vocabulario del forma del interlingua proponite per le IALA es incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. Le principio fundamental del grammatica correspondente debe esser que iste grammatica sia le minimo del systema le plus possibilemente simple, e apte pro guidar le uso del vocabulario selegite in linguage coherente.</b><br> <br> The vocabulary of IALA's form of the interlingua is that embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. The fundamental principle of the corresponding grammar must be that this grammar shall be the minimum or simplest possible system fit to govern the use of the chosen vocabulary in coherent speech.<br> <br> <b>Le tentativa del IALA a compilar un dictionario de parolas generalmente international duceva necessarimente al collection de un vocabulario essentialmente romance. Le linguas fonte a cuje sphera cerca e recerca pote restringer se securmente, esseva espaniol e portugese, italiano, francese e anglese, con germano e russo como possibile substitutos.</b><br> <br> IALA's endeavor to compile a dictionary of generally international words led of necessity to the assembly of a basically Romance vocabulary. The source languages to whose domain search and research could safely be restricted were Spanish and Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian as possible substitutes. (For further details, see Interlingua-English Dictionary, "Introduction").<br> <br> <b>Per consequentia un solide principio de operation in le elaboration del systema IALA de grammatica es que le termino "grammatica minimal" non permittera le suppression de qualcunque tracto grammatic que secundo le testimonio del linguas fonte es indispensabile in le governamento de lor vocabularios e consequentemente del vocabulario del interlingua incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. In altere terminos, cata tracto grammatic que se trova in tote le linguas fonte essera retenite in le grammatica del interlingua, o inversemente nulle tracto grammatic essera retenite, si illo manca in un del linguas fonte. Assi, per exemplo, le tracto de un distincte forma plural del substantivos debe esser retenite proque illo se monstra exister in tote linguas fonte,durante que le tracto de generes grammatic pote esser omittite proque illo manca in un lingua fonte, a saper in anglese.</b><br> <br> Hence a sound working principle in the elaboration of IALA's system of grammar is that the term "minimum grammar" shall not permit the suppression of any grammatical feature which according to the testimony of the source languages is indispensable in the government of their vocabularies and hence of the vocabulary of the interlingua embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. In other words, every grammatical feature which is encountered in all the source languages shall be retained in the grammar of the interlingua, or negatively, no grammatical feature shall be so retained if it is missing from as much as one of the source languages. Thus, for instance, the feature of a distinctive plural form of nouns must be retained because it is found to exist in all the source languages while the feature of grammatical gender can be dispensed with because it is missing in one of the source languages, i.e., in English.<br> <br> <b>Le determination de qual tractos grammatic es retenite in le interlingua, lassa aperte le question del formas que es usate pro representar lo. Le formas de tractos grammatic es determinate tanto como possibile per le medio del methodo elaborate pro le "standardisation" de formas de parolas como analysate in le Introduction al Interlingua-English Dictionary.</b><br> <br> The determination of what grammatical features are to be retained in the interlingua leaves open the question of the forms which are to be used to represent them. The forms of grammatical features are determined as far as possible by means of the method worked out for the "standardization" of forms of words as analyzed in the Introduction to the Interlingua-English Dictionary.<br> <br> <b>Si le material del sequente grammatica pare esser organisate de un maniera pauco orthodoxe, le ration es simplemente que certe capitulos generalmente representate in grammaticas conventional poterea esser omittite in le caso presente perque su materia es completemente coperite per le Dictionario. Assi le grammatica non contine, per exemplo, alicun discussion special de prepositiones e conjunctiones excepto un paragrapho in le titulo de construction de parolas. Il essera mesmo notate que il non ha alicun section concernente le problemas del syntaxe. Tal problemas realmente existe in Interlingua, sed il pareva opportun tractar los in connection con plure partes del phrase cuje functiones in le parola pote esser facite pro implicar tote le questiones syntactic de importantia practic. - Le apparato technic del Dictionario (le lista de abbreviationes, etc.) es applicate mesmo al Grammatica e illo non ha essite includite novemente in le paginas sequente.</b><br> <br> If the material of the following grammar appears to be organized in a somewhat unorthodox way, the reason is simply that certain chapters ordinarily represented in conventional grammars could be omitted in the present instance because their subject matter is completely covered by the Dictionary. Thus the grammar contains, for example, no special discussion of prepositions and conjunctions except for a paragraph under the heading of word building. It will also be noted that there is no section concerned with problems of syntax. Such problems do exist in Interlingua, but it seemed expedient to treat them in connection with the various parts of speech whose functions in the sentence can be made to involve all syntactic questions of practical import. - The technical apparatus of the Dictionary (list of abbreviations, etc.) applies to the Grammar as well and has not been included again in the following pages. <br> 1028 2104 2005-04-21T10:55:11Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Introduction: Principios General</b><br> Introduction: General Principles<br> <b>"Vocabulario" e "grammatica" non es duo categorias hermeticamente isolate. Si le grammatica describe le structura de un lingua, il va sin dicer que nulle tal description pote offerer se sin constante referentia a materia lexic illustrante varie tractos structural. Sed il es etiam ver que il non poter haber un dictionario de vocabulos presentate como amorphe crude materia. Registrationes lexic son necessarimente possedite de structura e le structura de vocabulos e phrases es un cosa del grammatica.</b><br> <br> "Vocabulary" and "grammar" are not hermetically sealed-off categories. If grammar describes the structure of a language, it goes without saying that no such description can be offered without constant reference to word material illustrative of various structural features. But it is also true that there can be no dictionary of words presented as amorphous raw material. Lexical listings are necessarily possessed of structure, and the structure of words and phrases is a matter of grammar.<br> <br> <b>Iste observationes non es facite pro suggerer que le distinction inter vocabulario e grammatica sia abandonate, ni que lor tractamento sub testas separate es exclusivemente un acto de convenientia practic. Illos es facite solmente pro reaffirmar le facto que le vocabulario e le grammatica de un particular lingua es interdependente como aspectos natural- e necessemente compatibile de un singule phenomeno. Ultra isto illos pote relevar le question qual special characteristicas distingue le relationes inter le vocabulario e le grammatica in le caso de un lingua projectate.</b><br> <br> These observations are not to suggest that the distinction between vocabulary and grammar might be abandoned, nor even that their treatment under separate heads is exclusively a matter of practical convenience. They are merely to restate the fact that the vocabulary and the grammar of a particular language are interdependent as naturally and necessarily compatible aspects of one and the same phenomenon. Beyond this they may raise the question as to what special characteristics distinguish the relationship of vocabulary and grammar in the case of a planned interlingua.<br> <br> <b>Le character basic de qualcunque lingua es amplemente determinate per tractos de natura structural, i.e. grammatical. Le dictionario de un lingua pote esser invadite per torrentes de vocabulos extranier, sed si su patronos de structura lexic e syntactic remane intacte, le materia extranier essera finalmente assimilate e le character basic del lingua supervivera essentialmente inalterate.</b><br> <br> The basic character of any language is largely determined by features of a structural, i.e., a grammatical nature. Let the dictionary of a language be invaded by hordes of foreign words, as long as its patterns of word and sentence structure stay intact, the foreign material will eventually be assimilated and the basic character of the language will survive essentially unchanged.<br> <br> <b>Iste principio applicabile a omne linguages, es impressivemente illustrate per le anglese con su considerabile vocabulario romance assimilate verso un base germanic.</b><br> <br> This principle, applicable to all languages, is strikingly illustrated by English with its very considerable Romance vocabulary assimilated to a Teutonic base.<br> <br> <b>Il non ha un ration apparente que linguas projectate esserea governate per leges fundamentalmente differente. Totevia a un vista superficial lor situation pare completemente reverse. Il habeva un ample possibilitate que, un vice que accordo super le vocabulario le melior possibile pro un lingua auxiliar es assecurate, opiniones differente con respecto a problemas grammatic duce a nihil altere que variantes parallel de un singule lingua general. Sed isto non se presenta proque le structura grammatical de un lingua projectate es minus significante que illo de linguas natural; illo se presenta proque un establite vocabulario implica le poner de si multe questiones de structura, i.a. de grammatica, que le remanente tractos grammatic joca necessarimente un parte subordinate e dependente.</b><br> <br> There is no apparent reason that planned auxiliary languages should be governed by fundamentally different laws. Yet superficially their situation does look completely reversed. There has been ample opportunity to observe that once agreement on the best possible vocabulary for an auxiliary language is assured, diversities of opinion in regard to grammatical problems lead to nothing more than parallel variants of one general language. But this is not so because the grammatical structure of planned languages is less significant than that of natural languages; it is so because an established vocabulary implies the settlement of so many questions of structure, i.e., of grammar, that the remaining grammatical features play of necessity a subordinate and dependent role.<br> <br> <b>Il es, alora, solmente un apparente inversion del principio del precedentia del grammatica super le vocabulario que post le determination de un projectate lingua auxiliar, omne cosas que remane a dicer via le grammatica debe completemente subordinar se al characteristicas del vocabulario. Le structura grammatical de un lingua natural face lo. Sed le determination del vocabulario lassa pauc questiones grammatic toto indeterminate.</b><br> <br> It is, then, only a seeming reversal of the principle of grammar's precedence over vocabulary that after the vocabulary of a planned auxiliary language has been determined all that remains to be said by way of grammar must be completely subordinated to the structural characteristics of the vocabulary. The grammatical structure of a planned language determines its basic character precisely as does the structure of a natural language But the determination of the vocabulary leaves few grammatical questions wholly indeterminate.<br> <br> <b>Le vocabulario del forma del interlingua proponite per le IALA es incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. Le principio fundamental del grammatica correspondente debe esser que iste grammatica sia le minimo del systema le plus possibilemente simple, e apte pro guidar le uso del vocabulario selegite in linguage coherente.</b><br> <br> The vocabulary of IALA's form of the interlingua is that embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. The fundamental principle of the corresponding grammar must be that this grammar shall be the minimum or simplest possible system fit to govern the use of the chosen vocabulary in coherent speech.<br> <br> <b>Le tentativa del IALA a compilar un dictionario de parolas generalmente international duceva necessarimente al collection de un vocabulario essentialmente romance. Le linguas fonte a cuje sphera cerca e recerca pote restringer se securmente, esseva espaniol e portugese, italiano, francese e anglese, con germano e russo como possibile substitutos.</b><br> <br> IALA's endeavor to compile a dictionary of generally international words led of necessity to the assembly of a basically Romance vocabulary. The source languages to whose domain search and research could safely be restricted were Spanish and Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian as possible substitutes. (For further details, see Interlingua-English Dictionary, "Introduction").<br> <br> <b>Per consequentia un solide principio de operation in le elaboration del systema IALA de grammatica es que le termino "grammatica minimal" non permittera le suppression de qualcunque tracto grammatic que secundo le testimonio del linguas fonte es indispensabile in le governamento de lor vocabularios e consequentemente del vocabulario del interlingua incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. In altere terminos, cata tracto grammatic que se trova in tote le linguas fonte essera retenite in le grammatica del interlingua, o inversemente nulle tracto grammatic essera retenite, si illo manca in un del linguas fonte. Assi, per exemplo, le tracto de un distincte forma plural del substantivos debe esser retenite proque illo se monstra exister in tote linguas fonte,durante que le tracto de generes grammatic pote esser omittite proque illo manca in un lingua fonte, a saper in anglese.</b><br> <br> Hence a sound working principle in the elaboration of IALA's system of grammar is that the term "minimum grammar" shall not permit the suppression of any grammatical feature which according to the testimony of the source languages is indispensable in the government of their vocabularies and hence of the vocabulary of the interlingua embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. In other words, every grammatical feature which is encountered in all the source languages shall be retained in the grammar of the interlingua, or negatively, no grammatical feature shall be so retained if it is missing from as much as one of the source languages. Thus, for instance, the feature of a distinctive plural form of nouns must be retained because it is found to exist in all the source languages while the feature of grammatical gender can be dispensed with because it is missing in one of the source languages, i.e., in English.<br> <br> <b>Le determination de qual tractos grammatic es retenite in le interlingua, lassa aperte le question del formas que es usate pro representar lo. Le formas de tractos grammatic es determinate tanto como possibile per le medio del methodo elaborate pro le "standardisation" de formas de parolas como analysate in le Introduction al Interlingua-English Dictionary.</b><br> <br> The determination of what grammatical features are to be retained in the interlingua leaves open the question of the forms which are to be used to represent them. The forms of grammatical features are determined as far as possible by means of the method worked out for the "standardization" of forms of words as analyzed in the Introduction to the Interlingua-English Dictionary.<br> <br> <b>Si le material del sequente grammatica pare esser organisate de un maniera pauco orthodoxe, le ration es simplemente que certe capitulos generalmente representate in grammaticas conventional poterea esser omittite in le caso presente perque su materia es completemente coperite per le Dictionario. Assi le grammatica non contine, per exemplo, alicun discussion special de prepositiones e conjunctiones excepto un paragrapho in le titulo de construction de parolas. Il essera mesmo notate que il non ha alicun section concernente le problemas del syntaxe. Tal problemas realmente existe in Interlingua, sed il pareva opportun tractar los in connection con plure partes del phrase cuje functiones in le parola pote esser facite pro implicar tote le questiones syntactic de importantia practic. - Le apparato technic del Dictionario (le lista de abbreviationes, etc.) es applicate mesmo al Grammatica e illo non ha essite includite novemente in le paginas sequente.</b><br> <br> If the material of the following grammar appears to be organized in a somewhat unorthodox way, the reason is simply that certain chapters ordinarily represented in conventional grammars could be omitted in the present instance because their subject matter is completely covered by the Dictionary. Thus the grammar contains, for example, no special discussion of prepositions and conjunctions except for a paragraph under the heading of word building. It will also be noted that there is no section concerned with problems of syntax. Such problems do exist in Interlingua, but it seemed expedient to treat them in connection with the various parts of speech whose functions in the sentence can be made to involve all syntactic questions of practical import. - The technical apparatus of the Dictionary (list of abbreviations, etc.) applies to the Grammar as well and has not been included again in the following pages. <br> 1029 133 2005-04-21T10:55:48Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Introduction: Principios General</b><br> Introduction: General Principles<br> <b>"Vocabulario" e "grammatica" non es duo categorias hermeticamente isolate. Si le grammatica describe le structura de un lingua, il va sin dicer que nulle tal description pote offerer se sin constante referentia a materia lexic illustrante varie tractos structural. Sed il es etiam ver que il non poter haber un dictionario de vocabulos presentate como amorphe crude materia. Registrationes lexic son necessarimente possedite de structura e le structura de vocabulos e phrases es un cosa del grammatica.</b><br> <br> "Vocabulary" and "grammar" are not hermetically sealed-off categories. If grammar describes the structure of a language, it goes without saying that no such description can be offered without constant reference to word material illustrative of various structural features. But it is also true that there can be no dictionary of words presented as amorphous raw material. Lexical listings are necessarily possessed of structure, and the structure of words and phrases is a matter of grammar.<br> <br> <b>Iste observationes non es facite pro suggerer que le distinction inter vocabulario e grammatica sia abandonate, ni que lor tractamento sub testas separate es exclusivemente un acto de convenientia practic. Illos es facite solmente pro reaffirmar le facto que le vocabulario e le grammatica de un particular lingua es interdependente como aspectos natural- e necessemente compatibile de un singule phenomeno. Ultra isto illos pote relevar le question qual special characteristicas distingue le relationes inter le vocabulario e le grammatica in le caso de un lingua projectate.</b><br> <br> These observations are not to suggest that the distinction between vocabulary and grammar might be abandoned, nor even that their treatment under separate heads is exclusively a matter of practical convenience. They are merely to restate the fact that the vocabulary and the grammar of a particular language are interdependent as naturally and necessarily compatible aspects of one and the same phenomenon. Beyond this they may raise the question as to what special characteristics distinguish the relationship of vocabulary and grammar in the case of a planned interlingua.<br> <br> <b>Le character basic de qualcunque lingua es amplemente determinate per tractos de natura structural, i.e. grammatical. Le dictionario de un lingua pote esser invadite per torrentes de vocabulos extranier, sed si su patronos de structura lexic e syntactic remane intacte, le materia extranier essera finalmente assimilate e le character basic del lingua supervivera essentialmente inalterate.</b><br> <br> The basic character of any language is largely determined by features of a structural, i.e., a grammatical nature. Let the dictionary of a language be invaded by hordes of foreign words, as long as its patterns of word and sentence structure stay intact, the foreign material will eventually be assimilated and the basic character of the language will survive essentially unchanged.<br> <br> <b>Iste principio applicabile a omne linguages, es impressivemente illustrate per le anglese con su considerabile vocabulario romance assimilate verso un base germanic.</b><br> <br> This principle, applicable to all languages, is strikingly illustrated by English with its very considerable Romance vocabulary assimilated to a Teutonic base.<br> <br> <b>Il non ha un ration apparente que linguas projectate esserea governate per leges fundamentalmente differente. Totevia a un vista superficial lor situation pare completemente reverse. Il habeva un ample possibilitate que, un vice que accordo super le vocabulario le melior possibile pro un lingua auxiliar es assecurate, opiniones differente con respecto a problemas grammatic duce a nihil altere que variantes parallel de un singule lingua general. Sed isto non se presenta proque le structura grammatical de un lingua projectate es minus significante que illo de linguas natural; illo se presenta proque un establite vocabulario implica le poner de si multe questiones de structura, i.a. de grammatica, que le remanente tractos grammatic joca necessarimente un parte subordinate e dependente.</b><br> <br> There is no apparent reason that planned auxiliary languages should be governed by fundamentally different laws. Yet superficially their situation does look completely reversed. There has been ample opportunity to observe that once agreement on the best possible vocabulary for an auxiliary language is assured, diversities of opinion in regard to grammatical problems lead to nothing more than parallel variants of one general language. But this is not so because the grammatical structure of planned languages is less significant than that of natural languages; it is so because an established vocabulary implies the settlement of so many questions of structure, i.e., of grammar, that the remaining grammatical features play of necessity a subordinate and dependent role.<br> <br> <b>Il es, alora, solmente un apparente inversion del principio del precedentia del grammatica super le vocabulario que post le determination de un projectate lingua auxiliar, omne cosas que remane a dicer via le grammatica debe completemente subordinar se al characteristicas del vocabulario. Le structura grammatical de un lingua natural face lo. Sed le determination del vocabulario lassa pauc questiones grammatic toto indeterminate.</b><br> <br> It is, then, only a seeming reversal of the principle of grammar's precedence over vocabulary that after the vocabulary of a planned auxiliary language has been determined all that remains to be said by way of grammar must be completely subordinated to the structural characteristics of the vocabulary. The grammatical structure of a planned language determines its basic character precisely as does the structure of a natural language But the determination of the vocabulary leaves few grammatical questions wholly indeterminate.<br> <br> <b>Le vocabulario del forma del interlingua proponite per le IALA es incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. Le principio fundamental del grammatica correspondente debe esser que iste grammatica sia le minimo del systema le plus possibilemente simple, e apte pro guidar le uso del vocabulario selegite in linguage coherente.</b><br> <br> The vocabulary of IALA's form of the interlingua is that embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. The fundamental principle of the corresponding grammar must be that this grammar shall be the minimum or simplest possible system fit to govern the use of the chosen vocabulary in coherent speech.<br> <br> <b>Le tentativa del IALA a compilar un dictionario de parolas generalmente international duceva necessarimente al collection de un vocabulario essentialmente romance. Le linguas fonte a cuje sphera cerca e recerca pote restringer se securmente, esseva espaniol e portugese, italiano, francese e anglese, con germano e russo como possibile substitutos.</b><br> <br> IALA's endeavor to compile a dictionary of generally international words led of necessity to the assembly of a basically Romance vocabulary. The source languages to whose domain search and research could safely be restricted were Spanish and Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian as possible substitutes. (For further details, see Interlingua-English Dictionary, "Introduction").<br> <br> <b>Per consequentia un solide principio de operation in le elaboration del systema IALA de grammatica es que le termino "grammatica minimal" non permittera le suppression de qualcunque tracto grammatic que secundo le testimonio del linguas fonte es indispensabile in le governamento de lor vocabularios e consequentemente del vocabulario del interlingua incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. In altere terminos, cata tracto grammatic que se trova in tote le linguas fonte essera retenite in le grammatica del interlingua, o inversemente nulle tracto grammatic essera retenite, si illo manca in un del linguas fonte. Assi, per exemplo, le tracto de un distincte forma plural del substantivos debe esser retenite proque illo se monstra exister in tote linguas fonte,durante que le tracto de generes grammatic pote esser omittite proque illo manca in un lingua fonte, a saper in anglese.</b><br> <br> Hence a sound working principle in the elaboration of IALA's system of grammar is that the term "minimum grammar" shall not permit the suppression of any grammatical feature which according to the testimony of the source languages is indispensable in the government of their vocabularies and hence of the vocabulary of the interlingua embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. In other words, every grammatical feature which is encountered in all the source languages shall be retained in the grammar of the interlingua, or negatively, no grammatical feature shall be so retained if it is missing from as much as one of the source languages. Thus, for instance, the feature of a distinctive plural form of nouns must be retained because it is found to exist in all the source languages while the feature of grammatical gender can be dispensed with because it is missing in one of the source languages, i.e., in English.<br> <br> <b>Le determination de qual tractos grammatic es retenite in le interlingua, lassa aperte le question del formas que es usate pro representar lo. Le formas de tractos grammatic es determinate tanto como possibile per le medio del methodo elaborate pro le "standardisation" de formas de parolas como analysate in le Introduction al Interlingua-English Dictionary.</b><br> <br> The determination of what grammatical features are to be retained in the interlingua leaves open the question of the forms which are to be used to represent them. The forms of grammatical features are determined as far as possible by means of the method worked out for the "standardization" of forms of words as analyzed in the Introduction to the Interlingua-English Dictionary.<br> <br> <b>Si le material del sequente grammatica pare esser organisate de un maniera pauco orthodoxe, le ration es simplemente que certe capitulos generalmente representate in grammaticas conventional poterea esser omittite in le caso presente perque su materia es completemente coperite per le Dictionario. Assi le grammatica non contine, per exemplo, alicun discussion special de prepositiones e conjunctiones excepto un paragrapho in le titulo de construction de parolas. Il essera mesmo notate que il non ha alicun section concernente le problemas del syntaxe. Tal problemas realmente existe in Interlingua, sed il pareva opportun tractar los in connection con plure partes del phrase cuje functiones in le parola pote esser facite pro implicar tote le questiones syntactic de importantia practic. - Le apparato technic del Dictionario (le lista de abbreviationes, etc.) es applicate mesmo al Grammatica e illo non ha essite includite novemente in le paginas sequente.</b><br> <br> If the material of the following grammar appears to be organized in a somewhat unorthodox way, the reason is simply that certain chapters ordinarily represented in conventional grammars could be omitted in the present instance because their subject matter is completely covered by the Dictionary. Thus the grammar contains, for example, no special discussion of prepositions and conjunctions except for a paragraph under the heading of word building. It will also be noted that there is no section concerned with problems of syntax. Such problems do exist in Interlingua, but it seemed expedient to treat them in connection with the various parts of speech whose functions in the sentence can be made to involve all syntactic questions of practical import. - The technical apparatus of the Dictionary (list of abbreviations, etc.) applies to the Grammar as well and has not been included again in the following pages. <br> 2105 2005-04-21T11:09:10Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Introduction: Principios Generales</b><br> Introduction: General Principles<br> <b>"Vocabulario" et "grammatica" non son duas categorias hermeticamente isolatas. Si la grammatica describe la structura de una lingua, il va sin dicer que nulla tal description pote offerer se sin constante referentia a materia lexica illustrante varios tractos structurales. Sed il est etiam vero que il non pote haber un dictionario de vocabulos presentatos como cruda materia amorpha. Registrationes lexicas son necessariamente posseditas de structura et la structura de vocabulos et phrases est una cosa de la grammatica.</b><br> <br> "Vocabulary" and "grammar" are not hermetically sealed-off categories. If grammar describes the structure of a language, it goes without saying that no such description can be offered without constant reference to word material illustrative of various structural features. But it is also true that there can be no dictionary of words presented as amorphous raw material. Lexical listings are necessarily possessed of structure, and the structure of words and phrases is a matter of grammar.<br> <br> <b>Iste observationes non es facite pro suggerer que le distinction inter vocabulario e grammatica sia abandonate, ni que lor tractamento sub testas separate es exclusivemente un acto de convenientia practic. Illos es facite solmente pro reaffirmar le facto que le vocabulario e le grammatica de un particular lingua es interdependente como aspectos natural- e necessemente compatibile de un singule phenomeno. Ultra isto illos pote relevar le question qual special characteristicas distingue le relationes inter le vocabulario e le grammatica in le caso de un lingua projectate.</b><br> <br> These observations are not to suggest that the distinction between vocabulary and grammar might be abandoned, nor even that their treatment under separate heads is exclusively a matter of practical convenience. They are merely to restate the fact that the vocabulary and the grammar of a particular language are interdependent as naturally and necessarily compatible aspects of one and the same phenomenon. Beyond this they may raise the question as to what special characteristics distinguish the relationship of vocabulary and grammar in the case of a planned interlingua.<br> <br> <b>Le character basic de qualcunque lingua es amplemente determinate per tractos de natura structural, i.e. grammatical. Le dictionario de un lingua pote esser invadite per torrentes de vocabulos extranier, sed si su patronos de structura lexic e syntactic remane intacte, le materia extranier essera finalmente assimilate e le character basic del lingua supervivera essentialmente inalterate.</b><br> <br> The basic character of any language is largely determined by features of a structural, i.e., a grammatical nature. Let the dictionary of a language be invaded by hordes of foreign words, as long as its patterns of word and sentence structure stay intact, the foreign material will eventually be assimilated and the basic character of the language will survive essentially unchanged.<br> <br> <b>Iste principio applicabile a omne linguages, es impressivemente illustrate per le anglese con su considerabile vocabulario romance assimilate verso un base germanic.</b><br> <br> This principle, applicable to all languages, is strikingly illustrated by English with its very considerable Romance vocabulary assimilated to a Teutonic base.<br> <br> <b>Il non ha un ration apparente que linguas projectate esserea governate per leges fundamentalmente differente. Totevia a un vista superficial lor situation pare completemente reverse. Il habeva un ample possibilitate que, un vice que accordo super le vocabulario le melior possibile pro un lingua auxiliar es assecurate, opiniones differente con respecto a problemas grammatic duce a nihil altere que variantes parallel de un singule lingua general. Sed isto non se presenta proque le structura grammatical de un lingua projectate es minus significante que illo de linguas natural; illo se presenta proque un establite vocabulario implica le poner de si multe questiones de structura, i.a. de grammatica, que le remanente tractos grammatic joca necessarimente un parte subordinate e dependente.</b><br> <br> There is no apparent reason that planned auxiliary languages should be governed by fundamentally different laws. Yet superficially their situation does look completely reversed. There has been ample opportunity to observe that once agreement on the best possible vocabulary for an auxiliary language is assured, diversities of opinion in regard to grammatical problems lead to nothing more than parallel variants of one general language. But this is not so because the grammatical structure of planned languages is less significant than that of natural languages; it is so because an established vocabulary implies the settlement of so many questions of structure, i.e., of grammar, that the remaining grammatical features play of necessity a subordinate and dependent role.<br> <br> <b>Il es, alora, solmente un apparente inversion del principio del precedentia del grammatica super le vocabulario que post le determination de un projectate lingua auxiliar, omne cosas que remane a dicer via le grammatica debe completemente subordinar se al characteristicas del vocabulario. Le structura grammatical de un lingua natural face lo. Sed le determination del vocabulario lassa pauc questiones grammatic toto indeterminate.</b><br> <br> It is, then, only a seeming reversal of the principle of grammar's precedence over vocabulary that after the vocabulary of a planned auxiliary language has been determined all that remains to be said by way of grammar must be completely subordinated to the structural characteristics of the vocabulary. The grammatical structure of a planned language determines its basic character precisely as does the structure of a natural language But the determination of the vocabulary leaves few grammatical questions wholly indeterminate.<br> <br> <b>Le vocabulario del forma del interlingua proponite per le IALA es incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. Le principio fundamental del grammatica correspondente debe esser que iste grammatica sia le minimo del systema le plus possibilemente simple, e apte pro guidar le uso del vocabulario selegite in linguage coherente.</b><br> <br> The vocabulary of IALA's form of the interlingua is that embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. The fundamental principle of the corresponding grammar must be that this grammar shall be the minimum or simplest possible system fit to govern the use of the chosen vocabulary in coherent speech.<br> <br> <b>Le tentativa del IALA a compilar un dictionario de parolas generalmente international duceva necessarimente al collection de un vocabulario essentialmente romance. Le linguas fonte a cuje sphera cerca e recerca pote restringer se securmente, esseva espaniol e portugese, italiano, francese e anglese, con germano e russo como possibile substitutos.</b><br> <br> IALA's endeavor to compile a dictionary of generally international words led of necessity to the assembly of a basically Romance vocabulary. The source languages to whose domain search and research could safely be restricted were Spanish and Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian as possible substitutes. (For further details, see Interlingua-English Dictionary, "Introduction").<br> <br> <b>Per consequentia un solide principio de operation in le elaboration del systema IALA de grammatica es que le termino "grammatica minimal" non permittera le suppression de qualcunque tracto grammatic que secundo le testimonio del linguas fonte es indispensabile in le governamento de lor vocabularios e consequentemente del vocabulario del interlingua incorporate in le Interlingua-English Dictionary. In altere terminos, cata tracto grammatic que se trova in tote le linguas fonte essera retenite in le grammatica del interlingua, o inversemente nulle tracto grammatic essera retenite, si illo manca in un del linguas fonte. Assi, per exemplo, le tracto de un distincte forma plural del substantivos debe esser retenite proque illo se monstra exister in tote linguas fonte,durante que le tracto de generes grammatic pote esser omittite proque illo manca in un lingua fonte, a saper in anglese.</b><br> <br> Hence a sound working principle in the elaboration of IALA's system of grammar is that the term "minimum grammar" shall not permit the suppression of any grammatical feature which according to the testimony of the source languages is indispensable in the government of their vocabularies and hence of the vocabulary of the interlingua embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. In other words, every grammatical feature which is encountered in all the source languages shall be retained in the grammar of the interlingua, or negatively, no grammatical feature shall be so retained if it is missing from as much as one of the source languages. Thus, for instance, the feature of a distinctive plural form of nouns must be retained because it is found to exist in all the source languages while the feature of grammatical gender can be dispensed with because it is missing in one of the source languages, i.e., in English.<br> <br> <b>Le determination de qual tractos grammatic es retenite in le interlingua, lassa aperte le question del formas que es usate pro representar lo. Le formas de tractos grammatic es determinate tanto como possibile per le medio del methodo elaborate pro le "standardisation" de formas de parolas como analysate in le Introduction al Interlingua-English Dictionary.</b><br> <br> The determination of what grammatical features are to be retained in the interlingua leaves open the question of the forms which are to be used to represent them. The forms of grammatical features are determined as far as possible by means of the method worked out for the "standardization" of forms of words as analyzed in the Introduction to the Interlingua-English Dictionary.<br> <br> <b>Si le material del sequente grammatica pare esser organisate de un maniera pauco orthodoxe, le ration es simplemente que certe capitulos generalmente representate in grammaticas conventional poterea esser omittite in le caso presente perque su materia es completemente coperite per le Dictionario. Assi le grammatica non contine, per exemplo, alicun discussion special de prepositiones e conjunctiones excepto un paragrapho in le titulo de construction de parolas. Il essera mesmo notate que il non ha alicun section concernente le problemas del syntaxe. Tal problemas realmente existe in Interlingua, sed il pareva opportun tractar los in connection con plure partes del phrase cuje functiones in le parola pote esser facite pro implicar tote le questiones syntactic de importantia practic. - Le apparato technic del Dictionario (le lista de abbreviationes, etc.) es applicate mesmo al Grammatica e illo non ha essite includite novemente in le paginas sequente.</b><br> <br> If the material of the following grammar appears to be organized in a somewhat unorthodox way, the reason is simply that certain chapters ordinarily represented in conventional grammars could be omitted in the present instance because their subject matter is completely covered by the Dictionary. Thus the grammar contains, for example, no special discussion of prepositions and conjunctions except for a paragraph under the heading of word building. It will also be noted that there is no section concerned with problems of syntax. Such problems do exist in Interlingua, but it seemed expedient to treat them in connection with the various parts of speech whose functions in the sentence can be made to involve all syntactic questions of practical import. - The technical apparatus of the Dictionary (list of abbreviations, etc.) applies to the Grammar as well and has not been included again in the following pages. <br> 1030 130 2005-04-21T10:59:27Z Josu Lavin 2 ===INTERLINGUA GRAMMAR=== ===CONTENTS=== *[[Preface_ia|1. PREFACE]] *[[Introduction:_General Principles_ia|2. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL PRINCIPLES]] *[[Spelling_and_Pronunciation_ia|3. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION]] *[[Parts_of_Speech_ia|4. PARTS OF SPEECH]] *[[Grammatical_Words_ia|5. GRAMMATICAL WORDS]] *[[Word_Building_ia|6. WORD BUILDING]] *[[Alphabetical_Index_ia|7. ALPHABETICAL INDEX]] *[[Numerical_Index_ia|8. NUMERICAL INDEX]] ===APPENDICES=== *[[Double-Stem_Verbs_ia|1. DOUBLE-STEM VERBS]] *[[English-Interlingua_Word_List_ia|2. ENGLISH INTERLINGUA WORD LIST]] *[[Sample_Texts_ia|3. SAMPLE TEXTS]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 2106 2005-04-21T11:01:33Z Josu Lavin 2 ===INTERLINGUA GRAMMAR=== ===CONTENTS=== *[[Preface_ia|1. PREFACIO]] *[[Introduction:_General Principles_ia|2. INTRODUCTION: PRINCIPIOS GENERAL]] *[[Spelling_and_Pronunciation_ia|3. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION]] *[[Parts_of_Speech_ia|4. PARTS OF SPEECH]] *[[Grammatical_Words_ia|5. GRAMMATICAL WORDS]] *[[Word_Building_ia|6. WORD BUILDING]] *[[Alphabetical_Index_ia|7. ALPHABETICAL INDEX]] *[[Numerical_Index_ia|8. NUMERICAL INDEX]] ===APPENDICES=== *[[Double-Stem_Verbs_ia|1. DOUBLE-STEM VERBS]] *[[English-Interlingua_Word_List_ia|2. ENGLISH INTERLINGUA WORD LIST]] *[[Sample_Texts_ia|3. SAMPLE TEXTS]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 1031 2107 2005-04-21T11:00:38Z Josu Lavin 2 ===INTERLINGUA GRAMMAR=== ===CONTENTS=== *[[Preface_ra|1. PREFACE]] *[[Introduction:_General Principles_ra|2. INTRODUCTION: PRINCIPIOS GENERALES]] *[[Spelling_and_Pronunciation_ra|3. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION]] *[[Parts_of_Speech_ra|4. PARTS OF SPEECH]] *[[Grammatical_Words_ra|5. GRAMMATICAL WORDS]] *[[Word_Building_ra|6. WORD BUILDING]] *[[Alphabetical_Index_ra|7. ALPHABETICAL INDEX]] *[[Numerical_Index_ra|8. NUMERICAL INDEX]] ===APPENDICES=== *[[Double-Stem_Verbs_ra|1. DOUBLE-STEM VERBS]] *[[English-Interlingua_Word_List_ra|2. ENGLISH INTERLINGUA WORD LIST]] *[[Sample_Texts_ra|3. SAMPLE TEXTS]] <b>Traductores del Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. <b>Collaboratores technic in le Grammatica:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 1032 2108 2005-04-21T11:04:42Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Preface to the Second Edition</b><br> <br> The Preface to the First Edition of this Grammar has been read with approval by a number of individuals known for their contributions in the field of interlinguistic experimentation. They have authorized the use of their names in this place because they believe, as the authors do, that the unity of the auxiliary-language movement depends on neither more nor less than unanimity in principle regarding the ultimate bases of the modern interlingua, for these bases are strong enough for the most complete freedom of choice in operational procedures to become beneficial rather than detrimental to the common cause. The signers have not seen the manuscript of the grammar itself and their endorsement as here presented may not be construed as applying to anything but the guiding ideas of the Preface. It must also be understood that the signers were approached as individuals and not as members of a particular group. As a matter of fact, it was felt best to forgo the inclusion in the list not only of all organizations but also of those of their members whose representation in this place might conceivably be misconstrued as involving more than their personal points of view.<br> <br> Henk Bijlsma<br> <br> Aldo Lavagnini<br> <br> Henrik Molenaar<br> <br> A. De Belie<br> <br> Campos Lima<br> <br> Engelbert Pigal<br> <br> Walter Hinde<br> <br> Paul Mitrovich<br> <br> André Schild<br> <br> ______________________________________________________________________<br> <br> When this book was first published in 1951, the language it describes was a project. Today, little more than three years later, it is a functioning reality.<br> <br> In 1953 the International Auxiliary Language Association -- under whose sponsorship all the research and all the laboratory work which culminated in the formulation of Interlingua had been carried out -- turned over the task of promoting the practical utilization of the new language to Science Service, the Institution for the Popularization of Science. In two years of operation the Interlingua Division of Science Service has succeeded in demonstrating the practical value of Interlingua as a tool of international communication, especially in science and most particularly in medicine. Numerous journals have adopted Interlingua as a secondary editorial language for abstracts and summaries, and several international congresses -- notably the Second World Congress of Cardiology in 1954 in Washington -- have found it useful as a substitute for multiple translation in their programs. <br> <br> The phenomenal progress of Interlingua is proof of the soundness of its underlying principles, but without the wise guidance and the contagious drive of one man -- Mr. Watson Davis, Director of Science Service -- we would not and could not be where we actually are. <br> <br> This Second Edition of our Interlingua Grammar is a carefully corrected reprint of the first. In its preparation we have gratefully made use of comments from many students of Interlingua, especially Mr. Erich Berger of New York City, Mr. Woodruff W. Bryne of Caracas, and Dr. Eugen Wiister of Vienna. <br> <br> The text of the Preface to the First Edition follows unchanged in substance. <br> <br> This grammar is designed to function in conjunction with the international vocabulary contained in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. (Interlingua-English, a Dictionary of the International Language, prepared by the research staff of the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D. 480 pp. Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.) <br> <br> The Dictionary contains a copious all-purpose vocabulary of about 27,000 international words and includes an Introduction with a detailed analysis of the methods employed in gathering and standardizing so comprehensive a body of terms which owe their representation in a variety of national languages to the fact that, with regard to considerable portions of their vocabularies, the languages of Western civilization may be viewed as so many variants or dialects of a common standard. <br> <br> There can be no practical auxiliary language in modern times which does not make use in one way or another of the existing international vocabulary. This implies that the Interlingua-English Dictionary -- which represents a collection of the international vocabulary -- may be expected to prove useful from the viewpoint of most, if not all, auxiliary-language systems now extant, in so far as they are based on, or are influenced by, the principle of actual internationality of words. <br> <br> Whether other auxiliary-language systems will use the material embodied in the Interlingua-English Dictionary in its present state or with minor or major modifications and qualifications, the result will be a welcome rapprochement of the several systems and projects which may thus be more clearly recognized as what they really are: variants or dialects of the same interlingua. <br> <br> This grammar of the international language is recommended as a convenient system to operate the vocabulary of the Interlingua-English Dictionary. It is a practical and simple system, but all its advantages cannot make us overlook the fact that the auxiliary-language project it represents is but one variant or dialect of the type referred to above. This point bears so much stressing because it is of great practical importance that the reader should understand in what sense he is not to be introduced here to a brand-new language practiced by a handful of eager pioneers, but that the use of this grammar will make him a member of a sizable community of auxiliary-language advocates in all parts of the world who speak and write the same language with more or less striking deviations. It is in the nature of this language that it can be managed with a good deal of elasticity according to one or another of kindred grammatical systems, just as it is in the nature of any ethnic language that it can be used in regional, social, or individual variations. <br> <br> As a matter of fact, the grammar here presented -- while completely unambiguous in its individual rules -- makes provision for at least one collateral variant as covered by<br> <br> §15 Note <br> <br> §57 Note<br> <br> §79 Note<br> <br> §97<br> <br> §116 Note<br> <br> §134 end of introductory note<br> <br> §148 Note<br> <br> It is important that an ever-increasing number of people all over the world should learn to communicate with other nationals by means of the common international language. We hope that many will do so on the basis of this grammar, but it was with considered care that we called it a grammar of the international language, which is to imply that other grammars and other variants of the same language are not only possible but highly welcome. <br> <br> A.G.<br> <br> H. E. B. <br> <br> 1033 2109 2005-04-21T11:12:13Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association<br> </p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios e le supervision del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor supervision</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 1034 2110 2005-04-21T11:18:49Z Josu Lavin 2 *[[Ied_en|1. DICTIONARIO DE INTERLINGUA IN ANGLESE]] *[[Ied_ia|1. DICTIONARIO DE INTERLINGUA IN INTERLINGUA]] *[[Ied_ra|1. DICTIONARIO DE INTERLINGUA IN ROMANICA]] *[[Ied_es|1. DICTIONARIO DE INTERLINGUA IN ESPANIOL]] *[[Ied_it|1. DICTIONARIO DE INTERLINGUA IN ITALIANO]] <b>Collaboratores technic in le Dictionario:</b> *[[User:Josu Lavin|Josu Lavin]] Adde tu nomine hic. 1035 2111 2005-04-21T11:20:15Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association<br> </p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios e le supervision del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor supervision</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 1036 2112 2005-04-21T11:21:00Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center"><b>Interlingua-Anglese</b><br> <br> Interlingua-English</h1> <p align="center"><b>un dictionario del lingua international</b><br> a dictionary of the international language<br> <b>preparate per le bureau de recerca del</b><br> prepared by the research staff of the<br> <b>Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>sub le direction de Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</b><br> under the direction of Alexander Gode, Ph.D.</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><small>1951,<br> <br> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><b>per le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> by International Auxiliary Language Association<br> </p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Prefacio al Secunde Edition</b><br> <br> Preface to the Second Edition</h2> <p align="justify"><b>Iste dictionario era initialmente publicate sub le auspicios e le supervision del Association del Lingua Auxiliari International in 1951. In 1971, post vinti annos, illo es reimprimite.</b></p> <p align="justify">This dictionary was first published under the auspices and the guidance of The International Auxiliary Language Association in 1951. In 1971, twenty years later, it is being reprinted.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Obviemente iste libro non pote esser classificate como un "best seller" mesmo per le standards conservative del mercato de dictionarios, e le question "Proque reimprimer le libro?" debe esser respondite como face le question "Que occurreva al impression original de cinque milles exemplares?"</b></p> <p align="justify">Obviously this volume cannot be classed as a best seller even by the conservative standards of the dictionary market, and the question “Why reprint the book?” needs to be answered as does the question “What happened to the original printing of five thousand copies?”</p> <p align="justify"><b>Le responsa al secunde question es: Alicunos de iste libros collige pulvere al porta-libros de enthusiastas qui transientemente imbraciava Interlingua como un salvation mundial; sed le grande majoritate de exemplares son nunc disperse sur le facie del globo, in bibliothecas de individuales e institutiones que son conscie de e interssate in le similaritates linguistic in le structura del linguas romance. Iste similaritates son, post toto, le substantia e le spina de iste libro.</b></p> <p align="justify">To answer the second question first: A few of these books are gathering dust on the shelves of enthusiasts who transiently embraced Interlingua as a world salvation; but the great majority of copies are now scattered over the face of the globe, in the libraries of individuals and institutions who are aware of and interested in the linguistic similarities within the structure of the Romance languages, which similarities are, after all, the substance and the backbone of this volume.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Al prime question: Le dictionario ha essite reimprimite proque il ha demanda pro illo. Isto indica que in duo decennios Interlingua non ha simplemente exhaurite su utilitate e es nunc circumerrante in placias extravagante como un atavismo historic sed que illo ha establite se in Europa e America, exequente su function de communicationes in tal campos varie como spectroscopia molecular e demographia.</b></p> <p align="justify">As to the first question: The dictionary is being reprinted because there is a demand for it. This indicates that in two decades Interlingua has not simply outlived its usefulness and is now hanging around in odd corners as an historical atavism but that it has established itself in Europe and in America, performing its communications function in such varied fields as molecular spectroscopy and demography.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Ante vinti annos le <i>Dictionario Interlingua Anglese</i> era le producto de un aventura de recerca linguistic; hodie illo es un utensile establite in communication international.</b></p> <p align="justify">Twenty years ago the <i>Interlingua-English Dictionary</i> was the product of a linguistic research venture; today it is an established tool of international communication.</p> <p align="justify"><b>A. GODE, SECRETARIO EXECUTIVE</b><br> <p align="justify">A. GODE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY<br> <br> <b>INSTITUTO DE INTERLINGUA</b></p> INTERLINGUA INSTITUTE</p> <hr> <h2 align="center"><b>Contentos</b><br> <br> Contents</h2> <ul> <li><b>[[PROLOGO]]</b></li> <li>FOREWORD</li> <li><b>[[INTRODUCTION]]</b> <li>INTRODUCTION <ul> <li><b>[[Theoria e Principios]]</b> <li>Theory and Principles <ul> <li><i><b>[[Linguas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Variantes e Lor Prototypos]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Variants and Their Prototypes</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Linguas de Fonte o de Controlo]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Source or Control Languages</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Methodo e Technicas]]</b> <li>Method and Techniques <ul> <li><i><b>[[Eligibilitate de Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Eligibility of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Forma del Parolas International]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Form of International Words</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Terminationes]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Terminations</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Formas in Series Derivational]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Forms in Derivational Series</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Familias de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Word Families</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Exemplos Non-Latin]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Non-Latin Examples</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Summario de Definitiones]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Summary of Definitions</i></li> <li><i>[[Signification del Parolas International]]</i></li> <li><i>Meaning of International Words</i></li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[Le Vocabulario International]]</b> <li>The International Vocabulary <ul> <li><i><b>[[Formation Active de Parolas]]</b></i></li> <li><i>Active Word Building</i></li> <li><i><b>[[Lista de Affixos Active]]</b></i></li> <li><i>List of Active Affixes</i></li> <li><i>[[Formation Libere]]</i></li> <li><i>Free Formation</i></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li><b>[[ORTHOGRAPHIA E PRONUNCIATION]]</b></li> <li>SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION</li> <li><b>[[NOTAS EXPLICATIVE]]</b></li> <li>EXPLANATORY NOTES</li> <li><b>[[ABBREVIATIONES USATE IN LE DICTIONARIO]]</b></li> <li>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE DICTIONARY</li> <li><b>[[DICTIONARIO INTERLINGUA-ANGLESE]]</b></li> <li>INTERLINGUA-ENGLISH DICTIONARY</li> </ul> <hr> <p align="center"><b>Consciente del function del scientia</b><br> Conscious of the function of scholarship<br> <b>in le establimento</b><br> in the establishment<br> <b>de un lingua commun pro communication international,</b><br> of a common language for international communication,<br> <b>Alice V. Morris e Dave Hennen Morris</b><br> Alice V. Morris and Dave Hennen Morris<br> <b>interprendeva a provider un movimento de lingua auxiliar</b><br> undertook to provide the auxiliary-language movement<br> <b>con un centro de recerca, un laboratorio e un foro.</b><br> with a center of research, a laboratory and a forum.</p> <p align="center"><b>Le Association del Lingua Auxiliari International</b><br> The International Auxiliary Language Association<br> <b>era fundate sub lor direction.</b><br> was founded under their leadership.<br> <b>Sub lor supervision</b><br> Under their guidance<br> <b>su programma de labor era concipite e disveloppate.</b><br> its program of work was conceived and developed.</p> <p align="center"><b>Per vinti-cinque annos</b><br> For twenty-five years<br> <b>sra Morris participava</b><br> Mrs. Morris took part<br> <b>in omne phase del labor del Association.</b><br> in every phase of the work of the Association.</p> <p align="center"><b>Omne tempore</b><br> At all times<br> <b>ille labor derivava le optime beneficio</b><br> that work derived the greatest benefit<br> <b>de sagessa de su sposo,</b><br> from her husband's wisdom,<br> <b>ex su experientia in affaires international.</b><br> from his experience in international affairs.</p> <p align="center"><b>Que iste libro,</b><br> May this volume,<br> <b>como un fundation pro labor futur</b><br> as a foundation for future work<br> <b>per omne intention al complimento</b><br> by all intent upon the achievement<br> <b>de un lingua auxiliar mundial,</b><br> of a world auxiliary language,<br> <b>va esser lor memorial vivente.</b><br> be their living memorial.</p> <hr> <p align="center"><br> ALICE V. MORRIS<br> 1874–1950</p> <p align="center"><br> DAVE HENNEN MORRIS<br> 1872–1944</p> <hr> 1037 139 2005-04-21T16:11:08Z Josu Lavin 2 ia: =Dictionario de Parolas e Particulas Grammatical= ra: ==Dictionario de Parolas et Particulas Grammaticales== en: ==Dictionary of Grammatical Words and particles== [A corriger. Tote le entratas debe esser corrigite secundo Interlingua de IALA] <b>a(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à(+inf. ) <br> *Italiano: a <br> *Espaniol: a(+ inf) <br> <b>a(littera): a /a/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a(lettre): a /a/ <br> <b>a ambos lateres</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des deux côtés <br> *Italiano: ad ambo i lati <br> *Espaniol: a ambos lados <br> <b>a basso</b> <br> #down, downward <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: abbasso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo <br> <b>a basso(les traitores)!</b> <br> #down with(the traitors)! <br> *Francese: à bas(les traîtres) <br> *Italiano: abbasso(i traditori !) <br> *Espaniol: abajo los traidores! <br> <b>a causa de</b> <br> #because of <br> *Francese: à cause de <br> *Italiano: a causa di, per causa di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por causa de, debido a <br> <b>a condition que</b> <br> #on condition that, provided that <br> *Francese: à(la) condition que <br> *Italiano: a condizione che <br> *Espaniol: a condición de que, con tal de que <br> <b>a conto</b> <br> #on account <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto <br> *Espaniol: en cuenta <br> <b>a conto de</b> <br> #to the account of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto a/di <br> *Espaniol: a cuenta de <br> <b>a contratempore</b> <br> #at the wrong moment <br> *Francese: à contretemps <br> *Italiano: nel momento sbagliato <br> *Espaniol: a contratiempo, en mal momento <br> <b>a derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à droite <br> *Italiano: a destra <br> *Espaniol: a derecha, a la derecha <br> <b>a distantia</b> <br> #at a distance <br> *Francese: à distance <br> *Italiano: a distanza di/da <br> *Espaniol: a distancia <br> <b>a fin de</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de, pour <br> *Italiano: in modo da <br> *Espaniol: a fin de, para <br> <b>a fin que</b> <br> #in order that <br> *Francese: afin que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: a fin de que, para que <br> <b>a flor de</b> <br> #flush with, on a level with <br> *Francese: à fleur de <br> *Italiano: a livello di <br> *Espaniol: a flor de <br> <b>a fortia de</b> <br> #by means of, by dint of <br> *Francese: à force de <br> *Italiano: a forza di <br> *Espaniol: a fuerza de, por medio de <br> <b>a fundo</b> <br> #thoroughly <br> *Francese: à fond <br> *Italiano: a fondo <br> *Espaniol: a fondo <br> <b>a grado</b> <br> #at will <br> *Francese: à volonté, à discrétion <br> *Italiano: in grado di, a discrezione di <br> *Espaniol: a voluntad <br> <b>a in</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: in, all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: a, al interior de <br> <b>a inter</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: (a) entre <br> <b>a la(= a illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>a la aventura</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: aléatoirement, au hazard <br> *Italiano: all'avventura, <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>a la derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à la droite <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha <br> <b>a la entrata de(le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> #at the beginning of(winter, etc. ) <br> *Francese: au début de, au commencement de(l'hiver, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: all'inizio di <br> *Espaniol: al principio de(invierno, etc. ) <br> <b>a la exclusion de</b> <br> #to the exclusion of <br> *Francese: à l'exclusion de <br> *Italiano: con l'esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: a la exclusión de <br> ad esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>a lo longo</b> <br> #in the long run <br> *Francese: avec le temps, à la longue <br> *Italiano: alla lunga, con il tempo <br> *Espaniol: a la larga <br> <b>a lo plus</b> <br> #at(the) best <br> *Francese: au plus <br> *Italiano: al più <br> *Espaniol: a lo más <br> <b>a lo plus tarde</b> <br> #at the latest <br> *Francese: au plus tard <br> *Italiano: al più tardi <br> *Espaniol: a más tardar <br> <b>a medietate</b> <br> #half(= to half the full amount or degree) <br> *Francese: à moitié <br> *Italiano: alla metà <br> *Espaniol: a mitad <br> <b>a medietate del cammino</b> <br> #halfway <br> *Francese: à mi-chemin <br> *Italiano: alla metà /nel mezzo del cammino <br> *Espaniol: a medio camino <br> <b>a minus que</b> <br> #unless <br> *Francese: à moins que <br> *Italiano: a meno che <br> *Espaniol: a menos que <br> <b>a omne costo(= a toto costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: ad ogni costo, a qualsiasi costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a omne proposito</b> <br> #at every turn <br> *Francese: à tout propos <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a todo propósito <br> <b>a parte</b> <br> #apart, aside <br> *Francese: à part <br> *Italiano: a parte <br> *Espaniol: aparte, separadamente <br> <b>a partir de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a partire da, partendo da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à partir de <br> <b>a pena(= apena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: appena <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente <br> <b>a presso de</b> <br> #at the home(court, etc. ) of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: appresso a, presso <br> *Espaniol: a casa de(corte, etc. ) de <br> <b>a proba de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a prova di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'épreuve de <br> <b>a proposito de</b> <br> #with regard to, apropos of <br> *Francese: à propos de, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: a proposito di <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>a proposito!</b> <br> #by the way! incidentally <br> *Francese: à propos! <br> *Italiano: a proposito! <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a proposito:(dicer una cosa) a proposito</b> <br> #(to say something) to the purpose, apropos, to the point <br> *Francese: à propos <br> *Italiano: a proposito <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a retro</b> <br> #backwards <br> *Francese: à reculons, en reculant <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hacia atrás <br> <b>a tempore</b> <br> #in(good) time <br> *Francese: à temps <br> *Italiano: a tempo <br> *Espaniol: a tiempo <br> <b>a toto costo(= a omne costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: a ogni costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a transverso</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: à travers, de bord en bord <br> *Italiano: di/a traverso <br> *Espaniol: a través <br> <b>a transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers(de) <br> *Italiano: a traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: da dove, da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: a dove, a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi(= quo)</b> <br> #where, at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar <br> <b>a un alto grado</b> <br> #to a high degree <br> *Francese: à un haut degré <br> *Italiano: ad un alto grado <br> *Espaniol: a un alto grado <br> <b>a veces(= a vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, qualche volta <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a vices</b> <br> #at times <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, alle volte <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a, ad</b> <br> #to, at <br> *Francese: à, vers, en, dans <br> *Italiano: a, ad, verso, nel <br> *Espaniol: a, hacia; en <br> <b>ab(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de(+inf) <br> <b>ab(= desde)</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis <br> *Italiano: da <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #actually <br> *Francese: actuellement <br> *Italiano: attualmente <br> *Espaniol: actualmente <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #at present, (just) now <br> *Francese: à présent, maintenant <br> *Italiano: al momento, attualmente, adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: actualmente, en la actualidad <br> <b>adeo</b> <br> #farewell, good-by(e) <br> *Francese: adieu <br> *Italiano: addio, ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: adiós <br> <b>adhuc</b> <br> #to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici, jusqu'à présent, <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino adesso, fino a qui, fin qui, fino a qua <br> *Espaniol: a este lugar, hasta aquí, hasta ahora, todavía <br> <b>al(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: sur le point de(+inf), près de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: al, sul punto di, <br> *Espaniol: al(+inf) <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= alique)</b> <br> #something <br> *Francese: quelque chose, <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>al contrario</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>al currente(de)</b> <br> #informed(about) <br> *Francese: au courant de <br> *Italiano: al corrente di, informato su <br> *Espaniol: al corriente(de), informado(sobre) <br> <b>al detrimento de</b> <br> #to the detriment of <br> *Francese: au détriment de <br> *Italiano: a danno di, a scapito di <br> *Espaniol: en detrimento de <br> <b>al estraniero</b> <br> #abroad <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: en el extranjero <br> <b>al exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>al exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur de <br> <b>al extero</b> <br> #abroad(as in "to go abroad; to live abroad"), in foreign parts <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: al extranjero, en el extranjero <br> <b>al extremo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extrême <br> *Italiano: all'estremo, estremamente <br> *Espaniol: al extremo <br> <b>al fin</b> <br> #in the end, at last <br> *Francese: enfin, à la fin <br> *Italiano: alla fine, infine <br> *Espaniol: al fin <br> <b>al fundo de</b> <br> #at the bottom of <br> *Francese: au fond de <br> *Italiano: al fondo di, in fondo a <br> *Espaniol: al fondo de <br> <b>al fundo del corde</b> <br> #at the bottom of one's heart <br> *Francese: au fond du cœur <br> *Italiano: nel fondo del cuore <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo del corazón <br> <b>al hasardo</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: au hazard <br> *Italiano: al caso <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>al interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur <br> <b>al interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur de <br> <b>al ir a(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: andando a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ????????? <br> <b>al latere</b> <br> #aside <br> *Francese: à côté <br> *Italiano: al lato di, accanto a, lateralmente, a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado <br> <b>al latere de</b> <br> #beside <br> *Francese: à côté de, au côté de <br> *Italiano: a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado de <br> <b>al minus</b> <br> #at least <br> *Francese: au moins <br> *Italiano: al meno, alla fine, per lo meno <br> *Espaniol: al menos, por lo menos <br> <b>al presente</b> <br> #at present <br> *Francese: à présent <br> *Italiano: al presente, al momento <br> *Espaniol: en el presente, en la actualidad <br> <b>al transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers(de) <br> *Italiano: al traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través(de) <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: un poco, un po', qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: un poco <br> <b>alcun, alcuna, alcuno(= alicun, alicuna, alicuno)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alcunas veces(= alcunas vices, alicunas vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelques fois <br> <b>alcuno(= alicuno)</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: qualcuno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelqu'un <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #alias <br> *Francese: alias <br> *Italiano: alias, altro <br> *Espaniol: alias <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #at another time <br> *Francese: (à) un autre moment, un autre temps, un autre instant <br> *Italiano: in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: en otro tiempo, en otro momento <br> <b>alias(= alteramente)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement, d'une autre façon, d'une autre manière <br> *Italiano: in un altro modo, diversamente, in un'altra maniera <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>alibi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: alibi <br> *Espaniol: en alguna otra parte <br> <b>alicubi</b> <br> #anywhere as in("did you see him anywhere?") <br> *Francese: quelque part comme dans("l'avez-vous vu quelque part?"), n'importe où comme dans("il va n'importe où") <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte, non importa dove, in qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>alicubi(= usquam)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: en cualquier lugar <br> <b>alicun, alicuna, alicuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque, un peu <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno; un poco <br> <b>alicuna cosa(= alcuna cosa)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: alguna cosa <br> <b>alicunas vices(= alcunas vices)</b> <br> #sometimes <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, qualvolta <br> *Espaniol: algunas veces <br> <b>alicunes, alicunas, alicunos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des, quelques, quelques-uns, quelques-unes <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcune, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>alicuno(= alcuno)</b> <br> #someone, somebody; anyone, anybody <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: alcuno, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alie, alia, alio(= altere, altera, altero)</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: autre <br> *Italiano: altro <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somehow <br> *Francese: d'une manière ou d'une autre <br> *Italiano: in un modo o in un altro, nell'uno o nell'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de una manera u otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte, qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: en alguna parte <br> <b>aliquando(= alquando)</b> <br> #at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> *Francese: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: in un dato momento, quando, allorché <br> *Espaniol: alguna vez, en algún que otro momento, en un momento dado <br> <b>aliquanto(= alquanto)</b> <br> #somewhat, to some degree <br> *Francese: quelque peu <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: algo así, en algún grado <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: in qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: un peu <br> *Italiano: un po', un poco <br> *Espaniol: algo, un poco <br> <b>aliquot</b> <br> #some, several, a few <br> *Francese: un po', un poco <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque, un peu <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi, dunque, allorché <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en aquel tiempo <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, in that case, consequently) <br> *Francese: donc, dans ce cas, conséquemment, en conséquence <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, in questo caso, allora, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en tal caso, consequentemente, en consecuencia, por consiguiente <br> <b>alquando(= aliquando)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: una buona volta, un dato momento <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> <b>alquanto(= aliquanto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: alquanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque peu <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> *Francese: ainsi, de plus, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: anche, ugualmente, allo stesso modo, comunque, in ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, es más, además <br> <b>alte, alta, alto</b> <br> #high <br> *Francese: haut, haute <br> *Italiano: alto, alta, alti, alte <br> *Espaniol: alto, alta <br> <b>altera vece(= altera vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une autre fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once again, once more <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once more, once again <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez <br> <b>alteramente(= alias)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement <br> *Italiano: altrimenti, diversamente, in un'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, additional <br> *Francese: autre, additionnel(le) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(in più, addizionale) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, adicional <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, different <br> *Francese: autre, différent(e) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(differente) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, diferente <br> <b>alterubi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: d'altra parte, altrimenti, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: en otra parte <br> <b>ambes, ambas, ambos</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: les deux, tous deux, toutes deux <br> *Italiano: ambo, ambedue, tutti e due <br> *Espaniol: ambos, ambas <br> <b>an</b> <br> #whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>an(= est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: - <br> *Espaniol: es que(particula interrogativa) <br> <b>an ille habe le libro?(= est-que ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: ha il libro ? egli ha il libro? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>analogo a</b> <br> #analogous to <br> *Francese: analogue à. semblable à <br> *Italiano: analogo a, simile a <br> *Espaniol: análogo a <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #encore! <br> *Francese: encore! <br> *Italiano: ancora! <br> *Espaniol: aún!, todavía! <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #still, yet <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún, todavía <br> <b>annon</b> <br> #or not <br> *Francese: ou non, ou pas <br> *Italiano: o no <br> *Espaniol: o no <br> <b>anque(io)(= etiam(io))</b> <br> #(I) too, (me) too <br> *Francese: (moi) aussi <br> *Italiano: anch'io, pure io, io pure <br> *Espaniol: también(yo), (yo) también <br> <b>anque [anke](= etiam, tamben)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, above <br> *Francese: avant, cité plus haut <br> *Italiano: prima <br> *Espaniol: antes, citado anteriormente <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: prima di <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: davanti a <br> *Espaniol: delante de, ante <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier than <br> *Francese: plus tôt que, antérieurement à <br> *Italiano: prima(temp) <br> *Espaniol: antes, anterior <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front of <br> *Francese: devant <br> *Italiano: davanti, di fronte <br> *Espaniol: antes, en frente de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front, ahead; also: forward <br> *Francese: devant, en face de <br> *Italiano: innanzi, dinnanzi, di fronte, frontalmente <br> *Espaniol: antes; delante <br> <b>ante le tempore</b> <br> #ahead of time, too early <br> *Francese: trop tôt, avant le temps <br> *Italiano: prima del tempo <br> *Espaniol: antes de tiempo, demasiado pronto <br> <b>ante que</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: avant que <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de que <br> <b>ante toto</b> <br> #after all <br> *Francese: avant tout <br> *Italiano: prima di tutto <br> *Espaniol: ante todo <br> <b>antea(=potius, plus tosto)</b> <br> #before, formerly, previously <br> *Francese: plus tôt, précédemment, antérieurement <br> *Italiano: prima, precedentemente <br> *Espaniol: antes, anteriormente, previamente <br> <b>ante-heri</b> <br> #day before yesterday <br> *Francese: avant-hier <br> *Italiano: l'altro ieri, ieri l'altro <br> *Espaniol: anteayer <br> <b>anteriormente</b> <br> #formerly, before <br> *Francese: antérieurement <br> *Italiano: anteriormente <br> *Espaniol: anteriormente <br> <b>apena(= a pena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: a pena <br> *Espaniol: a penas, escasamente <br> <b>apud(= presso)</b> <br> #near, with, at, by <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, junto a <br> <b>aquelle, aquella, aquello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là(ex. ce garçon-là), cet ...-là(ex. cet homme-là), cette ...-là(ex. cette fille-là), [pron. dém. ]celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>aquelles, aquellas, aquellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli, quelle <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>aquesse, aquessa, aquesso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>aqueste, aquesta, aquesto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>aqui(= hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #rather(= fairly, quite) <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assi</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful bokk) <br> *Francese: così(così bello, tanto bello che) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful book) <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi... como...(= si. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que ... <br> *Italiano: così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: así. . . como. . . <br> <b>atque</b> <br> #and, and also, and even <br> *Francese: et, et même <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e, y también, e incluso <br> <b>aut(= o)</b> <br> #or <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o, altrimenti <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>aut. . . aut...(= o. . . o. . . )</b> <br> #either. . . or... <br> *Francese: ou. . . ou. . . <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: en avant de, au devant de <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant, au devant <br> *Italiano: davanti a, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: adelante, al frente, delante <br> <b>avante!</b> <br> #before!(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant! <br> *Italiano: avanti ! <br> *Espaniol: adelante!, al frente! <br> <b>b(littera): be /b/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: b, bi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: b(lettre): bé /b/ <br> <b>basse, bassa, basso</b> <br> #low <br> *Francese: bas, basse <br> *Italiano: basso, bassa <br> *Espaniol: bajo <br> <b>basso</b> <br> #bottom, lower part(of a thing) <br> *Francese: bas <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: base, parte de abajo(de una cosa), la parte más baja(de una cosa) <br> <b>basta</b> <br> #enough! stop! <br> *Francese: assez! <br> *Italiano: basta! <br> *Espaniol: basta! <br> <b>bastante(= sufficiente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>bastante(= sufficientemente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficiently <br> *Francese: assez, suffisamment <br> *Italiano: sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficientemente <br> <b>bastantes(= sufficientes)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: sufficienti <br> *Espaniol: bastantes, suficientes <br> <b>ben</b> <br> #well <br> *Francese: bien <br> *Italiano: bene <br> *Espaniol: bien <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #although <br> *Francese: quoique, bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de que, aunque <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #though <br> *Francese: bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: ben que <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #all right! <br> *Francese: très bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! giusto ! benissimo ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #good! <br> *Francese: bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! <br> *Espaniol: bien!, bueno! <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #encore <br> *Francese: bis, encore une fois, de nouveau <br> *Italiano: bis, ancora una volta, di nuovo <br> *Espaniol: bis, de nuevo, otra vez, repetición <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #twice <br> *Francese: deux fois <br> *Italiano: due volte <br> *Espaniol: dos veces <br> <b>bon!</b> <br> #good!, fine!, all right! <br> *Francese: bon! <br> *Italiano: buono ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>bon, bona, bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: buono, buona <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: bon, bonne <br> <b>bona nocte!</b> <br> #good night! <br> *Francese: bonne nuit! <br> *Italiano: buona notte, buonanotte <br> *Espaniol: buenas noches! <br> <b>bravo!</b> <br> #bravo! <br> *Francese: bravo! <br> *Italiano: bravo! brava! bravi! brave! <br> *Espaniol: bravo! <br> <b>c(littera): ce /k/ aut /ts/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c, ci(pron. come ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c(lettre): cé /k/ ou /s/ <br> <b>cata</b> <br> #each <br> *Francese: chaque <br> *Italiano: ogni <br> *Espaniol: cada <br> <b>cata un, cata una, cata uno</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: chacun, chacune <br> *Italiano: ognuno, agnuna <br> *Espaniol: cada uno, cada una <br> <b>ce</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce, c'... <br> *Italiano: ciò, questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>ce ci</b> <br> #this(here) <br> *Francese: ciò, questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>ce la</b> <br> #that(there, yonder) <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: cela <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #(the) former(first of two) <br> *Francese: quello là, quella là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: celui-là, celle-là <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #1. that; those <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> <b>celles, cellas, cellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: quei, quegli, quelle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cento:(tres) per cento, (tres) pro cento</b> <br> #(three) per cent <br> *Francese: cento(ce, come in ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (trois) pour cent <br> <b>certe, certa, certo</b> <br> #a certain. . . <br> *Francese: un certain, une certaine <br> *Italiano: certo, un certo <br> *Espaniol: cierto, cierta <br> <b>certo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certo, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, cierto <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: altro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autre <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #remaining <br> *Francese: restante, rimanente, resto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: restant <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #besides, for the rest <br> *Francese: d'altra parte, quanto al resto, peraltro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d'autre part, quant au reste <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #otherwise, in other respects <br> *Francese: diversamente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autrement, par ailleurs <br> <b>ch(digrapho): ce hache /k/ aut /sh/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ch(pron come k) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ch(digraphe ou digramme): cé-ache /k/ ou /sh/ <br> <b>ci(=hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>ci juncto(= hic juncto)</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(joined) <br> *Francese: ci-joint(e) <br> *Italiano: qui con <br> *Espaniol: junto con esto <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour de <br> *Italiano: circa <br> *Espaniol: alrededor de <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours, environ, approximativement <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: cerca, alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>circum</b> <br> #around, around about <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>cis</b> <br> #on this side(of) <br> *Francese: de ce côté(de) <br> *Italiano: da questa parte, da questo lato <br> *Espaniol: a este lado(de) <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #quickly, speedily <br> *Francese: vite <br> *Italiano: rapidamente, velocemente <br> *Espaniol: rápidamente <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #soon <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #secretly <br> *Francese: secrètement <br> *Italiano: segretamente <br> *Espaniol: secretamente, en secreto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #without the knowledge of, unknown to <br> *Francese: sans la connaissance de, inconnu(e) à <br> *Italiano: senza sapere che, senza conoscenza di, senza cognizione <br> *Espaniol: sin el conocimiento de, desconocido a <br> <b>communmente(= vulgo)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: vulgairement, communément <br> *Italiano: comunemente, volgarmente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente, normalmente <br> <b>como</b> <br> #as; also: like, similarly to <br> *Francese: comme <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como</b> <br> #how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como illa est bella!</b> <br> #how beautiful she is! <br> *Francese: Comme elle est belle! <br> *Italiano: come è bella lei <br> *Espaniol: qué bonita es ella! <br> <b>como si</b> <br> #as though, as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>como:(facete) como(vos volate)</b> <br> #(do) as(you wish) <br> *Francese: comme:(faites) comme(vous voulez) <br> *Italiano: come(fate) <br> *Espaniol: (haced) como(vosotros queráis) <br> <b>comocunque</b> <br> #however, in whatever manner <br> *Francese: cependant, de toute façon <br> *Italiano: comunque, in ogni modo, ad ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, de cualquier forma, como sea <br> <b>comparabile a</b> <br> #comparable to <br> *Francese: comparable à <br> *Italiano: comparabile a/con <br> *Espaniol: comparable a <br> <b>comparabile con</b> <br> #comparable with <br> *Francese: comparable avec <br> *Italiano: comparabile con <br> *Espaniol: comparable con <br> <b>completamente(= totalmente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: complètement <br> *Italiano: completamente, totalmente <br> *Espaniol: completamente(= totalmente) <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, by means of <br> *Francese: avec, au moyen de <br> *Italiano: con, per mezzo di <br> *Espaniol: con, por medio de <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, having, carrying, characterized by) <br> *Francese: avec, ayant, caractérisé(e) par <br> *Italiano: con <br> *Espaniol: con, que tiene. . . , caracterizado por. . . <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, together with <br> *Francese: avec, (ensemble) avec <br> *Italiano: con, insieme a <br> *Espaniol: con <br> <b>concernente</b> <br> #concerning <br> *Francese: concernant <br> *Italiano: concernente <br> *Espaniol: concerniente <br> <b>conforme</b> <br> #conformable, in conformity <br> *Francese: conforme, en conformité <br> *Italiano: conforme <br> *Espaniol: conforme, en conformidad <br> <b>conforme a</b> <br> #in conformity with, according to <br> *Francese: selon, conforme à, en conformité avec <br> *Italiano: conforme a, in conformità a/di <br> *Espaniol: conforme a <br> <b>conjunctamente</b> <br> #conjointly, conjunctly, jointly, together <br> *Francese: conjointement, ensemble <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente, con, insieme <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente <br> <b>conjunctamente con</b> <br> #in with, together with, in conjunction with <br> *Francese: conjointement avec <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente a <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente con <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #opposite, facing <br> *Francese: contre, faisant face à <br> *Italiano: contrariamente, al contrario <br> *Espaniol: en situación opuesta, enfrentado <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in one's presence, openly, publicly <br> *Francese: en présence de quelqu'un, publiquement <br> *Italiano: in presenza di, davanti a, pubblicamente <br> *Espaniol: en la presencia de, abiertamente, públicamente <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in the presence of <br> *Francese: en présence de <br> *Italiano: in presenza di <br> *Espaniol: en presencia de <br> <b>cras(= deman)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>cuje, cuja, cujo</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: cuyo, cuya <br> <b>cum(=con)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: avec <br> <b>d(littera): de /d/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: di/d <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d(lettre): dé /d/ <br> <b>de</b> <br> #from; also: since <br> *Francese: de, depuis <br> *Italiano: da, dal, dallo, dalla, dagli, dalle <br> *Espaniol: de, desde <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of <br> *Francese: de <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, belonging or pertaining to <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, à la, au, aux, (appartenant à la, au, aux) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, made of <br> *Francese: de(fait de) <br> *Italiano: di(fatto di) <br> *Espaniol: de, hecho de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, with, by means of <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, des, par, avec, au moyen de(de la, du, des) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de, con <br> <b>de(+ inf)</b> <br> #to; for <br> *Francese: de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: di <br> *Espaniol: de(+ inf) <br> <b>de accordo</b> <br> #in accord <br> *Francese: d'accord <br> *Italiano: d'accordo <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from the top to the bottom <br> *Francese: de haut en bas <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from top to bottom, from top to toe <br> *Francese: de haut en bas, de la tête aux pieds <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de bon corde</b> <br> #gladly, willingly <br> *Francese: de bon coeur <br> *Italiano: di buon cuore, generoso <br> *Espaniol: de buena gana, alegremente <br> <b>de bon grado</b> <br> #willingly, with pleasure <br> *Francese: avec plaisir <br> *Italiano: di buon grado, volentieri <br> *Espaniol: de buen grado, con placer, de buena gana <br> <b>de bon gusto</b> <br> #in good taste <br> *Francese: de bon goût <br> *Italiano: di buon gusto <br> *Espaniol: de buen gusto <br> <b>de bona hora</b> <br> #early <br> *Francese: de bonne heure <br> *Italiano: di buono'ora, presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: de buena hora <br> <b>de ci a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour, etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: da qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de commun accordo</b> <br> #by common consent <br> *Francese: d'un commun accord <br> *Italiano: di comune accordo <br> *Espaniol: de común acuerdo <br> <b>de concerto</b> <br> #in concert, in unison <br> *Francese: de concert <br> *Italiano: di concerto, d'accordo con <br> *Espaniol: de concierto, al unísono <br> <b>de costume, usualmente</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, d'abitudine, di norma, solitamente <br> *Espaniol: como de costumbre, habitualmente, usualmente <br> <b>de derecto</b> <br> #by right(s) <br> *Francese: de droit <br> *Italiano: di diritto <br> *Espaniol: de derecho <br> <b>de die in die</b> <br> #from day to day <br> *Francese: de jour en jour <br> *Italiano: di giorno in giorno <br> *Espaniol: de día en día <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #de facto <br> *Francese: de facto <br> *Italiano: di fatto <br> *Espaniol: de facto, de hecho <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #in fact, de facto <br> *Francese: en fait, de fait, par le fait <br> *Italiano: infatti, difatti <br> *Espaniol: de hecho, de facto <br> <b>de hic a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: di qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de la parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di, dalla parte di <br> *Espaniol: de(la) parte de <br> <b>de longe(= de longo)</b> <br> #afar, from a distance <br> *Francese: de loin <br> *Italiano: dalla distanza di, da <br> *Espaniol: de lejos <br> <b>de mal grado</b> <br> #unwillingly, in spite of oneself <br> *Francese: de mauvais gré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, malvolentieri <br> *Espaniol: de mala gana <br> <b>de mal gusto</b> <br> #in bad taste <br> *Francese: de mauvais goût <br> *Italiano: di cattivo gusto, inopportuno <br> *Espaniol: de mal gusto <br> <b>de mal in pejo</b> <br> #from bad to worse <br> *Francese: de mal en pis <br> *Italiano: di male in peggio <br> *Espaniol: de mal en peor <br> <b>de maniera que</b> <br> #so that <br> *Francese: de manière que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: de manera que <br> <b>de memoria</b> <br> #from memory, by heart <br> *Francese: de mémoire, par coeur <br> *Italiano: a memoria, a mente <br> *Espaniol: de memoria <br> <b>de nocte</b> <br> #by night <br> *Francese: de nuit <br> *Italiano: di notte <br> *Espaniol: de noche <br> <b>de novo</b> <br> #again, anew, afresh <br> *Francese: de nouveau <br> *Italiano: di nuovo, ancora <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo <br> <b>de omne latere</b> <br> #from every side <br> *Francese: de tout côté <br> *Italiano: da ogni alto <br> *Espaniol: de todo lado <br> <b>de parte a parte</b> <br> #through and through <br> *Francese: de part en part <br> *Italiano: da parte a parte <br> *Espaniol: de parte a parte <br> <b>de parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di <br> *Espaniol: de parte de <br> <b>de plus</b> <br> #furthermore, besides <br> *Francese: de plus <br> *Italiano: di più <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>de plus in plus</b> <br> #more and more <br> *Francese: de plus en plus <br> *Italiano: più e più <br> *Espaniol: de más en más <br> <b>de qui</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: de qui, dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: de quien <br> <b>de tempore ??</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de tempore in tempore</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de toto(le) corde</b> <br> #wholeheartedly <br> *Francese: de tout coeur <br> *Italiano: di tutto cuore <br> *Espaniol: de todo corazón <br> <b>de totos lateres</b> <br> #on all sides <br> *Francese: de tous les côtés <br> *Italiano: da ogni lato, da ogni parte <br> *Espaniol: de todos lados <br> <b>de transverso</b> <br> #askew, awry <br> *Francese: de travers <br> *Italiano: di traverso, trasversalmente <br> *Espaniol: de tavés <br> <b>de troppo(= de tro)</b> <br> #superfluous, in the way <br> *Francese: de trop <br> *Italiano: di troppo, superfluo <br> *Espaniol: superfluo <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> #from where, whence <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de un extremo al altero</b> <br> #from one extreme to the other <br> *Francese: d'un extrême à l'autre <br> *Italiano: da un estremo all'altro <br> *Espaniol: de un extremo al otro <br> <b>debitamente</b> <br> #duly, properly <br> *Francese: dûment, justement, convenablement <br> *Italiano: debitamente, giustamente, propriamente <br> *Espaniol: debidamente, propiamente <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, following in time <br> *Francese: ensuite, alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: di seguito, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, entonces, <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, next in order <br> *Francese: di seguito, dopo, poi, secondo l'ordine, seguendo l'ordine <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ensuite, suivant dans l'ordre <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #thereafter, next <br> *Francese: successivo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: suivant(e) <br> <b>del(= de le)</b> <br> #of the <br> *Francese: du <br> *Italiano: del, dello <br> *Espaniol: del <br> <b>del altere latere</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de l'autre côté <br> *Italiano: dall'altro lato, d'altro canto <br> *Espaniol: del otro lado <br> <b>del principio</b> <br> #from the outset or start <br> *Francese: du début <br> *Italiano: da principio, dall'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: del principio <br> <b>del toto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: du tout <br> *Italiano: di tutto <br> *Espaniol: del todo <br> <b>deman(= cras)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>deman matino</b> <br> #tomorrow morning <br> *Francese: demain matin <br> *Italiano: domani mattina, domattina <br> *Espaniol: mañana a la mañana, mañana por la mañana <br> <b>deman vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la tarde, mañana por la noche <br> <b>depois(= depost)</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite, plus tard <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, più tardi <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>depois que(= depost que)</b> <br> #since(from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che, dopo di che <br> *Espaniol: después de que <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #after, since <br> *Francese: depuis, après <br> *Italiano: dopo <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, luego <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuando <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuándo <br> <b>depost que</b> <br> #since(= from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después(de) que, desde que <br> <b>desde</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis, de <br> *Italiano: dopo di <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>detra</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: detrás <br> <b>dextra</b> <br> #on the right of <br> *Francese: à la droite de <br> *Italiano: alla destra di <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha de <br> <b>difficile a(+ inf), difficile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: difficile à(+inf), difficile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: difficile a/da <br> *Espaniol: difícil de(+ inf) <br> <b>directo:(ir, ambular, etc. ) directo</b> <br> #(to go, walk, etc. ) straight <br> *Francese: droit, tout droit:(aller, se diriger, etc. ) tout droit <br> *Italiano: diritto, sempre diritto <br> *Espaniol: directamente <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #until, up to the time that <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: fino a, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>duas horas</b> <br> #two o'clock <br> *Francese: deux heures <br> *Italiano: due ore <br> *Espaniol: las dos(horas) <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #provided that, if only <br> *Francese: pourvu que, si seulement <br> *Italiano: solo se <br> *Espaniol: contal de que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #until <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que, tant que <br> *Italiano: fintanto che, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>dunque</b> <br> #therefore <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>durante</b> <br> #during <br> *Francese: durant, pendant <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: durante <br> <b>durante que</b> <br> #while, whilst <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: mientras, mientras que <br> <b>e(= et)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et <br> <b>e(littera): e /e/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: e(lettre): e /?/ <br> <b>e. . . e...(= et. . . et. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e. . . e. . . <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et... et... <br> <b>ecce</b> <br> #lo!, see!, behold!, here is <br> *Francese: voici <br> *Italiano: ecco, ecco qui, ecco qua <br> *Espaniol: he aquí, helo aquí <br> <b>ego(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: io <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: moi(= je) <br> <b>el(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli, lui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>ella(= illa)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ella, lei <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: elle <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #equally <br> *Francese: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: également <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #likewise, also <br> *Francese: également <br> *Italiano: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, también <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #in respect to <br> *Francese: par rapport à <br> *Italiano: in rapporto a <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #towards <br> *Francese: di fronte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis <br> <b>ergo</b> <br> #consequently, accordingly, therefore, then <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente, ergo, por eso <br> <b>esse, essa, esso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esser in dubita</b> <br> #to be in doubt <br> *Francese: être dans le doute, douter <br> *Italiano: essere in dubbio/nel dubbio <br> *Espaniol: estar en duda, dudar <br> <b>esser satis</b> <br> #to be enough <br> *Francese: être assez, être suffisant <br> *Italiano: essere sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: ser suficiente, ser bastante <br> <b>esso(=isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>este, esta, esto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esto(= isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questo qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>est-que [ést-ke](= an)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: est-ce que <br> <b>est-que ille habe le libro?(= an ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: (egli) ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: e, anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #and <br> *Francese: et <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e <br> <b>et cetera, etc. </b><br> #and so on, and so forth, etc. <br> *Francese: et ainsi de suite, et cetera, etc. <br> *Italiano: eccetera, così di seguito <br> *Espaniol: etcetera, etc. <br> <b>et. . . et. . . (= e. . . e. . . )</b> <br> #as well. . . as..., both. . . and... <br> *Francese: et. . . et. . . <br> *Italiano: e. . . e. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>etiam(= anque, tamben)</b> <br> #also, likewise, too; even, even yet; yet <br> *Francese: aussi, même, <br> *Italiano: anche, lo stesso, allo stesso modo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: también, del mismo modo, igualmente, incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #and yet <br> *Francese: et même <br> *Italiano: e ancora <br> *Espaniol: e incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #even if <br> *Francese: même si <br> *Italiano: anche se <br> *Espaniol: incluso si <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: benché <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoique, bien que <br> <b>ex</b> <br> #out of; from <br> *Francese: hors de <br> *Italiano: ex, fuori da <br> *Espaniol: fuera de; desde, de <br> <b>ex tempore</b> <br> #extempore <br> *Francese: ex tempore, imrpovvisato <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: impromptu, improvisé <br> <b>exactamente(= justo)</b> <br> #exactly, just <br> *Francese: exactement, juste, justement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esatto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: exactamente, justo <br> <b>excepto</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto, exceptuando <br> <b>excessivamente(= in excesso, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: eccessivamente, troppo, in eccesso <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: excessivement <br> <b>expresso</b> <br> #purposely <br> *Francese: exprès <br> *Italiano: espresso <br> *Espaniol: intencionadamente <br> <b>extero</b> <br> #foreign countries <br> *Francese: pays étrangers(à l'étranger) <br> *Italiano: estero, paese straniero <br> *Espaniol: países extranjeros <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de, <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además de, en adición a <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition, extra <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, d'autre part, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además, en adición, extra <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #excepting, except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #outside of, without, beyond <br> *Francese: hors de, en dehors de, au délà de <br> *Italiano: fuori di, al di fuori di, oltre a <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #without, on the outside <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: fuera, en la parte de afuera <br> <b>f(littera): fe /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: f, effe <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: f(lettre): èfe /f/ <br> <b>facie a(= ob, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: face à, en face de, devant, considérant, en raison de <br> *Italiano: davanti a, in ragione di, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: cara a, hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>facie a facie</b> <br> #face to face <br> *Francese: face à face <br> *Italiano: faccia a faccia <br> *Espaniol: cara cara <br> <b>facile a(+ inf), facile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: facile à(+inf), facile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: facile da, facile a <br> *Espaniol: fácil de(+ inf) <br> <b>for</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>for</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, fuori da/che <br> *Espaniol: fuera de, excepto <br> <b>for</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>for</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>for de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: hors de, à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: fuori da, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>for de se(= foras de se, foris de se)</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: dehors <br> *Italiano: fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, afuera <br> <b>foras de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: au dehors de <br> *Italiano: senza, al di fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>foras de dubita, foris de dubita</b> <br> #beyond doubt <br> *Francese: hors de tout doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: fuera de duda <br> <b>foras de lo commun(= foris de lo commun)</b> <br> #out of the ordinary <br> *Francese: hors de l'ordinaire <br> *Italiano: fuori dall'ordinario <br> *Espaniol: fuera de lo común <br> <b>foras de proposito</b> <br> #ill-timed, irrelevant, beside the mark <br> *Francese: hors de propos <br> *Italiano: irrilevante <br> *Espaniol: fuera de propósito, irrelevante <br> <b>foras de se</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, possiblement <br> *Italiano: può essere, forse <br> *Espaniol: posiblemente, quizás, tal vez, es posible que. . . <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, probablement <br> *Italiano: può essere, probabilmente, forse <br> *Espaniol: probablemente, quizás, tal vez <br> <b>frequentemente</b> <br> #frequently, often <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: frequentemente, sovente, spesso <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, a menudo <br> <b>frustra</b> <br> #in vain <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>g(littera): ge /g/ aut /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: g/gi(pron. : come j di John) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: g(lettre): jé /gh/ ou /j/ <br> <b>grande(= magne, magna, magno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grand, grande <br> *Italiano: grande, gran <br> *Espaniol: grande; magno, magna <br> <b>grandemente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grandement <br> *Italiano: grandemente <br> *Espaniol: grandemente <br> <b>gratias a</b> <br> #thanks to, due or owing to <br> *Francese: grâce à <br> *Italiano: grazie a <br> *Espaniol: gracias a, debido a <br> <b>gratias!</b> <br> #thank you! thanks! <br> *Francese: grâce! <br> *Italiano: grazie <br> *Espaniol: gracias! <br> <b>gratis</b> <br> #gratis, free(of charge) <br> *Francese: gratis, gratuit <br> *Italiano: gratis, gratuito <br> *Espaniol: gratis <br> <b>guai</b> <br> #woe <br> *Francese: ennui, malheur, chagrin, peine <br> *Italiano: guai <br> *Espaniol: pena <br> <b>h(littera): hache /h/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: h, acca(muta, ma dopo C e G cambia la pronuncia da dolce a dura(chi=ki; ghi=g di girl inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: h(lettre): ache /muet/ <br> <b>haber satis</b> <br> #to have enough <br> *Francese: avoir assez <br> *Italiano: avere abbastanza, avere a sufficienza <br> *Espaniol: tener suficiente, tener bastante <br> <b>hac</b> <br> #here, this way, on this side <br> *Francese: ici, par là, de ce côté <br> *Italiano: qui, di qui, di qua, da questa parte, in questo luogo <br> *Espaniol: aquí, en este lado <br> <b>hallo!</b> <br> #hello! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>halto</b> <br> #halt, stop <br> *Francese: halte, arrêt, stop <br> *Italiano: stop, alt, fermo! basta! <br> *Espaniol: alto <br> <b>halto!</b> <br> #halt! <br> *Francese: halte! <br> *Italiano: fermo!, ferma! stop! alt! altolà! <br> *Espaniol: alto! <br> <b>heri</b> <br> #yesterday <br> *Francese: hier <br> *Italiano: ieri <br> *Espaniol: ayer <br> <b>heri vespera</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>heri vespere</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>hic</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>hic(= iste)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: -ci <br> <b>hic juncto</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(attached) <br> *Francese: qui accanto, qui con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ci-joint <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this place <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui(da qui in poi, da qui in avanti) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este sitio en adelante <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this reason) <br> *Francese: de là, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, por esta razón <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this time <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este tiempo en adelante <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, cela <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #this(thing, idea) <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, ceci, cela <br> <b>hoc est</b> <br> #that is(to say) <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: come a dire, cioé <br> *Espaniol: es decir <br> <b>hoc pluve</b> <br> #it is raining <br> *Francese: il pleut <br> *Italiano: piove, sta piovendo <br> *Espaniol: llueve, está lloviendo <br> <b>hodie</b> <br> #today <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui <br> *Italiano: oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy <br> <b>hodie ipse</b> <br> #this very say <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: oggi stesso <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>hodie mesmo</b> <br> #this very day <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: anche oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>holla!</b> <br> #holla! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao! <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>homo(=on, uno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un, uno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: on <br> <b>i(littera): i /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: i <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: i(lettre): i /i/ <br> <b>ibi</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <b>ibid. , ib. </b><br> #ibid. , ib. <br> *Francese: ibid. , ib. <br> *Italiano: ibid. , ib. <br> *Espaniol: ibid. , ib. <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #ibidem <br> *Francese: ibidem <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: ibidem, en el mismo lugar <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #in the same place, in that very place <br> *Francese: au même endroit <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: en el mismo lugar <br> <b>id</b> <br> #1. it; 2. that <br> *Francese: ce <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>id est, i. e. </b><br> #that is(to say), i. e. <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire, i. e. <br> *Italiano: cioé <br> *Espaniol: esto es, es decir <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #idem <br> *Francese: idem <br> *Italiano: idem, lo stesso <br> *Espaniol: idem <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #the same(thing) <br> *Francese: la même chose, le même <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, idem <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa; lo mismo <br> <b>igitur</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: donc, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: quindi, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, por consiguiente <br> <b>il</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, c', il <br> <b>il(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>il conveni de(facer lo)</b> <br> #it is fitting, advisable, to(do it) <br> *Francese: il convient de(le faire) <br> *Italiano: conviene(farlo) <br> *Espaniol: conviene(hacerlo) <br> <b>il est a dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: cioè <br> *Espaniol: es decir, o sea <br> <b>il est bon que, il est bono que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon que, c'est bon que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: es bueno que <br> <b>il est bon, il est bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon, c'est bon <br> *Italiano: va bene <br> *Espaniol: es bueno <br> <b>il est necessari que, il est necessario que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario che, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est necessari, il est necessario</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire, c'est nécessaire <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario <br> <b>il est necesse que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est vero, nonne?</b> <br> #it is true, isn't it?, isn't that so? <br> *Francese: c'est vrai, non? n'est-ce pas vrai? n'est-il pas vrai? <br> *Italiano: è vero ? non è vero ? <br> *Espaniol: es verdad, no es así? <br> <b>il face</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a(deux ans) <br> *Italiano: fa(due anni fa) <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>il face(un) grande calor</b> <br> #it is very hot <br> *Francese: il fait une grande chaleur <br> *Italiano: fa un gran caldo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho calor <br> <b>il face frigido</b> <br> #it is cold(weather) <br> *Francese: il fait froid <br> *Italiano: fa freddo <br> *Espaniol: hace frío <br> <b>il ha</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il habe</b> <br> #there is, there aree <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il importa que. . . </b><br> #it is essential that. . . <br> *Francese: il faut que <br> *Italiano: è che, bisogna, è necessario che <br> *Espaniol: importa que, es importante que, es esencial que <br> <b>il pare que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il paraît que <br> *Italiano: sembra che <br> *Espaniol: parece que <br> <b>il se tracta de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il s'agit de <br> *Italiano: si tratta di <br> *Espaniol: se trata de <br> <b>il va sin dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il va sans dire <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #her(as in "of her, " "with her") <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #she <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illac</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ille habe 20 annos</b> <br> #he is 20 years old <br> *Francese: venti anni fa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il a vingt(20) ans <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #he; she; it <br> *Francese: il, elle <br> *Italiano: egli, ella, lui, lei, esso, essa <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #him; her; it(as in "with him, " "with it"; "for him, " "for it") <br> *Francese: lui, elle(comme dans "avec lui, " "avec elle"; "pour lui" "pour elle") <br> *Italiano: lui, lei(con lei, per lei, a lui, con lui, per lei, per lui) <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, pron. dém. : celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that, those <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello là, quella là <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former(= first of two) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #them(as in "with them, " "for them") <br> *Francese: eux, elles(comme dans "avec eux" ou "avec elles", "pour eux" ou "pour elles") <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro(con essi, con loro, a loro, per loro) <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #they <br> *Francese: ils, elles <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos(= aquelles, aquellas, aquellos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-là, pron. dém. : ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli là, quelle là <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>illi(= illes)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: essi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ??????? <br> <b>illic(= illac)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: là <br> <b>illo</b> <br> #it [used as subject, and as object of a prep.] <br> *Francese: ça <br> *Italiano: ciò, quello <br> *Espaniol: ello <br> <b>in</b> <br> #in, into <br> *Francese: dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nello, nella <br> *Espaniol: en, dentro <br> <b>in(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en(part. prés. ) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: = gerundio <br> <b>in alicun modo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque façon <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: de algún modo, de alguna manera <br> <b>in alicuna forma</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque forme <br> *Italiano: in qualche forma <br> *Espaniol: de alguna forma <br> <b>in alicuna maniera</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque manière <br> *Italiano: in qualche maniera <br> *Espaniol: de alguna manera <br> <b>in alta voce</b> <br> #aloud, loudly, not in a whisper <br> *Francese: à haute voix <br> *Italiano: ad alta voce <br> *Espaniol: en alta voz <br> <b>in alteras parolas</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans d'autres mots <br> *Italiano: in altre parole, in altri termini <br> *Espaniol: en otras palabras <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #(up) on top; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #upward(s), up; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto(= super)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, below; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas, en dessous <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, downward; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in caso de</b> <br> #in case of <br> *Francese: en cas de <br> *Italiano: in caso di, nel caso che <br> *Espaniol: en caso de <br> <b>in caso de necessitate</b> <br> #in case of need, of necessity <br> *Francese: en cas de nécessité <br> *Italiano: in caso di necessità, all'occorrenza <br> *Espaniol: en caso de necesidad <br> <b>in caso que</b> <br> #in case(that) <br> *Francese: au cas où <br> *Italiano: nel caso che, in caso di <br> *Espaniol: en caso de que <br> <b>in certos casos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans certains cas <br> *Italiano: in certi casi <br> *Espaniol: en ciertos casos <br> <b>in commemoration de</b> <br> #in commemoration of <br> *Francese: en commémoration de <br> *Italiano: in commemorazione di, in ricordo di, in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en conmemoración de <br> <b>in commun</b> <br> #in common <br> *Francese: en commun <br> *Italiano: in comune <br> *Espaniol: en común <br> <b>in conclusion, in fin</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: en conclusion <br> *Italiano: in conclusione <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión <br> <b>in consequentia</b> <br> #in consequence, accordingly <br> *Francese: en conséquence <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza, conseguentemente <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia <br> <b>in consequentia de</b> <br> #in consequence of <br> *Francese: en conséquence de <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza di <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia de <br> <b>in consideration de</b> <br> #in consideration of, on account of <br> *Francese: en considération de <br> *Italiano: in considerazione di <br> *Espaniol: en consideración de <br> <b>in despecto de</b> <br> #in spite of, despite <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, a dispetto di, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>in domo de</b> <br> #at the house of <br> *Francese: à la résidence de <br> *Italiano: in casa di, presso <br> *Espaniol: en la casa de <br> <b>in effecto</b> <br> #in fact, indeed <br> *Francese: en fait, effectivement <br> *Italiano: infatti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: en efecto <br> <b>in evidentia</b> <br> #evident <br> *Francese: en évidence <br> *Italiano: in evidenza <br> *Espaniol: en evidencia <br> <b>in excesso(= excessivamente, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en excès(=excessivement, trop) <br> *Italiano: in eccesso, troppo, eccessivamente <br> *Espaniol: en exceso, excesivamente, demasiado <br> <b>in favor de</b> <br> #on behalf of, in favor of <br> *Francese: en faveur de <br> *Italiano: in favore di <br> *Espaniol: a favor de <br> <b>in fin</b> <br> #in short, to sum up <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion, finalement <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión, en fin <br> <b>in fin, in conclusion</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en fin, en conclusión <br> <b>in general</b> <br> #in general <br> *Francese: en général <br> *Italiano: in generale, in genere, di norma, usualmente, normalmente <br> *Espaniol: en general <br> <b>in honor de</b> <br> #in honor of <br> *Francese: en honneur de <br> *Italiano: in onore di <br> *Espaniol: en honor de <br> <b>in la proximitate de</b> <br> #in the proximity or vicinity of <br> *Francese: à proximité de <br> *Italiano: in prossimità di <br> *Espaniol: en la proximidad o vecindad de <br> <b>in la via de(= facie a, ob)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>in le curso de. . . </b><br> #in the course of. . . <br> *Francese: au cours de <br> *Italiano: in corso di <br> *Espaniol: en el curso de <br> <b>in le exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior <br> <b>in le exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior de <br> <b>in le fundo</b> <br> #fundamentally, at bottom <br> *Francese: au fond, fondamentalement <br> *Italiano: in fondo <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo, fundamentalmente <br> <b>in le gusto de. . . </b><br> #in the manner of. . . <br> *Francese: au goût de <br> *Italiano: al gusto di <br> *Espaniol: al gusto de, a la manera de <br> <b>in le interim</b> <br> #in the interim <br> *Francese: dans l'intérim <br> *Italiano: nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: en el interim <br> <b>in le interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior <br> <b>in le interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: en el interior de <br> <b>in le passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le passé <br> *Italiano: nel passato <br> *Espaniol: en el pasado <br> <b>in le principio</b> <br> #in the beginning <br> *Francese: au début <br> *Italiano: all'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: al principio <br> <b>in loco de</b> <br> #in lieu of, instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: in luogo di, al posto di, invece di <br> *Espaniol: en lugar de <br> <b>in medio de</b> <br> #in the middle of <br> *Francese: au milieu de <br> *Italiano: in mezzo a <br> *Espaniol: en medio de <br> <b>in memoria de</b> <br> #in memory of <br> *Francese: en mémoire de <br> *Italiano: in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en memoria de <br> <b>in modo special, specialmente</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: in particolare, specialmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>in modo. . . (= -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>in nomine de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: au nom de <br> *Italiano: in nome di <br> *Espaniol: en nombre de <br> <b>in nulla parte</b> <br> #nowhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in nessun luogo, da nessuna parte <br> *Espaniol: en ninguna parte <br> <b>in nulle caso</b> <br> #in no case <br> *Francese: en aucun cas <br> *Italiano: in alcun caso, in nessun caso, mai <br> *Espaniol: en ningún caso <br> <b>in omne caso</b> <br> #in any case <br> *Francese: en tout cas <br> *Italiano: in ogni caso, in utti i casi, sempre <br> *Espaniol: en todo caso <br> <b>in parte</b> <br> #in part, partially <br> *Francese: en partie <br> *Italiano: in parte <br> *Espaniol: en parte, parcialmente <br> <b>in particular</b> <br> #in particular, particularly <br> *Francese: en particulier <br> *Italiano: in particolare <br> *Espaniol: en particular, particularmente <br> <b>in pauco</b> <br> #shortly, before long <br> *Francese: d'ici peu <br> *Italiano: in poco tempo, da qui a un poco, in un attimo <br> *Espaniol: en poco tiempo, dentro de poco, en breve <br> <b>in plus</b> <br> #furthermore, in addition, also <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, en outre <br> *Italiano: di più, in più, <br> *Espaniol: además, adicionalmente <br> <b>in primo loco</b> <br> #first, in the first place <br> *Francese: en premier lieu <br> *Italiano: in primo luogo, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: en primer lugar <br> <b>in principio</b> <br> #in principle, as a rule <br> *Francese: en principe <br> *Italiano: in principio <br> *Espaniol: en principio <br> <b>in su loco</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à sa place <br> *Italiano: al suo posto <br> *Espaniol: en su lugar <br> <b>in summa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en somme <br> *Italiano: insomma <br> *Espaniol: en suma <br> <b>in tanto que</b> <br> #inasmuch as, in so far as <br> *Francese: en tant que <br> *Italiano: in tanto che, fin tanto che <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que <br> <b>in toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly, in toto <br> *Francese: en tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo <br> <b>in toto et per toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly <br> *Francese: en tout et pour tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto e per tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo y por todo <br> <b>in vano</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano, inutilmente <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>in vice de</b> <br> #instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: en vez de, en lugar de <br> <b>in vista de</b> <br> #in view of <br> *Francese: en vue de <br> *Italiano: in vista di <br> *Espaniol: en vista de <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that cause, therefore <br> *Francese: de ce fait, de là <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò <br> *Espaniol: por esa causa, por consiguiente <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that place, from there, thence <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui <br> *Espaniol: desde aquí, desde este sitio <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that time, after that, thereupon, thenceforward <br> *Francese: désormais, dorénavant <br> *Italiano: da questo momento <br> *Espaniol: desde este momento, después de eso <br> <b>inferior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: inférieur(e) <br> *Italiano: inferiore <br> *Espaniol: inferior <br> <b>infime, infima, infimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: infime <br> *Italiano: infimo, infima <br> *Espaniol: ínfimo, ínfima <br> <b>1</b> <br> #below, under, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous <br> *Italiano: sotto, in basso, in profondità <br> *Espaniol: debajo de <br> <b>infra</b> <br> #below, underneath, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous, en dessous <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo <br> <b>insimul(= junctamente)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #among <br> *Francese: parmi <br> *Italiano: tra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #between <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter alia</b> <br> #inter alia, among other things <br> *Francese: entre autres choses, parmi tant d'autres <br> *Italiano: tra l'altro <br> *Espaniol: entre otras cosas <br> <b>interdum</b> <br> #sometimes, occasionally; for some time; meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: parfois, à l'occasion, pour quelque temps, entre-temps <br> *Italiano: qualchevolta, talvolta, durante, nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: a veces, de vez en cuando; durante algún tiempo; entretanto <br> <b>interea</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>interim(= intertanto)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto, mientras tanto <br> <b>intertanto(= interim)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: en attendant <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: entre, dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nella, dentro il <br> *Espaniol: dentro <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di, nel, in <br> *Espaniol: dentro de <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: hacia dentro <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly, internally, on the inside, in <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: internamente, interiormente, enm el interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, into, to the inside <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: al interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, on the inside, within <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior, dentro de <br> <b>io(=ego)</b> <br> #I <br> *Francese: je(=moi) <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>io mesme, io mesma, io mesmo, io ipse</b> <br> #myself <br> *Francese: moi même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso <br> *Espaniol: yo mismo, yo mismo <br> <b>ipse</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: -même <br> *Italiano: stesso <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma(yo mismo, tú mismo, él mismo, etc. <br> <b>is</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce <br> <b>isse(= esse)</b> <br> #this, that, these, those <br> *Francese: ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-là, ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa, questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: ese <br> <b>isse, issa, isso(= aquesse, aquessa, aquesso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>isses, issas, issos(= aquesses, aquessas, aquessos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questi, queste <br> *Espaniol: esos, esas <br> <b>isso</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce. ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, quello <br> *Espaniol: eso <br> <b>ista nocte</b> <br> #tonight <br> *Francese: cette nuit <br> *Italiano: questa notte, stanotte <br> *Espaniol: esta noche <br> <b>ista vespera</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera, stasera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste vespere</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter(= second of two) <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #this(one) <br> *Francese: celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto(= aqueste, aquesta, aquesto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>istes, istas, istos(= aquestes, aquestas, aquestos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: estos, estas <br> <b>isto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ce, ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #accordingly, under the circumstances <br> *Francese: en conséquence, dans les circonstances <br> *Italiano: così, di conseguenza, <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo con, bako las circunstancias <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #and so, consequently <br> *Francese: et ainsi, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: e così <br> *Espaniol: así, consecuentemente, por consiguiente <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #just so, yes <br> *Francese: justement, oui <br> *Italiano: sì, giusto <br> *Espaniol: justamente, sí <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>itaque</b> <br> #and so, therefore <br> *Francese: et ainsi, donc <br> *Italiano: e così, dunque <br> *Espaniol: y así, por consiguiente <br> <b>itero</b> <br> #again, anew <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora, di nuovo, nuovamente <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo, nuevamente <br> <b>itero et itero</b> <br> #again and again, repeatedly <br> *Francese: encore et encore <br> *Italiano: ancora ed ancora <br> *Espaniol: una y otra vez, repetidamente <br> <b>j(littera): jota /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: j(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo; si usa nelle parole antiche o straniere) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: j(lettre): ji /j/(et non /dj/) <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #already; at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely <br> *Francese: déjà, tout de suite, il y a un moment, en effet, sûrement <br> *Italiano: già, al momento, proprio adesso <br> *Espaniol: ya, ahora mismo <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #indeed, certainly, of course <br> *Francese: en effet, bien sûr <br> *Italiano: in effetti, già, sicuramente, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ya, ciertamente <br> <b>jammais</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>jammais!</b> <br> #never! <br> *Francese: jamais! <br> *Italiano: mai giammai ! <br> *Espaniol: jamás!, nunca! <br> <b>jo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>junctamente(=insimul)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme, con <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>justo(= exactamente)</b> <br> #just, exactly <br> *Francese: juste, exactement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: justo, exactamente <br> <b>justo nunc(= justo ora)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>justo ora(= justo nunc)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near by <br> *Francese: près <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca, al lado <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near to, next to, etc. <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de <br> <b>k(littera): ka /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: k(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo), kappa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: k(lettre): ka /k/ <br> <b>l(littera): le /l/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: l, elle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l(lettre): èle /l/ <br> <b>l'(= le, la, lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l'(= le, la) <br> <b>la</b> <br> #her(as in "I see her", "I write her a letter") <br> *Francese: la, lui(comme dans "je la vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: la, lei(io la vedo, io le ho scritto una lettera) <br> *Espaniol: la, le <br> <b>la(= illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>la medietate del mundo</b> <br> #half the world <br> *Francese: la moitié du monde <br> *Italiano: mezzo mondo <br> *Espaniol: la mitad del mundo, medio mundo <br> <b>la mesma cosa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: la même chose <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, la medesima cosa <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa, lo mismo <br> <b>la vespera</b> <br> #in the evening, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: por la tarde <br> <b>la:(un dollar) la(libra)</b> <br> #(one dollar) a(pound) <br> *Francese: la:(un dollar) la(livre) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (un dolar) la(libra) <br> <b>le(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: el(+ inf) <br> <b>le de, la de, lo de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui de, celle de <br> *Italiano: quello di, quella di <br> *Espaniol: el de, la de, lo de <br> <b>le die sequente</b> <br> #the next day, the following day <br> *Francese: le jour suivant <br> *Italiano: il giorno dopo, il giorno seguente, il giorno successivo <br> *Espaniol: el día siguiente <br> <b>le lore, la lore, lo lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur, la leur <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>le melior, la melior, lo melior(= le optime, la optima, lo optimo; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> #the best <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le mie et le tue, la mia et la tua, lo mio et lo tuo</b> <br> #mine and thine <br> *Francese: le mien et le tien. la mienne et la tienne <br> *Italiano: il mio e il tuo, la mia e la tua <br> *Espaniol: el mío y el tuyo, la mía y la tuya, lo mío y lo tuyo <br> <b>le mie, la mia, lo mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: el mío, la mía, lo mío <br> <b>le minime, la minima, lo minino(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minor, la minor, lo minor(= le minime, la minima, lo minimo; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il minore, la minore <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minus</b> <br> #the least(as in "what pleases me(the) least") <br> *Francese: le moins <br> *Italiano: il meno <br> *Espaniol: el menor <br> <b>le minus belle, la minus bella, lo minus bello</b> <br> #the least beautiful <br> *Francese: le moins beau, la moins belle <br> *Italiano: il meno bello, lameno bella <br> *Espaniol: el menos bello, la menos bella, lo menos bello <br> <b>le nostre, la nostra, lo nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre, la nôtre <br> *Italiano: il nostro, la nostra <br> *Espaniol: el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro <br> <b>le optime, la optima, lo optimo(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor <br> <b>le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire la pire <br> *Italiano: il pessimo, la pessima <br> *Espaniol: el pésimo, la pésima, lo pésimo <br> <b>le plus belle, la plus bella, lo plus bello</b> <br> #the most beautiful <br> *Francese: le plus beau, la plus belle <br> *Italiano: il più bello, la più bella <br> *Espaniol: el más bonito, la más bonita, lo más bonito <br> <b>le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le optime, la optima, lo optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande(= le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno(= le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le minime, la minima, lo minimo)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le plus. . . -mente(= lo plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>le plus. . . , la plus. . . , lo plus. . . </b><br> #the most. . . <br> *Francese: le plus..., la plus... <br> *Italiano: il più. . . la più. . . <br> *Espaniol: el más. . . , la más. . . , lo más. . . <br> <b>le qual, la qual, lo qual</b> <br> #which; that; who <br> *Francese: lequel, laquelle <br> *Italiano: il quale, la quale <br> *Espaniol: el cual, la cual, lo cual <br> <b>le que, la que, lo que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui qui, celle qui <br> *Italiano: quello che, quella che <br> *Espaniol: el que, la que, lo que <br> <b>le sue, la sua, lo suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: le sien, la sienne(de lui, d'elle) <br> *Italiano: il suo, la sua <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>le toto</b> <br> #the whole <br> *Francese: le tout <br> *Italiano: il tutto <br> *Espaniol: el todo <br> <b>le tue, la tua, lo tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: il tuo, la tua <br> *Espaniol: el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo <br> <b>le un le altere, la una la altera, lo uno lo altero(= unaltre)</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(one). . . the other(one) <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre, l'une l'autre <br> *Italiano: l'un l'altro <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>le vespere</b> <br> #in the evenong, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: la tarde <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il vostro, la vostra <br> *Espaniol: el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il Suo, la Sua(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de usted) <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ustedes) <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #him(as in "I see him", "I write him a letter") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je le vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it", "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: le, la, l' <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: el, la, lo <br> <b>les de, las de, los de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux de, celles de <br> *Italiano: quelli di, quelle di <br> *Espaniol: los de, las de <br> <b>les duo, las duas, los duos</b> <br> #the two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: i due, ambo, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>les lores, las lores, los lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>les mies, las mias, los mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: los míos, las mías <br> <b>les nostres, las nostras, los nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: i nostri <br> *Espaniol: los nuestros, las nuestras <br> <b>les que, las que, los que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux que, ceux qui, celles que. celles qui <br> *Italiano: quelli che, quelle che <br> *Espaniol: los que, las que <br> <b>les sues, las suas, los suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: les siens, les siennes(de lui ou d'elle) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>les tues, las tuas, los tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiens, les tiennes <br> *Italiano: i tuoi, le tue <br> *Espaniol: los tuyos, las tuyas <br> <b>les unes les alteres</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(of them). . . the others, other ones <br> *Francese: les uns les autres <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros <br> <b>les unes les alteres, las unas las alteras, los unos los alteros</b> <br> #one another, each other <br> *Francese: les uns les autres, <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros, unas a las otras <br> les unes les autres <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i vostri <br> *Espaniol: los vuestros, las vuestras <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Suoi(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de usted) <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: les <br> *Italiano: i, le <br> *Espaniol: los, las <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #them(as in "I see them", "I write them a letter") <br> *Francese: les, leur(comme dans "je les vois", "je leur écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: li, le <br> *Espaniol: les, los, las <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #on the left hand <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra, sinistrorso <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #to the left <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>li(= le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ?????? <br> <b>lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it, " "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: le, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: lo <br> *Espaniol: lo <br> <b>lo plus. . . -mente(= le plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>lo que</b> <br> #that which <br> *Francese: ce que <br> *Italiano: quello che <br> *Espaniol: lo que <br> <b>loco</b> <br> #place <br> *Francese: lieu <br> *Italiano: luogo <br> *Espaniol: lugar <br> <b>longamente</b> <br> #long, for a long time <br> *Francese: longtemps <br> *Italiano: a lungo, lungamente <br> *Espaniol: durante mucho tiempo <br> <b>longe(= longo)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>longo(= longe)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>lontan(= lontano)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lontano(= lontan)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lor</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: su(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ellos, o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: sus(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>los altos et(los) bassos</b> <br> #th ups and downs <br> *Francese: les hauts et les bas <br> *Italiano: gli alti e bassi <br> *Espaniol: los altos y(los) bajos <br> <b>los mios</b> <br> #my people, my family <br> *Francese: les miens <br> *Italiano: i miei <br> *Espaniol: los míos <br> <b>m(littera): me /m/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: m, emme <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: m(lettre): ème /m/ <br> <b>ma(= mais)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #rather <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>magne, magna, magno(= grande)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grande <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: grand, grande <br> <b>mais(= ma)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>major</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: maggiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: majeur(e), principal(e) <br> <b>mal, mala, malo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: male, malvagio <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mal, mauvais, mauvaise <br> <b>malgrado(= malgre)</b> <br> #in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>malgre(= malgrado)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: malgrado <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: malgré <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #early in the morning <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: stamane, stamattina presto <br> *Espaniol: temprano por la mañana <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #morning <br> *Francese: matin <br> *Italiano: mattino <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>mane vespera</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>mane vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #certainly <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #especially, principally <br> *Francese: spécialement, principalement <br> *Italiano: specialmente. principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmentre, principalmente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #exceedingly, very <br> *Francese: excessivement, très <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, troppo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muy <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #most <br> *Francese: il più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus <br> <b>maxime, maxima, maximo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il più, la più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus, la plus <br> <b>me</b> <br> #me <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: me, mi(dallo a me, mi piace) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>me</b> <br> #myself(as in "I hurt myself", "I said to myself") <br> *Francese: moi-même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso(io stesso ho scritto quel libro; l'ho scritto io stesso; l'ho fatto per me stesso) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>media hora</b> <br> #half an hour <br> *Francese: demi-heure <br> *Italiano: mezz'ora <br> *Espaniol: media hora <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #average, mean <br> *Francese: moyen, moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: demi <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #middle <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medietate</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: mitad <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #mean, medium <br> *Francese: moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #means(= agent or instrument by which an end is attained) <br> *Francese: moyen <br> *Italiano: mediante, con <br> *Espaniol: medios(=agente o instrumento mediante el cual se obtiene un fin) <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #middle, also: midst <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: medio, in mezzo, in <br> *Espaniol: medio, también: entre <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>melio</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>melior</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>meno(= minus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>-mente(= in modo. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> #same <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #even <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: incluso, stesso <br> *Espaniol: incluso <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #likewise <br> *Francese: même, semblable <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente <br> <b>mesmo quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: même quand <br> *Italiano: anche quando <br> *Espaniol: incluso cuando <br> <b>mi</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mi <br> <b>mi(= me)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: mio <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>mie, mia, mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: mío, mía <br> <b>mies, mias, mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: míos, mías <br> <b>minimamente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minimalement <br> *Italiano: minimamente <br> *Espaniol: mínimamente <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #by no means, not in the least, no! <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon, pas du tout, non! <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo, no, assolutamente <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera, en lo más mínimo, no! <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #least <br> *Francese: almeno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le moins <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #very little <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #least, smallest, minimal <br> *Francese: le moins, la moins, le plus petit, la plus petite, minimal <br> *Italiano: minimo, la minima. . . la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: mínimo, mínima <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #very small, tiny <br> *Francese: très petit <br> *Italiano: molto piccolo <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño, diminuto <br> <b>minor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mineur(e) <br> <b>minus</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>minus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #less(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: moins de(moins d'argent) <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>minus de</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins de <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos de <br> <b>minus de(dece annos)</b> <br> #less than(ten years) <br> *Francese: moins de(dix ans) <br> *Italiano: meno di <br> *Espaniol: menos de(diez años) <br> <b>minus. . . (que)</b> <br> #less. . . (than) <br> *Francese: moins...(que) <br> *Italiano: meno che <br> *Espaniol: menos. . . (que) <br> <b>minus:(quatro) minus(tres)</b> <br> #(four) minus(three) <br> *Francese: moins:(quatre) moins(trois) <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos:(cuatro) menos(tres) <br> <b>minus:(totos) minus(ille)</b> <br> #(all) except, but(him) <br> *Francese: (tous) sauf(lui) <br> *Italiano: (tutti) meno(lui) <br> *Espaniol: menos:(todos) menos él <br> <b>mis</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mis <br> <b>mox</b> <br> #soon, at once, directly <br> *Francese: bientôt, tout-de-suite <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto, subito, prima possibile <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en seguida <br> <b>multas gratias</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: merci beaucoup <br> *Italiano: grazie molte, molte grazie, grazie infinite, grazie mille, grazie tante <br> *Espaniol: muchas gracias <br> <b>multas vices</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plusieurs fois <br> *Italiano: più volte <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces <br> <b>multe de, multa de, multo de</b> <br> #much, many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de <br> *Italiano: molto di <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multes, multas, multos</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: plusieurs, de nombreux, de nombreuses <br> *Italiano: molte, molti, numerosi, numerose <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> <b>multissime, multissima, multissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une grande quantité de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimo, muchísima <br> <b>multissimes, multissimas, multissimos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un grand nombre de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimos, muchísimas <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #very <br> *Francese: très <br> *Italiano: molto, tanto <br> *Espaniol: muy <br> <b>multo ben</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bien <br> *Italiano: molto bene <br> *Espaniol: muy bien <br> <b>multo bon</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bon <br> *Italiano: molto buono <br> *Espaniol: muy bueno <br> <b>n(littera): ne /n/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: n, enne <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: n(lettre): ène /n/ <br> <b>nam</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: pour que <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, by nature <br> *Francese: naturellement, par tempérament <br> *Italiano: naturalmente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, por naturaleza <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, in a natural way <br> *Francese: nuturellement, simplement <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, semplicemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, de una manera natural <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, of course <br> *Francese: bien sûr, évidemment <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #lest <br> *Francese: de crainte que... ne(+subj. ) <br> *Italiano: perché no <br> *Espaniol: para que non(+subj) <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne... pas <br> *Italiano: no, non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>nec(= ni)</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>nec. . . nec. . . (= ni. . . ni. . . )</b> <br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni. . . ni. . . <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>necun, necuna, necuno(= nulle, nulla, nullo)</b> <br> #none, not any <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>necuno(= nemo)</b> <br> #nobody, no one, none <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno, alcuno <br> *Espaniol: ninguno <br> <b>nel(= in le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le <br> *Italiano: nel <br> *Espaniol: en el <br> <b>nemine(= nemo)</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>nemo</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>neque(= nec)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>neutro</b> <br> #neither <br> *Francese: ni un ni <br> *Italiano: né uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #that not <br> *Francese: ?????? <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni uno ni le altero</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni l'un ni l'autre <br> *Italiano: né l'uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni. . . ni. . . </b><br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni... ni... <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>nihil(= nil)</b> <br> #nothing <br> *Francese: rien <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nada <br> <b>nihil de particular</b> <br> #nothing particular <br> *Francese: rien de particulier <br> *Italiano: niente di particolare, nulla di particolare <br> *Espaniol: nada de particular <br> <b>nimie, nimia, nimio(= troppo)</b> <br> #too much, too many <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada <br> <b>nimis(=troppo)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>nisi</b> <br> #if not, unless <br> *Francese: si non, à moins que <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che <br> *Espaniol: si no, a menos que <br> <b>no</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: no, non(no, non è vero; non fare) <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>no!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>nocte</b> <br> #night <br> *Francese: nuit <br> *Italiano: notte <br> *Espaniol: noche <br> <b>noi(= nos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: noi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: nous <br> <b>nolente</b> <br> #unwillingly, against one's will <br> *Francese: involontairement <br> *Italiano: involontariamente, nolente, senza volere <br> *Espaniol: involuntariamente, sin querer <br> <b>non</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>non</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne. . . pas <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: non <br> <b>non est?(= nonne?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>non importa</b> <br> #it doesn't matter, never mind <br> *Francese: c'est sans importance <br> *Italiano: non importa <br> *Espaniol: no importa <br> <b>non mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ugualmente no <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pas même, même pas <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . sed etiam. . . </b><br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solo. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no ! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>non. . . jam(= non. . . ja)</b> <br> #no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no. . . ya <br> <b>non. . . jammais(= nunquam)</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: ne... jamais <br> *Italiano: non. . . mai <br> *Espaniol: no. . . jamás <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no más. . . <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, nothing more <br> *Francese: ne... rien de plus <br> *Italiano: no, nulla più <br> *Espaniol: nada más <br> <b>nondum</b> <br> #not yet <br> *Francese: pas encore <br> *Italiano: non ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún no, todavía no <br> <b>nonne?(= non est?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>nonnulle, nonnulla, nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de; plural: algunos, algunas <br> <b>nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #despite, in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #nevertheless <br> *Francese: non-obstant <br> *Italiano: nonostante <br> *Espaniol: no obstante <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #ourselves <br> *Francese: nous-mêmes <br> *Italiano: noi stessi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros mismos, nosotras mismas <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #us <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nos <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #we <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros, nosotras <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notres <br> *Italiano: nostri, nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: le nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nullamente</b> <br> #in no way, not at all <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #not any, no <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, as in "null and void") <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, (comme dans: "nul et sans effet") <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, worthless <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, sans valeur <br> *Italiano: nulla, nullo, senza valore <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula, sin valor <br> <b>num(= an, est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: egli ha. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: es que. . . <br> <b>num ille habe le libro?</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre?, a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: egli ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>nunc(= ora)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora <br> <b>nunc. . . nunc...(= ora. . . ora. . . )</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>nunquam</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: nunca <br> <b>nuper</b> <br> #newly, lately, recently <br> *Francese: nouvellement, dernièrement, récemment <br> *Italiano: nuovamente, ultimamente, recentemente <br> *Espaniol: nuevamente, últimamente, recientemente <br> <b>nusquam</b> <br> #nowhere; not. . . anywhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in alcun luogo, in nessun luogo <br> *Espaniol: a ninguna parte <br> <b>o(= aut)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>o(littera): o /o/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: o, o <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: o(lettre): o /o/ <br> <b>o. . . o...(= aut. . . aut. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>ob(= facie a, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>olim</b> <br> #at a future time, sometime in the future <br> *Francese: à un moment donné, une bonne fois <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un dato momento, una buona volta <br> *Espaniol: en un momento en el futuro, algún día en el futuro <br> <b>olim(= aliquando, unquam</b> <br> #once, formerly <br> *Francese: une fois, anciennement <br> *Italiano: una volta, anticamente, un tempo <br> *Espaniol: una vez, antiguamente <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the books" <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the cheese" <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutte, tutti <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, chaque, chacun des, cahcune des <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni, ciascuno <br> *Espaniol: todo, cada <br> <b>omne cosa</b> <br> #everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: toda cosa, todo <br> <b>omnes</b> <br> #all <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>on(= uno, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>optimamente(= optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux possible <br> *Italiano: ottimamente, il meglio possibile <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente, lo mejor posible <br> <b>optime, optima, optimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimo, óptima <br> <b>optimo(= optimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente <br> <b>ora(= nunc)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora, en la actualidad <br> <b>ora mesmo</b> <br> #right now <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: adesso, giusto adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: ahora mismo <br> <b>ora. . . ora...</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>out!</b> <br> #out! <br> *Francese: dehors! <br> *Italiano: fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>p(littera): pe /p/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: p, pi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: p(lettre): pé /p/ <br> <b>partir pro(Paris)</b> <br> #to leave or set out for(Paris) <br> *Francese: partir pour(Paris) <br> *Italiano: partire per <br> *Espaniol: partir para(Paris) <br> <b>parve, parva, parvo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: petit, petite <br> *Italiano: piccolo, piccola <br> *Espaniol: pequeño, pequeña <br> <b>passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: passé <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado <br> <b>passato</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a, ça fait <br> *Italiano: fa, passato, trascorso <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>passato(= pridem)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a bien longtemps, ça fait bien longtemps <br> *Italiano: tempo fa <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo <br> <b>passim</b> <br> #here and there, scattered, at random, in different places, passim <br> *Francese: ici et là, éparpillé, aléatoire <br> *Italiano: qui e là, qui e lì, qua e là, in luoghi diversi <br> *Espaniol: aquí y allí, esparcido, al azar, en diferentes lugares <br> <b>pauc de, pauca de, pauco de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu de <br> *Italiano: poco di, un po' di <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #few, not many <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #little, not much <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauchissime, pauchissima, pauchissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: poquísimo, poquísima <br> <b>pauco</b> <br> #little, to a small degree <br> *Francese: à un moindre degré <br> *Italiano: poco, in minima parte <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>pauco a pauco</b> <br> #little by little <br> *Francese: petit à petit, peu à peu <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>paulatim</b> <br> #gradually, by degrees, little by little, a little at a time <br> *Francese: graduellement, petit à petit, peu à peu, un peu à la fois <br> *Italiano: poco a poco, gradualmente, un po' alla volta, un po' per volta <br> *Espaniol: gradualmente, por grados, poco a poco, un poco cada vez <br> <b>pejo</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pis, pire <br> *Italiano: peggio <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>pejor</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pire <br> *Italiano: peggiore <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>per</b> <br> #by, by the agency of; through; by means of; also: per <br> *Francese: par <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por, ; a través de; por medio de; también: por <br> <b>per</b> <br> #through, from one side to the other of; also: during, throughout <br> *Francese: par, à travers, au travers de; aussi: pendant <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: per <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: pour(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por(+ inf) <br> <b>per aventura</b> <br> #by chance <br> *Francese: par aventure <br> *Italiano: per caso <br> *Espaniol: por ventura, por casualidad <br> <b>per avion</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par avion <br> *Italiano: via aerea <br> *Espaniol: por avión <br> <b>per capite</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par tête, per capita <br> *Italiano: a testa, ad ognuno <br> *Espaniol: por cabeza, per capita <br> <b>per consequente</b> <br> #consequently <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>per excellentia</b> <br> #par excellence <br> *Francese: par excellence <br> *Italiano: per eccellenza <br> *Espaniol: por excelencia <br> <b>per exemplo</b> <br> #for example, for instance <br> *Francese: par exemple <br> *Italiano: per esempio, ad esempio <br> *Espaniol: por exemplo <br> <b>per favor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per favore, per piacere <br> *Espaniol: por favor <br> <b>per isso(= pro isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, voilà pourquoi <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò, per questa ragione, per questo motivo <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esas razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>per medio de</b> <br> #by means of <br> *Francese: au moyen de <br> *Italiano: mer mezzo di, con <br> *Espaniol: por medio de <br> <b>per ubi</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par où <br> *Italiano: per dove, attraverso <br> *Espaniol: por dónde <br> <b>per virtute de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vertue de <br> *Italiano: in virtù di <br> *Espaniol: en virtúd de <br> <b>permulte, permulta, permulto</b> <br> #very much, very many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de, <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> plur. : plusieurs <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>permulto</b> <br> #very much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #why, for what reason <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché? <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>pessimamente(= pessimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimamente <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente, de la peor manera <br> <b>pessime, pessima, pessimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimo, pésima <br> <b>pessimo(= pessimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente <br> <b>ph(digrapho): pe hache /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ph pi acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ph(digraphe): pé ache /f/ <br> <b>piano</b> <br> #piano <br> *Francese: piano <br> *Italiano: piano <br> *Espaniol: piano <br> <b>plu(= plus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures veces(= plures vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces, repetidamente <br> <b>plures vices</b> <br> #several times; repeatedly <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: plusieurs <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: beaucoup <br> <b>plurimo</b> <br> #much, exceedingly <br> *Francese: beaucoup, très, extrêmenent, excessivement <br> *Italiano: molto, estremamente, eccessivamente, troppo <br> *Espaniol: mucho, extremadamente, excesivamente <br> <b>plurimo(= usualmente, communmente)</b> <br> #for the most part, commonly, usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude, en général <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, in generale, abitualmente <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces, normalmente, habitualmente <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #plus <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus(a) illac de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #more(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: plus de(plus d'argent) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>plus a la de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus de</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de <br> <b>plus de(vinti annos)</b> <br> #more than, over, above(twenty years) <br> *Francese: plus de(vingt ans) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de(veinte años) <br> <b>plus grande(que)</b> <br> #greater, bigger(than) <br> *Francese: plus grand(e)(que) <br> *Italiano: più grande <br> *Espaniol: más grande(que) <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later on <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: più tardi <br> *Espaniol: más tarde, después <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, as in "later than expected" <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: depués <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, subsequently <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más pronto, más bien, preferentemente <br> <b>plus. . . (que)</b> <br> #more. . . (than) <br> *Francese: plus...(que) <br> *Italiano: più. . . che <br> *Espaniol: más. . . (que) <br> <b>plus:(le) plus</b> <br> #(the) most(as in "what pleased me(the) most") <br> *Francese: plus:(le) plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más:(el) más <br> <b>plus:(tres) plus(quatro)</b> <br> #(three) plus(four) <br> *Francese: plus:(trois) plus(quatre) <br> *Italiano: più(tre) più(quattro) <br> *Espaniol: más:(tres) más(cuatro) <br> <b>poc, poca, poco(= pauc, pauca, pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>poco(= pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>poco a poco(= pauco a pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu à peu, petit à petit <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: puis, alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, in seguito <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: étant donné que <br> *Italiano: poiché, dato che <br> *Espaniol: porque, dado que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> #as, since, because <br> *Francese: comme, puisque <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: como, porque <br> <b>por(= pro, per)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: per <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pour <br> <b>porque(= proque, perque)</b> <br> #because, why <br> *Francese: parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>post</b> <br> #afterwards, after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: detrás, atrás, luego <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind; after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>post que</b> <br> #since, because <br> *Francese: puisque <br> *Italiano: perché, dato che, poiché <br> *Espaniol: puesto que, porque <br> <b>post todo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après tout <br> *Italiano: dopo tutto <br> *Espaniol: después de todo <br> <b>post-deman</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après-demain <br> *Italiano: dopodomani <br> *Espaniol: pasado mañana <br> <b>postea</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, posteriormente, luego <br> <b>postere, postera, postero</b> <br> #coming after, following <br> *Francese: suivant(e) <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: siguiente <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, back <br> *Francese: postérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: posteriore, dietro <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, buttock <br> *Francese: le postérieur, le derrière <br> *Italiano: posteriore <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, later <br> *Francese: postérieur(e), après, plus tard <br> *Italiano: posterioremente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posteriormente</b> <br> #subsequently, later <br> *Francese: postérieurement <br> *Italiano: posteriormente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posteriormente, más tarde <br> <b>postquam</b> <br> #after, as soon as <br> *Francese: après que, aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después de, en cuanto <br> <b>pot'esser(= pote esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi, <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>pote esser(= pot'esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt, en réalité <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in realtà <br> *Espaniol: más bien, en realidad <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt, plus tôt, de préférence <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in raltà, preferenzialmente, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien, más pronto, preferentemente <br> <b>precio minimo</b> <br> #minimum price <br> *Francese: prix minimum, prix minimal <br> *Italiano: prezzo minimo <br> *Espaniol: precio mínimo <br> <b>presertim(= super toto)</b> <br> #especially, particularly, chiefly <br> *Francese: surtout, particulièrement <br> *Italiano: soprattutto, particolarmente, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, particularmente, principalmente <br> <b>presso(= apud)</b> <br> #near, close <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di, appresso a, vicino a, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de, cercano a <br> <b>presto</b> <br> #presto, quickly, quick as a wink <br> *Francese: vite, rapidement <br> *Italiano: presto, rapidamente, velocemente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: presto, rápidamente, rápido <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au delà, passé <br> *Italiano: passato, al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccettuato, escluso, al di fuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: además de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #past, along(side of), beyond <br> *Francese: passé, le long, au delà <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado, más allá de <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: en outre, de plus, d'ailleurs, du reste <br> *Italiano: inoltre, del resto <br> *Espaniol: además, es más <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #henceforth, hereafter <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: d'ora in poi, da questo momento, da adesso in avanti <br> *Espaniol: de ahora en adelante, de aquí en adelante <br> <b>pridem(= passato)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a longtemps <br> *Italiano: da lungo tempo, da tempo, da molto tempo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo, hace tiempo <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #first, in the first place, first of all <br> *Francese: premièrement, en premier lieu, d'abord <br> *Italiano: principalmente, in primo luogoo <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, en primer lugar <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #primarily, chiefly <br> *Francese: principalement, avant tout, surtout <br> *Italiano: principalmenre, innanzitutto, soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, principalmente <br> <b>prime, prima, primo</b> <br> #first, prime <br> *Francese: premier, première <br> *Italiano: primo, prima <br> *Espaniol: primero, primera <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, in place of, in exchange or return for <br> *Francese: pour <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para; por; en lugar de, a cambio de, en vez de <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, not against <br> *Francese: pour, en faveur <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: pro, para, a favor de <br> <b>pro(+ inf)</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para, a fin de <br> <b>pro isso(= per isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> *Italiano: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esa razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>pro isso(= pro esso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> <b>pro le presente</b> <br> #for the present <br> *Francese: pour le moment <br> *Italiano: intanto, per il momento <br> *Espaniol: por el momento, para el presente <br> <b>pro nihil</b> <br> #for nothing, without cost <br> *Francese: pour rien, gratuit <br> *Italiano: per niente, gratuito, gratis, gratuitamente <br> *Espaniol: para nada, gratuito, sin costo <br> <b>pro si dicer</b> <br> #so to say <br> *Francese: pour ainsi dire <br> *Italiano: per così dire <br> *Espaniol: para así decir, por así decir <br> <b>procul</b> <br> #far off, far away, at a distance <br> *Francese: au loin <br> *Italiano: lontanamente <br> *Espaniol: lejos, fuera, a una distancia <br> <b>proprie a, propria a, proprio a</b> <br> #proper or peculiar to <br> *Francese: propre à <br> *Italiano: proprio per <br> *Espaniol: proprio para <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #own <br> *Francese: propre <br> *Italiano: proprio <br> *Espaniol: propio <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #proper, appropriate <br> *Francese: approprié(e) <br> *Italiano: appropriato, appropriata <br> *Espaniol: apropiado <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, at hand <br> *Francese: proche, à(la) portée <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, vicino <br> *Espaniol: cerca, a mano <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, close to <br> *Francese: près, près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di <br> *Espaniol: cerca de <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #on account of, by reason of, because of <br> *Francese: compte tenu de, à cause de, <br> *Italiano: per, a causa di, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por cauda de, debido a <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #why <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>proximamente</b> <br> #shortly, soon <br> *Francese: bientôt <br> *Italiano: in breve, subito, quanto prima <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en breve <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #next(as in "next week") <br> *Francese: suivant(e), prochain(e) <br> *Italiano: prossimo, seguente, successivo <br> *Espaniol: próxima, siguiente <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #very near, close <br> *Francese: très près, tout près <br> *Italiano: molto vicino, prossimo <br> *Espaniol: muy cerca <br> <b>proximo</b> <br> #neighbor, fellow being <br> *Francese: voisin, camarade <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, compagno, camerata <br> *Espaniol: prójimo, vecino, camarada <br> <b>q(littera): qu /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: q, qu(pron ku) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: q(lettre): qü ou qy /k/ <br> <b>qua</b> <br> #as, in the capacity of, qua <br> *Francese: en tant que, en qualité de <br> *Italiano: come, in qualità di <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que, en calidad de <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál, qué <br> <b>qualcosa</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualche cosa, qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: algo, alguna cosa <br> <b>qualcun, qualcuna, qualcuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno <br> <b>qualcuno</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>qualcunque</b> <br> #any, whatever, of whatever kind <br> *Francese: quelconque <br> *Italiano: chiunque, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera <br> <b>qualque(quálke)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #as, than <br> *Francese: comme, que <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como, que <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #in what manner, how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo <br> *Espaniol: de qué manera, cómo <br> <b>quamquam(quámquam)(= quanquam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique, cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuando <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuándo <br> <b>quandocunque</b> <br> #whenever <br> *Francese: toutes les fois que, peu importe quand <br> *Italiano: ogni volta che <br> *Espaniol: cuandoquiera <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #however, yet, nevertheless <br> *Francese: cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: nondimeno, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, no obstante <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quante, quanta, quanto</b> <br> #how much, how many <br> *Francese: combien de <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuánto, cuánta <br> <b>quanto</b> <br> #as much as; as far as <br> *Francese: autant que, pour autant que, en autant que <br> *Italiano: quanto, tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuanto, tanto como <br> <b>quanto a</b> <br> #as for <br> *Francese: quant à <br> *Italiano: quanto a <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto a <br> <b>quanto. . . tanto...</b> <br> #the. . . the... <br> *Francese: autant... autant <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto. . . <br> *Espaniol: cuanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>quare</b> <br> #wherefore, why <br> *Francese: pourquoi, pour quelle raison <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>quasi</b> <br> #almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way, etc. <br> *Francese: quasi, prèsque, à peu prés, dans un certain sens <br> *Italiano: quasi, approssimativamente, circa <br> *Espaniol: casi; en un cierto sentido, en cierto modo <br> <b>quasi que</b> <br> #as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: quasi che, come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #than <br> *Francese: que /k?/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: que <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: que, quoi /k?/ /koa/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #who, whom, which, that; what(= that which) <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que etate habete vos?</b> <br> #how old are you? <br> *Francese: quel âge avez-vous? <br> *Italiano: quanti hanni hai(tu) ? quanti anni ha(lei)? <br> *Espaniol: qué edad tiene usted?, cuántos años tiene usted? <br> <b>que hora</b> <br> #what time <br> *Francese: quelle heure <br> *Italiano: che ora. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: qué hora <br> <b>quecunque(kekúnkwe, kwekúnkwe)</b> <br> #whatever <br> *Francese: quoi que /koa k?/ <br> *Italiano: qualsiasi cosa <br> *Espaniol: cualquier cosa <br> <b>quem</b> <br> #what, which, whom <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quel, quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: que, quien <br> <b>qui(= hic, ci)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>qui(ki, kwi)</b> <br> #who, whom <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quién <br> <b>qui:(con, a, etc. ) qui</b> <br> #(with, to, etc. ) whom <br> *Francese: qui:(avec, à, etc. ) qui <br> *Italiano: con chi <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quia</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quicunque(ki-, kwi-)</b> <br> #whoever <br> *Francese: quiconque <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quienquiera <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: che cosa, cosa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoi <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #why, how, wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi, comment <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué, cómo <br> <b>quidem</b> <br> #certainly, truly; indeed, even <br> *Francese: certainement, vraiment, en effet, effectivement <br> *Italiano: certamente, veramente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, de verdad, verdaderamente; de hecho, incluso <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #so that, in order that <br> *Francese: tel que, afin que <br> *Italiano: talché, cosi che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: a fin que <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #who, what <br> *Francese: qui, quoi <br> *Italiano: chi, cosa <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quo(=a ubi)</b> <br> #where, at what place, whither <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar, adónde <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, because, why <br> *Francese: que, parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: qué, por qué <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, what <br> *Francese: que, quoi <br> *Italiano: che, che cosa <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #how, in what manner <br> *Francese: comment, de quelle façon, de quelle manière <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: ómo, de qué manera <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #in the manner that, as <br> *Francese: comme, tel que <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: como, de la manera en que <br> <b>quot</b> <br> #how many; as many; each, every <br> *Francese: combien, autant, chaque, chacun(e) <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuántos, tantos, cada, cada uno, cada una <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #as often as <br> *Francese: aussi souvent que <br> *Italiano: così spesso che <br> *Espaniol: tan a menudo como <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #how often, how many times <br> *Francese: combien de fois <br> *Italiano: tante volte che <br> *Espaniol: tantas veces <br> <b>r(littera): re /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: r, erre <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: r(lettre): ère /r/ <br> <b>re</b> <br> #regarding, about, of, on, concerning <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de, à propos de, concernant <br> *Italiano: su, a proposito di, concernente, sopra, rispetto a, circa <br> *Espaniol: acerca de, respecto a, con respecto a, concerniente a, sobre, de <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, ago <br> *Francese: en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hace <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, as in "to give back") <br> *Francese: en retour(comme dans "donner en retour") <br> *Italiano: di ritorno <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, backwards <br> *Francese: arrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>rh(digrapho): re hache /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: rh(pron : erre acca) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: rh(digraphe): ère ache /r/ <br> <b>s(littera): se /s/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s, esse(pronuncia 1 : s in rosa, cosa, dose, chiesa = come inglese rose; pronuncia 2 : s in signore, senior, selva, scuola come inglese ross, self) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: s(lettre): èsse /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>saepe(sái-)</b> <br> #often, frequently <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: a menudo, frecuentemente <br> <b>salvo</b> <br> #save, but; also: save or but for <br> *Francese: sauf <br> *Italiano: salvo, eccetto, ma <br> *Espaniol: salvo <br> <b>salvo error et omission</b> <br> #errors and omissions excepted <br> *Francese: sauf erreur et omission <br> *Italiano: salvo errori od omissioni, salvo errori ed omissioni <br> *Espaniol: salvo error y omisión <br> <b>salvo que</b> <br> #save or but that <br> *Francese: sauf que <br> *Italiano: salvo che, eccetto che <br> *Espaniol: salvo que <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta, abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #rather, somewhat <br> *Francese: assez, plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza, sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>satis de(tempore, etc. )(= assatis de(tempore, etc. ))</b> <br> #enough(time, etc. ), (time, etc. ) enough <br> *Francese: assez de(temps, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente : tempo sufficiente) <br> *Espaniol: bastante(tiempo, etc. ), suficiente(tiempo, etc. ) <br> <b>se</b> <br> #himself; herself; itself; themselves <br> *Francese: se, s' <br> *Italiano: se(per se), -si(avvicinarsi) <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>se(= on)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #(following) after <br> *Francese: d'après <br> *Italiano: secondo, , dopo, seguendo <br> *Espaniol: después de, siguiendo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #according to <br> *Francese: selon, en accord avec <br> *Italiano: d'accordo con, secondo <br> *Espaniol: según, de acuerdo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #along, by <br> *Francese: selon, le long de <br> *Italiano: lungo il <br> *Espaniol: a lo largo de <br> <b>secundo que</b> <br> #according as <br> *Francese: selon que, selon qu' <br> *Italiano: secondo quanto, conforme a <br> *Espaniol: según que, conforme a <br> <b>sed</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma, però <br> *Espaniol: pero <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #firstly <br> *Francese: premièrement <br> *Italiano: in primis, innanzitutto, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: primeramente <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #once <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta(sola) <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>semper(= sempre)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sempre(=semper)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sero</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, supposing that <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se, supponendo che <br> *Espaniol: si, suponiendo que <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: così, tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>si il te place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il te plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, prego, per favore, per cortesia <br> *Espaniol: si te place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #except, unless it be <br> *Francese: excepté, à moins que ce soit <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che, eccetto che, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto, a menos que <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si tosto que</b> <br> #as soon as <br> *Francese: aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: così presto che, tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto, tan pronto como <br> <b>si. . . como. . . </b><br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>sia</b> <br> #be, may be, let there be <br> *Francese: soit <br> *Italiano: sia <br> *Espaniol: sea <br> <b>sia como sia</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qu'il en soit ainsi <br> *Italiano: sia come sia, sia quel che sia <br> *Espaniol: sea como sea <br> <b>sia. . . sia. . . </b><br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: soit... soit... <br> *Italiano: sia. . . sia. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>sic(= si)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>sic(=si)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>sicut</b> <br> #so as, just as, as <br> *Francese: tel(le) que, comme <br> *Italiano: come, talché <br> *Espaniol: tal que, como <br> <b>simul</b> <br> #at once, at the same time, together <br> *Francese: simultanément, tout de suite, ensemble <br> *Italiano: allo stesso tempo, nello stesso tempo, allo stesso istante, insieme. simultaneamente <br> *Espaniol: en seguida, al mismo tiempo, juntos, juntas <br> <b>sin</b> <br> #without <br> *Francese: sans <br> *Italiano: senza <br> *Espaniol: sin <br> <b>sin dubita</b> <br> #without doubt, doubtless <br> *Francese: sans doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin duda, indudablemente <br> <b>sin falta</b> <br> #without fail <br> *Francese: sans erreur, sans faute <br> *Italiano: senza meno, senza errore, senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin falta, sin error <br> <b>sin fundamento</b> <br> #groundless, unfounded <br> *Francese: sans fondement <br> *Italiano: senza fondamentp <br> *Espaniol: sin fundamento, infundado <br> <b>sinon(= si non)</b> <br> #otherwise, else; except, save, if not, unless <br> *Francese: sinon <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: sinon <br> <b>sive</b> <br> #or if, or <br> *Francese: ou si, ou <br> *Italiano: o, oppure, o se <br> *Espaniol: o si <br> <b>sive. . . sive</b> <br> #. . . if. . . or if... <br> *Francese: si... ou si... <br> *Italiano: se. . . o se. . . <br> *Espaniol: si. . . o si. . . <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #only <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #sole, without companions, alone <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>solamente</b> <br> #only, merely <br> *Francese: seulement <br> *Italiano: solo, solamente <br> *Espaniol: solamente, meramente <br> <b>sovente(=subinde)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repeoidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>specialmente, in modo special</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: specialmente, particolarmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>sponte(= voluntarie, voluntariamente)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: spontaneamente, volontariamente, di buon grado <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>stop!</b> <br> #stop! <br> *Francese: stop! <br> *Italiano: stop! fermo! ferma! alt! <br> *Espaniol: stop! <br> <b>su</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua(di ella, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: su(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sub</b> <br> #under, below, beneath <br> *Francese: sous <br> *Italiano: sotto, dabbasso, abbasso <br> *Espaniol: debajo de, bajo <br> <b>sub los auspicios de</b> <br> #under the auspices of <br> *Francese: sous les auspices de <br> *Italiano: con gli auspici di, sotto gli auspici di <br> *Espaniol: bajo los auspicios de <br> <b>subinde</b> <br> #immediately after, just after, forthwith <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: immediatamente dopo, giusto dopo <br> *Espaniol: inmediatamente después, justo después, inmediatamente <br> <b>subinde(= sovente)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, di tanto in tanto <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repetidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>subito</b> <br> #suddenly, unexpectedly <br> *Francese: soudainement <br> *Italiano: repentinamente, immediatamente, subito <br> *Espaniol: súbitamente, de repente, inesperadamente <br> <b>subtus</b> <br> #below, beneath, underneath <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo, debajo, debajo de <br> <b>successivamente</b> <br> #successively, in succession <br> *Francese: successivement, tour à tour <br> *Italiano: successivamente, in successione, consecutivamente, di conseguenza, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: sucesivamente, en sucesión <br> <b>sue, sua, suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sues, suas, suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suoi, sue(di lui, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sufficiente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente, bastante <br> *Espaniol: suficiente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientemente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficiently, enough <br> *Francese: suffisamment, assez <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientemente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientes(= bastantes)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientes, bastantes <br> <b>sui(= su, sue)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suo, sua <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: son, sa <br> <b>summe, summa, summo(= supreme, suprema, supremo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: sommo/a, supremo/a <br> *Espaniol: sumo, suma <br> <b>super</b> <br> #about, concerning, on <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: supra, in fatto di, concernente, circa <br> *Espaniol: sobre, concerniente a <br> <b>super</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of; above, over <br> *Francese: sur, au dessus de <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>super(= in alto)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>super toto(= presertim)</b> <br> #above all <br> *Francese: par dessus tout <br> *Italiano: soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: sobre todo <br> <b>superior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: superiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: supérieur(e) <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #above, over <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #on the top, above <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba, en la parte de arriba <br> <b>supreme, suprema, supremo(= summe, summa, summo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: supremo, suprema, supremi <br> *Espaniol: supremo, suprema <br> <b>sur(= super)</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of <br> *Francese: sur <br> *Italiano: su, sopra, in cima, in alto <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>sus</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: sus(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>t(littera): te /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t, ti <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: t(lettre): té /t/ <br> <b>tal</b> <br> #such a, such <br> *Francese: tel(le) <br> *Italiano: tale, tale a <br> *Espaniol: tal <br> <b>tal et tal</b> <br> #such and such(a) <br> *Francese: tel et tel <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tal y tal <br> <b>talmente</b> <br> #so <br> *Francese: tellement <br> *Italiano: talmente, così, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: talmente <br> <b>talmente:(un libro) talmente(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful) a(book), such a(beautiful book) <br> *Francese: tellement:(un livre) tellement(beau) <br> *Italiano: talmente(un libro talmente bello che. . . ) <br> *Espaniol: talmente:(un libro) talmente(bonito) <br> <b>tam</b> <br> #so, as, to such a degree <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, così, tanto che, tanto, talmente <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta, talmente <br> <b>tam. . . quam...</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . . <br> <b>tam. . . quam...(= tanto. . . quam. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: si... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, tanto quanto, così che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tamben</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>tamen(= totavia)</b> <br> #yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding <br> *Francese: cependant, pourtant, néanmoins, <br> *Italiano: tuttavia, nonostante, nondimeno, nientemeno, pertanto, quindi, già <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, todavía, no obstante <br> <b>tan</b> <br> #so, as <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, tanto che. . . , tanto che. . . <br> *Espaniol: tan <br> <b>tan. . . como. . . (= tanto. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tante, tanta, tanto</b> <br> #so much, so many <br> *Francese: tant de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tanto, tanta <br> <b>tante. . . como..., tanta. . . como. . . , tanto. . . como. . . </b><br> #as much, as many. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . , tanta. . . como. . . <br> <b>tanto</b> <br> #so, so much <br> *Francese: tant <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto <br> <b>tanto(grande) como. . . </b><br> #as(big) as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi(grand(e)) que <br> *Italiano: tanto grande che <br> *Espaniol: tan(grande) como. . . <br> <b>tanto melio</b> <br> #so much the better <br> *Francese: tant mieux <br> *Italiano: tanto meglio <br> *Espaniol: tanto mejor <br> <b>tanto pejo</b> <br> #so much the worse <br> *Francese: tant pis <br> *Italiano: tanto peggio <br> *Espaniol: tanto peor <br> <b>tanto per cento</b> <br> #so much per hundred, percentage <br> *Francese: tant pour cent <br> *Italiano: tanto per cento <br> *Espaniol: tanto por ciento, porcentaje <br> <b>tanto plus. . . que...</b> <br> #all the more. . . that... <br> *Francese: d'autant plus... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto più che <br> *Espaniol: tanto más. . . que. . . <br> <b>tanto. . . como...</b> <br> #as much. . . as... <br> *Francese: autant... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . <br> <b>tarde</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>te</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: te, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, te(tu sei, te lo dico, lo dico a te) <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>te</b> <br> #yourself [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "you hurt yourself", "to yourself") <br> *Francese: te, toi, toi-même <br> *Italiano: te, ti, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>th(digrapho): te hache /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t : ti acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: th(digraphe): té ache /t/ <br> t, ti <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ti(= te)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ti, te <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: te, toi <br> <b>tosto</b> <br> #presently, soon, promptly <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: pronto, subito, presto, rapidamente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto, presentemente, rápidamente <br> <b>tot</b> <br> #so many, such a great number <br> *Francese: tanto che, talmente tanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tellement beaucoup <br> <b>totalmente(= completamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: totalement(=complètement) <br> *Italiano: totalmente, completamente <br> *Espaniol: totalmente(=completamente= <br> <b>totavia</b> <br> #yet, still, nevertheless <br> *Francese: toutefois <br> *Italiano: tuttavia <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo <br> <b>tote le, tota la, toto lo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo, tutta la <br> *Espaniol: todo el, toda la, todo lo <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, "all the parts, members, etc. of a whole series or group") <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, the whole of <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, toute, chaque <br> *Italiano: tutto/a, ogni <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>totes(les) duo, totos(los) duos, totas(las) duas</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: tous les deux, toutes les deux <br> *Italiano: tutti e due, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>totes les, totas las, totos los</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tous les, toutes les <br> *Italiano: tutti i, tutti gli, tutte le <br> *Espaniol: todos los, todas las <br> <b>totes, totas, totos</b> <br> #all, everyone <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni cosa <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, quite, wholly <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto(ben) considerato</b> <br> #all things considered <br> *Francese: tout(bien) considéré <br> *Italiano: tutto considerato <br> *Espaniol: considerando(bien) totas las cosas <br> <b>toto le(= toto lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo el <br> <b>toto le(caseo)</b> <br> #all the(cheese), the entire(cheese) <br> *Francese: tout le(fromage) <br> *Italiano: tutto il(formaggio) <br> *Espaniol: todo el(queso) <br> <b>toto lo(= toto le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo lo <br> <b>totos los(homines)</b> <br> #all(men) <br> *Francese: tous les(hommes) <br> *Italiano: tutti gli(uomini) <br> *Espaniol: todos los hombres <br> <b>totos minus ille</b> <br> #all but him <br> *Francese: tous sauf lui <br> *Italiano: tutti meno lui, tutti salvo lui <br> *Espaniol: todos menos él <br> <b>tra(= trans)</b> <br> #through <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers de <br> *Italiano: attraverso, tra <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>trans</b> <br> #across, over, beyond, on the farther side of <br> *Francese: au delà de, de l'autre côté de <br> *Italiano: al di là di, dall'altra parte di, dall'altro lato <br> *Espaniol: al otro lado de, más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>traverso(= a / al transverso(de))</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: au travers, de part en part <br> *Italiano: attraverso, da parte a parte, da lato a lato <br> *Espaniol: a través de, de parte a parte de <br> <b>tro(= troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>trop(=troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>troppo(= trop, tro)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo, troppi, troppa, troppe <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada, demasiados, demasiadas <br> <b>troppo(de)(aqua, libros, etc. )(= de tro(de)(aqua, libros, etc. ))</b> <br> #too much(water, etc. ), too many(books, etc. ) <br> *Francese: trop(d'eau, de livres, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: troppo(troppa acqua, troppi libri, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: demasiado(agua, etc. ), demasiados(libros) <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tú <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tu <br> <b>tu mesme, tu mesma, tu mesmo, tu ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: toi-même <br> *Italiano: tu stesso, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: tú mismo, tú misma <br> <b>tue, tua, tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: tuo, tua <br> *Espaniol: tuyo, tuya <br> <b>tues, tuas, tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiennes <br> *Italiano: tue, tuoi <br> *Espaniol: tuyos, tuyas <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, afterwards <br> *Francese: alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, después <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, next <br> *Francese: alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: quindi, in questo caso <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, por consiguiente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #in that case, consequently <br> *Francese: alors, dans ce cas, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: allora, in questo caso, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, consiguientemente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, in quel momento <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tus</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tes <br> *Italiano: tuo <br> *Espaniol: tus <br> <b>u(littera): u /u/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: u <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: u(lettre): u /ü/ <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where, in or at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove, in che luogo <br> *Espaniol: dónde, en qué lugar <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where; when, as soon as; wherewith; in which <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: donde <br> <b>ubicunque</b> <br> #wherever <br> *Francese: partout où..., n'importe où... <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>ubique</b> <br> #everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever <br> *Francese: partout, peu importe où, n'importe où, <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: donde sea, en cualquier lugar <br> <b>ulle, ulla, ullo</b> <br> #any, anyone <br> *Francese: aucun, aucune, nul(le) <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna, alcuno, alcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguno, alguna <br> <b>ulles, ullas, ullos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: aucuns, aucunes, nul(le)s <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcuna, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #subsequent, later <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, subsecuente <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #ulterior, situated beyond, thither <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, situado más allá <br> <b>ulteriormente</b> <br> #later(on), subsequently <br> *Francese: ultérieurement <br> *Italiano: ulteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #besides <br> *Francese: en outre <br> *Italiano: inoltre <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #on the other side, beyond, farther <br> *Francese: au délà, de l'autre côté, plus loin <br> *Italiano: al di là, dall'altra parte <br> *Espaniol: en el otro lado, más allá, más lejos <br> <b>ultra(= plus a la de, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>ultra illo</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: au délà de ça <br> *Italiano: al di la di questo, oltre questo, oltre ad esso <br> *Espaniol: más allá de aquello, además de ello <br> <b>ultra que</b> <br> #aside from the fact that <br> *Francese: outre que <br> *Italiano: oltre che <br> *Espaniol: aparte del hecho de que <br> <b>ultramar</b> <br> #overseas <br> *Francese: outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare <br> *Espaniol: en ultra mar <br> <b>ultramar:(paises) de ultramar</b> <br> #overseas(countries) <br> *Francese: outre-mer:(pays) d'outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare, paese d'oltremare, d'oltre mare <br> *Espaniol: ultramar:(países) de ultramar <br> <b>un altere, una altera, uno altero</b> <br> #another <br> *Francese: un autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>un de, una de, uno de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un de, une de <br> *Italiano: uno di, una di <br> *Espaniol: uno de, una de <br> <b>un die</b> <br> #one day, sometime <br> *Francese: un jour <br> *Italiano: un giorno <br> *Espaniol: un día, algún día <br> <b>un pauco(de)</b> <br> #a little <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un poco(de)(= un pauco(de))</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un que, una que, uno que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un que, une que <br> *Italiano: uno che, una che <br> *Espaniol: uno que, una que <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #a, an <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, una <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, uno, una <br> <b>una hora</b> <br> #one o'clock <br> *Francese: une heure <br> *Italiano: un'ora <br> *Espaniol: la una(hora) <br> <b>una tal(persona)</b> <br> #such a(person) <br> *Francese: une telle(personne) <br> *Italiano: una tale(persona) <br> *Espaniol: una tal(persona) <br> <b>una vece(= una vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice</b> <br> #once, formerly, at one time, on a single occasion <br> *Francese: un fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice que</b> <br> #once, once that <br> *Francese: une fois que <br> *Italiano: una volta che <br> *Espaniol: una vez que <br> <b>unaltere, un altere(= le un le altere)</b> <br> #each other, one another <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, from which place <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, da quale luogo <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, wherefore, for which reason or cause <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde(= de ubi)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>unes de, unas de, unos de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos de, unas de <br> <b>unes que, unas que, unos que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s que <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos que, unas que <br> <b>unes, unas, unos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des <br> *Italiano: dei, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: unos, unas <br> <b>uno(= on, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: un, uno <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>unquam(= olim, aliquando)</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: n'importe quand, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un momento, in un dato momento, ad un certo punto, quando <br> *Espaniol: en algún momento <br> <b>usquam(= alicubi)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: a alguna parte <br> <b>usque(a)</b> <br> #(all the way) to, up to(a point in space or time); also: till, until <br> *Francese: jusque, jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a trans</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à travers <br> *Italiano: attraverso <br> *Espaniol: hasta el otro lado de <br> <b>usque al presente</b> <br> #up to the present <br> *Francese: jusqu'à présent <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino a questo momento <br> *Espaniol: hasta el presente <br> <b>usque nunc</b> <br> #up to now <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta ahora <br> <b>usque quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: jusqu'à quand <br> *Italiano: fino a quando <br> *Espaniol: hasta cuándo <br> <b>usque tosto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à bientôt <br> *Italiano: a presto <br> *Espaniol: hasta pronto <br> <b>usualmente, de costume, plurimo</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, di solito, abitualmente, di norma <br> *Espaniol: usualmente <br> <b>ut</b> <br> #as, how, in order that, to the end that, just as <br> *Francese: afin que, pour que, juste comme <br> *Italiano: al fine di <br> *Espaniol: a fin que, para que <br> <b>ut. . . ita. . . </b><br> #the. . . the. . . , as. . . so. . . <br> *Francese: autant... autant... <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>utroque</b> <br> #either or both of two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: ambedue <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera de los dos, los dos <br> <b>utrum. . . an</b> <br> #whether. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou...ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: a ver si. . . o. . . <br> <b>v(littera): ve /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: v, vi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: v(lettre): vé /v/ <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #exceedingly, very much <br> *Francese: excessivement, beaucou <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, moltissimo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muchísimo <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #vehemently, strongly <br> *Francese: énergiquement, fortement <br> *Italiano: fortemente, energicamente, con veemenza <br> *Espaniol: vehementemente, energicamente, fuertemente <br> <b>vale!</b> <br> #vale!, farewell! <br> *Francese: salut, adieu <br> *Italiano: ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: salve!, salud! <br> <b>vece(=vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vel</b> <br> #or, or rather <br> *Francese: ou, ou plutôt <br> *Italiano: o, piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: o, o más bien <br> <b>vel. . . vel...</b> <br> #either. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>vere(= vero)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>vero(= vere)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>verso</b> <br> #towards, toward; also: to, in the direction of, etc. <br> *Francese: vers <br> *Italiano: verso, nella direzione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia, en dirección a <br> <b>verso a basso</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: vers le bas <br> *Italiano: verso il basso, giù <br> *Espaniol: hacia abajo <br> <b>vespera</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>vespere</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>via</b> <br> #away <br> *Francese: loin, loin de là <br> *Italiano: via, fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, lejos <br> <b>via</b> <br> #via, by way of <br> *Francese: via, par <br> *Italiano: via, per via del, a causa di <br> *Espaniol: vía, por vía de <br> <b>via!</b> <br> #away! <br> *Francese: plus loin! <br> *Italiano: via ! fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #time(as in "three times") <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta(tre volte, una volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #turn(as in "my turn"); also: stead <br> *Francese: tour(comme dans "à mon tour") <br> *Italiano: volta(a mia volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice versa</b> <br> #vice versa <br> *Francese: vice versa <br> *Italiano: viceversa <br> *Espaniol: vice versa <br> <b>vis-à-vis</b> <br> #opposite, face to face, vis-à-vis <br> *Francese: vis-à-vis <br> *Italiano: di fronte, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis, cara a cara, en situación opuesta <br> <b>visto</b> <br> #considering, in view of <br> *Francese: vu <br> *Italiano: visto, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto, considerando <br> <b>visto que</b> <br> #considering that <br> *Francese: vu que <br> *Italiano: visto che, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto que, considerando que, en vista de que <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely, barely <br> *Francese: difficilement, à peine, <br> *Italiano: difficilmente <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente, difíilmente <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #with difficulty <br> *Francese: avec difficulté <br> *Italiano: con difficoltà <br> *Espaniol: con dificultad <br> <b>voi(= vos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: voi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vous <br> <b>voluntariamente(= voluntarie, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>voluntarie(= voluntariamente, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons(as in "you are", "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: voi(ma si usa il lei, per cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: tu, ustéd <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in polite or formal use; addressing one person or several persons(as in "you are", "I love you" "for you") <br> *Francese: vous <br> *Italiano: voi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourself [in polite or formal use(as in "you hurt yourself, " "to yourself")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourselves [in all uses(as in "you hurt yourselves", "to yourselves")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, <br> <b>vos mesme, vos mesma, vos mesmo, vos ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos mesmes, vos mesmas, vos mesmos, vos ipses</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, ustedes mismos, ustedes mismas <br> <b>Vostra Excellentia</b> <br> #Your Excellency <br> *Francese: Votre Excellence <br> *Italiano: Sua Eccellenza(meno usato : Vostra Eccellenza) <br> *Espaniol: Su Excelencia <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: suo(di Lei, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostro <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: sus(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostri, vostre <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(le/di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>vulgo(= communmente)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: communément, ordinairement, généralement <br> *Italiano: vilgo, generalmente, comunemente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente <br> <b>w(littera): duple ve /u/ aut /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: w(doppio vu; vu doppio; non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: w(lettre): double vé /v/ ou /ou/ <br> <b>x(littera): xe /ks/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: x(ics, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: x(lettre): iks /ks/ ou /gz/ ou /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>y(littera): i greco /y/ aut /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: y(i greca, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: y(lettre): i grec /i/ <br> <b>ya(= ja, jam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: déjà <br> *Italiano: già <br> *Espaniol: ya <br> <b>yo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je, moi <br> *Italiano: io, me, mi <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>z(littera): zeta /z/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: z, zeta <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: z(lettre): zède /z/ <br></p> 140 2005-04-21T16:15:44Z Josu Lavin 2 =Dictionario de Parolas e Particulas Grammatical=== ==Dictionario de Parolas et Particulas Grammaticales== ==Dictionary of Grammatical Words and Particles== IMPORTANTISSIME: [A corriger. Tote le entratas debe esser corrigite secundo Interlingua de IALA] <b>a (+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à (+ inf. ) <br> *Italiano: a <br> *Espaniol: a (+ inf) <br> <b>a (littera): a /a/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a (lettre): a /a/ <br> <b>a ambe lateres</b> <br> ra: <b>a ambos lateres</b> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des deux côtés <br> *Italiano: ad ambo i lati <br> *Espaniol: a ambos lados <br> <b>a basso</b> <br> #down, downward <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: abbasso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo <br> <b>a basso(les traitores)!</b> <br> #down with(the traitors)! <br> *Francese: à bas(les traîtres) <br> *Italiano: abbasso(i traditori !) <br> *Espaniol: abajo los traidores! <br> <b>a causa de</b> <br> #because of <br> *Francese: à cause de <br> *Italiano: a causa di, per causa di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por causa de, debido a <br> <b>a condition que</b> <br> #on condition that, provided that <br> *Francese: à(la) condition que <br> *Italiano: a condizione che <br> *Espaniol: a condición de que, con tal de que <br> <b>a conto</b> <br> #on account <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto <br> *Espaniol: en cuenta <br> <b>a conto de</b> <br> #to the account of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto a/di <br> *Espaniol: a cuenta de <br> <b>a contratempore</b> <br> #at the wrong moment <br> *Francese: à contretemps <br> *Italiano: nel momento sbagliato <br> *Espaniol: a contratiempo, en mal momento <br> <b>a derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à droite <br> *Italiano: a destra <br> *Espaniol: a derecha, a la derecha <br> <b>a distantia</b> <br> #at a distance <br> *Francese: à distance <br> *Italiano: a distanza di/da <br> *Espaniol: a distancia <br> <b>a fin de</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de, pour <br> *Italiano: in modo da <br> *Espaniol: a fin de, para <br> <b>a fin que</b> <br> #in order that <br> *Francese: afin que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: a fin de que, para que <br> <b>a flor de</b> <br> #flush with, on a level with <br> *Francese: à fleur de <br> *Italiano: a livello di <br> *Espaniol: a flor de <br> <b>a fortia de</b> <br> #by means of, by dint of <br> *Francese: à force de <br> *Italiano: a forza di <br> *Espaniol: a fuerza de, por medio de <br> <b>a fundo</b> <br> #thoroughly <br> *Francese: à fond <br> *Italiano: a fondo <br> *Espaniol: a fondo <br> <b>a grado</b> <br> #at will <br> *Francese: à volonté, à discrétion <br> *Italiano: in grado di, a discrezione di <br> *Espaniol: a voluntad <br> <b>a in</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: in, all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: a, al interior de <br> <b>a inter</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: (a) entre <br> <b>a la(= a illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>a la aventura</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: aléatoirement, au hazard <br> *Italiano: all'avventura, <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>a la derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à la droite <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha <br> <b>a la entrata de(le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> #at the beginning of(winter, etc. ) <br> *Francese: au début de, au commencement de(l'hiver, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: all'inizio di <br> *Espaniol: al principio de(invierno, etc. ) <br> <b>a la exclusion de</b> <br> #to the exclusion of <br> *Francese: à l'exclusion de <br> *Italiano: con l'esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: a la exclusión de <br> ad esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>a lo longo</b> <br> #in the long run <br> *Francese: avec le temps, à la longue <br> *Italiano: alla lunga, con il tempo <br> *Espaniol: a la larga <br> <b>a lo plus</b> <br> #at(the) best <br> *Francese: au plus <br> *Italiano: al più <br> *Espaniol: a lo más <br> <b>a lo plus tarde</b> <br> #at the latest <br> *Francese: au plus tard <br> *Italiano: al più tardi <br> *Espaniol: a más tardar <br> <b>a medietate</b> <br> #half(= to half the full amount or degree) <br> *Francese: à moitié <br> *Italiano: alla metà <br> *Espaniol: a mitad <br> <b>a medietate del cammino</b> <br> #halfway <br> *Francese: à mi-chemin <br> *Italiano: alla metà /nel mezzo del cammino <br> *Espaniol: a medio camino <br> <b>a minus que</b> <br> #unless <br> *Francese: à moins que <br> *Italiano: a meno che <br> *Espaniol: a menos que <br> <b>a omne costo(= a toto costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: ad ogni costo, a qualsiasi costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a omne proposito</b> <br> #at every turn <br> *Francese: à tout propos <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a todo propósito <br> <b>a parte</b> <br> #apart, aside <br> *Francese: à part <br> *Italiano: a parte <br> *Espaniol: aparte, separadamente <br> <b>a partir de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a partire da, partendo da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à partir de <br> <b>a pena(= apena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: appena <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente <br> <b>a presso de</b> <br> #at the home(court, etc. ) of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: appresso a, presso <br> *Espaniol: a casa de(corte, etc. ) de <br> <b>a proba de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a prova di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'épreuve de <br> <b>a proposito de</b> <br> #with regard to, apropos of <br> *Francese: à propos de, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: a proposito di <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>a proposito!</b> <br> #by the way! incidentally <br> *Francese: à propos! <br> *Italiano: a proposito! <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a proposito:(dicer una cosa) a proposito</b> <br> #(to say something) to the purpose, apropos, to the point <br> *Francese: à propos <br> *Italiano: a proposito <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a retro</b> <br> #backwards <br> *Francese: à reculons, en reculant <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hacia atrás <br> <b>a tempore</b> <br> #in(good) time <br> *Francese: à temps <br> *Italiano: a tempo <br> *Espaniol: a tiempo <br> <b>a toto costo(= a omne costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: a ogni costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a transverso</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: à travers, de bord en bord <br> *Italiano: di/a traverso <br> *Espaniol: a través <br> <b>a transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers(de) <br> *Italiano: a traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: da dove, da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: a dove, a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi(= quo)</b> <br> #where, at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar <br> <b>a un alto grado</b> <br> #to a high degree <br> *Francese: à un haut degré <br> *Italiano: ad un alto grado <br> *Espaniol: a un alto grado <br> <b>a veces(= a vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, qualche volta <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a vices</b> <br> #at times <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, alle volte <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a, ad</b> <br> #to, at <br> *Francese: à, vers, en, dans <br> *Italiano: a, ad, verso, nel <br> *Espaniol: a, hacia; en <br> <b>ab(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de(+inf) <br> <b>ab(= desde)</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis <br> *Italiano: da <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #actually <br> *Francese: actuellement <br> *Italiano: attualmente <br> *Espaniol: actualmente <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #at present, (just) now <br> *Francese: à présent, maintenant <br> *Italiano: al momento, attualmente, adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: actualmente, en la actualidad <br> <b>adeo</b> <br> #farewell, good-by(e) <br> *Francese: adieu <br> *Italiano: addio, ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: adiós <br> <b>adhuc</b> <br> #to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici, jusqu'à présent, <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino adesso, fino a qui, fin qui, fino a qua <br> *Espaniol: a este lugar, hasta aquí, hasta ahora, todavía <br> <b>al(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: sur le point de(+inf), près de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: al, sul punto di, <br> *Espaniol: al(+inf) <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= alique)</b> <br> #something <br> *Francese: quelque chose, <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>al contrario</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>al currente(de)</b> <br> #informed(about) <br> *Francese: au courant de <br> *Italiano: al corrente di, informato su <br> *Espaniol: al corriente(de), informado(sobre) <br> <b>al detrimento de</b> <br> #to the detriment of <br> *Francese: au détriment de <br> *Italiano: a danno di, a scapito di <br> *Espaniol: en detrimento de <br> <b>al estraniero</b> <br> #abroad <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: en el extranjero <br> <b>al exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>al exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur de <br> <b>al extero</b> <br> #abroad(as in "to go abroad; to live abroad"), in foreign parts <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: al extranjero, en el extranjero <br> <b>al extremo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extrême <br> *Italiano: all'estremo, estremamente <br> *Espaniol: al extremo <br> <b>al fin</b> <br> #in the end, at last <br> *Francese: enfin, à la fin <br> *Italiano: alla fine, infine <br> *Espaniol: al fin <br> <b>al fundo de</b> <br> #at the bottom of <br> *Francese: au fond de <br> *Italiano: al fondo di, in fondo a <br> *Espaniol: al fondo de <br> <b>al fundo del corde</b> <br> #at the bottom of one's heart <br> *Francese: au fond du cœur <br> *Italiano: nel fondo del cuore <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo del corazón <br> <b>al hasardo</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: au hazard <br> *Italiano: al caso <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>al interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur <br> <b>al interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur de <br> <b>al ir a(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: andando a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ????????? <br> <b>al latere</b> <br> #aside <br> *Francese: à côté <br> *Italiano: al lato di, accanto a, lateralmente, a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado <br> <b>al latere de</b> <br> #beside <br> *Francese: à côté de, au côté de <br> *Italiano: a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado de <br> <b>al minus</b> <br> #at least <br> *Francese: au moins <br> *Italiano: al meno, alla fine, per lo meno <br> *Espaniol: al menos, por lo menos <br> <b>al presente</b> <br> #at present <br> *Francese: à présent <br> *Italiano: al presente, al momento <br> *Espaniol: en el presente, en la actualidad <br> <b>al transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers(de) <br> *Italiano: al traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través(de) <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: un poco, un po', qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: un poco <br> <b>alcun, alcuna, alcuno(= alicun, alicuna, alicuno)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alcunas veces(= alcunas vices, alicunas vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelques fois <br> <b>alcuno(= alicuno)</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: qualcuno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelqu'un <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #alias <br> *Francese: alias <br> *Italiano: alias, altro <br> *Espaniol: alias <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #at another time <br> *Francese: (à) un autre moment, un autre temps, un autre instant <br> *Italiano: in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: en otro tiempo, en otro momento <br> <b>alias(= alteramente)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement, d'une autre façon, d'une autre manière <br> *Italiano: in un altro modo, diversamente, in un'altra maniera <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>alibi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: alibi <br> *Espaniol: en alguna otra parte <br> <b>alicubi</b> <br> #anywhere as in("did you see him anywhere?") <br> *Francese: quelque part comme dans("l'avez-vous vu quelque part?"), n'importe où comme dans("il va n'importe où") <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte, non importa dove, in qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>alicubi(= usquam)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: en cualquier lugar <br> <b>alicun, alicuna, alicuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque, un peu <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno; un poco <br> <b>alicuna cosa(= alcuna cosa)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: alguna cosa <br> <b>alicunas vices(= alcunas vices)</b> <br> #sometimes <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, qualvolta <br> *Espaniol: algunas veces <br> <b>alicunes, alicunas, alicunos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des, quelques, quelques-uns, quelques-unes <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcune, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>alicuno(= alcuno)</b> <br> #someone, somebody; anyone, anybody <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: alcuno, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alie, alia, alio(= altere, altera, altero)</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: autre <br> *Italiano: altro <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somehow <br> *Francese: d'une manière ou d'une autre <br> *Italiano: in un modo o in un altro, nell'uno o nell'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de una manera u otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte, qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: en alguna parte <br> <b>aliquando(= alquando)</b> <br> #at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> *Francese: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: in un dato momento, quando, allorché <br> *Espaniol: alguna vez, en algún que otro momento, en un momento dado <br> <b>aliquanto(= alquanto)</b> <br> #somewhat, to some degree <br> *Francese: quelque peu <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: algo así, en algún grado <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: in qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: un peu <br> *Italiano: un po', un poco <br> *Espaniol: algo, un poco <br> <b>aliquot</b> <br> #some, several, a few <br> *Francese: un po', un poco <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque, un peu <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi, dunque, allorché <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en aquel tiempo <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, in that case, consequently) <br> *Francese: donc, dans ce cas, conséquemment, en conséquence <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, in questo caso, allora, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en tal caso, consequentemente, en consecuencia, por consiguiente <br> <b>alquando(= aliquando)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: una buona volta, un dato momento <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> <b>alquanto(= aliquanto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: alquanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque peu <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> *Francese: ainsi, de plus, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: anche, ugualmente, allo stesso modo, comunque, in ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, es más, además <br> <b>alte, alta, alto</b> <br> #high <br> *Francese: haut, haute <br> *Italiano: alto, alta, alti, alte <br> *Espaniol: alto, alta <br> <b>altera vece(= altera vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une autre fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once again, once more <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once more, once again <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez <br> <b>alteramente(= alias)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement <br> *Italiano: altrimenti, diversamente, in un'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, additional <br> *Francese: autre, additionnel(le) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(in più, addizionale) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, adicional <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, different <br> *Francese: autre, différent(e) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(differente) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, diferente <br> <b>alterubi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: d'altra parte, altrimenti, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: en otra parte <br> <b>ambes, ambas, ambos</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: les deux, tous deux, toutes deux <br> *Italiano: ambo, ambedue, tutti e due <br> *Espaniol: ambos, ambas <br> <b>an</b> <br> #whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>an(= est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: - <br> *Espaniol: es que(particula interrogativa) <br> <b>an ille habe le libro?(= est-que ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: ha il libro ? egli ha il libro? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>analogo a</b> <br> #analogous to <br> *Francese: analogue à. semblable à <br> *Italiano: analogo a, simile a <br> *Espaniol: análogo a <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #encore! <br> *Francese: encore! <br> *Italiano: ancora! <br> *Espaniol: aún!, todavía! <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #still, yet <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún, todavía <br> <b>annon</b> <br> #or not <br> *Francese: ou non, ou pas <br> *Italiano: o no <br> *Espaniol: o no <br> <b>anque(io)(= etiam(io))</b> <br> #(I) too, (me) too <br> *Francese: (moi) aussi <br> *Italiano: anch'io, pure io, io pure <br> *Espaniol: también(yo), (yo) también <br> <b>anque [anke](= etiam, tamben)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, above <br> *Francese: avant, cité plus haut <br> *Italiano: prima <br> *Espaniol: antes, citado anteriormente <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: prima di <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: davanti a <br> *Espaniol: delante de, ante <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier than <br> *Francese: plus tôt que, antérieurement à <br> *Italiano: prima(temp) <br> *Espaniol: antes, anterior <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front of <br> *Francese: devant <br> *Italiano: davanti, di fronte <br> *Espaniol: antes, en frente de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front, ahead; also: forward <br> *Francese: devant, en face de <br> *Italiano: innanzi, dinnanzi, di fronte, frontalmente <br> *Espaniol: antes; delante <br> <b>ante le tempore</b> <br> #ahead of time, too early <br> *Francese: trop tôt, avant le temps <br> *Italiano: prima del tempo <br> *Espaniol: antes de tiempo, demasiado pronto <br> <b>ante que</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: avant que <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de que <br> <b>ante toto</b> <br> #after all <br> *Francese: avant tout <br> *Italiano: prima di tutto <br> *Espaniol: ante todo <br> <b>antea(=potius, plus tosto)</b> <br> #before, formerly, previously <br> *Francese: plus tôt, précédemment, antérieurement <br> *Italiano: prima, precedentemente <br> *Espaniol: antes, anteriormente, previamente <br> <b>ante-heri</b> <br> #day before yesterday <br> *Francese: avant-hier <br> *Italiano: l'altro ieri, ieri l'altro <br> *Espaniol: anteayer <br> <b>anteriormente</b> <br> #formerly, before <br> *Francese: antérieurement <br> *Italiano: anteriormente <br> *Espaniol: anteriormente <br> <b>apena(= a pena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: a pena <br> *Espaniol: a penas, escasamente <br> <b>apud(= presso)</b> <br> #near, with, at, by <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, junto a <br> <b>aquelle, aquella, aquello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là(ex. ce garçon-là), cet ...-là(ex. cet homme-là), cette ...-là(ex. cette fille-là), [pron. dém. ]celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>aquelles, aquellas, aquellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli, quelle <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>aquesse, aquessa, aquesso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>aqueste, aquesta, aquesto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>aqui(= hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #rather(= fairly, quite) <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assi</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful bokk) <br> *Francese: così(così bello, tanto bello che) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful book) <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi... como...(= si. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que ... <br> *Italiano: così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: así. . . como. . . <br> <b>atque</b> <br> #and, and also, and even <br> *Francese: et, et même <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e, y también, e incluso <br> <b>aut(= o)</b> <br> #or <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o, altrimenti <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>aut. . . aut...(= o. . . o. . . )</b> <br> #either. . . or... <br> *Francese: ou. . . ou. . . <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: en avant de, au devant de <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant, au devant <br> *Italiano: davanti a, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: adelante, al frente, delante <br> <b>avante!</b> <br> #before!(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant! <br> *Italiano: avanti ! <br> *Espaniol: adelante!, al frente! <br> <b>b(littera): be /b/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: b, bi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: b(lettre): bé /b/ <br> <b>basse, bassa, basso</b> <br> #low <br> *Francese: bas, basse <br> *Italiano: basso, bassa <br> *Espaniol: bajo <br> <b>basso</b> <br> #bottom, lower part(of a thing) <br> *Francese: bas <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: base, parte de abajo(de una cosa), la parte más baja(de una cosa) <br> <b>basta</b> <br> #enough! stop! <br> *Francese: assez! <br> *Italiano: basta! <br> *Espaniol: basta! <br> <b>bastante(= sufficiente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>bastante(= sufficientemente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficiently <br> *Francese: assez, suffisamment <br> *Italiano: sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficientemente <br> <b>bastantes(= sufficientes)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: sufficienti <br> *Espaniol: bastantes, suficientes <br> <b>ben</b> <br> #well <br> *Francese: bien <br> *Italiano: bene <br> *Espaniol: bien <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #although <br> *Francese: quoique, bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de que, aunque <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #though <br> *Francese: bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: ben que <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #all right! <br> *Francese: très bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! giusto ! benissimo ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #good! <br> *Francese: bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! <br> *Espaniol: bien!, bueno! <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #encore <br> *Francese: bis, encore une fois, de nouveau <br> *Italiano: bis, ancora una volta, di nuovo <br> *Espaniol: bis, de nuevo, otra vez, repetición <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #twice <br> *Francese: deux fois <br> *Italiano: due volte <br> *Espaniol: dos veces <br> <b>bon!</b> <br> #good!, fine!, all right! <br> *Francese: bon! <br> *Italiano: buono ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>bon, bona, bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: buono, buona <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: bon, bonne <br> <b>bona nocte!</b> <br> #good night! <br> *Francese: bonne nuit! <br> *Italiano: buona notte, buonanotte <br> *Espaniol: buenas noches! <br> <b>bravo!</b> <br> #bravo! <br> *Francese: bravo! <br> *Italiano: bravo! brava! bravi! brave! <br> *Espaniol: bravo! <br> <b>c(littera): ce /k/ aut /ts/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c, ci(pron. come ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c(lettre): cé /k/ ou /s/ <br> <b>cata</b> <br> #each <br> *Francese: chaque <br> *Italiano: ogni <br> *Espaniol: cada <br> <b>cata un, cata una, cata uno</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: chacun, chacune <br> *Italiano: ognuno, agnuna <br> *Espaniol: cada uno, cada una <br> <b>ce</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce, c'... <br> *Italiano: ciò, questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>ce ci</b> <br> #this(here) <br> *Francese: ciò, questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>ce la</b> <br> #that(there, yonder) <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: cela <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #(the) former(first of two) <br> *Francese: quello là, quella là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: celui-là, celle-là <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #1. that; those <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> <b>celles, cellas, cellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: quei, quegli, quelle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cento:(tres) per cento, (tres) pro cento</b> <br> #(three) per cent <br> *Francese: cento(ce, come in ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (trois) pour cent <br> <b>certe, certa, certo</b> <br> #a certain. . . <br> *Francese: un certain, une certaine <br> *Italiano: certo, un certo <br> *Espaniol: cierto, cierta <br> <b>certo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certo, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, cierto <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: altro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autre <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #remaining <br> *Francese: restante, rimanente, resto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: restant <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #besides, for the rest <br> *Francese: d'altra parte, quanto al resto, peraltro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d'autre part, quant au reste <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #otherwise, in other respects <br> *Francese: diversamente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autrement, par ailleurs <br> <b>ch(digrapho): ce hache /k/ aut /sh/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ch(pron come k) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ch(digraphe ou digramme): cé-ache /k/ ou /sh/ <br> <b>ci(=hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>ci juncto(= hic juncto)</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(joined) <br> *Francese: ci-joint(e) <br> *Italiano: qui con <br> *Espaniol: junto con esto <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour de <br> *Italiano: circa <br> *Espaniol: alrededor de <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours, environ, approximativement <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: cerca, alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>circum</b> <br> #around, around about <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>cis</b> <br> #on this side(of) <br> *Francese: de ce côté(de) <br> *Italiano: da questa parte, da questo lato <br> *Espaniol: a este lado(de) <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #quickly, speedily <br> *Francese: vite <br> *Italiano: rapidamente, velocemente <br> *Espaniol: rápidamente <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #soon <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #secretly <br> *Francese: secrètement <br> *Italiano: segretamente <br> *Espaniol: secretamente, en secreto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #without the knowledge of, unknown to <br> *Francese: sans la connaissance de, inconnu(e) à <br> *Italiano: senza sapere che, senza conoscenza di, senza cognizione <br> *Espaniol: sin el conocimiento de, desconocido a <br> <b>communmente(= vulgo)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: vulgairement, communément <br> *Italiano: comunemente, volgarmente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente, normalmente <br> <b>como</b> <br> #as; also: like, similarly to <br> *Francese: comme <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como</b> <br> #how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como illa est bella!</b> <br> #how beautiful she is! <br> *Francese: Comme elle est belle! <br> *Italiano: come è bella lei <br> *Espaniol: qué bonita es ella! <br> <b>como si</b> <br> #as though, as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>como:(facete) como(vos volate)</b> <br> #(do) as(you wish) <br> *Francese: comme:(faites) comme(vous voulez) <br> *Italiano: come(fate) <br> *Espaniol: (haced) como(vosotros queráis) <br> <b>comocunque</b> <br> #however, in whatever manner <br> *Francese: cependant, de toute façon <br> *Italiano: comunque, in ogni modo, ad ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, de cualquier forma, como sea <br> <b>comparabile a</b> <br> #comparable to <br> *Francese: comparable à <br> *Italiano: comparabile a/con <br> *Espaniol: comparable a <br> <b>comparabile con</b> <br> #comparable with <br> *Francese: comparable avec <br> *Italiano: comparabile con <br> *Espaniol: comparable con <br> <b>completamente(= totalmente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: complètement <br> *Italiano: completamente, totalmente <br> *Espaniol: completamente(= totalmente) <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, by means of <br> *Francese: avec, au moyen de <br> *Italiano: con, per mezzo di <br> *Espaniol: con, por medio de <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, having, carrying, characterized by) <br> *Francese: avec, ayant, caractérisé(e) par <br> *Italiano: con <br> *Espaniol: con, que tiene. . . , caracterizado por. . . <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, together with <br> *Francese: avec, (ensemble) avec <br> *Italiano: con, insieme a <br> *Espaniol: con <br> <b>concernente</b> <br> #concerning <br> *Francese: concernant <br> *Italiano: concernente <br> *Espaniol: concerniente <br> <b>conforme</b> <br> #conformable, in conformity <br> *Francese: conforme, en conformité <br> *Italiano: conforme <br> *Espaniol: conforme, en conformidad <br> <b>conforme a</b> <br> #in conformity with, according to <br> *Francese: selon, conforme à, en conformité avec <br> *Italiano: conforme a, in conformità a/di <br> *Espaniol: conforme a <br> <b>conjunctamente</b> <br> #conjointly, conjunctly, jointly, together <br> *Francese: conjointement, ensemble <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente, con, insieme <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente <br> <b>conjunctamente con</b> <br> #in with, together with, in conjunction with <br> *Francese: conjointement avec <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente a <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente con <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #opposite, facing <br> *Francese: contre, faisant face à <br> *Italiano: contrariamente, al contrario <br> *Espaniol: en situación opuesta, enfrentado <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in one's presence, openly, publicly <br> *Francese: en présence de quelqu'un, publiquement <br> *Italiano: in presenza di, davanti a, pubblicamente <br> *Espaniol: en la presencia de, abiertamente, públicamente <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in the presence of <br> *Francese: en présence de <br> *Italiano: in presenza di <br> *Espaniol: en presencia de <br> <b>cras(= deman)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>cuje, cuja, cujo</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: cuyo, cuya <br> <b>cum(=con)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: avec <br> <b>d(littera): de /d/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: di/d <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d(lettre): dé /d/ <br> <b>de</b> <br> #from; also: since <br> *Francese: de, depuis <br> *Italiano: da, dal, dallo, dalla, dagli, dalle <br> *Espaniol: de, desde <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of <br> *Francese: de <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, belonging or pertaining to <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, à la, au, aux, (appartenant à la, au, aux) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, made of <br> *Francese: de(fait de) <br> *Italiano: di(fatto di) <br> *Espaniol: de, hecho de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, with, by means of <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, des, par, avec, au moyen de(de la, du, des) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de, con <br> <b>de(+ inf)</b> <br> #to; for <br> *Francese: de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: di <br> *Espaniol: de(+ inf) <br> <b>de accordo</b> <br> #in accord <br> *Francese: d'accord <br> *Italiano: d'accordo <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from the top to the bottom <br> *Francese: de haut en bas <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from top to bottom, from top to toe <br> *Francese: de haut en bas, de la tête aux pieds <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de bon corde</b> <br> #gladly, willingly <br> *Francese: de bon coeur <br> *Italiano: di buon cuore, generoso <br> *Espaniol: de buena gana, alegremente <br> <b>de bon grado</b> <br> #willingly, with pleasure <br> *Francese: avec plaisir <br> *Italiano: di buon grado, volentieri <br> *Espaniol: de buen grado, con placer, de buena gana <br> <b>de bon gusto</b> <br> #in good taste <br> *Francese: de bon goût <br> *Italiano: di buon gusto <br> *Espaniol: de buen gusto <br> <b>de bona hora</b> <br> #early <br> *Francese: de bonne heure <br> *Italiano: di buono'ora, presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: de buena hora <br> <b>de ci a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour, etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: da qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de commun accordo</b> <br> #by common consent <br> *Francese: d'un commun accord <br> *Italiano: di comune accordo <br> *Espaniol: de común acuerdo <br> <b>de concerto</b> <br> #in concert, in unison <br> *Francese: de concert <br> *Italiano: di concerto, d'accordo con <br> *Espaniol: de concierto, al unísono <br> <b>de costume, usualmente</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, d'abitudine, di norma, solitamente <br> *Espaniol: como de costumbre, habitualmente, usualmente <br> <b>de derecto</b> <br> #by right(s) <br> *Francese: de droit <br> *Italiano: di diritto <br> *Espaniol: de derecho <br> <b>de die in die</b> <br> #from day to day <br> *Francese: de jour en jour <br> *Italiano: di giorno in giorno <br> *Espaniol: de día en día <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #de facto <br> *Francese: de facto <br> *Italiano: di fatto <br> *Espaniol: de facto, de hecho <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #in fact, de facto <br> *Francese: en fait, de fait, par le fait <br> *Italiano: infatti, difatti <br> *Espaniol: de hecho, de facto <br> <b>de hic a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: di qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de la parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di, dalla parte di <br> *Espaniol: de(la) parte de <br> <b>de longe(= de longo)</b> <br> #afar, from a distance <br> *Francese: de loin <br> *Italiano: dalla distanza di, da <br> *Espaniol: de lejos <br> <b>de mal grado</b> <br> #unwillingly, in spite of oneself <br> *Francese: de mauvais gré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, malvolentieri <br> *Espaniol: de mala gana <br> <b>de mal gusto</b> <br> #in bad taste <br> *Francese: de mauvais goût <br> *Italiano: di cattivo gusto, inopportuno <br> *Espaniol: de mal gusto <br> <b>de mal in pejo</b> <br> #from bad to worse <br> *Francese: de mal en pis <br> *Italiano: di male in peggio <br> *Espaniol: de mal en peor <br> <b>de maniera que</b> <br> #so that <br> *Francese: de manière que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: de manera que <br> <b>de memoria</b> <br> #from memory, by heart <br> *Francese: de mémoire, par coeur <br> *Italiano: a memoria, a mente <br> *Espaniol: de memoria <br> <b>de nocte</b> <br> #by night <br> *Francese: de nuit <br> *Italiano: di notte <br> *Espaniol: de noche <br> <b>de novo</b> <br> #again, anew, afresh <br> *Francese: de nouveau <br> *Italiano: di nuovo, ancora <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo <br> <b>de omne latere</b> <br> #from every side <br> *Francese: de tout côté <br> *Italiano: da ogni alto <br> *Espaniol: de todo lado <br> <b>de parte a parte</b> <br> #through and through <br> *Francese: de part en part <br> *Italiano: da parte a parte <br> *Espaniol: de parte a parte <br> <b>de parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di <br> *Espaniol: de parte de <br> <b>de plus</b> <br> #furthermore, besides <br> *Francese: de plus <br> *Italiano: di più <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>de plus in plus</b> <br> #more and more <br> *Francese: de plus en plus <br> *Italiano: più e più <br> *Espaniol: de más en más <br> <b>de qui</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: de qui, dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: de quien <br> <b>de tempore ??</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de tempore in tempore</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de toto(le) corde</b> <br> #wholeheartedly <br> *Francese: de tout coeur <br> *Italiano: di tutto cuore <br> *Espaniol: de todo corazón <br> <b>de totos lateres</b> <br> #on all sides <br> *Francese: de tous les côtés <br> *Italiano: da ogni lato, da ogni parte <br> *Espaniol: de todos lados <br> <b>de transverso</b> <br> #askew, awry <br> *Francese: de travers <br> *Italiano: di traverso, trasversalmente <br> *Espaniol: de tavés <br> <b>de troppo(= de tro)</b> <br> #superfluous, in the way <br> *Francese: de trop <br> *Italiano: di troppo, superfluo <br> *Espaniol: superfluo <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> #from where, whence <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de un extremo al altero</b> <br> #from one extreme to the other <br> *Francese: d'un extrême à l'autre <br> *Italiano: da un estremo all'altro <br> *Espaniol: de un extremo al otro <br> <b>debitamente</b> <br> #duly, properly <br> *Francese: dûment, justement, convenablement <br> *Italiano: debitamente, giustamente, propriamente <br> *Espaniol: debidamente, propiamente <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, following in time <br> *Francese: ensuite, alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: di seguito, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, entonces, <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, next in order <br> *Francese: di seguito, dopo, poi, secondo l'ordine, seguendo l'ordine <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ensuite, suivant dans l'ordre <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #thereafter, next <br> *Francese: successivo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: suivant(e) <br> <b>del(= de le)</b> <br> #of the <br> *Francese: du <br> *Italiano: del, dello <br> *Espaniol: del <br> <b>del altere latere</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de l'autre côté <br> *Italiano: dall'altro lato, d'altro canto <br> *Espaniol: del otro lado <br> <b>del principio</b> <br> #from the outset or start <br> *Francese: du début <br> *Italiano: da principio, dall'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: del principio <br> <b>del toto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: du tout <br> *Italiano: di tutto <br> *Espaniol: del todo <br> <b>deman(= cras)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>deman matino</b> <br> #tomorrow morning <br> *Francese: demain matin <br> *Italiano: domani mattina, domattina <br> *Espaniol: mañana a la mañana, mañana por la mañana <br> <b>deman vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la tarde, mañana por la noche <br> <b>depois(= depost)</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite, plus tard <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, più tardi <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>depois que(= depost que)</b> <br> #since(from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che, dopo di che <br> *Espaniol: después de que <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #after, since <br> *Francese: depuis, après <br> *Italiano: dopo <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, luego <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuando <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuándo <br> <b>depost que</b> <br> #since(= from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después(de) que, desde que <br> <b>desde</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis, de <br> *Italiano: dopo di <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>detra</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: detrás <br> <b>dextra</b> <br> #on the right of <br> *Francese: à la droite de <br> *Italiano: alla destra di <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha de <br> <b>difficile a(+ inf), difficile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: difficile à(+inf), difficile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: difficile a/da <br> *Espaniol: difícil de(+ inf) <br> <b>directo:(ir, ambular, etc. ) directo</b> <br> #(to go, walk, etc. ) straight <br> *Francese: droit, tout droit:(aller, se diriger, etc. ) tout droit <br> *Italiano: diritto, sempre diritto <br> *Espaniol: directamente <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #until, up to the time that <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: fino a, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>duas horas</b> <br> #two o'clock <br> *Francese: deux heures <br> *Italiano: due ore <br> *Espaniol: las dos(horas) <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #provided that, if only <br> *Francese: pourvu que, si seulement <br> *Italiano: solo se <br> *Espaniol: contal de que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #until <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que, tant que <br> *Italiano: fintanto che, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>dunque</b> <br> #therefore <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>durante</b> <br> #during <br> *Francese: durant, pendant <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: durante <br> <b>durante que</b> <br> #while, whilst <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: mientras, mientras que <br> <b>e(= et)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et <br> <b>e(littera): e /e/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: e(lettre): e /?/ <br> <b>e. . . e...(= et. . . et. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e. . . e. . . <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et... et... <br> <b>ecce</b> <br> #lo!, see!, behold!, here is <br> *Francese: voici <br> *Italiano: ecco, ecco qui, ecco qua <br> *Espaniol: he aquí, helo aquí <br> <b>ego(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: io <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: moi(= je) <br> <b>el(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli, lui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>ella(= illa)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ella, lei <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: elle <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #equally <br> *Francese: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: également <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #likewise, also <br> *Francese: également <br> *Italiano: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, también <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #in respect to <br> *Francese: par rapport à <br> *Italiano: in rapporto a <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #towards <br> *Francese: di fronte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis <br> <b>ergo</b> <br> #consequently, accordingly, therefore, then <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente, ergo, por eso <br> <b>esse, essa, esso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esser in dubita</b> <br> #to be in doubt <br> *Francese: être dans le doute, douter <br> *Italiano: essere in dubbio/nel dubbio <br> *Espaniol: estar en duda, dudar <br> <b>esser satis</b> <br> #to be enough <br> *Francese: être assez, être suffisant <br> *Italiano: essere sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: ser suficiente, ser bastante <br> <b>esso(=isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>este, esta, esto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esto(= isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questo qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>est-que [ést-ke](= an)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: est-ce que <br> <b>est-que ille habe le libro?(= an ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: (egli) ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: e, anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #and <br> *Francese: et <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e <br> <b>et cetera, etc. </b><br> #and so on, and so forth, etc. <br> *Francese: et ainsi de suite, et cetera, etc. <br> *Italiano: eccetera, così di seguito <br> *Espaniol: etcetera, etc. <br> <b>et. . . et. . . (= e. . . e. . . )</b> <br> #as well. . . as..., both. . . and... <br> *Francese: et. . . et. . . <br> *Italiano: e. . . e. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>etiam(= anque, tamben)</b> <br> #also, likewise, too; even, even yet; yet <br> *Francese: aussi, même, <br> *Italiano: anche, lo stesso, allo stesso modo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: también, del mismo modo, igualmente, incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #and yet <br> *Francese: et même <br> *Italiano: e ancora <br> *Espaniol: e incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #even if <br> *Francese: même si <br> *Italiano: anche se <br> *Espaniol: incluso si <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: benché <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoique, bien que <br> <b>ex</b> <br> #out of; from <br> *Francese: hors de <br> *Italiano: ex, fuori da <br> *Espaniol: fuera de; desde, de <br> <b>ex tempore</b> <br> #extempore <br> *Francese: ex tempore, imrpovvisato <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: impromptu, improvisé <br> <b>exactamente(= justo)</b> <br> #exactly, just <br> *Francese: exactement, juste, justement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esatto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: exactamente, justo <br> <b>excepto</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto, exceptuando <br> <b>excessivamente(= in excesso, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: eccessivamente, troppo, in eccesso <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: excessivement <br> <b>expresso</b> <br> #purposely <br> *Francese: exprès <br> *Italiano: espresso <br> *Espaniol: intencionadamente <br> <b>extero</b> <br> #foreign countries <br> *Francese: pays étrangers(à l'étranger) <br> *Italiano: estero, paese straniero <br> *Espaniol: países extranjeros <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de, <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además de, en adición a <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition, extra <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, d'autre part, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además, en adición, extra <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #excepting, except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #outside of, without, beyond <br> *Francese: hors de, en dehors de, au délà de <br> *Italiano: fuori di, al di fuori di, oltre a <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #without, on the outside <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: fuera, en la parte de afuera <br> <b>f(littera): fe /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: f, effe <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: f(lettre): èfe /f/ <br> <b>facie a(= ob, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: face à, en face de, devant, considérant, en raison de <br> *Italiano: davanti a, in ragione di, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: cara a, hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>facie a facie</b> <br> #face to face <br> *Francese: face à face <br> *Italiano: faccia a faccia <br> *Espaniol: cara cara <br> <b>facile a(+ inf), facile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: facile à(+inf), facile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: facile da, facile a <br> *Espaniol: fácil de(+ inf) <br> <b>for</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>for</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, fuori da/che <br> *Espaniol: fuera de, excepto <br> <b>for</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>for</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>for de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: hors de, à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: fuori da, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>for de se(= foras de se, foris de se)</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: dehors <br> *Italiano: fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, afuera <br> <b>foras de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: au dehors de <br> *Italiano: senza, al di fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>foras de dubita, foris de dubita</b> <br> #beyond doubt <br> *Francese: hors de tout doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: fuera de duda <br> <b>foras de lo commun(= foris de lo commun)</b> <br> #out of the ordinary <br> *Francese: hors de l'ordinaire <br> *Italiano: fuori dall'ordinario <br> *Espaniol: fuera de lo común <br> <b>foras de proposito</b> <br> #ill-timed, irrelevant, beside the mark <br> *Francese: hors de propos <br> *Italiano: irrilevante <br> *Espaniol: fuera de propósito, irrelevante <br> <b>foras de se</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, possiblement <br> *Italiano: può essere, forse <br> *Espaniol: posiblemente, quizás, tal vez, es posible que. . . <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, probablement <br> *Italiano: può essere, probabilmente, forse <br> *Espaniol: probablemente, quizás, tal vez <br> <b>frequentemente</b> <br> #frequently, often <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: frequentemente, sovente, spesso <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, a menudo <br> <b>frustra</b> <br> #in vain <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>g(littera): ge /g/ aut /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: g/gi(pron. : come j di John) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: g(lettre): jé /gh/ ou /j/ <br> <b>grande(= magne, magna, magno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grand, grande <br> *Italiano: grande, gran <br> *Espaniol: grande; magno, magna <br> <b>grandemente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grandement <br> *Italiano: grandemente <br> *Espaniol: grandemente <br> <b>gratias a</b> <br> #thanks to, due or owing to <br> *Francese: grâce à <br> *Italiano: grazie a <br> *Espaniol: gracias a, debido a <br> <b>gratias!</b> <br> #thank you! thanks! <br> *Francese: grâce! <br> *Italiano: grazie <br> *Espaniol: gracias! <br> <b>gratis</b> <br> #gratis, free(of charge) <br> *Francese: gratis, gratuit <br> *Italiano: gratis, gratuito <br> *Espaniol: gratis <br> <b>guai</b> <br> #woe <br> *Francese: ennui, malheur, chagrin, peine <br> *Italiano: guai <br> *Espaniol: pena <br> <b>h(littera): hache /h/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: h, acca(muta, ma dopo C e G cambia la pronuncia da dolce a dura(chi=ki; ghi=g di girl inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: h(lettre): ache /muet/ <br> <b>haber satis</b> <br> #to have enough <br> *Francese: avoir assez <br> *Italiano: avere abbastanza, avere a sufficienza <br> *Espaniol: tener suficiente, tener bastante <br> <b>hac</b> <br> #here, this way, on this side <br> *Francese: ici, par là, de ce côté <br> *Italiano: qui, di qui, di qua, da questa parte, in questo luogo <br> *Espaniol: aquí, en este lado <br> <b>hallo!</b> <br> #hello! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>halto</b> <br> #halt, stop <br> *Francese: halte, arrêt, stop <br> *Italiano: stop, alt, fermo! basta! <br> *Espaniol: alto <br> <b>halto!</b> <br> #halt! <br> *Francese: halte! <br> *Italiano: fermo!, ferma! stop! alt! altolà! <br> *Espaniol: alto! <br> <b>heri</b> <br> #yesterday <br> *Francese: hier <br> *Italiano: ieri <br> *Espaniol: ayer <br> <b>heri vespera</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>heri vespere</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>hic</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>hic(= iste)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: -ci <br> <b>hic juncto</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(attached) <br> *Francese: qui accanto, qui con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ci-joint <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this place <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui(da qui in poi, da qui in avanti) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este sitio en adelante <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this reason) <br> *Francese: de là, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, por esta razón <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this time <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este tiempo en adelante <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, cela <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #this(thing, idea) <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, ceci, cela <br> <b>hoc est</b> <br> #that is(to say) <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: come a dire, cioé <br> *Espaniol: es decir <br> <b>hoc pluve</b> <br> #it is raining <br> *Francese: il pleut <br> *Italiano: piove, sta piovendo <br> *Espaniol: llueve, está lloviendo <br> <b>hodie</b> <br> #today <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui <br> *Italiano: oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy <br> <b>hodie ipse</b> <br> #this very say <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: oggi stesso <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>hodie mesmo</b> <br> #this very day <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: anche oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>holla!</b> <br> #holla! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao! <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>homo(=on, uno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un, uno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: on <br> <b>i(littera): i /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: i <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: i(lettre): i /i/ <br> <b>ibi</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <b>ibid. , ib. </b><br> #ibid. , ib. <br> *Francese: ibid. , ib. <br> *Italiano: ibid. , ib. <br> *Espaniol: ibid. , ib. <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #ibidem <br> *Francese: ibidem <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: ibidem, en el mismo lugar <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #in the same place, in that very place <br> *Francese: au même endroit <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: en el mismo lugar <br> <b>id</b> <br> #1. it; 2. that <br> *Francese: ce <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>id est, i. e. </b><br> #that is(to say), i. e. <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire, i. e. <br> *Italiano: cioé <br> *Espaniol: esto es, es decir <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #idem <br> *Francese: idem <br> *Italiano: idem, lo stesso <br> *Espaniol: idem <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #the same(thing) <br> *Francese: la même chose, le même <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, idem <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa; lo mismo <br> <b>igitur</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: donc, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: quindi, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, por consiguiente <br> <b>il</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, c', il <br> <b>il(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>il conveni de(facer lo)</b> <br> #it is fitting, advisable, to(do it) <br> *Francese: il convient de(le faire) <br> *Italiano: conviene(farlo) <br> *Espaniol: conviene(hacerlo) <br> <b>il est a dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: cioè <br> *Espaniol: es decir, o sea <br> <b>il est bon que, il est bono que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon que, c'est bon que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: es bueno que <br> <b>il est bon, il est bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon, c'est bon <br> *Italiano: va bene <br> *Espaniol: es bueno <br> <b>il est necessari que, il est necessario que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario che, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est necessari, il est necessario</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire, c'est nécessaire <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario <br> <b>il est necesse que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est vero, nonne?</b> <br> #it is true, isn't it?, isn't that so? <br> *Francese: c'est vrai, non? n'est-ce pas vrai? n'est-il pas vrai? <br> *Italiano: è vero ? non è vero ? <br> *Espaniol: es verdad, no es así? <br> <b>il face</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a(deux ans) <br> *Italiano: fa(due anni fa) <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>il face(un) grande calor</b> <br> #it is very hot <br> *Francese: il fait une grande chaleur <br> *Italiano: fa un gran caldo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho calor <br> <b>il face frigido</b> <br> #it is cold(weather) <br> *Francese: il fait froid <br> *Italiano: fa freddo <br> *Espaniol: hace frío <br> <b>il ha</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il habe</b> <br> #there is, there aree <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il importa que. . . </b><br> #it is essential that. . . <br> *Francese: il faut que <br> *Italiano: è che, bisogna, è necessario che <br> *Espaniol: importa que, es importante que, es esencial que <br> <b>il pare que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il paraît que <br> *Italiano: sembra che <br> *Espaniol: parece que <br> <b>il se tracta de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il s'agit de <br> *Italiano: si tratta di <br> *Espaniol: se trata de <br> <b>il va sin dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il va sans dire <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #her(as in "of her, " "with her") <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #she <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illac</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ille habe 20 annos</b> <br> #he is 20 years old <br> *Francese: venti anni fa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il a vingt(20) ans <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #he; she; it <br> *Francese: il, elle <br> *Italiano: egli, ella, lui, lei, esso, essa <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #him; her; it(as in "with him, " "with it"; "for him, " "for it") <br> *Francese: lui, elle(comme dans "avec lui, " "avec elle"; "pour lui" "pour elle") <br> *Italiano: lui, lei(con lei, per lei, a lui, con lui, per lei, per lui) <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, pron. dém. : celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that, those <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello là, quella là <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former(= first of two) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #them(as in "with them, " "for them") <br> *Francese: eux, elles(comme dans "avec eux" ou "avec elles", "pour eux" ou "pour elles") <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro(con essi, con loro, a loro, per loro) <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #they <br> *Francese: ils, elles <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos(= aquelles, aquellas, aquellos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-là, pron. dém. : ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli là, quelle là <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>illi(= illes)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: essi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ??????? <br> <b>illic(= illac)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: là <br> <b>illo</b> <br> #it [used as subject, and as object of a prep.] <br> *Francese: ça <br> *Italiano: ciò, quello <br> *Espaniol: ello <br> <b>in</b> <br> #in, into <br> *Francese: dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nello, nella <br> *Espaniol: en, dentro <br> <b>in(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en(part. prés. ) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: = gerundio <br> <b>in alicun modo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque façon <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: de algún modo, de alguna manera <br> <b>in alicuna forma</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque forme <br> *Italiano: in qualche forma <br> *Espaniol: de alguna forma <br> <b>in alicuna maniera</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque manière <br> *Italiano: in qualche maniera <br> *Espaniol: de alguna manera <br> <b>in alta voce</b> <br> #aloud, loudly, not in a whisper <br> *Francese: à haute voix <br> *Italiano: ad alta voce <br> *Espaniol: en alta voz <br> <b>in alteras parolas</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans d'autres mots <br> *Italiano: in altre parole, in altri termini <br> *Espaniol: en otras palabras <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #(up) on top; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #upward(s), up; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto(= super)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, below; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas, en dessous <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, downward; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in caso de</b> <br> #in case of <br> *Francese: en cas de <br> *Italiano: in caso di, nel caso che <br> *Espaniol: en caso de <br> <b>in caso de necessitate</b> <br> #in case of need, of necessity <br> *Francese: en cas de nécessité <br> *Italiano: in caso di necessità, all'occorrenza <br> *Espaniol: en caso de necesidad <br> <b>in caso que</b> <br> #in case(that) <br> *Francese: au cas où <br> *Italiano: nel caso che, in caso di <br> *Espaniol: en caso de que <br> <b>in certos casos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans certains cas <br> *Italiano: in certi casi <br> *Espaniol: en ciertos casos <br> <b>in commemoration de</b> <br> #in commemoration of <br> *Francese: en commémoration de <br> *Italiano: in commemorazione di, in ricordo di, in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en conmemoración de <br> <b>in commun</b> <br> #in common <br> *Francese: en commun <br> *Italiano: in comune <br> *Espaniol: en común <br> <b>in conclusion, in fin</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: en conclusion <br> *Italiano: in conclusione <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión <br> <b>in consequentia</b> <br> #in consequence, accordingly <br> *Francese: en conséquence <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza, conseguentemente <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia <br> <b>in consequentia de</b> <br> #in consequence of <br> *Francese: en conséquence de <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza di <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia de <br> <b>in consideration de</b> <br> #in consideration of, on account of <br> *Francese: en considération de <br> *Italiano: in considerazione di <br> *Espaniol: en consideración de <br> <b>in despecto de</b> <br> #in spite of, despite <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, a dispetto di, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>in domo de</b> <br> #at the house of <br> *Francese: à la résidence de <br> *Italiano: in casa di, presso <br> *Espaniol: en la casa de <br> <b>in effecto</b> <br> #in fact, indeed <br> *Francese: en fait, effectivement <br> *Italiano: infatti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: en efecto <br> <b>in evidentia</b> <br> #evident <br> *Francese: en évidence <br> *Italiano: in evidenza <br> *Espaniol: en evidencia <br> <b>in excesso(= excessivamente, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en excès(=excessivement, trop) <br> *Italiano: in eccesso, troppo, eccessivamente <br> *Espaniol: en exceso, excesivamente, demasiado <br> <b>in favor de</b> <br> #on behalf of, in favor of <br> *Francese: en faveur de <br> *Italiano: in favore di <br> *Espaniol: a favor de <br> <b>in fin</b> <br> #in short, to sum up <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion, finalement <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión, en fin <br> <b>in fin, in conclusion</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en fin, en conclusión <br> <b>in general</b> <br> #in general <br> *Francese: en général <br> *Italiano: in generale, in genere, di norma, usualmente, normalmente <br> *Espaniol: en general <br> <b>in honor de</b> <br> #in honor of <br> *Francese: en honneur de <br> *Italiano: in onore di <br> *Espaniol: en honor de <br> <b>in la proximitate de</b> <br> #in the proximity or vicinity of <br> *Francese: à proximité de <br> *Italiano: in prossimità di <br> *Espaniol: en la proximidad o vecindad de <br> <b>in la via de(= facie a, ob)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>in le curso de. . . </b><br> #in the course of. . . <br> *Francese: au cours de <br> *Italiano: in corso di <br> *Espaniol: en el curso de <br> <b>in le exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior <br> <b>in le exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior de <br> <b>in le fundo</b> <br> #fundamentally, at bottom <br> *Francese: au fond, fondamentalement <br> *Italiano: in fondo <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo, fundamentalmente <br> <b>in le gusto de. . . </b><br> #in the manner of. . . <br> *Francese: au goût de <br> *Italiano: al gusto di <br> *Espaniol: al gusto de, a la manera de <br> <b>in le interim</b> <br> #in the interim <br> *Francese: dans l'intérim <br> *Italiano: nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: en el interim <br> <b>in le interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior <br> <b>in le interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: en el interior de <br> <b>in le passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le passé <br> *Italiano: nel passato <br> *Espaniol: en el pasado <br> <b>in le principio</b> <br> #in the beginning <br> *Francese: au début <br> *Italiano: all'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: al principio <br> <b>in loco de</b> <br> #in lieu of, instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: in luogo di, al posto di, invece di <br> *Espaniol: en lugar de <br> <b>in medio de</b> <br> #in the middle of <br> *Francese: au milieu de <br> *Italiano: in mezzo a <br> *Espaniol: en medio de <br> <b>in memoria de</b> <br> #in memory of <br> *Francese: en mémoire de <br> *Italiano: in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en memoria de <br> <b>in modo special, specialmente</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: in particolare, specialmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>in modo. . . (= -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>in nomine de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: au nom de <br> *Italiano: in nome di <br> *Espaniol: en nombre de <br> <b>in nulla parte</b> <br> #nowhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in nessun luogo, da nessuna parte <br> *Espaniol: en ninguna parte <br> <b>in nulle caso</b> <br> #in no case <br> *Francese: en aucun cas <br> *Italiano: in alcun caso, in nessun caso, mai <br> *Espaniol: en ningún caso <br> <b>in omne caso</b> <br> #in any case <br> *Francese: en tout cas <br> *Italiano: in ogni caso, in utti i casi, sempre <br> *Espaniol: en todo caso <br> <b>in parte</b> <br> #in part, partially <br> *Francese: en partie <br> *Italiano: in parte <br> *Espaniol: en parte, parcialmente <br> <b>in particular</b> <br> #in particular, particularly <br> *Francese: en particulier <br> *Italiano: in particolare <br> *Espaniol: en particular, particularmente <br> <b>in pauco</b> <br> #shortly, before long <br> *Francese: d'ici peu <br> *Italiano: in poco tempo, da qui a un poco, in un attimo <br> *Espaniol: en poco tiempo, dentro de poco, en breve <br> <b>in plus</b> <br> #furthermore, in addition, also <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, en outre <br> *Italiano: di più, in più, <br> *Espaniol: además, adicionalmente <br> <b>in primo loco</b> <br> #first, in the first place <br> *Francese: en premier lieu <br> *Italiano: in primo luogo, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: en primer lugar <br> <b>in principio</b> <br> #in principle, as a rule <br> *Francese: en principe <br> *Italiano: in principio <br> *Espaniol: en principio <br> <b>in su loco</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à sa place <br> *Italiano: al suo posto <br> *Espaniol: en su lugar <br> <b>in summa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en somme <br> *Italiano: insomma <br> *Espaniol: en suma <br> <b>in tanto que</b> <br> #inasmuch as, in so far as <br> *Francese: en tant que <br> *Italiano: in tanto che, fin tanto che <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que <br> <b>in toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly, in toto <br> *Francese: en tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo <br> <b>in toto et per toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly <br> *Francese: en tout et pour tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto e per tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo y por todo <br> <b>in vano</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano, inutilmente <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>in vice de</b> <br> #instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: en vez de, en lugar de <br> <b>in vista de</b> <br> #in view of <br> *Francese: en vue de <br> *Italiano: in vista di <br> *Espaniol: en vista de <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that cause, therefore <br> *Francese: de ce fait, de là <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò <br> *Espaniol: por esa causa, por consiguiente <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that place, from there, thence <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui <br> *Espaniol: desde aquí, desde este sitio <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that time, after that, thereupon, thenceforward <br> *Francese: désormais, dorénavant <br> *Italiano: da questo momento <br> *Espaniol: desde este momento, después de eso <br> <b>inferior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: inférieur(e) <br> *Italiano: inferiore <br> *Espaniol: inferior <br> <b>infime, infima, infimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: infime <br> *Italiano: infimo, infima <br> *Espaniol: ínfimo, ínfima <br> <b>1</b> <br> #below, under, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous <br> *Italiano: sotto, in basso, in profondità <br> *Espaniol: debajo de <br> <b>infra</b> <br> #below, underneath, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous, en dessous <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo <br> <b>insimul(= junctamente)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #among <br> *Francese: parmi <br> *Italiano: tra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #between <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter alia</b> <br> #inter alia, among other things <br> *Francese: entre autres choses, parmi tant d'autres <br> *Italiano: tra l'altro <br> *Espaniol: entre otras cosas <br> <b>interdum</b> <br> #sometimes, occasionally; for some time; meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: parfois, à l'occasion, pour quelque temps, entre-temps <br> *Italiano: qualchevolta, talvolta, durante, nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: a veces, de vez en cuando; durante algún tiempo; entretanto <br> <b>interea</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>interim(= intertanto)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto, mientras tanto <br> <b>intertanto(= interim)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: en attendant <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: entre, dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nella, dentro il <br> *Espaniol: dentro <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di, nel, in <br> *Espaniol: dentro de <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: hacia dentro <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly, internally, on the inside, in <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: internamente, interiormente, enm el interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, into, to the inside <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: al interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, on the inside, within <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior, dentro de <br> <b>io(=ego)</b> <br> #I <br> *Francese: je(=moi) <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>io mesme, io mesma, io mesmo, io ipse</b> <br> #myself <br> *Francese: moi même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso <br> *Espaniol: yo mismo, yo mismo <br> <b>ipse</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: -même <br> *Italiano: stesso <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma(yo mismo, tú mismo, él mismo, etc. <br> <b>is</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce <br> <b>isse(= esse)</b> <br> #this, that, these, those <br> *Francese: ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-là, ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa, questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: ese <br> <b>isse, issa, isso(= aquesse, aquessa, aquesso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>isses, issas, issos(= aquesses, aquessas, aquessos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questi, queste <br> *Espaniol: esos, esas <br> <b>isso</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce. ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, quello <br> *Espaniol: eso <br> <b>ista nocte</b> <br> #tonight <br> *Francese: cette nuit <br> *Italiano: questa notte, stanotte <br> *Espaniol: esta noche <br> <b>ista vespera</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera, stasera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste vespere</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter(= second of two) <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #this(one) <br> *Francese: celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto(= aqueste, aquesta, aquesto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>istes, istas, istos(= aquestes, aquestas, aquestos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: estos, estas <br> <b>isto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ce, ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #accordingly, under the circumstances <br> *Francese: en conséquence, dans les circonstances <br> *Italiano: così, di conseguenza, <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo con, bako las circunstancias <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #and so, consequently <br> *Francese: et ainsi, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: e così <br> *Espaniol: así, consecuentemente, por consiguiente <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #just so, yes <br> *Francese: justement, oui <br> *Italiano: sì, giusto <br> *Espaniol: justamente, sí <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>itaque</b> <br> #and so, therefore <br> *Francese: et ainsi, donc <br> *Italiano: e così, dunque <br> *Espaniol: y así, por consiguiente <br> <b>itero</b> <br> #again, anew <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora, di nuovo, nuovamente <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo, nuevamente <br> <b>itero et itero</b> <br> #again and again, repeatedly <br> *Francese: encore et encore <br> *Italiano: ancora ed ancora <br> *Espaniol: una y otra vez, repetidamente <br> <b>j(littera): jota /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: j(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo; si usa nelle parole antiche o straniere) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: j(lettre): ji /j/(et non /dj/) <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #already; at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely <br> *Francese: déjà, tout de suite, il y a un moment, en effet, sûrement <br> *Italiano: già, al momento, proprio adesso <br> *Espaniol: ya, ahora mismo <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #indeed, certainly, of course <br> *Francese: en effet, bien sûr <br> *Italiano: in effetti, già, sicuramente, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ya, ciertamente <br> <b>jammais</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>jammais!</b> <br> #never! <br> *Francese: jamais! <br> *Italiano: mai giammai ! <br> *Espaniol: jamás!, nunca! <br> <b>jo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>junctamente(=insimul)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme, con <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>justo(= exactamente)</b> <br> #just, exactly <br> *Francese: juste, exactement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: justo, exactamente <br> <b>justo nunc(= justo ora)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>justo ora(= justo nunc)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near by <br> *Francese: près <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca, al lado <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near to, next to, etc. <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de <br> <b>k(littera): ka /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: k(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo), kappa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: k(lettre): ka /k/ <br> <b>l(littera): le /l/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: l, elle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l(lettre): èle /l/ <br> <b>l'(= le, la, lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l'(= le, la) <br> <b>la</b> <br> #her(as in "I see her", "I write her a letter") <br> *Francese: la, lui(comme dans "je la vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: la, lei(io la vedo, io le ho scritto una lettera) <br> *Espaniol: la, le <br> <b>la(= illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>la medietate del mundo</b> <br> #half the world <br> *Francese: la moitié du monde <br> *Italiano: mezzo mondo <br> *Espaniol: la mitad del mundo, medio mundo <br> <b>la mesma cosa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: la même chose <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, la medesima cosa <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa, lo mismo <br> <b>la vespera</b> <br> #in the evening, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: por la tarde <br> <b>la:(un dollar) la(libra)</b> <br> #(one dollar) a(pound) <br> *Francese: la:(un dollar) la(livre) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (un dolar) la(libra) <br> <b>le(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: el(+ inf) <br> <b>le de, la de, lo de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui de, celle de <br> *Italiano: quello di, quella di <br> *Espaniol: el de, la de, lo de <br> <b>le die sequente</b> <br> #the next day, the following day <br> *Francese: le jour suivant <br> *Italiano: il giorno dopo, il giorno seguente, il giorno successivo <br> *Espaniol: el día siguiente <br> <b>le lore, la lore, lo lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur, la leur <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>le melior, la melior, lo melior(= le optime, la optima, lo optimo; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> #the best <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le mie et le tue, la mia et la tua, lo mio et lo tuo</b> <br> #mine and thine <br> *Francese: le mien et le tien. la mienne et la tienne <br> *Italiano: il mio e il tuo, la mia e la tua <br> *Espaniol: el mío y el tuyo, la mía y la tuya, lo mío y lo tuyo <br> <b>le mie, la mia, lo mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: el mío, la mía, lo mío <br> <b>le minime, la minima, lo minino(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minor, la minor, lo minor(= le minime, la minima, lo minimo; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il minore, la minore <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minus</b> <br> #the least(as in "what pleases me(the) least") <br> *Francese: le moins <br> *Italiano: il meno <br> *Espaniol: el menor <br> <b>le minus belle, la minus bella, lo minus bello</b> <br> #the least beautiful <br> *Francese: le moins beau, la moins belle <br> *Italiano: il meno bello, lameno bella <br> *Espaniol: el menos bello, la menos bella, lo menos bello <br> <b>le nostre, la nostra, lo nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre, la nôtre <br> *Italiano: il nostro, la nostra <br> *Espaniol: el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro <br> <b>le optime, la optima, lo optimo(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor <br> <b>le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire la pire <br> *Italiano: il pessimo, la pessima <br> *Espaniol: el pésimo, la pésima, lo pésimo <br> <b>le plus belle, la plus bella, lo plus bello</b> <br> #the most beautiful <br> *Francese: le plus beau, la plus belle <br> *Italiano: il più bello, la più bella <br> *Espaniol: el más bonito, la más bonita, lo más bonito <br> <b>le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le optime, la optima, lo optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande(= le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno(= le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le minime, la minima, lo minimo)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le plus. . . -mente(= lo plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>le plus. . . , la plus. . . , lo plus. . . </b><br> #the most. . . <br> *Francese: le plus..., la plus... <br> *Italiano: il più. . . la più. . . <br> *Espaniol: el más. . . , la más. . . , lo más. . . <br> <b>le qual, la qual, lo qual</b> <br> #which; that; who <br> *Francese: lequel, laquelle <br> *Italiano: il quale, la quale <br> *Espaniol: el cual, la cual, lo cual <br> <b>le que, la que, lo que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui qui, celle qui <br> *Italiano: quello che, quella che <br> *Espaniol: el que, la que, lo que <br> <b>le sue, la sua, lo suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: le sien, la sienne(de lui, d'elle) <br> *Italiano: il suo, la sua <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>le toto</b> <br> #the whole <br> *Francese: le tout <br> *Italiano: il tutto <br> *Espaniol: el todo <br> <b>le tue, la tua, lo tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: il tuo, la tua <br> *Espaniol: el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo <br> <b>le un le altere, la una la altera, lo uno lo altero(= unaltre)</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(one). . . the other(one) <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre, l'une l'autre <br> *Italiano: l'un l'altro <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>le vespere</b> <br> #in the evenong, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: la tarde <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il vostro, la vostra <br> *Espaniol: el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il Suo, la Sua(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de usted) <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ustedes) <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #him(as in "I see him", "I write him a letter") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je le vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it", "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: le, la, l' <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: el, la, lo <br> <b>les de, las de, los de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux de, celles de <br> *Italiano: quelli di, quelle di <br> *Espaniol: los de, las de <br> <b>les duo, las duas, los duos</b> <br> #the two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: i due, ambo, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>les lores, las lores, los lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>les mies, las mias, los mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: los míos, las mías <br> <b>les nostres, las nostras, los nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: i nostri <br> *Espaniol: los nuestros, las nuestras <br> <b>les que, las que, los que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux que, ceux qui, celles que. celles qui <br> *Italiano: quelli che, quelle che <br> *Espaniol: los que, las que <br> <b>les sues, las suas, los suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: les siens, les siennes(de lui ou d'elle) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>les tues, las tuas, los tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiens, les tiennes <br> *Italiano: i tuoi, le tue <br> *Espaniol: los tuyos, las tuyas <br> <b>les unes les alteres</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(of them). . . the others, other ones <br> *Francese: les uns les autres <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros <br> <b>les unes les alteres, las unas las alteras, los unos los alteros</b> <br> #one another, each other <br> *Francese: les uns les autres, <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros, unas a las otras <br> les unes les autres <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i vostri <br> *Espaniol: los vuestros, las vuestras <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Suoi(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de usted) <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: les <br> *Italiano: i, le <br> *Espaniol: los, las <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #them(as in "I see them", "I write them a letter") <br> *Francese: les, leur(comme dans "je les vois", "je leur écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: li, le <br> *Espaniol: les, los, las <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #on the left hand <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra, sinistrorso <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #to the left <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>li(= le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ?????? <br> <b>lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it, " "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: le, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: lo <br> *Espaniol: lo <br> <b>lo plus. . . -mente(= le plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>lo que</b> <br> #that which <br> *Francese: ce que <br> *Italiano: quello che <br> *Espaniol: lo que <br> <b>loco</b> <br> #place <br> *Francese: lieu <br> *Italiano: luogo <br> *Espaniol: lugar <br> <b>longamente</b> <br> #long, for a long time <br> *Francese: longtemps <br> *Italiano: a lungo, lungamente <br> *Espaniol: durante mucho tiempo <br> <b>longe(= longo)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>longo(= longe)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>lontan(= lontano)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lontano(= lontan)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lor</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: su(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ellos, o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: sus(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>los altos et(los) bassos</b> <br> #th ups and downs <br> *Francese: les hauts et les bas <br> *Italiano: gli alti e bassi <br> *Espaniol: los altos y(los) bajos <br> <b>los mios</b> <br> #my people, my family <br> *Francese: les miens <br> *Italiano: i miei <br> *Espaniol: los míos <br> <b>m(littera): me /m/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: m, emme <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: m(lettre): ème /m/ <br> <b>ma(= mais)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #rather <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>magne, magna, magno(= grande)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grande <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: grand, grande <br> <b>mais(= ma)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>major</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: maggiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: majeur(e), principal(e) <br> <b>mal, mala, malo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: male, malvagio <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mal, mauvais, mauvaise <br> <b>malgrado(= malgre)</b> <br> #in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>malgre(= malgrado)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: malgrado <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: malgré <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #early in the morning <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: stamane, stamattina presto <br> *Espaniol: temprano por la mañana <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #morning <br> *Francese: matin <br> *Italiano: mattino <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>mane vespera</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>mane vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #certainly <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #especially, principally <br> *Francese: spécialement, principalement <br> *Italiano: specialmente. principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmentre, principalmente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #exceedingly, very <br> *Francese: excessivement, très <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, troppo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muy <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #most <br> *Francese: il più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus <br> <b>maxime, maxima, maximo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il più, la più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus, la plus <br> <b>me</b> <br> #me <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: me, mi(dallo a me, mi piace) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>me</b> <br> #myself(as in "I hurt myself", "I said to myself") <br> *Francese: moi-même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso(io stesso ho scritto quel libro; l'ho scritto io stesso; l'ho fatto per me stesso) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>media hora</b> <br> #half an hour <br> *Francese: demi-heure <br> *Italiano: mezz'ora <br> *Espaniol: media hora <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #average, mean <br> *Francese: moyen, moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: demi <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #middle <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medietate</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: mitad <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #mean, medium <br> *Francese: moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #means(= agent or instrument by which an end is attained) <br> *Francese: moyen <br> *Italiano: mediante, con <br> *Espaniol: medios(=agente o instrumento mediante el cual se obtiene un fin) <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #middle, also: midst <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: medio, in mezzo, in <br> *Espaniol: medio, también: entre <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>melio</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>melior</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>meno(= minus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>-mente(= in modo. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> #same <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #even <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: incluso, stesso <br> *Espaniol: incluso <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #likewise <br> *Francese: même, semblable <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente <br> <b>mesmo quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: même quand <br> *Italiano: anche quando <br> *Espaniol: incluso cuando <br> <b>mi</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mi <br> <b>mi(= me)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: mio <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>mie, mia, mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: mío, mía <br> <b>mies, mias, mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: míos, mías <br> <b>minimamente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minimalement <br> *Italiano: minimamente <br> *Espaniol: mínimamente <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #by no means, not in the least, no! <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon, pas du tout, non! <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo, no, assolutamente <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera, en lo más mínimo, no! <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #least <br> *Francese: almeno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le moins <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #very little <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #least, smallest, minimal <br> *Francese: le moins, la moins, le plus petit, la plus petite, minimal <br> *Italiano: minimo, la minima. . . la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: mínimo, mínima <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #very small, tiny <br> *Francese: très petit <br> *Italiano: molto piccolo <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño, diminuto <br> <b>minor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mineur(e) <br> <b>minus</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>minus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #less(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: moins de(moins d'argent) <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>minus de</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins de <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos de <br> <b>minus de(dece annos)</b> <br> #less than(ten years) <br> *Francese: moins de(dix ans) <br> *Italiano: meno di <br> *Espaniol: menos de(diez años) <br> <b>minus. . . (que)</b> <br> #less. . . (than) <br> *Francese: moins...(que) <br> *Italiano: meno che <br> *Espaniol: menos. . . (que) <br> <b>minus:(quatro) minus(tres)</b> <br> #(four) minus(three) <br> *Francese: moins:(quatre) moins(trois) <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos:(cuatro) menos(tres) <br> <b>minus:(totos) minus(ille)</b> <br> #(all) except, but(him) <br> *Francese: (tous) sauf(lui) <br> *Italiano: (tutti) meno(lui) <br> *Espaniol: menos:(todos) menos él <br> <b>mis</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mis <br> <b>mox</b> <br> #soon, at once, directly <br> *Francese: bientôt, tout-de-suite <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto, subito, prima possibile <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en seguida <br> <b>multas gratias</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: merci beaucoup <br> *Italiano: grazie molte, molte grazie, grazie infinite, grazie mille, grazie tante <br> *Espaniol: muchas gracias <br> <b>multas vices</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plusieurs fois <br> *Italiano: più volte <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces <br> <b>multe de, multa de, multo de</b> <br> #much, many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de <br> *Italiano: molto di <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multes, multas, multos</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: plusieurs, de nombreux, de nombreuses <br> *Italiano: molte, molti, numerosi, numerose <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> <b>multissime, multissima, multissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une grande quantité de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimo, muchísima <br> <b>multissimes, multissimas, multissimos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un grand nombre de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimos, muchísimas <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #very <br> *Francese: très <br> *Italiano: molto, tanto <br> *Espaniol: muy <br> <b>multo ben</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bien <br> *Italiano: molto bene <br> *Espaniol: muy bien <br> <b>multo bon</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bon <br> *Italiano: molto buono <br> *Espaniol: muy bueno <br> <b>n(littera): ne /n/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: n, enne <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: n(lettre): ène /n/ <br> <b>nam</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: pour que <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, by nature <br> *Francese: naturellement, par tempérament <br> *Italiano: naturalmente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, por naturaleza <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, in a natural way <br> *Francese: nuturellement, simplement <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, semplicemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, de una manera natural <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, of course <br> *Francese: bien sûr, évidemment <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #lest <br> *Francese: de crainte que... ne(+subj. ) <br> *Italiano: perché no <br> *Espaniol: para que non(+subj) <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne... pas <br> *Italiano: no, non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>nec(= ni)</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>nec. . . nec. . . (= ni. . . ni. . . )</b> <br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni. . . ni. . . <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>necun, necuna, necuno(= nulle, nulla, nullo)</b> <br> #none, not any <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>necuno(= nemo)</b> <br> #nobody, no one, none <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno, alcuno <br> *Espaniol: ninguno <br> <b>nel(= in le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le <br> *Italiano: nel <br> *Espaniol: en el <br> <b>nemine(= nemo)</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>nemo</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>neque(= nec)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>neutro</b> <br> #neither <br> *Francese: ni un ni <br> *Italiano: né uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #that not <br> *Francese: ?????? <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni uno ni le altero</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni l'un ni l'autre <br> *Italiano: né l'uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni. . . ni. . . </b><br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni... ni... <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>nihil(= nil)</b> <br> #nothing <br> *Francese: rien <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nada <br> <b>nihil de particular</b> <br> #nothing particular <br> *Francese: rien de particulier <br> *Italiano: niente di particolare, nulla di particolare <br> *Espaniol: nada de particular <br> <b>nimie, nimia, nimio(= troppo)</b> <br> #too much, too many <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada <br> <b>nimis(=troppo)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>nisi</b> <br> #if not, unless <br> *Francese: si non, à moins que <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che <br> *Espaniol: si no, a menos que <br> <b>no</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: no, non(no, non è vero; non fare) <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>no!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>nocte</b> <br> #night <br> *Francese: nuit <br> *Italiano: notte <br> *Espaniol: noche <br> <b>noi(= nos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: noi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: nous <br> <b>nolente</b> <br> #unwillingly, against one's will <br> *Francese: involontairement <br> *Italiano: involontariamente, nolente, senza volere <br> *Espaniol: involuntariamente, sin querer <br> <b>non</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>non</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne. . . pas <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: non <br> <b>non est?(= nonne?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>non importa</b> <br> #it doesn't matter, never mind <br> *Francese: c'est sans importance <br> *Italiano: non importa <br> *Espaniol: no importa <br> <b>non mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ugualmente no <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pas même, même pas <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . sed etiam. . . </b><br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solo. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no ! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>non. . . jam(= non. . . ja)</b> <br> #no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no. . . ya <br> <b>non. . . jammais(= nunquam)</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: ne... jamais <br> *Italiano: non. . . mai <br> *Espaniol: no. . . jamás <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no más. . . <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, nothing more <br> *Francese: ne... rien de plus <br> *Italiano: no, nulla più <br> *Espaniol: nada más <br> <b>nondum</b> <br> #not yet <br> *Francese: pas encore <br> *Italiano: non ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún no, todavía no <br> <b>nonne?(= non est?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>nonnulle, nonnulla, nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de; plural: algunos, algunas <br> <b>nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #despite, in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #nevertheless <br> *Francese: non-obstant <br> *Italiano: nonostante <br> *Espaniol: no obstante <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #ourselves <br> *Francese: nous-mêmes <br> *Italiano: noi stessi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros mismos, nosotras mismas <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #us <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nos <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #we <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros, nosotras <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notres <br> *Italiano: nostri, nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: le nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nullamente</b> <br> #in no way, not at all <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #not any, no <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, as in "null and void") <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, (comme dans: "nul et sans effet") <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, worthless <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, sans valeur <br> *Italiano: nulla, nullo, senza valore <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula, sin valor <br> <b>num(= an, est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: egli ha. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: es que. . . <br> <b>num ille habe le libro?</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre?, a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: egli ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>nunc(= ora)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora <br> <b>nunc. . . nunc...(= ora. . . ora. . . )</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>nunquam</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: nunca <br> <b>nuper</b> <br> #newly, lately, recently <br> *Francese: nouvellement, dernièrement, récemment <br> *Italiano: nuovamente, ultimamente, recentemente <br> *Espaniol: nuevamente, últimamente, recientemente <br> <b>nusquam</b> <br> #nowhere; not. . . anywhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in alcun luogo, in nessun luogo <br> *Espaniol: a ninguna parte <br> <b>o(= aut)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>o(littera): o /o/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: o, o <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: o(lettre): o /o/ <br> <b>o. . . o...(= aut. . . aut. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>ob(= facie a, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>olim</b> <br> #at a future time, sometime in the future <br> *Francese: à un moment donné, une bonne fois <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un dato momento, una buona volta <br> *Espaniol: en un momento en el futuro, algún día en el futuro <br> <b>olim(= aliquando, unquam</b> <br> #once, formerly <br> *Francese: une fois, anciennement <br> *Italiano: una volta, anticamente, un tempo <br> *Espaniol: una vez, antiguamente <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the books" <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the cheese" <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutte, tutti <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, chaque, chacun des, cahcune des <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni, ciascuno <br> *Espaniol: todo, cada <br> <b>omne cosa</b> <br> #everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: toda cosa, todo <br> <b>omnes</b> <br> #all <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>on(= uno, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>optimamente(= optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux possible <br> *Italiano: ottimamente, il meglio possibile <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente, lo mejor posible <br> <b>optime, optima, optimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimo, óptima <br> <b>optimo(= optimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente <br> <b>ora(= nunc)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora, en la actualidad <br> <b>ora mesmo</b> <br> #right now <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: adesso, giusto adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: ahora mismo <br> <b>ora. . . ora...</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>out!</b> <br> #out! <br> *Francese: dehors! <br> *Italiano: fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>p(littera): pe /p/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: p, pi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: p(lettre): pé /p/ <br> <b>partir pro(Paris)</b> <br> #to leave or set out for(Paris) <br> *Francese: partir pour(Paris) <br> *Italiano: partire per <br> *Espaniol: partir para(Paris) <br> <b>parve, parva, parvo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: petit, petite <br> *Italiano: piccolo, piccola <br> *Espaniol: pequeño, pequeña <br> <b>passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: passé <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado <br> <b>passato</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a, ça fait <br> *Italiano: fa, passato, trascorso <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>passato(= pridem)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a bien longtemps, ça fait bien longtemps <br> *Italiano: tempo fa <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo <br> <b>passim</b> <br> #here and there, scattered, at random, in different places, passim <br> *Francese: ici et là, éparpillé, aléatoire <br> *Italiano: qui e là, qui e lì, qua e là, in luoghi diversi <br> *Espaniol: aquí y allí, esparcido, al azar, en diferentes lugares <br> <b>pauc de, pauca de, pauco de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu de <br> *Italiano: poco di, un po' di <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #few, not many <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #little, not much <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauchissime, pauchissima, pauchissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: poquísimo, poquísima <br> <b>pauco</b> <br> #little, to a small degree <br> *Francese: à un moindre degré <br> *Italiano: poco, in minima parte <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>pauco a pauco</b> <br> #little by little <br> *Francese: petit à petit, peu à peu <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>paulatim</b> <br> #gradually, by degrees, little by little, a little at a time <br> *Francese: graduellement, petit à petit, peu à peu, un peu à la fois <br> *Italiano: poco a poco, gradualmente, un po' alla volta, un po' per volta <br> *Espaniol: gradualmente, por grados, poco a poco, un poco cada vez <br> <b>pejo</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pis, pire <br> *Italiano: peggio <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>pejor</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pire <br> *Italiano: peggiore <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>per</b> <br> #by, by the agency of; through; by means of; also: per <br> *Francese: par <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por, ; a través de; por medio de; también: por <br> <b>per</b> <br> #through, from one side to the other of; also: during, throughout <br> *Francese: par, à travers, au travers de; aussi: pendant <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: per <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: pour(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por(+ inf) <br> <b>per aventura</b> <br> #by chance <br> *Francese: par aventure <br> *Italiano: per caso <br> *Espaniol: por ventura, por casualidad <br> <b>per avion</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par avion <br> *Italiano: via aerea <br> *Espaniol: por avión <br> <b>per capite</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par tête, per capita <br> *Italiano: a testa, ad ognuno <br> *Espaniol: por cabeza, per capita <br> <b>per consequente</b> <br> #consequently <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>per excellentia</b> <br> #par excellence <br> *Francese: par excellence <br> *Italiano: per eccellenza <br> *Espaniol: por excelencia <br> <b>per exemplo</b> <br> #for example, for instance <br> *Francese: par exemple <br> *Italiano: per esempio, ad esempio <br> *Espaniol: por exemplo <br> <b>per favor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per favore, per piacere <br> *Espaniol: por favor <br> <b>per isso(= pro isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, voilà pourquoi <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò, per questa ragione, per questo motivo <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esas razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>per medio de</b> <br> #by means of <br> *Francese: au moyen de <br> *Italiano: mer mezzo di, con <br> *Espaniol: por medio de <br> <b>per ubi</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par où <br> *Italiano: per dove, attraverso <br> *Espaniol: por dónde <br> <b>per virtute de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vertue de <br> *Italiano: in virtù di <br> *Espaniol: en virtúd de <br> <b>permulte, permulta, permulto</b> <br> #very much, very many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de, <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> plur. : plusieurs <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>permulto</b> <br> #very much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #why, for what reason <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché? <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>pessimamente(= pessimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimamente <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente, de la peor manera <br> <b>pessime, pessima, pessimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimo, pésima <br> <b>pessimo(= pessimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente <br> <b>ph(digrapho): pe hache /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ph pi acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ph(digraphe): pé ache /f/ <br> <b>piano</b> <br> #piano <br> *Francese: piano <br> *Italiano: piano <br> *Espaniol: piano <br> <b>plu(= plus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures veces(= plures vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces, repetidamente <br> <b>plures vices</b> <br> #several times; repeatedly <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: plusieurs <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: beaucoup <br> <b>plurimo</b> <br> #much, exceedingly <br> *Francese: beaucoup, très, extrêmenent, excessivement <br> *Italiano: molto, estremamente, eccessivamente, troppo <br> *Espaniol: mucho, extremadamente, excesivamente <br> <b>plurimo(= usualmente, communmente)</b> <br> #for the most part, commonly, usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude, en général <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, in generale, abitualmente <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces, normalmente, habitualmente <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #plus <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus(a) illac de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #more(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: plus de(plus d'argent) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>plus a la de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus de</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de <br> <b>plus de(vinti annos)</b> <br> #more than, over, above(twenty years) <br> *Francese: plus de(vingt ans) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de(veinte años) <br> <b>plus grande(que)</b> <br> #greater, bigger(than) <br> *Francese: plus grand(e)(que) <br> *Italiano: più grande <br> *Espaniol: más grande(que) <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later on <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: più tardi <br> *Espaniol: más tarde, después <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, as in "later than expected" <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: depués <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, subsequently <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más pronto, más bien, preferentemente <br> <b>plus. . . (que)</b> <br> #more. . . (than) <br> *Francese: plus...(que) <br> *Italiano: più. . . che <br> *Espaniol: más. . . (que) <br> <b>plus:(le) plus</b> <br> #(the) most(as in "what pleased me(the) most") <br> *Francese: plus:(le) plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más:(el) más <br> <b>plus:(tres) plus(quatro)</b> <br> #(three) plus(four) <br> *Francese: plus:(trois) plus(quatre) <br> *Italiano: più(tre) più(quattro) <br> *Espaniol: más:(tres) más(cuatro) <br> <b>poc, poca, poco(= pauc, pauca, pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>poco(= pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>poco a poco(= pauco a pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu à peu, petit à petit <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: puis, alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, in seguito <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: étant donné que <br> *Italiano: poiché, dato che <br> *Espaniol: porque, dado que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> #as, since, because <br> *Francese: comme, puisque <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: como, porque <br> <b>por(= pro, per)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: per <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pour <br> <b>porque(= proque, perque)</b> <br> #because, why <br> *Francese: parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>post</b> <br> #afterwards, after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: detrás, atrás, luego <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind; after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>post que</b> <br> #since, because <br> *Francese: puisque <br> *Italiano: perché, dato che, poiché <br> *Espaniol: puesto que, porque <br> <b>post todo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après tout <br> *Italiano: dopo tutto <br> *Espaniol: después de todo <br> <b>post-deman</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après-demain <br> *Italiano: dopodomani <br> *Espaniol: pasado mañana <br> <b>postea</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, posteriormente, luego <br> <b>postere, postera, postero</b> <br> #coming after, following <br> *Francese: suivant(e) <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: siguiente <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, back <br> *Francese: postérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: posteriore, dietro <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, buttock <br> *Francese: le postérieur, le derrière <br> *Italiano: posteriore <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, later <br> *Francese: postérieur(e), après, plus tard <br> *Italiano: posterioremente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posteriormente</b> <br> #subsequently, later <br> *Francese: postérieurement <br> *Italiano: posteriormente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posteriormente, más tarde <br> <b>postquam</b> <br> #after, as soon as <br> *Francese: après que, aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después de, en cuanto <br> <b>pot'esser(= pote esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi, <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>pote esser(= pot'esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt, en réalité <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in realtà <br> *Espaniol: más bien, en realidad <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt, plus tôt, de préférence <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in raltà, preferenzialmente, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien, más pronto, preferentemente <br> <b>precio minimo</b> <br> #minimum price <br> *Francese: prix minimum, prix minimal <br> *Italiano: prezzo minimo <br> *Espaniol: precio mínimo <br> <b>presertim(= super toto)</b> <br> #especially, particularly, chiefly <br> *Francese: surtout, particulièrement <br> *Italiano: soprattutto, particolarmente, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, particularmente, principalmente <br> <b>presso(= apud)</b> <br> #near, close <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di, appresso a, vicino a, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de, cercano a <br> <b>presto</b> <br> #presto, quickly, quick as a wink <br> *Francese: vite, rapidement <br> *Italiano: presto, rapidamente, velocemente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: presto, rápidamente, rápido <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au delà, passé <br> *Italiano: passato, al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccettuato, escluso, al di fuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: además de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #past, along(side of), beyond <br> *Francese: passé, le long, au delà <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado, más allá de <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: en outre, de plus, d'ailleurs, du reste <br> *Italiano: inoltre, del resto <br> *Espaniol: además, es más <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #henceforth, hereafter <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: d'ora in poi, da questo momento, da adesso in avanti <br> *Espaniol: de ahora en adelante, de aquí en adelante <br> <b>pridem(= passato)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a longtemps <br> *Italiano: da lungo tempo, da tempo, da molto tempo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo, hace tiempo <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #first, in the first place, first of all <br> *Francese: premièrement, en premier lieu, d'abord <br> *Italiano: principalmente, in primo luogoo <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, en primer lugar <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #primarily, chiefly <br> *Francese: principalement, avant tout, surtout <br> *Italiano: principalmenre, innanzitutto, soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, principalmente <br> <b>prime, prima, primo</b> <br> #first, prime <br> *Francese: premier, première <br> *Italiano: primo, prima <br> *Espaniol: primero, primera <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, in place of, in exchange or return for <br> *Francese: pour <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para; por; en lugar de, a cambio de, en vez de <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, not against <br> *Francese: pour, en faveur <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: pro, para, a favor de <br> <b>pro(+ inf)</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para, a fin de <br> <b>pro isso(= per isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> *Italiano: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esa razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>pro isso(= pro esso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> <b>pro le presente</b> <br> #for the present <br> *Francese: pour le moment <br> *Italiano: intanto, per il momento <br> *Espaniol: por el momento, para el presente <br> <b>pro nihil</b> <br> #for nothing, without cost <br> *Francese: pour rien, gratuit <br> *Italiano: per niente, gratuito, gratis, gratuitamente <br> *Espaniol: para nada, gratuito, sin costo <br> <b>pro si dicer</b> <br> #so to say <br> *Francese: pour ainsi dire <br> *Italiano: per così dire <br> *Espaniol: para así decir, por así decir <br> <b>procul</b> <br> #far off, far away, at a distance <br> *Francese: au loin <br> *Italiano: lontanamente <br> *Espaniol: lejos, fuera, a una distancia <br> <b>proprie a, propria a, proprio a</b> <br> #proper or peculiar to <br> *Francese: propre à <br> *Italiano: proprio per <br> *Espaniol: proprio para <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #own <br> *Francese: propre <br> *Italiano: proprio <br> *Espaniol: propio <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #proper, appropriate <br> *Francese: approprié(e) <br> *Italiano: appropriato, appropriata <br> *Espaniol: apropiado <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, at hand <br> *Francese: proche, à(la) portée <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, vicino <br> *Espaniol: cerca, a mano <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, close to <br> *Francese: près, près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di <br> *Espaniol: cerca de <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #on account of, by reason of, because of <br> *Francese: compte tenu de, à cause de, <br> *Italiano: per, a causa di, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por cauda de, debido a <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #why <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>proximamente</b> <br> #shortly, soon <br> *Francese: bientôt <br> *Italiano: in breve, subito, quanto prima <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en breve <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #next(as in "next week") <br> *Francese: suivant(e), prochain(e) <br> *Italiano: prossimo, seguente, successivo <br> *Espaniol: próxima, siguiente <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #very near, close <br> *Francese: très près, tout près <br> *Italiano: molto vicino, prossimo <br> *Espaniol: muy cerca <br> <b>proximo</b> <br> #neighbor, fellow being <br> *Francese: voisin, camarade <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, compagno, camerata <br> *Espaniol: prójimo, vecino, camarada <br> <b>q(littera): qu /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: q, qu(pron ku) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: q(lettre): qü ou qy /k/ <br> <b>qua</b> <br> #as, in the capacity of, qua <br> *Francese: en tant que, en qualité de <br> *Italiano: come, in qualità di <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que, en calidad de <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál, qué <br> <b>qualcosa</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualche cosa, qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: algo, alguna cosa <br> <b>qualcun, qualcuna, qualcuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno <br> <b>qualcuno</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>qualcunque</b> <br> #any, whatever, of whatever kind <br> *Francese: quelconque <br> *Italiano: chiunque, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera <br> <b>qualque(quálke)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #as, than <br> *Francese: comme, que <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como, que <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #in what manner, how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo <br> *Espaniol: de qué manera, cómo <br> <b>quamquam(quámquam)(= quanquam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique, cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuando <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuándo <br> <b>quandocunque</b> <br> #whenever <br> *Francese: toutes les fois que, peu importe quand <br> *Italiano: ogni volta che <br> *Espaniol: cuandoquiera <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #however, yet, nevertheless <br> *Francese: cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: nondimeno, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, no obstante <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quante, quanta, quanto</b> <br> #how much, how many <br> *Francese: combien de <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuánto, cuánta <br> <b>quanto</b> <br> #as much as; as far as <br> *Francese: autant que, pour autant que, en autant que <br> *Italiano: quanto, tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuanto, tanto como <br> <b>quanto a</b> <br> #as for <br> *Francese: quant à <br> *Italiano: quanto a <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto a <br> <b>quanto. . . tanto...</b> <br> #the. . . the... <br> *Francese: autant... autant <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto. . . <br> *Espaniol: cuanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>quare</b> <br> #wherefore, why <br> *Francese: pourquoi, pour quelle raison <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>quasi</b> <br> #almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way, etc. <br> *Francese: quasi, prèsque, à peu prés, dans un certain sens <br> *Italiano: quasi, approssimativamente, circa <br> *Espaniol: casi; en un cierto sentido, en cierto modo <br> <b>quasi que</b> <br> #as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: quasi che, come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #than <br> *Francese: que /k?/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: que <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: que, quoi /k?/ /koa/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #who, whom, which, that; what(= that which) <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que etate habete vos?</b> <br> #how old are you? <br> *Francese: quel âge avez-vous? <br> *Italiano: quanti hanni hai(tu) ? quanti anni ha(lei)? <br> *Espaniol: qué edad tiene usted?, cuántos años tiene usted? <br> <b>que hora</b> <br> #what time <br> *Francese: quelle heure <br> *Italiano: che ora. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: qué hora <br> <b>quecunque(kekúnkwe, kwekúnkwe)</b> <br> #whatever <br> *Francese: quoi que /koa k?/ <br> *Italiano: qualsiasi cosa <br> *Espaniol: cualquier cosa <br> <b>quem</b> <br> #what, which, whom <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quel, quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: que, quien <br> <b>qui(= hic, ci)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>qui(ki, kwi)</b> <br> #who, whom <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quién <br> <b>qui:(con, a, etc. ) qui</b> <br> #(with, to, etc. ) whom <br> *Francese: qui:(avec, à, etc. ) qui <br> *Italiano: con chi <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quia</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quicunque(ki-, kwi-)</b> <br> #whoever <br> *Francese: quiconque <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quienquiera <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: che cosa, cosa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoi <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #why, how, wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi, comment <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué, cómo <br> <b>quidem</b> <br> #certainly, truly; indeed, even <br> *Francese: certainement, vraiment, en effet, effectivement <br> *Italiano: certamente, veramente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, de verdad, verdaderamente; de hecho, incluso <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #so that, in order that <br> *Francese: tel que, afin que <br> *Italiano: talché, cosi che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: a fin que <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #who, what <br> *Francese: qui, quoi <br> *Italiano: chi, cosa <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quo(=a ubi)</b> <br> #where, at what place, whither <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar, adónde <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, because, why <br> *Francese: que, parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: qué, por qué <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, what <br> *Francese: que, quoi <br> *Italiano: che, che cosa <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #how, in what manner <br> *Francese: comment, de quelle façon, de quelle manière <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: ómo, de qué manera <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #in the manner that, as <br> *Francese: comme, tel que <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: como, de la manera en que <br> <b>quot</b> <br> #how many; as many; each, every <br> *Francese: combien, autant, chaque, chacun(e) <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuántos, tantos, cada, cada uno, cada una <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #as often as <br> *Francese: aussi souvent que <br> *Italiano: così spesso che <br> *Espaniol: tan a menudo como <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #how often, how many times <br> *Francese: combien de fois <br> *Italiano: tante volte che <br> *Espaniol: tantas veces <br> <b>r(littera): re /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: r, erre <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: r(lettre): ère /r/ <br> <b>re</b> <br> #regarding, about, of, on, concerning <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de, à propos de, concernant <br> *Italiano: su, a proposito di, concernente, sopra, rispetto a, circa <br> *Espaniol: acerca de, respecto a, con respecto a, concerniente a, sobre, de <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, ago <br> *Francese: en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hace <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, as in "to give back") <br> *Francese: en retour(comme dans "donner en retour") <br> *Italiano: di ritorno <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, backwards <br> *Francese: arrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>rh(digrapho): re hache /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: rh(pron : erre acca) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: rh(digraphe): ère ache /r/ <br> <b>s(littera): se /s/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s, esse(pronuncia 1 : s in rosa, cosa, dose, chiesa = come inglese rose; pronuncia 2 : s in signore, senior, selva, scuola come inglese ross, self) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: s(lettre): èsse /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>saepe(sái-)</b> <br> #often, frequently <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: a menudo, frecuentemente <br> <b>salvo</b> <br> #save, but; also: save or but for <br> *Francese: sauf <br> *Italiano: salvo, eccetto, ma <br> *Espaniol: salvo <br> <b>salvo error et omission</b> <br> #errors and omissions excepted <br> *Francese: sauf erreur et omission <br> *Italiano: salvo errori od omissioni, salvo errori ed omissioni <br> *Espaniol: salvo error y omisión <br> <b>salvo que</b> <br> #save or but that <br> *Francese: sauf que <br> *Italiano: salvo che, eccetto che <br> *Espaniol: salvo que <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta, abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #rather, somewhat <br> *Francese: assez, plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza, sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>satis de(tempore, etc. )(= assatis de(tempore, etc. ))</b> <br> #enough(time, etc. ), (time, etc. ) enough <br> *Francese: assez de(temps, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente : tempo sufficiente) <br> *Espaniol: bastante(tiempo, etc. ), suficiente(tiempo, etc. ) <br> <b>se</b> <br> #himself; herself; itself; themselves <br> *Francese: se, s' <br> *Italiano: se(per se), -si(avvicinarsi) <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>se(= on)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #(following) after <br> *Francese: d'après <br> *Italiano: secondo, , dopo, seguendo <br> *Espaniol: después de, siguiendo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #according to <br> *Francese: selon, en accord avec <br> *Italiano: d'accordo con, secondo <br> *Espaniol: según, de acuerdo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #along, by <br> *Francese: selon, le long de <br> *Italiano: lungo il <br> *Espaniol: a lo largo de <br> <b>secundo que</b> <br> #according as <br> *Francese: selon que, selon qu' <br> *Italiano: secondo quanto, conforme a <br> *Espaniol: según que, conforme a <br> <b>sed</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma, però <br> *Espaniol: pero <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #firstly <br> *Francese: premièrement <br> *Italiano: in primis, innanzitutto, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: primeramente <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #once <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta(sola) <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>semper(= sempre)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sempre(=semper)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sero</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, supposing that <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se, supponendo che <br> *Espaniol: si, suponiendo que <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: così, tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>si il te place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il te plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, prego, per favore, per cortesia <br> *Espaniol: si te place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #except, unless it be <br> *Francese: excepté, à moins que ce soit <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che, eccetto che, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto, a menos que <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si tosto que</b> <br> #as soon as <br> *Francese: aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: così presto che, tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto, tan pronto como <br> <b>si. . . como. . . </b><br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>sia</b> <br> #be, may be, let there be <br> *Francese: soit <br> *Italiano: sia <br> *Espaniol: sea <br> <b>sia como sia</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qu'il en soit ainsi <br> *Italiano: sia come sia, sia quel che sia <br> *Espaniol: sea como sea <br> <b>sia. . . sia. . . </b><br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: soit... soit... <br> *Italiano: sia. . . sia. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>sic(= si)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>sic(=si)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>sicut</b> <br> #so as, just as, as <br> *Francese: tel(le) que, comme <br> *Italiano: come, talché <br> *Espaniol: tal que, como <br> <b>simul</b> <br> #at once, at the same time, together <br> *Francese: simultanément, tout de suite, ensemble <br> *Italiano: allo stesso tempo, nello stesso tempo, allo stesso istante, insieme. simultaneamente <br> *Espaniol: en seguida, al mismo tiempo, juntos, juntas <br> <b>sin</b> <br> #without <br> *Francese: sans <br> *Italiano: senza <br> *Espaniol: sin <br> <b>sin dubita</b> <br> #without doubt, doubtless <br> *Francese: sans doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin duda, indudablemente <br> <b>sin falta</b> <br> #without fail <br> *Francese: sans erreur, sans faute <br> *Italiano: senza meno, senza errore, senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin falta, sin error <br> <b>sin fundamento</b> <br> #groundless, unfounded <br> *Francese: sans fondement <br> *Italiano: senza fondamentp <br> *Espaniol: sin fundamento, infundado <br> <b>sinon(= si non)</b> <br> #otherwise, else; except, save, if not, unless <br> *Francese: sinon <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: sinon <br> <b>sive</b> <br> #or if, or <br> *Francese: ou si, ou <br> *Italiano: o, oppure, o se <br> *Espaniol: o si <br> <b>sive. . . sive</b> <br> #. . . if. . . or if... <br> *Francese: si... ou si... <br> *Italiano: se. . . o se. . . <br> *Espaniol: si. . . o si. . . <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #only <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #sole, without companions, alone <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>solamente</b> <br> #only, merely <br> *Francese: seulement <br> *Italiano: solo, solamente <br> *Espaniol: solamente, meramente <br> <b>sovente(=subinde)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repeoidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>specialmente, in modo special</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: specialmente, particolarmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>sponte(= voluntarie, voluntariamente)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: spontaneamente, volontariamente, di buon grado <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>stop!</b> <br> #stop! <br> *Francese: stop! <br> *Italiano: stop! fermo! ferma! alt! <br> *Espaniol: stop! <br> <b>su</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua(di ella, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: su(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sub</b> <br> #under, below, beneath <br> *Francese: sous <br> *Italiano: sotto, dabbasso, abbasso <br> *Espaniol: debajo de, bajo <br> <b>sub los auspicios de</b> <br> #under the auspices of <br> *Francese: sous les auspices de <br> *Italiano: con gli auspici di, sotto gli auspici di <br> *Espaniol: bajo los auspicios de <br> <b>subinde</b> <br> #immediately after, just after, forthwith <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: immediatamente dopo, giusto dopo <br> *Espaniol: inmediatamente después, justo después, inmediatamente <br> <b>subinde(= sovente)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, di tanto in tanto <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repetidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>subito</b> <br> #suddenly, unexpectedly <br> *Francese: soudainement <br> *Italiano: repentinamente, immediatamente, subito <br> *Espaniol: súbitamente, de repente, inesperadamente <br> <b>subtus</b> <br> #below, beneath, underneath <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo, debajo, debajo de <br> <b>successivamente</b> <br> #successively, in succession <br> *Francese: successivement, tour à tour <br> *Italiano: successivamente, in successione, consecutivamente, di conseguenza, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: sucesivamente, en sucesión <br> <b>sue, sua, suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sues, suas, suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suoi, sue(di lui, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sufficiente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente, bastante <br> *Espaniol: suficiente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientemente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficiently, enough <br> *Francese: suffisamment, assez <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientemente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientes(= bastantes)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientes, bastantes <br> <b>sui(= su, sue)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suo, sua <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: son, sa <br> <b>summe, summa, summo(= supreme, suprema, supremo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: sommo/a, supremo/a <br> *Espaniol: sumo, suma <br> <b>super</b> <br> #about, concerning, on <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: supra, in fatto di, concernente, circa <br> *Espaniol: sobre, concerniente a <br> <b>super</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of; above, over <br> *Francese: sur, au dessus de <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>super(= in alto)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>super toto(= presertim)</b> <br> #above all <br> *Francese: par dessus tout <br> *Italiano: soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: sobre todo <br> <b>superior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: superiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: supérieur(e) <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #above, over <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #on the top, above <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba, en la parte de arriba <br> <b>supreme, suprema, supremo(= summe, summa, summo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: supremo, suprema, supremi <br> *Espaniol: supremo, suprema <br> <b>sur(= super)</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of <br> *Francese: sur <br> *Italiano: su, sopra, in cima, in alto <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>sus</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: sus(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>t(littera): te /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t, ti <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: t(lettre): té /t/ <br> <b>tal</b> <br> #such a, such <br> *Francese: tel(le) <br> *Italiano: tale, tale a <br> *Espaniol: tal <br> <b>tal et tal</b> <br> #such and such(a) <br> *Francese: tel et tel <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tal y tal <br> <b>talmente</b> <br> #so <br> *Francese: tellement <br> *Italiano: talmente, così, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: talmente <br> <b>talmente:(un libro) talmente(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful) a(book), such a(beautiful book) <br> *Francese: tellement:(un livre) tellement(beau) <br> *Italiano: talmente(un libro talmente bello che. . . ) <br> *Espaniol: talmente:(un libro) talmente(bonito) <br> <b>tam</b> <br> #so, as, to such a degree <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, così, tanto che, tanto, talmente <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta, talmente <br> <b>tam. . . quam...</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . . <br> <b>tam. . . quam...(= tanto. . . quam. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: si... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, tanto quanto, così che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tamben</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>tamen(= totavia)</b> <br> #yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding <br> *Francese: cependant, pourtant, néanmoins, <br> *Italiano: tuttavia, nonostante, nondimeno, nientemeno, pertanto, quindi, già <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, todavía, no obstante <br> <b>tan</b> <br> #so, as <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, tanto che. . . , tanto che. . . <br> *Espaniol: tan <br> <b>tan. . . como. . . (= tanto. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tante, tanta, tanto</b> <br> #so much, so many <br> *Francese: tant de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tanto, tanta <br> <b>tante. . . como..., tanta. . . como. . . , tanto. . . como. . . </b><br> #as much, as many. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . , tanta. . . como. . . <br> <b>tanto</b> <br> #so, so much <br> *Francese: tant <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto <br> <b>tanto(grande) como. . . </b><br> #as(big) as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi(grand(e)) que <br> *Italiano: tanto grande che <br> *Espaniol: tan(grande) como. . . <br> <b>tanto melio</b> <br> #so much the better <br> *Francese: tant mieux <br> *Italiano: tanto meglio <br> *Espaniol: tanto mejor <br> <b>tanto pejo</b> <br> #so much the worse <br> *Francese: tant pis <br> *Italiano: tanto peggio <br> *Espaniol: tanto peor <br> <b>tanto per cento</b> <br> #so much per hundred, percentage <br> *Francese: tant pour cent <br> *Italiano: tanto per cento <br> *Espaniol: tanto por ciento, porcentaje <br> <b>tanto plus. . . que...</b> <br> #all the more. . . that... <br> *Francese: d'autant plus... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto più che <br> *Espaniol: tanto más. . . que. . . <br> <b>tanto. . . como...</b> <br> #as much. . . as... <br> *Francese: autant... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . <br> <b>tarde</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>te</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: te, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, te(tu sei, te lo dico, lo dico a te) <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>te</b> <br> #yourself [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "you hurt yourself", "to yourself") <br> *Francese: te, toi, toi-même <br> *Italiano: te, ti, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>th(digrapho): te hache /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t : ti acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: th(digraphe): té ache /t/ <br> t, ti <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ti(= te)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ti, te <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: te, toi <br> <b>tosto</b> <br> #presently, soon, promptly <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: pronto, subito, presto, rapidamente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto, presentemente, rápidamente <br> <b>tot</b> <br> #so many, such a great number <br> *Francese: tanto che, talmente tanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tellement beaucoup <br> <b>totalmente(= completamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: totalement(=complètement) <br> *Italiano: totalmente, completamente <br> *Espaniol: totalmente(=completamente= <br> <b>totavia</b> <br> #yet, still, nevertheless <br> *Francese: toutefois <br> *Italiano: tuttavia <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo <br> <b>tote le, tota la, toto lo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo, tutta la <br> *Espaniol: todo el, toda la, todo lo <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, "all the parts, members, etc. of a whole series or group") <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, the whole of <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, toute, chaque <br> *Italiano: tutto/a, ogni <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>totes(les) duo, totos(los) duos, totas(las) duas</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: tous les deux, toutes les deux <br> *Italiano: tutti e due, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>totes les, totas las, totos los</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tous les, toutes les <br> *Italiano: tutti i, tutti gli, tutte le <br> *Espaniol: todos los, todas las <br> <b>totes, totas, totos</b> <br> #all, everyone <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni cosa <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, quite, wholly <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto(ben) considerato</b> <br> #all things considered <br> *Francese: tout(bien) considéré <br> *Italiano: tutto considerato <br> *Espaniol: considerando(bien) totas las cosas <br> <b>toto le(= toto lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo el <br> <b>toto le(caseo)</b> <br> #all the(cheese), the entire(cheese) <br> *Francese: tout le(fromage) <br> *Italiano: tutto il(formaggio) <br> *Espaniol: todo el(queso) <br> <b>toto lo(= toto le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo lo <br> <b>totos los(homines)</b> <br> #all(men) <br> *Francese: tous les(hommes) <br> *Italiano: tutti gli(uomini) <br> *Espaniol: todos los hombres <br> <b>totos minus ille</b> <br> #all but him <br> *Francese: tous sauf lui <br> *Italiano: tutti meno lui, tutti salvo lui <br> *Espaniol: todos menos él <br> <b>tra(= trans)</b> <br> #through <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers de <br> *Italiano: attraverso, tra <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>trans</b> <br> #across, over, beyond, on the farther side of <br> *Francese: au delà de, de l'autre côté de <br> *Italiano: al di là di, dall'altra parte di, dall'altro lato <br> *Espaniol: al otro lado de, más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>traverso(= a / al transverso(de))</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: au travers, de part en part <br> *Italiano: attraverso, da parte a parte, da lato a lato <br> *Espaniol: a través de, de parte a parte de <br> <b>tro(= troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>trop(=troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>troppo(= trop, tro)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo, troppi, troppa, troppe <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada, demasiados, demasiadas <br> <b>troppo(de)(aqua, libros, etc. )(= de tro(de)(aqua, libros, etc. ))</b> <br> #too much(water, etc. ), too many(books, etc. ) <br> *Francese: trop(d'eau, de livres, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: troppo(troppa acqua, troppi libri, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: demasiado(agua, etc. ), demasiados(libros) <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tú <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tu <br> <b>tu mesme, tu mesma, tu mesmo, tu ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: toi-même <br> *Italiano: tu stesso, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: tú mismo, tú misma <br> <b>tue, tua, tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: tuo, tua <br> *Espaniol: tuyo, tuya <br> <b>tues, tuas, tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiennes <br> *Italiano: tue, tuoi <br> *Espaniol: tuyos, tuyas <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, afterwards <br> *Francese: alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, después <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, next <br> *Francese: alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: quindi, in questo caso <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, por consiguiente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #in that case, consequently <br> *Francese: alors, dans ce cas, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: allora, in questo caso, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, consiguientemente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, in quel momento <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tus</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tes <br> *Italiano: tuo <br> *Espaniol: tus <br> <b>u(littera): u /u/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: u <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: u(lettre): u /ü/ <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where, in or at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove, in che luogo <br> *Espaniol: dónde, en qué lugar <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where; when, as soon as; wherewith; in which <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: donde <br> <b>ubicunque</b> <br> #wherever <br> *Francese: partout où..., n'importe où... <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>ubique</b> <br> #everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever <br> *Francese: partout, peu importe où, n'importe où, <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: donde sea, en cualquier lugar <br> <b>ulle, ulla, ullo</b> <br> #any, anyone <br> *Francese: aucun, aucune, nul(le) <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna, alcuno, alcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguno, alguna <br> <b>ulles, ullas, ullos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: aucuns, aucunes, nul(le)s <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcuna, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #subsequent, later <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, subsecuente <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #ulterior, situated beyond, thither <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, situado más allá <br> <b>ulteriormente</b> <br> #later(on), subsequently <br> *Francese: ultérieurement <br> *Italiano: ulteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #besides <br> *Francese: en outre <br> *Italiano: inoltre <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #on the other side, beyond, farther <br> *Francese: au délà, de l'autre côté, plus loin <br> *Italiano: al di là, dall'altra parte <br> *Espaniol: en el otro lado, más allá, más lejos <br> <b>ultra(= plus a la de, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>ultra illo</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: au délà de ça <br> *Italiano: al di la di questo, oltre questo, oltre ad esso <br> *Espaniol: más allá de aquello, además de ello <br> <b>ultra que</b> <br> #aside from the fact that <br> *Francese: outre que <br> *Italiano: oltre che <br> *Espaniol: aparte del hecho de que <br> <b>ultramar</b> <br> #overseas <br> *Francese: outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare <br> *Espaniol: en ultra mar <br> <b>ultramar:(paises) de ultramar</b> <br> #overseas(countries) <br> *Francese: outre-mer:(pays) d'outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare, paese d'oltremare, d'oltre mare <br> *Espaniol: ultramar:(países) de ultramar <br> <b>un altere, una altera, uno altero</b> <br> #another <br> *Francese: un autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>un de, una de, uno de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un de, une de <br> *Italiano: uno di, una di <br> *Espaniol: uno de, una de <br> <b>un die</b> <br> #one day, sometime <br> *Francese: un jour <br> *Italiano: un giorno <br> *Espaniol: un día, algún día <br> <b>un pauco(de)</b> <br> #a little <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un poco(de)(= un pauco(de))</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un que, una que, uno que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un que, une que <br> *Italiano: uno che, una che <br> *Espaniol: uno que, una que <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #a, an <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, una <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, uno, una <br> <b>una hora</b> <br> #one o'clock <br> *Francese: une heure <br> *Italiano: un'ora <br> *Espaniol: la una(hora) <br> <b>una tal(persona)</b> <br> #such a(person) <br> *Francese: une telle(personne) <br> *Italiano: una tale(persona) <br> *Espaniol: una tal(persona) <br> <b>una vece(= una vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice</b> <br> #once, formerly, at one time, on a single occasion <br> *Francese: un fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice que</b> <br> #once, once that <br> *Francese: une fois que <br> *Italiano: una volta che <br> *Espaniol: una vez que <br> <b>unaltere, un altere(= le un le altere)</b> <br> #each other, one another <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, from which place <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, da quale luogo <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, wherefore, for which reason or cause <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde(= de ubi)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>unes de, unas de, unos de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos de, unas de <br> <b>unes que, unas que, unos que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s que <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos que, unas que <br> <b>unes, unas, unos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des <br> *Italiano: dei, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: unos, unas <br> <b>uno(= on, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: un, uno <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>unquam(= olim, aliquando)</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: n'importe quand, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un momento, in un dato momento, ad un certo punto, quando <br> *Espaniol: en algún momento <br> <b>usquam(= alicubi)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: a alguna parte <br> <b>usque(a)</b> <br> #(all the way) to, up to(a point in space or time); also: till, until <br> *Francese: jusque, jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a trans</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à travers <br> *Italiano: attraverso <br> *Espaniol: hasta el otro lado de <br> <b>usque al presente</b> <br> #up to the present <br> *Francese: jusqu'à présent <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino a questo momento <br> *Espaniol: hasta el presente <br> <b>usque nunc</b> <br> #up to now <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta ahora <br> <b>usque quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: jusqu'à quand <br> *Italiano: fino a quando <br> *Espaniol: hasta cuándo <br> <b>usque tosto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à bientôt <br> *Italiano: a presto <br> *Espaniol: hasta pronto <br> <b>usualmente, de costume, plurimo</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, di solito, abitualmente, di norma <br> *Espaniol: usualmente <br> <b>ut</b> <br> #as, how, in order that, to the end that, just as <br> *Francese: afin que, pour que, juste comme <br> *Italiano: al fine di <br> *Espaniol: a fin que, para que <br> <b>ut. . . ita. . . </b><br> #the. . . the. . . , as. . . so. . . <br> *Francese: autant... autant... <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>utroque</b> <br> #either or both of two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: ambedue <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera de los dos, los dos <br> <b>utrum. . . an</b> <br> #whether. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou...ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: a ver si. . . o. . . <br> <b>v(littera): ve /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: v, vi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: v(lettre): vé /v/ <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #exceedingly, very much <br> *Francese: excessivement, beaucou <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, moltissimo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muchísimo <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #vehemently, strongly <br> *Francese: énergiquement, fortement <br> *Italiano: fortemente, energicamente, con veemenza <br> *Espaniol: vehementemente, energicamente, fuertemente <br> <b>vale!</b> <br> #vale!, farewell! <br> *Francese: salut, adieu <br> *Italiano: ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: salve!, salud! <br> <b>vece(=vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vel</b> <br> #or, or rather <br> *Francese: ou, ou plutôt <br> *Italiano: o, piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: o, o más bien <br> <b>vel. . . vel...</b> <br> #either. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>vere(= vero)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>vero(= vere)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>verso</b> <br> #towards, toward; also: to, in the direction of, etc. <br> *Francese: vers <br> *Italiano: verso, nella direzione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia, en dirección a <br> <b>verso a basso</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: vers le bas <br> *Italiano: verso il basso, giù <br> *Espaniol: hacia abajo <br> <b>vespera</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>vespere</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>via</b> <br> #away <br> *Francese: loin, loin de là <br> *Italiano: via, fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, lejos <br> <b>via</b> <br> #via, by way of <br> *Francese: via, par <br> *Italiano: via, per via del, a causa di <br> *Espaniol: vía, por vía de <br> <b>via!</b> <br> #away! <br> *Francese: plus loin! <br> *Italiano: via ! fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #time(as in "three times") <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta(tre volte, una volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #turn(as in "my turn"); also: stead <br> *Francese: tour(comme dans "à mon tour") <br> *Italiano: volta(a mia volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice versa</b> <br> #vice versa <br> *Francese: vice versa <br> *Italiano: viceversa <br> *Espaniol: vice versa <br> <b>vis-à-vis</b> <br> #opposite, face to face, vis-à-vis <br> *Francese: vis-à-vis <br> *Italiano: di fronte, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis, cara a cara, en situación opuesta <br> <b>visto</b> <br> #considering, in view of <br> *Francese: vu <br> *Italiano: visto, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto, considerando <br> <b>visto que</b> <br> #considering that <br> *Francese: vu que <br> *Italiano: visto che, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto que, considerando que, en vista de que <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely, barely <br> *Francese: difficilement, à peine, <br> *Italiano: difficilmente <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente, difíilmente <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #with difficulty <br> *Francese: avec difficulté <br> *Italiano: con difficoltà <br> *Espaniol: con dificultad <br> <b>voi(= vos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: voi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vous <br> <b>voluntariamente(= voluntarie, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>voluntarie(= voluntariamente, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons(as in "you are", "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: voi(ma si usa il lei, per cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: tu, ustéd <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in polite or formal use; addressing one person or several persons(as in "you are", "I love you" "for you") <br> *Francese: vous <br> *Italiano: voi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourself [in polite or formal use(as in "you hurt yourself, " "to yourself")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourselves [in all uses(as in "you hurt yourselves", "to yourselves")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, <br> <b>vos mesme, vos mesma, vos mesmo, vos ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos mesmes, vos mesmas, vos mesmos, vos ipses</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, ustedes mismos, ustedes mismas <br> <b>Vostra Excellentia</b> <br> #Your Excellency <br> *Francese: Votre Excellence <br> *Italiano: Sua Eccellenza(meno usato : Vostra Eccellenza) <br> *Espaniol: Su Excelencia <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: suo(di Lei, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostro <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: sus(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostri, vostre <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(le/di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>vulgo(= communmente)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: communément, ordinairement, généralement <br> *Italiano: vilgo, generalmente, comunemente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente <br> <b>w(littera): duple ve /u/ aut /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: w(doppio vu; vu doppio; non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: w(lettre): double vé /v/ ou /ou/ <br> <b>x(littera): xe /ks/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: x(ics, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: x(lettre): iks /ks/ ou /gz/ ou /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>y(littera): i greco /y/ aut /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: y(i greca, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: y(lettre): i grec /i/ <br> <b>ya(= ja, jam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: déjà <br> *Italiano: già <br> *Espaniol: ya <br> <b>yo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je, moi <br> *Italiano: io, me, mi <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>z(littera): zeta /z/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: z, zeta <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: z(lettre): zède /z/ <br></p> 141 2005-04-21T16:18:27Z Josu Lavin 2 Dictionario de Parolas e Particulas Grammatical =Dictionario de Parolas e Particulas Grammatical= ==Dictionario de Parolas et Particulas Grammaticales== ==Dictionary of Grammatical Words and Particles== IMPORTANTISSIME: [A corriger. Tote le entratas debe esser corrigite secundo Interlingua de IALA] <b>a (+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à (+ inf. ) <br> *Italiano: a <br> *Espaniol: a (+ inf) <br> <b>a (littera): a /a/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a (lettre): a /a/ <br> <b>a ambe lateres</b> <br> ra: <b>a ambos lateres</b> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des deux côtés <br> *Italiano: ad ambo i lati <br> *Espaniol: a ambos lados <br> <b>a basso</b> <br> #down, downward <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: abbasso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo <br> <b>a basso(les traitores)!</b> <br> #down with(the traitors)! <br> *Francese: à bas(les traîtres) <br> *Italiano: abbasso(i traditori !) <br> *Espaniol: abajo los traidores! <br> <b>a causa de</b> <br> #because of <br> *Francese: à cause de <br> *Italiano: a causa di, per causa di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por causa de, debido a <br> <b>a condition que</b> <br> #on condition that, provided that <br> *Francese: à(la) condition que <br> *Italiano: a condizione che <br> *Espaniol: a condición de que, con tal de que <br> <b>a conto</b> <br> #on account <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto <br> *Espaniol: en cuenta <br> <b>a conto de</b> <br> #to the account of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto a/di <br> *Espaniol: a cuenta de <br> <b>a contratempore</b> <br> #at the wrong moment <br> *Francese: à contretemps <br> *Italiano: nel momento sbagliato <br> *Espaniol: a contratiempo, en mal momento <br> <b>a derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à droite <br> *Italiano: a destra <br> *Espaniol: a derecha, a la derecha <br> <b>a distantia</b> <br> #at a distance <br> *Francese: à distance <br> *Italiano: a distanza di/da <br> *Espaniol: a distancia <br> <b>a fin de</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de, pour <br> *Italiano: in modo da <br> *Espaniol: a fin de, para <br> <b>a fin que</b> <br> #in order that <br> *Francese: afin que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: a fin de que, para que <br> <b>a flor de</b> <br> #flush with, on a level with <br> *Francese: à fleur de <br> *Italiano: a livello di <br> *Espaniol: a flor de <br> <b>a fortia de</b> <br> #by means of, by dint of <br> *Francese: à force de <br> *Italiano: a forza di <br> *Espaniol: a fuerza de, por medio de <br> <b>a fundo</b> <br> #thoroughly <br> *Francese: à fond <br> *Italiano: a fondo <br> *Espaniol: a fondo <br> <b>a grado</b> <br> #at will <br> *Francese: à volonté, à discrétion <br> *Italiano: in grado di, a discrezione di <br> *Espaniol: a voluntad <br> <b>a in</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: in, all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: a, al interior de <br> <b>a inter</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: (a) entre <br> <b>a la(= a illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>a la aventura</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: aléatoirement, au hazard <br> *Italiano: all'avventura, <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>a la derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à la droite <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha <br> <b>a la entrata de(le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> #at the beginning of(winter, etc. ) <br> *Francese: au début de, au commencement de(l'hiver, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: all'inizio di <br> *Espaniol: al principio de(invierno, etc. ) <br> <b>a la exclusion de</b> <br> #to the exclusion of <br> *Francese: à l'exclusion de <br> *Italiano: con l'esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: a la exclusión de <br> ad esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>a lo longo</b> <br> #in the long run <br> *Francese: avec le temps, à la longue <br> *Italiano: alla lunga, con il tempo <br> *Espaniol: a la larga <br> <b>a lo plus</b> <br> #at(the) best <br> *Francese: au plus <br> *Italiano: al più <br> *Espaniol: a lo más <br> <b>a lo plus tarde</b> <br> #at the latest <br> *Francese: au plus tard <br> *Italiano: al più tardi <br> *Espaniol: a más tardar <br> <b>a medietate</b> <br> #half(= to half the full amount or degree) <br> *Francese: à moitié <br> *Italiano: alla metà <br> *Espaniol: a mitad <br> <b>a medietate del cammino</b> <br> #halfway <br> *Francese: à mi-chemin <br> *Italiano: alla metà /nel mezzo del cammino <br> *Espaniol: a medio camino <br> <b>a minus que</b> <br> #unless <br> *Francese: à moins que <br> *Italiano: a meno che <br> *Espaniol: a menos que <br> <b>a omne costo(= a toto costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: ad ogni costo, a qualsiasi costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a omne proposito</b> <br> #at every turn <br> *Francese: à tout propos <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a todo propósito <br> <b>a parte</b> <br> #apart, aside <br> *Francese: à part <br> *Italiano: a parte <br> *Espaniol: aparte, separadamente <br> <b>a partir de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a partire da, partendo da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à partir de <br> <b>a pena(= apena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: appena <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente <br> <b>a presso de</b> <br> #at the home(court, etc. ) of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: appresso a, presso <br> *Espaniol: a casa de(corte, etc. ) de <br> <b>a proba de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a prova di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'épreuve de <br> <b>a proposito de</b> <br> #with regard to, apropos of <br> *Francese: à propos de, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: a proposito di <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>a proposito!</b> <br> #by the way! incidentally <br> *Francese: à propos! <br> *Italiano: a proposito! <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a proposito:(dicer una cosa) a proposito</b> <br> #(to say something) to the purpose, apropos, to the point <br> *Francese: à propos <br> *Italiano: a proposito <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a retro</b> <br> #backwards <br> *Francese: à reculons, en reculant <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hacia atrás <br> <b>a tempore</b> <br> #in(good) time <br> *Francese: à temps <br> *Italiano: a tempo <br> *Espaniol: a tiempo <br> <b>a toto costo(= a omne costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: a ogni costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a transverso</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: à travers, de bord en bord <br> *Italiano: di/a traverso <br> *Espaniol: a través <br> <b>a transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers(de) <br> *Italiano: a traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: da dove, da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: a dove, a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi(= quo)</b> <br> #where, at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar <br> <b>a un alto grado</b> <br> #to a high degree <br> *Francese: à un haut degré <br> *Italiano: ad un alto grado <br> *Espaniol: a un alto grado <br> <b>a veces(= a vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, qualche volta <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a vices</b> <br> #at times <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, alle volte <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a, ad</b> <br> #to, at <br> *Francese: à, vers, en, dans <br> *Italiano: a, ad, verso, nel <br> *Espaniol: a, hacia; en <br> <b>ab(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de(+inf) <br> <b>ab(= desde)</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis <br> *Italiano: da <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #actually <br> *Francese: actuellement <br> *Italiano: attualmente <br> *Espaniol: actualmente <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #at present, (just) now <br> *Francese: à présent, maintenant <br> *Italiano: al momento, attualmente, adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: actualmente, en la actualidad <br> <b>adeo</b> <br> #farewell, good-by(e) <br> *Francese: adieu <br> *Italiano: addio, ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: adiós <br> <b>adhuc</b> <br> #to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici, jusqu'à présent, <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino adesso, fino a qui, fin qui, fino a qua <br> *Espaniol: a este lugar, hasta aquí, hasta ahora, todavía <br> <b>al(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: sur le point de(+inf), près de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: al, sul punto di, <br> *Espaniol: al(+inf) <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= alique)</b> <br> #something <br> *Francese: quelque chose, <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>al contrario</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>al currente(de)</b> <br> #informed(about) <br> *Francese: au courant de <br> *Italiano: al corrente di, informato su <br> *Espaniol: al corriente(de), informado(sobre) <br> <b>al detrimento de</b> <br> #to the detriment of <br> *Francese: au détriment de <br> *Italiano: a danno di, a scapito di <br> *Espaniol: en detrimento de <br> <b>al estraniero</b> <br> #abroad <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: en el extranjero <br> <b>al exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>al exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur de <br> <b>al extero</b> <br> #abroad(as in "to go abroad; to live abroad"), in foreign parts <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: al extranjero, en el extranjero <br> <b>al extremo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extrême <br> *Italiano: all'estremo, estremamente <br> *Espaniol: al extremo <br> <b>al fin</b> <br> #in the end, at last <br> *Francese: enfin, à la fin <br> *Italiano: alla fine, infine <br> *Espaniol: al fin <br> <b>al fundo de</b> <br> #at the bottom of <br> *Francese: au fond de <br> *Italiano: al fondo di, in fondo a <br> *Espaniol: al fondo de <br> <b>al fundo del corde</b> <br> #at the bottom of one's heart <br> *Francese: au fond du cœur <br> *Italiano: nel fondo del cuore <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo del corazón <br> <b>al hasardo</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: au hazard <br> *Italiano: al caso <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>al interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur <br> <b>al interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur de <br> <b>al ir a(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: andando a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ????????? <br> <b>al latere</b> <br> #aside <br> *Francese: à côté <br> *Italiano: al lato di, accanto a, lateralmente, a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado <br> <b>al latere de</b> <br> #beside <br> *Francese: à côté de, au côté de <br> *Italiano: a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado de <br> <b>al minus</b> <br> #at least <br> *Francese: au moins <br> *Italiano: al meno, alla fine, per lo meno <br> *Espaniol: al menos, por lo menos <br> <b>al presente</b> <br> #at present <br> *Francese: à présent <br> *Italiano: al presente, al momento <br> *Espaniol: en el presente, en la actualidad <br> <b>al transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers(de) <br> *Italiano: al traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través(de) <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: un poco, un po', qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: un poco <br> <b>alcun, alcuna, alcuno(= alicun, alicuna, alicuno)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alcunas veces(= alcunas vices, alicunas vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelques fois <br> <b>alcuno(= alicuno)</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: qualcuno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelqu'un <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #alias <br> *Francese: alias <br> *Italiano: alias, altro <br> *Espaniol: alias <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #at another time <br> *Francese: (à) un autre moment, un autre temps, un autre instant <br> *Italiano: in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: en otro tiempo, en otro momento <br> <b>alias(= alteramente)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement, d'une autre façon, d'une autre manière <br> *Italiano: in un altro modo, diversamente, in un'altra maniera <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>alibi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: alibi <br> *Espaniol: en alguna otra parte <br> <b>alicubi</b> <br> #anywhere as in("did you see him anywhere?") <br> *Francese: quelque part comme dans("l'avez-vous vu quelque part?"), n'importe où comme dans("il va n'importe où") <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte, non importa dove, in qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>alicubi(= usquam)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: en cualquier lugar <br> <b>alicun, alicuna, alicuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque, un peu <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno; un poco <br> <b>alicuna cosa(= alcuna cosa)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: alguna cosa <br> <b>alicunas vices(= alcunas vices)</b> <br> #sometimes <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, qualvolta <br> *Espaniol: algunas veces <br> <b>alicunes, alicunas, alicunos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des, quelques, quelques-uns, quelques-unes <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcune, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>alicuno(= alcuno)</b> <br> #someone, somebody; anyone, anybody <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: alcuno, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alie, alia, alio(= altere, altera, altero)</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: autre <br> *Italiano: altro <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somehow <br> *Francese: d'une manière ou d'une autre <br> *Italiano: in un modo o in un altro, nell'uno o nell'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de una manera u otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte, qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: en alguna parte <br> <b>aliquando(= alquando)</b> <br> #at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> *Francese: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: in un dato momento, quando, allorché <br> *Espaniol: alguna vez, en algún que otro momento, en un momento dado <br> <b>aliquanto(= alquanto)</b> <br> #somewhat, to some degree <br> *Francese: quelque peu <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: algo así, en algún grado <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: in qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: un peu <br> *Italiano: un po', un poco <br> *Espaniol: algo, un poco <br> <b>aliquot</b> <br> #some, several, a few <br> *Francese: un po', un poco <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque, un peu <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi, dunque, allorché <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en aquel tiempo <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, in that case, consequently) <br> *Francese: donc, dans ce cas, conséquemment, en conséquence <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, in questo caso, allora, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en tal caso, consequentemente, en consecuencia, por consiguiente <br> <b>alquando(= aliquando)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: una buona volta, un dato momento <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> <b>alquanto(= aliquanto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: alquanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque peu <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> *Francese: ainsi, de plus, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: anche, ugualmente, allo stesso modo, comunque, in ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, es más, además <br> <b>alte, alta, alto</b> <br> #high <br> *Francese: haut, haute <br> *Italiano: alto, alta, alti, alte <br> *Espaniol: alto, alta <br> <b>altera vece(= altera vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une autre fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once again, once more <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once more, once again <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez <br> <b>alteramente(= alias)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement <br> *Italiano: altrimenti, diversamente, in un'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, additional <br> *Francese: autre, additionnel(le) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(in più, addizionale) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, adicional <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, different <br> *Francese: autre, différent(e) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(differente) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, diferente <br> <b>alterubi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: d'altra parte, altrimenti, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: en otra parte <br> <b>ambes, ambas, ambos</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: les deux, tous deux, toutes deux <br> *Italiano: ambo, ambedue, tutti e due <br> *Espaniol: ambos, ambas <br> <b>an</b> <br> #whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>an(= est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: - <br> *Espaniol: es que(particula interrogativa) <br> <b>an ille habe le libro?(= est-que ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: ha il libro ? egli ha il libro? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>analogo a</b> <br> #analogous to <br> *Francese: analogue à. semblable à <br> *Italiano: analogo a, simile a <br> *Espaniol: análogo a <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #encore! <br> *Francese: encore! <br> *Italiano: ancora! <br> *Espaniol: aún!, todavía! <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #still, yet <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún, todavía <br> <b>annon</b> <br> #or not <br> *Francese: ou non, ou pas <br> *Italiano: o no <br> *Espaniol: o no <br> <b>anque(io)(= etiam(io))</b> <br> #(I) too, (me) too <br> *Francese: (moi) aussi <br> *Italiano: anch'io, pure io, io pure <br> *Espaniol: también(yo), (yo) también <br> <b>anque [anke](= etiam, tamben)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, above <br> *Francese: avant, cité plus haut <br> *Italiano: prima <br> *Espaniol: antes, citado anteriormente <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: prima di <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: davanti a <br> *Espaniol: delante de, ante <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier than <br> *Francese: plus tôt que, antérieurement à <br> *Italiano: prima(temp) <br> *Espaniol: antes, anterior <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front of <br> *Francese: devant <br> *Italiano: davanti, di fronte <br> *Espaniol: antes, en frente de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front, ahead; also: forward <br> *Francese: devant, en face de <br> *Italiano: innanzi, dinnanzi, di fronte, frontalmente <br> *Espaniol: antes; delante <br> <b>ante le tempore</b> <br> #ahead of time, too early <br> *Francese: trop tôt, avant le temps <br> *Italiano: prima del tempo <br> *Espaniol: antes de tiempo, demasiado pronto <br> <b>ante que</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: avant que <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de que <br> <b>ante toto</b> <br> #after all <br> *Francese: avant tout <br> *Italiano: prima di tutto <br> *Espaniol: ante todo <br> <b>antea(=potius, plus tosto)</b> <br> #before, formerly, previously <br> *Francese: plus tôt, précédemment, antérieurement <br> *Italiano: prima, precedentemente <br> *Espaniol: antes, anteriormente, previamente <br> <b>ante-heri</b> <br> #day before yesterday <br> *Francese: avant-hier <br> *Italiano: l'altro ieri, ieri l'altro <br> *Espaniol: anteayer <br> <b>anteriormente</b> <br> #formerly, before <br> *Francese: antérieurement <br> *Italiano: anteriormente <br> *Espaniol: anteriormente <br> <b>apena(= a pena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: a pena <br> *Espaniol: a penas, escasamente <br> <b>apud(= presso)</b> <br> #near, with, at, by <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, junto a <br> <b>aquelle, aquella, aquello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là(ex. ce garçon-là), cet ...-là(ex. cet homme-là), cette ...-là(ex. cette fille-là), [pron. dém. ]celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>aquelles, aquellas, aquellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli, quelle <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>aquesse, aquessa, aquesso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>aqueste, aquesta, aquesto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>aqui(= hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #rather(= fairly, quite) <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assi</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful bokk) <br> *Francese: così(così bello, tanto bello che) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful book) <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi... como...(= si. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que ... <br> *Italiano: così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: así. . . como. . . <br> <b>atque</b> <br> #and, and also, and even <br> *Francese: et, et même <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e, y también, e incluso <br> <b>aut(= o)</b> <br> #or <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o, altrimenti <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>aut. . . aut...(= o. . . o. . . )</b> <br> #either. . . or... <br> *Francese: ou. . . ou. . . <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: en avant de, au devant de <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant, au devant <br> *Italiano: davanti a, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: adelante, al frente, delante <br> <b>avante!</b> <br> #before!(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant! <br> *Italiano: avanti ! <br> *Espaniol: adelante!, al frente! <br> <b>b(littera): be /b/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: b, bi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: b(lettre): bé /b/ <br> <b>basse, bassa, basso</b> <br> #low <br> *Francese: bas, basse <br> *Italiano: basso, bassa <br> *Espaniol: bajo <br> <b>basso</b> <br> #bottom, lower part(of a thing) <br> *Francese: bas <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: base, parte de abajo(de una cosa), la parte más baja(de una cosa) <br> <b>basta</b> <br> #enough! stop! <br> *Francese: assez! <br> *Italiano: basta! <br> *Espaniol: basta! <br> <b>bastante(= sufficiente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>bastante(= sufficientemente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficiently <br> *Francese: assez, suffisamment <br> *Italiano: sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficientemente <br> <b>bastantes(= sufficientes)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: sufficienti <br> *Espaniol: bastantes, suficientes <br> <b>ben</b> <br> #well <br> *Francese: bien <br> *Italiano: bene <br> *Espaniol: bien <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #although <br> *Francese: quoique, bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de que, aunque <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #though <br> *Francese: bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: ben que <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #all right! <br> *Francese: très bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! giusto ! benissimo ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #good! <br> *Francese: bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! <br> *Espaniol: bien!, bueno! <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #encore <br> *Francese: bis, encore une fois, de nouveau <br> *Italiano: bis, ancora una volta, di nuovo <br> *Espaniol: bis, de nuevo, otra vez, repetición <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #twice <br> *Francese: deux fois <br> *Italiano: due volte <br> *Espaniol: dos veces <br> <b>bon!</b> <br> #good!, fine!, all right! <br> *Francese: bon! <br> *Italiano: buono ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>bon, bona, bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: buono, buona <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: bon, bonne <br> <b>bona nocte!</b> <br> #good night! <br> *Francese: bonne nuit! <br> *Italiano: buona notte, buonanotte <br> *Espaniol: buenas noches! <br> <b>bravo!</b> <br> #bravo! <br> *Francese: bravo! <br> *Italiano: bravo! brava! bravi! brave! <br> *Espaniol: bravo! <br> <b>c(littera): ce /k/ aut /ts/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c, ci(pron. come ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c(lettre): cé /k/ ou /s/ <br> <b>cata</b> <br> #each <br> *Francese: chaque <br> *Italiano: ogni <br> *Espaniol: cada <br> <b>cata un, cata una, cata uno</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: chacun, chacune <br> *Italiano: ognuno, agnuna <br> *Espaniol: cada uno, cada una <br> <b>ce</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce, c'... <br> *Italiano: ciò, questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>ce ci</b> <br> #this(here) <br> *Francese: ciò, questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>ce la</b> <br> #that(there, yonder) <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: cela <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #(the) former(first of two) <br> *Francese: quello là, quella là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: celui-là, celle-là <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #1. that; those <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> <b>celles, cellas, cellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: quei, quegli, quelle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cento:(tres) per cento, (tres) pro cento</b> <br> #(three) per cent <br> *Francese: cento(ce, come in ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (trois) pour cent <br> <b>certe, certa, certo</b> <br> #a certain. . . <br> *Francese: un certain, une certaine <br> *Italiano: certo, un certo <br> *Espaniol: cierto, cierta <br> <b>certo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certo, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, cierto <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: altro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autre <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #remaining <br> *Francese: restante, rimanente, resto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: restant <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #besides, for the rest <br> *Francese: d'altra parte, quanto al resto, peraltro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d'autre part, quant au reste <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #otherwise, in other respects <br> *Francese: diversamente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autrement, par ailleurs <br> <b>ch(digrapho): ce hache /k/ aut /sh/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ch(pron come k) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ch(digraphe ou digramme): cé-ache /k/ ou /sh/ <br> <b>ci(=hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>ci juncto(= hic juncto)</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(joined) <br> *Francese: ci-joint(e) <br> *Italiano: qui con <br> *Espaniol: junto con esto <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour de <br> *Italiano: circa <br> *Espaniol: alrededor de <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours, environ, approximativement <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: cerca, alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>circum</b> <br> #around, around about <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>cis</b> <br> #on this side(of) <br> *Francese: de ce côté(de) <br> *Italiano: da questa parte, da questo lato <br> *Espaniol: a este lado(de) <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #quickly, speedily <br> *Francese: vite <br> *Italiano: rapidamente, velocemente <br> *Espaniol: rápidamente <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #soon <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #secretly <br> *Francese: secrètement <br> *Italiano: segretamente <br> *Espaniol: secretamente, en secreto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #without the knowledge of, unknown to <br> *Francese: sans la connaissance de, inconnu(e) à <br> *Italiano: senza sapere che, senza conoscenza di, senza cognizione <br> *Espaniol: sin el conocimiento de, desconocido a <br> <b>communmente(= vulgo)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: vulgairement, communément <br> *Italiano: comunemente, volgarmente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente, normalmente <br> <b>como</b> <br> #as; also: like, similarly to <br> *Francese: comme <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como</b> <br> #how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como illa est bella!</b> <br> #how beautiful she is! <br> *Francese: Comme elle est belle! <br> *Italiano: come è bella lei <br> *Espaniol: qué bonita es ella! <br> <b>como si</b> <br> #as though, as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>como:(facete) como(vos volate)</b> <br> #(do) as(you wish) <br> *Francese: comme:(faites) comme(vous voulez) <br> *Italiano: come(fate) <br> *Espaniol: (haced) como(vosotros queráis) <br> <b>comocunque</b> <br> #however, in whatever manner <br> *Francese: cependant, de toute façon <br> *Italiano: comunque, in ogni modo, ad ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, de cualquier forma, como sea <br> <b>comparabile a</b> <br> #comparable to <br> *Francese: comparable à <br> *Italiano: comparabile a/con <br> *Espaniol: comparable a <br> <b>comparabile con</b> <br> #comparable with <br> *Francese: comparable avec <br> *Italiano: comparabile con <br> *Espaniol: comparable con <br> <b>completamente(= totalmente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: complètement <br> *Italiano: completamente, totalmente <br> *Espaniol: completamente(= totalmente) <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, by means of <br> *Francese: avec, au moyen de <br> *Italiano: con, per mezzo di <br> *Espaniol: con, por medio de <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, having, carrying, characterized by) <br> *Francese: avec, ayant, caractérisé(e) par <br> *Italiano: con <br> *Espaniol: con, que tiene. . . , caracterizado por. . . <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, together with <br> *Francese: avec, (ensemble) avec <br> *Italiano: con, insieme a <br> *Espaniol: con <br> <b>concernente</b> <br> #concerning <br> *Francese: concernant <br> *Italiano: concernente <br> *Espaniol: concerniente <br> <b>conforme</b> <br> #conformable, in conformity <br> *Francese: conforme, en conformité <br> *Italiano: conforme <br> *Espaniol: conforme, en conformidad <br> <b>conforme a</b> <br> #in conformity with, according to <br> *Francese: selon, conforme à, en conformité avec <br> *Italiano: conforme a, in conformità a/di <br> *Espaniol: conforme a <br> <b>conjunctamente</b> <br> #conjointly, conjunctly, jointly, together <br> *Francese: conjointement, ensemble <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente, con, insieme <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente <br> <b>conjunctamente con</b> <br> #in with, together with, in conjunction with <br> *Francese: conjointement avec <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente a <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente con <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #opposite, facing <br> *Francese: contre, faisant face à <br> *Italiano: contrariamente, al contrario <br> *Espaniol: en situación opuesta, enfrentado <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in one's presence, openly, publicly <br> *Francese: en présence de quelqu'un, publiquement <br> *Italiano: in presenza di, davanti a, pubblicamente <br> *Espaniol: en la presencia de, abiertamente, públicamente <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in the presence of <br> *Francese: en présence de <br> *Italiano: in presenza di <br> *Espaniol: en presencia de <br> <b>cras(= deman)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>cuje, cuja, cujo</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: cuyo, cuya <br> <b>cum(=con)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: avec <br> <b>d(littera): de /d/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: di/d <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d(lettre): dé /d/ <br> <b>de</b> <br> #from; also: since <br> *Francese: de, depuis <br> *Italiano: da, dal, dallo, dalla, dagli, dalle <br> *Espaniol: de, desde <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of <br> *Francese: de <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, belonging or pertaining to <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, à la, au, aux, (appartenant à la, au, aux) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, made of <br> *Francese: de(fait de) <br> *Italiano: di(fatto di) <br> *Espaniol: de, hecho de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, with, by means of <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, des, par, avec, au moyen de(de la, du, des) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de, con <br> <b>de(+ inf)</b> <br> #to; for <br> *Francese: de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: di <br> *Espaniol: de(+ inf) <br> <b>de accordo</b> <br> #in accord <br> *Francese: d'accord <br> *Italiano: d'accordo <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from the top to the bottom <br> *Francese: de haut en bas <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from top to bottom, from top to toe <br> *Francese: de haut en bas, de la tête aux pieds <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de bon corde</b> <br> #gladly, willingly <br> *Francese: de bon coeur <br> *Italiano: di buon cuore, generoso <br> *Espaniol: de buena gana, alegremente <br> <b>de bon grado</b> <br> #willingly, with pleasure <br> *Francese: avec plaisir <br> *Italiano: di buon grado, volentieri <br> *Espaniol: de buen grado, con placer, de buena gana <br> <b>de bon gusto</b> <br> #in good taste <br> *Francese: de bon goût <br> *Italiano: di buon gusto <br> *Espaniol: de buen gusto <br> <b>de bona hora</b> <br> #early <br> *Francese: de bonne heure <br> *Italiano: di buono'ora, presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: de buena hora <br> <b>de ci a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour, etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: da qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de commun accordo</b> <br> #by common consent <br> *Francese: d'un commun accord <br> *Italiano: di comune accordo <br> *Espaniol: de común acuerdo <br> <b>de concerto</b> <br> #in concert, in unison <br> *Francese: de concert <br> *Italiano: di concerto, d'accordo con <br> *Espaniol: de concierto, al unísono <br> <b>de costume, usualmente</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, d'abitudine, di norma, solitamente <br> *Espaniol: como de costumbre, habitualmente, usualmente <br> <b>de derecto</b> <br> #by right(s) <br> *Francese: de droit <br> *Italiano: di diritto <br> *Espaniol: de derecho <br> <b>de die in die</b> <br> #from day to day <br> *Francese: de jour en jour <br> *Italiano: di giorno in giorno <br> *Espaniol: de día en día <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #de facto <br> *Francese: de facto <br> *Italiano: di fatto <br> *Espaniol: de facto, de hecho <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #in fact, de facto <br> *Francese: en fait, de fait, par le fait <br> *Italiano: infatti, difatti <br> *Espaniol: de hecho, de facto <br> <b>de hic a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: di qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de la parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di, dalla parte di <br> *Espaniol: de(la) parte de <br> <b>de longe(= de longo)</b> <br> #afar, from a distance <br> *Francese: de loin <br> *Italiano: dalla distanza di, da <br> *Espaniol: de lejos <br> <b>de mal grado</b> <br> #unwillingly, in spite of oneself <br> *Francese: de mauvais gré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, malvolentieri <br> *Espaniol: de mala gana <br> <b>de mal gusto</b> <br> #in bad taste <br> *Francese: de mauvais goût <br> *Italiano: di cattivo gusto, inopportuno <br> *Espaniol: de mal gusto <br> <b>de mal in pejo</b> <br> #from bad to worse <br> *Francese: de mal en pis <br> *Italiano: di male in peggio <br> *Espaniol: de mal en peor <br> <b>de maniera que</b> <br> #so that <br> *Francese: de manière que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: de manera que <br> <b>de memoria</b> <br> #from memory, by heart <br> *Francese: de mémoire, par coeur <br> *Italiano: a memoria, a mente <br> *Espaniol: de memoria <br> <b>de nocte</b> <br> #by night <br> *Francese: de nuit <br> *Italiano: di notte <br> *Espaniol: de noche <br> <b>de novo</b> <br> #again, anew, afresh <br> *Francese: de nouveau <br> *Italiano: di nuovo, ancora <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo <br> <b>de omne latere</b> <br> #from every side <br> *Francese: de tout côté <br> *Italiano: da ogni alto <br> *Espaniol: de todo lado <br> <b>de parte a parte</b> <br> #through and through <br> *Francese: de part en part <br> *Italiano: da parte a parte <br> *Espaniol: de parte a parte <br> <b>de parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di <br> *Espaniol: de parte de <br> <b>de plus</b> <br> #furthermore, besides <br> *Francese: de plus <br> *Italiano: di più <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>de plus in plus</b> <br> #more and more <br> *Francese: de plus en plus <br> *Italiano: più e più <br> *Espaniol: de más en más <br> <b>de qui</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: de qui, dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: de quien <br> <b>de tempore ??</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de tempore in tempore</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de toto(le) corde</b> <br> #wholeheartedly <br> *Francese: de tout coeur <br> *Italiano: di tutto cuore <br> *Espaniol: de todo corazón <br> <b>de totos lateres</b> <br> #on all sides <br> *Francese: de tous les côtés <br> *Italiano: da ogni lato, da ogni parte <br> *Espaniol: de todos lados <br> <b>de transverso</b> <br> #askew, awry <br> *Francese: de travers <br> *Italiano: di traverso, trasversalmente <br> *Espaniol: de tavés <br> <b>de troppo(= de tro)</b> <br> #superfluous, in the way <br> *Francese: de trop <br> *Italiano: di troppo, superfluo <br> *Espaniol: superfluo <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> #from where, whence <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de un extremo al altero</b> <br> #from one extreme to the other <br> *Francese: d'un extrême à l'autre <br> *Italiano: da un estremo all'altro <br> *Espaniol: de un extremo al otro <br> <b>debitamente</b> <br> #duly, properly <br> *Francese: dûment, justement, convenablement <br> *Italiano: debitamente, giustamente, propriamente <br> *Espaniol: debidamente, propiamente <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, following in time <br> *Francese: ensuite, alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: di seguito, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, entonces, <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, next in order <br> *Francese: di seguito, dopo, poi, secondo l'ordine, seguendo l'ordine <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ensuite, suivant dans l'ordre <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #thereafter, next <br> *Francese: successivo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: suivant(e) <br> <b>del(= de le)</b> <br> #of the <br> *Francese: du <br> *Italiano: del, dello <br> *Espaniol: del <br> <b>del altere latere</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de l'autre côté <br> *Italiano: dall'altro lato, d'altro canto <br> *Espaniol: del otro lado <br> <b>del principio</b> <br> #from the outset or start <br> *Francese: du début <br> *Italiano: da principio, dall'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: del principio <br> <b>del toto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: du tout <br> *Italiano: di tutto <br> *Espaniol: del todo <br> <b>deman(= cras)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>deman matino</b> <br> #tomorrow morning <br> *Francese: demain matin <br> *Italiano: domani mattina, domattina <br> *Espaniol: mañana a la mañana, mañana por la mañana <br> <b>deman vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la tarde, mañana por la noche <br> <b>depois(= depost)</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite, plus tard <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, più tardi <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>depois que(= depost que)</b> <br> #since(from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che, dopo di che <br> *Espaniol: después de que <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #after, since <br> *Francese: depuis, après <br> *Italiano: dopo <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, luego <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuando <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuándo <br> <b>depost que</b> <br> #since(= from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después(de) que, desde que <br> <b>desde</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis, de <br> *Italiano: dopo di <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>detra</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: detrás <br> <b>dextra</b> <br> #on the right of <br> *Francese: à la droite de <br> *Italiano: alla destra di <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha de <br> <b>difficile a(+ inf), difficile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: difficile à(+inf), difficile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: difficile a/da <br> *Espaniol: difícil de(+ inf) <br> <b>directo:(ir, ambular, etc. ) directo</b> <br> #(to go, walk, etc. ) straight <br> *Francese: droit, tout droit:(aller, se diriger, etc. ) tout droit <br> *Italiano: diritto, sempre diritto <br> *Espaniol: directamente <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #until, up to the time that <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: fino a, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>duas horas</b> <br> #two o'clock <br> *Francese: deux heures <br> *Italiano: due ore <br> *Espaniol: las dos(horas) <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #provided that, if only <br> *Francese: pourvu que, si seulement <br> *Italiano: solo se <br> *Espaniol: contal de que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #until <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que, tant que <br> *Italiano: fintanto che, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>dunque</b> <br> #therefore <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>durante</b> <br> #during <br> *Francese: durant, pendant <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: durante <br> <b>durante que</b> <br> #while, whilst <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: mientras, mientras que <br> <b>e(= et)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et <br> <b>e(littera): e /e/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: e(lettre): e /?/ <br> <b>e. . . e...(= et. . . et. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e. . . e. . . <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et... et... <br> <b>ecce</b> <br> #lo!, see!, behold!, here is <br> *Francese: voici <br> *Italiano: ecco, ecco qui, ecco qua <br> *Espaniol: he aquí, helo aquí <br> <b>ego(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: io <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: moi(= je) <br> <b>el(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli, lui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>ella(= illa)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ella, lei <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: elle <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #equally <br> *Francese: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: également <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #likewise, also <br> *Francese: également <br> *Italiano: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, también <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #in respect to <br> *Francese: par rapport à <br> *Italiano: in rapporto a <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #towards <br> *Francese: di fronte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis <br> <b>ergo</b> <br> #consequently, accordingly, therefore, then <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente, ergo, por eso <br> <b>esse, essa, esso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esser in dubita</b> <br> #to be in doubt <br> *Francese: être dans le doute, douter <br> *Italiano: essere in dubbio/nel dubbio <br> *Espaniol: estar en duda, dudar <br> <b>esser satis</b> <br> #to be enough <br> *Francese: être assez, être suffisant <br> *Italiano: essere sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: ser suficiente, ser bastante <br> <b>esso(=isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>este, esta, esto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esto(= isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questo qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>est-que [ést-ke](= an)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: est-ce que <br> <b>est-que ille habe le libro?(= an ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: (egli) ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: e, anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #and <br> *Francese: et <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e <br> <b>et cetera, etc. </b><br> #and so on, and so forth, etc. <br> *Francese: et ainsi de suite, et cetera, etc. <br> *Italiano: eccetera, così di seguito <br> *Espaniol: etcetera, etc. <br> <b>et. . . et. . . (= e. . . e. . . )</b> <br> #as well. . . as..., both. . . and... <br> *Francese: et. . . et. . . <br> *Italiano: e. . . e. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>etiam(= anque, tamben)</b> <br> #also, likewise, too; even, even yet; yet <br> *Francese: aussi, même, <br> *Italiano: anche, lo stesso, allo stesso modo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: también, del mismo modo, igualmente, incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #and yet <br> *Francese: et même <br> *Italiano: e ancora <br> *Espaniol: e incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #even if <br> *Francese: même si <br> *Italiano: anche se <br> *Espaniol: incluso si <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: benché <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoique, bien que <br> <b>ex</b> <br> #out of; from <br> *Francese: hors de <br> *Italiano: ex, fuori da <br> *Espaniol: fuera de; desde, de <br> <b>ex tempore</b> <br> #extempore <br> *Francese: ex tempore, imrpovvisato <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: impromptu, improvisé <br> <b>exactamente(= justo)</b> <br> #exactly, just <br> *Francese: exactement, juste, justement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esatto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: exactamente, justo <br> <b>excepto</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto, exceptuando <br> <b>excessivamente(= in excesso, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: eccessivamente, troppo, in eccesso <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: excessivement <br> <b>expresso</b> <br> #purposely <br> *Francese: exprès <br> *Italiano: espresso <br> *Espaniol: intencionadamente <br> <b>extero</b> <br> #foreign countries <br> *Francese: pays étrangers(à l'étranger) <br> *Italiano: estero, paese straniero <br> *Espaniol: países extranjeros <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de, <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además de, en adición a <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition, extra <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, d'autre part, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además, en adición, extra <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #excepting, except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #outside of, without, beyond <br> *Francese: hors de, en dehors de, au délà de <br> *Italiano: fuori di, al di fuori di, oltre a <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #without, on the outside <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: fuera, en la parte de afuera <br> <b>f(littera): fe /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: f, effe <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: f(lettre): èfe /f/ <br> <b>facie a(= ob, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: face à, en face de, devant, considérant, en raison de <br> *Italiano: davanti a, in ragione di, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: cara a, hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>facie a facie</b> <br> #face to face <br> *Francese: face à face <br> *Italiano: faccia a faccia <br> *Espaniol: cara cara <br> <b>facile a(+ inf), facile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: facile à(+inf), facile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: facile da, facile a <br> *Espaniol: fácil de(+ inf) <br> <b>for</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>for</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, fuori da/che <br> *Espaniol: fuera de, excepto <br> <b>for</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>for</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>for de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: hors de, à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: fuori da, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>for de se(= foras de se, foris de se)</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: dehors <br> *Italiano: fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, afuera <br> <b>foras de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: au dehors de <br> *Italiano: senza, al di fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>foras de dubita, foris de dubita</b> <br> #beyond doubt <br> *Francese: hors de tout doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: fuera de duda <br> <b>foras de lo commun(= foris de lo commun)</b> <br> #out of the ordinary <br> *Francese: hors de l'ordinaire <br> *Italiano: fuori dall'ordinario <br> *Espaniol: fuera de lo común <br> <b>foras de proposito</b> <br> #ill-timed, irrelevant, beside the mark <br> *Francese: hors de propos <br> *Italiano: irrilevante <br> *Espaniol: fuera de propósito, irrelevante <br> <b>foras de se</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, possiblement <br> *Italiano: può essere, forse <br> *Espaniol: posiblemente, quizás, tal vez, es posible que. . . <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, probablement <br> *Italiano: può essere, probabilmente, forse <br> *Espaniol: probablemente, quizás, tal vez <br> <b>frequentemente</b> <br> #frequently, often <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: frequentemente, sovente, spesso <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, a menudo <br> <b>frustra</b> <br> #in vain <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>g(littera): ge /g/ aut /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: g/gi(pron. : come j di John) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: g(lettre): jé /gh/ ou /j/ <br> <b>grande(= magne, magna, magno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grand, grande <br> *Italiano: grande, gran <br> *Espaniol: grande; magno, magna <br> <b>grandemente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grandement <br> *Italiano: grandemente <br> *Espaniol: grandemente <br> <b>gratias a</b> <br> #thanks to, due or owing to <br> *Francese: grâce à <br> *Italiano: grazie a <br> *Espaniol: gracias a, debido a <br> <b>gratias!</b> <br> #thank you! thanks! <br> *Francese: grâce! <br> *Italiano: grazie <br> *Espaniol: gracias! <br> <b>gratis</b> <br> #gratis, free(of charge) <br> *Francese: gratis, gratuit <br> *Italiano: gratis, gratuito <br> *Espaniol: gratis <br> <b>guai</b> <br> #woe <br> *Francese: ennui, malheur, chagrin, peine <br> *Italiano: guai <br> *Espaniol: pena <br> <b>h(littera): hache /h/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: h, acca(muta, ma dopo C e G cambia la pronuncia da dolce a dura(chi=ki; ghi=g di girl inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: h(lettre): ache /muet/ <br> <b>haber satis</b> <br> #to have enough <br> *Francese: avoir assez <br> *Italiano: avere abbastanza, avere a sufficienza <br> *Espaniol: tener suficiente, tener bastante <br> <b>hac</b> <br> #here, this way, on this side <br> *Francese: ici, par là, de ce côté <br> *Italiano: qui, di qui, di qua, da questa parte, in questo luogo <br> *Espaniol: aquí, en este lado <br> <b>hallo!</b> <br> #hello! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>halto</b> <br> #halt, stop <br> *Francese: halte, arrêt, stop <br> *Italiano: stop, alt, fermo! basta! <br> *Espaniol: alto <br> <b>halto!</b> <br> #halt! <br> *Francese: halte! <br> *Italiano: fermo!, ferma! stop! alt! altolà! <br> *Espaniol: alto! <br> <b>heri</b> <br> #yesterday <br> *Francese: hier <br> *Italiano: ieri <br> *Espaniol: ayer <br> <b>heri vespera</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>heri vespere</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>hic</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>hic(= iste)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: -ci <br> <b>hic juncto</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(attached) <br> *Francese: qui accanto, qui con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ci-joint <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this place <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui(da qui in poi, da qui in avanti) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este sitio en adelante <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this reason) <br> *Francese: de là, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, por esta razón <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this time <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este tiempo en adelante <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, cela <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #this(thing, idea) <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, ceci, cela <br> <b>hoc est</b> <br> #that is(to say) <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: come a dire, cioé <br> *Espaniol: es decir <br> <b>hoc pluve</b> <br> #it is raining <br> *Francese: il pleut <br> *Italiano: piove, sta piovendo <br> *Espaniol: llueve, está lloviendo <br> <b>hodie</b> <br> #today <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui <br> *Italiano: oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy <br> <b>hodie ipse</b> <br> #this very say <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: oggi stesso <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>hodie mesmo</b> <br> #this very day <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: anche oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>holla!</b> <br> #holla! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao! <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>homo(=on, uno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un, uno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: on <br> <b>i(littera): i /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: i <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: i(lettre): i /i/ <br> <b>ibi</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <b>ibid. , ib. </b><br> #ibid. , ib. <br> *Francese: ibid. , ib. <br> *Italiano: ibid. , ib. <br> *Espaniol: ibid. , ib. <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #ibidem <br> *Francese: ibidem <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: ibidem, en el mismo lugar <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #in the same place, in that very place <br> *Francese: au même endroit <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: en el mismo lugar <br> <b>id</b> <br> #1. it; 2. that <br> *Francese: ce <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>id est, i. e. </b><br> #that is(to say), i. e. <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire, i. e. <br> *Italiano: cioé <br> *Espaniol: esto es, es decir <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #idem <br> *Francese: idem <br> *Italiano: idem, lo stesso <br> *Espaniol: idem <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #the same(thing) <br> *Francese: la même chose, le même <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, idem <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa; lo mismo <br> <b>igitur</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: donc, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: quindi, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, por consiguiente <br> <b>il</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, c', il <br> <b>il(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>il conveni de(facer lo)</b> <br> #it is fitting, advisable, to(do it) <br> *Francese: il convient de(le faire) <br> *Italiano: conviene(farlo) <br> *Espaniol: conviene(hacerlo) <br> <b>il est a dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: cioè <br> *Espaniol: es decir, o sea <br> <b>il est bon que, il est bono que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon que, c'est bon que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: es bueno que <br> <b>il est bon, il est bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon, c'est bon <br> *Italiano: va bene <br> *Espaniol: es bueno <br> <b>il est necessari que, il est necessario que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario che, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est necessari, il est necessario</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire, c'est nécessaire <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario <br> <b>il est necesse que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est vero, nonne?</b> <br> #it is true, isn't it?, isn't that so? <br> *Francese: c'est vrai, non? n'est-ce pas vrai? n'est-il pas vrai? <br> *Italiano: è vero ? non è vero ? <br> *Espaniol: es verdad, no es así? <br> <b>il face</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a(deux ans) <br> *Italiano: fa(due anni fa) <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>il face(un) grande calor</b> <br> #it is very hot <br> *Francese: il fait une grande chaleur <br> *Italiano: fa un gran caldo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho calor <br> <b>il face frigido</b> <br> #it is cold(weather) <br> *Francese: il fait froid <br> *Italiano: fa freddo <br> *Espaniol: hace frío <br> <b>il ha</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il habe</b> <br> #there is, there aree <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il importa que. . . </b><br> #it is essential that. . . <br> *Francese: il faut que <br> *Italiano: è che, bisogna, è necessario che <br> *Espaniol: importa que, es importante que, es esencial que <br> <b>il pare que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il paraît que <br> *Italiano: sembra che <br> *Espaniol: parece que <br> <b>il se tracta de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il s'agit de <br> *Italiano: si tratta di <br> *Espaniol: se trata de <br> <b>il va sin dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il va sans dire <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #her(as in "of her, " "with her") <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #she <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illac</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ille habe 20 annos</b> <br> #he is 20 years old <br> *Francese: venti anni fa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il a vingt(20) ans <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #he; she; it <br> *Francese: il, elle <br> *Italiano: egli, ella, lui, lei, esso, essa <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #him; her; it(as in "with him, " "with it"; "for him, " "for it") <br> *Francese: lui, elle(comme dans "avec lui, " "avec elle"; "pour lui" "pour elle") <br> *Italiano: lui, lei(con lei, per lei, a lui, con lui, per lei, per lui) <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, pron. dém. : celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that, those <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello là, quella là <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former(= first of two) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #them(as in "with them, " "for them") <br> *Francese: eux, elles(comme dans "avec eux" ou "avec elles", "pour eux" ou "pour elles") <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro(con essi, con loro, a loro, per loro) <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #they <br> *Francese: ils, elles <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos(= aquelles, aquellas, aquellos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-là, pron. dém. : ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli là, quelle là <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>illi(= illes)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: essi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ??????? <br> <b>illic(= illac)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: là <br> <b>illo</b> <br> #it [used as subject, and as object of a prep.] <br> *Francese: ça <br> *Italiano: ciò, quello <br> *Espaniol: ello <br> <b>in</b> <br> #in, into <br> *Francese: dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nello, nella <br> *Espaniol: en, dentro <br> <b>in(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en(part. prés. ) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: = gerundio <br> <b>in alicun modo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque façon <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: de algún modo, de alguna manera <br> <b>in alicuna forma</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque forme <br> *Italiano: in qualche forma <br> *Espaniol: de alguna forma <br> <b>in alicuna maniera</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque manière <br> *Italiano: in qualche maniera <br> *Espaniol: de alguna manera <br> <b>in alta voce</b> <br> #aloud, loudly, not in a whisper <br> *Francese: à haute voix <br> *Italiano: ad alta voce <br> *Espaniol: en alta voz <br> <b>in alteras parolas</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans d'autres mots <br> *Italiano: in altre parole, in altri termini <br> *Espaniol: en otras palabras <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #(up) on top; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #upward(s), up; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto(= super)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, below; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas, en dessous <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, downward; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in caso de</b> <br> #in case of <br> *Francese: en cas de <br> *Italiano: in caso di, nel caso che <br> *Espaniol: en caso de <br> <b>in caso de necessitate</b> <br> #in case of need, of necessity <br> *Francese: en cas de nécessité <br> *Italiano: in caso di necessità, all'occorrenza <br> *Espaniol: en caso de necesidad <br> <b>in caso que</b> <br> #in case(that) <br> *Francese: au cas où <br> *Italiano: nel caso che, in caso di <br> *Espaniol: en caso de que <br> <b>in certos casos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans certains cas <br> *Italiano: in certi casi <br> *Espaniol: en ciertos casos <br> <b>in commemoration de</b> <br> #in commemoration of <br> *Francese: en commémoration de <br> *Italiano: in commemorazione di, in ricordo di, in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en conmemoración de <br> <b>in commun</b> <br> #in common <br> *Francese: en commun <br> *Italiano: in comune <br> *Espaniol: en común <br> <b>in conclusion, in fin</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: en conclusion <br> *Italiano: in conclusione <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión <br> <b>in consequentia</b> <br> #in consequence, accordingly <br> *Francese: en conséquence <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza, conseguentemente <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia <br> <b>in consequentia de</b> <br> #in consequence of <br> *Francese: en conséquence de <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza di <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia de <br> <b>in consideration de</b> <br> #in consideration of, on account of <br> *Francese: en considération de <br> *Italiano: in considerazione di <br> *Espaniol: en consideración de <br> <b>in despecto de</b> <br> #in spite of, despite <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, a dispetto di, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>in domo de</b> <br> #at the house of <br> *Francese: à la résidence de <br> *Italiano: in casa di, presso <br> *Espaniol: en la casa de <br> <b>in effecto</b> <br> #in fact, indeed <br> *Francese: en fait, effectivement <br> *Italiano: infatti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: en efecto <br> <b>in evidentia</b> <br> #evident <br> *Francese: en évidence <br> *Italiano: in evidenza <br> *Espaniol: en evidencia <br> <b>in excesso(= excessivamente, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en excès(=excessivement, trop) <br> *Italiano: in eccesso, troppo, eccessivamente <br> *Espaniol: en exceso, excesivamente, demasiado <br> <b>in favor de</b> <br> #on behalf of, in favor of <br> *Francese: en faveur de <br> *Italiano: in favore di <br> *Espaniol: a favor de <br> <b>in fin</b> <br> #in short, to sum up <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion, finalement <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión, en fin <br> <b>in fin, in conclusion</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en fin, en conclusión <br> <b>in general</b> <br> #in general <br> *Francese: en général <br> *Italiano: in generale, in genere, di norma, usualmente, normalmente <br> *Espaniol: en general <br> <b>in honor de</b> <br> #in honor of <br> *Francese: en honneur de <br> *Italiano: in onore di <br> *Espaniol: en honor de <br> <b>in la proximitate de</b> <br> #in the proximity or vicinity of <br> *Francese: à proximité de <br> *Italiano: in prossimità di <br> *Espaniol: en la proximidad o vecindad de <br> <b>in la via de(= facie a, ob)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>in le curso de. . . </b><br> #in the course of. . . <br> *Francese: au cours de <br> *Italiano: in corso di <br> *Espaniol: en el curso de <br> <b>in le exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior <br> <b>in le exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior de <br> <b>in le fundo</b> <br> #fundamentally, at bottom <br> *Francese: au fond, fondamentalement <br> *Italiano: in fondo <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo, fundamentalmente <br> <b>in le gusto de. . . </b><br> #in the manner of. . . <br> *Francese: au goût de <br> *Italiano: al gusto di <br> *Espaniol: al gusto de, a la manera de <br> <b>in le interim</b> <br> #in the interim <br> *Francese: dans l'intérim <br> *Italiano: nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: en el interim <br> <b>in le interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior <br> <b>in le interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: en el interior de <br> <b>in le passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le passé <br> *Italiano: nel passato <br> *Espaniol: en el pasado <br> <b>in le principio</b> <br> #in the beginning <br> *Francese: au début <br> *Italiano: all'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: al principio <br> <b>in loco de</b> <br> #in lieu of, instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: in luogo di, al posto di, invece di <br> *Espaniol: en lugar de <br> <b>in medio de</b> <br> #in the middle of <br> *Francese: au milieu de <br> *Italiano: in mezzo a <br> *Espaniol: en medio de <br> <b>in memoria de</b> <br> #in memory of <br> *Francese: en mémoire de <br> *Italiano: in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en memoria de <br> <b>in modo special, specialmente</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: in particolare, specialmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>in modo. . . (= -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>in nomine de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: au nom de <br> *Italiano: in nome di <br> *Espaniol: en nombre de <br> <b>in nulla parte</b> <br> #nowhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in nessun luogo, da nessuna parte <br> *Espaniol: en ninguna parte <br> <b>in nulle caso</b> <br> #in no case <br> *Francese: en aucun cas <br> *Italiano: in alcun caso, in nessun caso, mai <br> *Espaniol: en ningún caso <br> <b>in omne caso</b> <br> #in any case <br> *Francese: en tout cas <br> *Italiano: in ogni caso, in utti i casi, sempre <br> *Espaniol: en todo caso <br> <b>in parte</b> <br> #in part, partially <br> *Francese: en partie <br> *Italiano: in parte <br> *Espaniol: en parte, parcialmente <br> <b>in particular</b> <br> #in particular, particularly <br> *Francese: en particulier <br> *Italiano: in particolare <br> *Espaniol: en particular, particularmente <br> <b>in pauco</b> <br> #shortly, before long <br> *Francese: d'ici peu <br> *Italiano: in poco tempo, da qui a un poco, in un attimo <br> *Espaniol: en poco tiempo, dentro de poco, en breve <br> <b>in plus</b> <br> #furthermore, in addition, also <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, en outre <br> *Italiano: di più, in più, <br> *Espaniol: además, adicionalmente <br> <b>in primo loco</b> <br> #first, in the first place <br> *Francese: en premier lieu <br> *Italiano: in primo luogo, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: en primer lugar <br> <b>in principio</b> <br> #in principle, as a rule <br> *Francese: en principe <br> *Italiano: in principio <br> *Espaniol: en principio <br> <b>in su loco</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à sa place <br> *Italiano: al suo posto <br> *Espaniol: en su lugar <br> <b>in summa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en somme <br> *Italiano: insomma <br> *Espaniol: en suma <br> <b>in tanto que</b> <br> #inasmuch as, in so far as <br> *Francese: en tant que <br> *Italiano: in tanto che, fin tanto che <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que <br> <b>in toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly, in toto <br> *Francese: en tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo <br> <b>in toto et per toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly <br> *Francese: en tout et pour tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto e per tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo y por todo <br> <b>in vano</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano, inutilmente <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>in vice de</b> <br> #instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: en vez de, en lugar de <br> <b>in vista de</b> <br> #in view of <br> *Francese: en vue de <br> *Italiano: in vista di <br> *Espaniol: en vista de <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that cause, therefore <br> *Francese: de ce fait, de là <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò <br> *Espaniol: por esa causa, por consiguiente <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that place, from there, thence <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui <br> *Espaniol: desde aquí, desde este sitio <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that time, after that, thereupon, thenceforward <br> *Francese: désormais, dorénavant <br> *Italiano: da questo momento <br> *Espaniol: desde este momento, después de eso <br> <b>inferior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: inférieur(e) <br> *Italiano: inferiore <br> *Espaniol: inferior <br> <b>infime, infima, infimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: infime <br> *Italiano: infimo, infima <br> *Espaniol: ínfimo, ínfima <br> <b>1</b> <br> #below, under, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous <br> *Italiano: sotto, in basso, in profondità <br> *Espaniol: debajo de <br> <b>infra</b> <br> #below, underneath, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous, en dessous <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo <br> <b>insimul(= junctamente)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #among <br> *Francese: parmi <br> *Italiano: tra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #between <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter alia</b> <br> #inter alia, among other things <br> *Francese: entre autres choses, parmi tant d'autres <br> *Italiano: tra l'altro <br> *Espaniol: entre otras cosas <br> <b>interdum</b> <br> #sometimes, occasionally; for some time; meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: parfois, à l'occasion, pour quelque temps, entre-temps <br> *Italiano: qualchevolta, talvolta, durante, nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: a veces, de vez en cuando; durante algún tiempo; entretanto <br> <b>interea</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>interim(= intertanto)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto, mientras tanto <br> <b>intertanto(= interim)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: en attendant <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: entre, dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nella, dentro il <br> *Espaniol: dentro <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di, nel, in <br> *Espaniol: dentro de <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: hacia dentro <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly, internally, on the inside, in <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: internamente, interiormente, enm el interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, into, to the inside <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: al interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, on the inside, within <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior, dentro de <br> <b>io(=ego)</b> <br> #I <br> *Francese: je(=moi) <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>io mesme, io mesma, io mesmo, io ipse</b> <br> #myself <br> *Francese: moi même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso <br> *Espaniol: yo mismo, yo mismo <br> <b>ipse</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: -même <br> *Italiano: stesso <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma(yo mismo, tú mismo, él mismo, etc. <br> <b>is</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce <br> <b>isse(= esse)</b> <br> #this, that, these, those <br> *Francese: ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-là, ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa, questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: ese <br> <b>isse, issa, isso(= aquesse, aquessa, aquesso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>isses, issas, issos(= aquesses, aquessas, aquessos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questi, queste <br> *Espaniol: esos, esas <br> <b>isso</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce. ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, quello <br> *Espaniol: eso <br> <b>ista nocte</b> <br> #tonight <br> *Francese: cette nuit <br> *Italiano: questa notte, stanotte <br> *Espaniol: esta noche <br> <b>ista vespera</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera, stasera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste vespere</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter(= second of two) <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #this(one) <br> *Francese: celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto(= aqueste, aquesta, aquesto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>istes, istas, istos(= aquestes, aquestas, aquestos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: estos, estas <br> <b>isto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ce, ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #accordingly, under the circumstances <br> *Francese: en conséquence, dans les circonstances <br> *Italiano: così, di conseguenza, <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo con, bako las circunstancias <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #and so, consequently <br> *Francese: et ainsi, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: e così <br> *Espaniol: así, consecuentemente, por consiguiente <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #just so, yes <br> *Francese: justement, oui <br> *Italiano: sì, giusto <br> *Espaniol: justamente, sí <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>itaque</b> <br> #and so, therefore <br> *Francese: et ainsi, donc <br> *Italiano: e così, dunque <br> *Espaniol: y así, por consiguiente <br> <b>itero</b> <br> #again, anew <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora, di nuovo, nuovamente <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo, nuevamente <br> <b>itero et itero</b> <br> #again and again, repeatedly <br> *Francese: encore et encore <br> *Italiano: ancora ed ancora <br> *Espaniol: una y otra vez, repetidamente <br> <b>j(littera): jota /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: j(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo; si usa nelle parole antiche o straniere) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: j(lettre): ji /j/(et non /dj/) <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #already; at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely <br> *Francese: déjà, tout de suite, il y a un moment, en effet, sûrement <br> *Italiano: già, al momento, proprio adesso <br> *Espaniol: ya, ahora mismo <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #indeed, certainly, of course <br> *Francese: en effet, bien sûr <br> *Italiano: in effetti, già, sicuramente, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ya, ciertamente <br> <b>jammais</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>jammais!</b> <br> #never! <br> *Francese: jamais! <br> *Italiano: mai giammai ! <br> *Espaniol: jamás!, nunca! <br> <b>jo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>junctamente(=insimul)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme, con <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>justo(= exactamente)</b> <br> #just, exactly <br> *Francese: juste, exactement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: justo, exactamente <br> <b>justo nunc(= justo ora)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>justo ora(= justo nunc)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near by <br> *Francese: près <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca, al lado <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near to, next to, etc. <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de <br> <b>k(littera): ka /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: k(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo), kappa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: k(lettre): ka /k/ <br> <b>l(littera): le /l/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: l, elle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l(lettre): èle /l/ <br> <b>l'(= le, la, lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l'(= le, la) <br> <b>la</b> <br> #her(as in "I see her", "I write her a letter") <br> *Francese: la, lui(comme dans "je la vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: la, lei(io la vedo, io le ho scritto una lettera) <br> *Espaniol: la, le <br> <b>la(= illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>la medietate del mundo</b> <br> #half the world <br> *Francese: la moitié du monde <br> *Italiano: mezzo mondo <br> *Espaniol: la mitad del mundo, medio mundo <br> <b>la mesma cosa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: la même chose <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, la medesima cosa <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa, lo mismo <br> <b>la vespera</b> <br> #in the evening, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: por la tarde <br> <b>la:(un dollar) la(libra)</b> <br> #(one dollar) a(pound) <br> *Francese: la:(un dollar) la(livre) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (un dolar) la(libra) <br> <b>le(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: el(+ inf) <br> <b>le de, la de, lo de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui de, celle de <br> *Italiano: quello di, quella di <br> *Espaniol: el de, la de, lo de <br> <b>le die sequente</b> <br> #the next day, the following day <br> *Francese: le jour suivant <br> *Italiano: il giorno dopo, il giorno seguente, il giorno successivo <br> *Espaniol: el día siguiente <br> <b>le lore, la lore, lo lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur, la leur <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>le melior, la melior, lo melior(= le optime, la optima, lo optimo; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> #the best <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le mie et le tue, la mia et la tua, lo mio et lo tuo</b> <br> #mine and thine <br> *Francese: le mien et le tien. la mienne et la tienne <br> *Italiano: il mio e il tuo, la mia e la tua <br> *Espaniol: el mío y el tuyo, la mía y la tuya, lo mío y lo tuyo <br> <b>le mie, la mia, lo mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: el mío, la mía, lo mío <br> <b>le minime, la minima, lo minino(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minor, la minor, lo minor(= le minime, la minima, lo minimo; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il minore, la minore <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minus</b> <br> #the least(as in "what pleases me(the) least") <br> *Francese: le moins <br> *Italiano: il meno <br> *Espaniol: el menor <br> <b>le minus belle, la minus bella, lo minus bello</b> <br> #the least beautiful <br> *Francese: le moins beau, la moins belle <br> *Italiano: il meno bello, lameno bella <br> *Espaniol: el menos bello, la menos bella, lo menos bello <br> <b>le nostre, la nostra, lo nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre, la nôtre <br> *Italiano: il nostro, la nostra <br> *Espaniol: el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro <br> <b>le optime, la optima, lo optimo(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor <br> <b>le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire la pire <br> *Italiano: il pessimo, la pessima <br> *Espaniol: el pésimo, la pésima, lo pésimo <br> <b>le plus belle, la plus bella, lo plus bello</b> <br> #the most beautiful <br> *Francese: le plus beau, la plus belle <br> *Italiano: il più bello, la più bella <br> *Espaniol: el más bonito, la más bonita, lo más bonito <br> <b>le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le optime, la optima, lo optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande(= le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno(= le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le minime, la minima, lo minimo)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le plus. . . -mente(= lo plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>le plus. . . , la plus. . . , lo plus. . . </b><br> #the most. . . <br> *Francese: le plus..., la plus... <br> *Italiano: il più. . . la più. . . <br> *Espaniol: el más. . . , la más. . . , lo más. . . <br> <b>le qual, la qual, lo qual</b> <br> #which; that; who <br> *Francese: lequel, laquelle <br> *Italiano: il quale, la quale <br> *Espaniol: el cual, la cual, lo cual <br> <b>le que, la que, lo que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui qui, celle qui <br> *Italiano: quello che, quella che <br> *Espaniol: el que, la que, lo que <br> <b>le sue, la sua, lo suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: le sien, la sienne(de lui, d'elle) <br> *Italiano: il suo, la sua <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>le toto</b> <br> #the whole <br> *Francese: le tout <br> *Italiano: il tutto <br> *Espaniol: el todo <br> <b>le tue, la tua, lo tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: il tuo, la tua <br> *Espaniol: el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo <br> <b>le un le altere, la una la altera, lo uno lo altero(= unaltre)</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(one). . . the other(one) <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre, l'une l'autre <br> *Italiano: l'un l'altro <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>le vespere</b> <br> #in the evenong, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: la tarde <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il vostro, la vostra <br> *Espaniol: el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il Suo, la Sua(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de usted) <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ustedes) <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #him(as in "I see him", "I write him a letter") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je le vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it", "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: le, la, l' <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: el, la, lo <br> <b>les de, las de, los de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux de, celles de <br> *Italiano: quelli di, quelle di <br> *Espaniol: los de, las de <br> <b>les duo, las duas, los duos</b> <br> #the two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: i due, ambo, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>les lores, las lores, los lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>les mies, las mias, los mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: los míos, las mías <br> <b>les nostres, las nostras, los nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: i nostri <br> *Espaniol: los nuestros, las nuestras <br> <b>les que, las que, los que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux que, ceux qui, celles que. celles qui <br> *Italiano: quelli che, quelle che <br> *Espaniol: los que, las que <br> <b>les sues, las suas, los suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: les siens, les siennes(de lui ou d'elle) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>les tues, las tuas, los tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiens, les tiennes <br> *Italiano: i tuoi, le tue <br> *Espaniol: los tuyos, las tuyas <br> <b>les unes les alteres</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(of them). . . the others, other ones <br> *Francese: les uns les autres <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros <br> <b>les unes les alteres, las unas las alteras, los unos los alteros</b> <br> #one another, each other <br> *Francese: les uns les autres, <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros, unas a las otras <br> les unes les autres <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i vostri <br> *Espaniol: los vuestros, las vuestras <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Suoi(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de usted) <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: les <br> *Italiano: i, le <br> *Espaniol: los, las <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #them(as in "I see them", "I write them a letter") <br> *Francese: les, leur(comme dans "je les vois", "je leur écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: li, le <br> *Espaniol: les, los, las <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #on the left hand <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra, sinistrorso <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #to the left <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>li(= le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ?????? <br> <b>lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it, " "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: le, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: lo <br> *Espaniol: lo <br> <b>lo plus. . . -mente(= le plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>lo que</b> <br> #that which <br> *Francese: ce que <br> *Italiano: quello che <br> *Espaniol: lo que <br> <b>loco</b> <br> #place <br> *Francese: lieu <br> *Italiano: luogo <br> *Espaniol: lugar <br> <b>longamente</b> <br> #long, for a long time <br> *Francese: longtemps <br> *Italiano: a lungo, lungamente <br> *Espaniol: durante mucho tiempo <br> <b>longe(= longo)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>longo(= longe)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>lontan(= lontano)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lontano(= lontan)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lor</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: su(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ellos, o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: sus(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>los altos et(los) bassos</b> <br> #th ups and downs <br> *Francese: les hauts et les bas <br> *Italiano: gli alti e bassi <br> *Espaniol: los altos y(los) bajos <br> <b>los mios</b> <br> #my people, my family <br> *Francese: les miens <br> *Italiano: i miei <br> *Espaniol: los míos <br> <b>m(littera): me /m/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: m, emme <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: m(lettre): ème /m/ <br> <b>ma(= mais)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #rather <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>magne, magna, magno(= grande)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grande <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: grand, grande <br> <b>mais(= ma)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>major</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: maggiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: majeur(e), principal(e) <br> <b>mal, mala, malo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: male, malvagio <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mal, mauvais, mauvaise <br> <b>malgrado(= malgre)</b> <br> #in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>malgre(= malgrado)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: malgrado <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: malgré <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #early in the morning <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: stamane, stamattina presto <br> *Espaniol: temprano por la mañana <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #morning <br> *Francese: matin <br> *Italiano: mattino <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>mane vespera</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>mane vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #certainly <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #especially, principally <br> *Francese: spécialement, principalement <br> *Italiano: specialmente. principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmentre, principalmente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #exceedingly, very <br> *Francese: excessivement, très <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, troppo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muy <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #most <br> *Francese: il più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus <br> <b>maxime, maxima, maximo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il più, la più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus, la plus <br> <b>me</b> <br> #me <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: me, mi(dallo a me, mi piace) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>me</b> <br> #myself(as in "I hurt myself", "I said to myself") <br> *Francese: moi-même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso(io stesso ho scritto quel libro; l'ho scritto io stesso; l'ho fatto per me stesso) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>media hora</b> <br> #half an hour <br> *Francese: demi-heure <br> *Italiano: mezz'ora <br> *Espaniol: media hora <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #average, mean <br> *Francese: moyen, moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: demi <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #middle <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medietate</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: mitad <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #mean, medium <br> *Francese: moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #means(= agent or instrument by which an end is attained) <br> *Francese: moyen <br> *Italiano: mediante, con <br> *Espaniol: medios(=agente o instrumento mediante el cual se obtiene un fin) <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #middle, also: midst <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: medio, in mezzo, in <br> *Espaniol: medio, también: entre <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>melio</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>melior</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>meno(= minus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>-mente(= in modo. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> #same <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #even <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: incluso, stesso <br> *Espaniol: incluso <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #likewise <br> *Francese: même, semblable <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente <br> <b>mesmo quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: même quand <br> *Italiano: anche quando <br> *Espaniol: incluso cuando <br> <b>mi</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mi <br> <b>mi(= me)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: mio <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>mie, mia, mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: mío, mía <br> <b>mies, mias, mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: míos, mías <br> <b>minimamente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minimalement <br> *Italiano: minimamente <br> *Espaniol: mínimamente <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #by no means, not in the least, no! <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon, pas du tout, non! <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo, no, assolutamente <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera, en lo más mínimo, no! <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #least <br> *Francese: almeno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le moins <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #very little <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #least, smallest, minimal <br> *Francese: le moins, la moins, le plus petit, la plus petite, minimal <br> *Italiano: minimo, la minima. . . la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: mínimo, mínima <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #very small, tiny <br> *Francese: très petit <br> *Italiano: molto piccolo <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño, diminuto <br> <b>minor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mineur(e) <br> <b>minus</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>minus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #less(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: moins de(moins d'argent) <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>minus de</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins de <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos de <br> <b>minus de(dece annos)</b> <br> #less than(ten years) <br> *Francese: moins de(dix ans) <br> *Italiano: meno di <br> *Espaniol: menos de(diez años) <br> <b>minus. . . (que)</b> <br> #less. . . (than) <br> *Francese: moins...(que) <br> *Italiano: meno che <br> *Espaniol: menos. . . (que) <br> <b>minus:(quatro) minus(tres)</b> <br> #(four) minus(three) <br> *Francese: moins:(quatre) moins(trois) <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos:(cuatro) menos(tres) <br> <b>minus:(totos) minus(ille)</b> <br> #(all) except, but(him) <br> *Francese: (tous) sauf(lui) <br> *Italiano: (tutti) meno(lui) <br> *Espaniol: menos:(todos) menos él <br> <b>mis</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mis <br> <b>mox</b> <br> #soon, at once, directly <br> *Francese: bientôt, tout-de-suite <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto, subito, prima possibile <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en seguida <br> <b>multas gratias</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: merci beaucoup <br> *Italiano: grazie molte, molte grazie, grazie infinite, grazie mille, grazie tante <br> *Espaniol: muchas gracias <br> <b>multas vices</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plusieurs fois <br> *Italiano: più volte <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces <br> <b>multe de, multa de, multo de</b> <br> #much, many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de <br> *Italiano: molto di <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multes, multas, multos</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: plusieurs, de nombreux, de nombreuses <br> *Italiano: molte, molti, numerosi, numerose <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> <b>multissime, multissima, multissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une grande quantité de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimo, muchísima <br> <b>multissimes, multissimas, multissimos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un grand nombre de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimos, muchísimas <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #very <br> *Francese: très <br> *Italiano: molto, tanto <br> *Espaniol: muy <br> <b>multo ben</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bien <br> *Italiano: molto bene <br> *Espaniol: muy bien <br> <b>multo bon</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bon <br> *Italiano: molto buono <br> *Espaniol: muy bueno <br> <b>n(littera): ne /n/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: n, enne <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: n(lettre): ène /n/ <br> <b>nam</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: pour que <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, by nature <br> *Francese: naturellement, par tempérament <br> *Italiano: naturalmente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, por naturaleza <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, in a natural way <br> *Francese: nuturellement, simplement <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, semplicemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, de una manera natural <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, of course <br> *Francese: bien sûr, évidemment <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #lest <br> *Francese: de crainte que... ne(+subj. ) <br> *Italiano: perché no <br> *Espaniol: para que non(+subj) <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne... pas <br> *Italiano: no, non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>nec(= ni)</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>nec. . . nec. . . (= ni. . . ni. . . )</b> <br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni. . . ni. . . <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>necun, necuna, necuno(= nulle, nulla, nullo)</b> <br> #none, not any <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>necuno(= nemo)</b> <br> #nobody, no one, none <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno, alcuno <br> *Espaniol: ninguno <br> <b>nel(= in le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le <br> *Italiano: nel <br> *Espaniol: en el <br> <b>nemine(= nemo)</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>nemo</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>neque(= nec)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>neutro</b> <br> #neither <br> *Francese: ni un ni <br> *Italiano: né uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #that not <br> *Francese: ?????? <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni uno ni le altero</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni l'un ni l'autre <br> *Italiano: né l'uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni. . . ni. . . </b><br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni... ni... <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>nihil(= nil)</b> <br> #nothing <br> *Francese: rien <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nada <br> <b>nihil de particular</b> <br> #nothing particular <br> *Francese: rien de particulier <br> *Italiano: niente di particolare, nulla di particolare <br> *Espaniol: nada de particular <br> <b>nimie, nimia, nimio(= troppo)</b> <br> #too much, too many <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada <br> <b>nimis(=troppo)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>nisi</b> <br> #if not, unless <br> *Francese: si non, à moins que <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che <br> *Espaniol: si no, a menos que <br> <b>no</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: no, non(no, non è vero; non fare) <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>no!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>nocte</b> <br> #night <br> *Francese: nuit <br> *Italiano: notte <br> *Espaniol: noche <br> <b>noi(= nos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: noi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: nous <br> <b>nolente</b> <br> #unwillingly, against one's will <br> *Francese: involontairement <br> *Italiano: involontariamente, nolente, senza volere <br> *Espaniol: involuntariamente, sin querer <br> <b>non</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>non</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne. . . pas <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: non <br> <b>non est?(= nonne?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>non importa</b> <br> #it doesn't matter, never mind <br> *Francese: c'est sans importance <br> *Italiano: non importa <br> *Espaniol: no importa <br> <b>non mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ugualmente no <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pas même, même pas <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . sed etiam. . . </b><br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solo. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no ! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>non. . . jam(= non. . . ja)</b> <br> #no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no. . . ya <br> <b>non. . . jammais(= nunquam)</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: ne... jamais <br> *Italiano: non. . . mai <br> *Espaniol: no. . . jamás <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no más. . . <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, nothing more <br> *Francese: ne... rien de plus <br> *Italiano: no, nulla più <br> *Espaniol: nada más <br> <b>nondum</b> <br> #not yet <br> *Francese: pas encore <br> *Italiano: non ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún no, todavía no <br> <b>nonne?(= non est?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>nonnulle, nonnulla, nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de; plural: algunos, algunas <br> <b>nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #despite, in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #nevertheless <br> *Francese: non-obstant <br> *Italiano: nonostante <br> *Espaniol: no obstante <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #ourselves <br> *Francese: nous-mêmes <br> *Italiano: noi stessi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros mismos, nosotras mismas <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #us <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nos <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #we <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros, nosotras <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notres <br> *Italiano: nostri, nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: le nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nullamente</b> <br> #in no way, not at all <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #not any, no <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, as in "null and void") <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, (comme dans: "nul et sans effet") <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, worthless <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, sans valeur <br> *Italiano: nulla, nullo, senza valore <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula, sin valor <br> <b>num(= an, est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: egli ha. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: es que. . . <br> <b>num ille habe le libro?</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre?, a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: egli ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>nunc(= ora)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora <br> <b>nunc. . . nunc...(= ora. . . ora. . . )</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>nunquam</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: nunca <br> <b>nuper</b> <br> #newly, lately, recently <br> *Francese: nouvellement, dernièrement, récemment <br> *Italiano: nuovamente, ultimamente, recentemente <br> *Espaniol: nuevamente, últimamente, recientemente <br> <b>nusquam</b> <br> #nowhere; not. . . anywhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in alcun luogo, in nessun luogo <br> *Espaniol: a ninguna parte <br> <b>o(= aut)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>o(littera): o /o/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: o, o <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: o(lettre): o /o/ <br> <b>o. . . o...(= aut. . . aut. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>ob(= facie a, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>olim</b> <br> #at a future time, sometime in the future <br> *Francese: à un moment donné, une bonne fois <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un dato momento, una buona volta <br> *Espaniol: en un momento en el futuro, algún día en el futuro <br> <b>olim(= aliquando, unquam</b> <br> #once, formerly <br> *Francese: une fois, anciennement <br> *Italiano: una volta, anticamente, un tempo <br> *Espaniol: una vez, antiguamente <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the books" <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the cheese" <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutte, tutti <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, chaque, chacun des, cahcune des <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni, ciascuno <br> *Espaniol: todo, cada <br> <b>omne cosa</b> <br> #everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: toda cosa, todo <br> <b>omnes</b> <br> #all <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>on(= uno, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>optimamente(= optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux possible <br> *Italiano: ottimamente, il meglio possibile <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente, lo mejor posible <br> <b>optime, optima, optimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimo, óptima <br> <b>optimo(= optimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente <br> <b>ora(= nunc)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora, en la actualidad <br> <b>ora mesmo</b> <br> #right now <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: adesso, giusto adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: ahora mismo <br> <b>ora. . . ora...</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>out!</b> <br> #out! <br> *Francese: dehors! <br> *Italiano: fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>p(littera): pe /p/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: p, pi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: p(lettre): pé /p/ <br> <b>partir pro(Paris)</b> <br> #to leave or set out for(Paris) <br> *Francese: partir pour(Paris) <br> *Italiano: partire per <br> *Espaniol: partir para(Paris) <br> <b>parve, parva, parvo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: petit, petite <br> *Italiano: piccolo, piccola <br> *Espaniol: pequeño, pequeña <br> <b>passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: passé <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado <br> <b>passato</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a, ça fait <br> *Italiano: fa, passato, trascorso <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>passato(= pridem)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a bien longtemps, ça fait bien longtemps <br> *Italiano: tempo fa <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo <br> <b>passim</b> <br> #here and there, scattered, at random, in different places, passim <br> *Francese: ici et là, éparpillé, aléatoire <br> *Italiano: qui e là, qui e lì, qua e là, in luoghi diversi <br> *Espaniol: aquí y allí, esparcido, al azar, en diferentes lugares <br> <b>pauc de, pauca de, pauco de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu de <br> *Italiano: poco di, un po' di <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #few, not many <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #little, not much <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauchissime, pauchissima, pauchissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: poquísimo, poquísima <br> <b>pauco</b> <br> #little, to a small degree <br> *Francese: à un moindre degré <br> *Italiano: poco, in minima parte <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>pauco a pauco</b> <br> #little by little <br> *Francese: petit à petit, peu à peu <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>paulatim</b> <br> #gradually, by degrees, little by little, a little at a time <br> *Francese: graduellement, petit à petit, peu à peu, un peu à la fois <br> *Italiano: poco a poco, gradualmente, un po' alla volta, un po' per volta <br> *Espaniol: gradualmente, por grados, poco a poco, un poco cada vez <br> <b>pejo</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pis, pire <br> *Italiano: peggio <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>pejor</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pire <br> *Italiano: peggiore <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>per</b> <br> #by, by the agency of; through; by means of; also: per <br> *Francese: par <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por, ; a través de; por medio de; también: por <br> <b>per</b> <br> #through, from one side to the other of; also: during, throughout <br> *Francese: par, à travers, au travers de; aussi: pendant <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: per <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: pour(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por(+ inf) <br> <b>per aventura</b> <br> #by chance <br> *Francese: par aventure <br> *Italiano: per caso <br> *Espaniol: por ventura, por casualidad <br> <b>per avion</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par avion <br> *Italiano: via aerea <br> *Espaniol: por avión <br> <b>per capite</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par tête, per capita <br> *Italiano: a testa, ad ognuno <br> *Espaniol: por cabeza, per capita <br> <b>per consequente</b> <br> #consequently <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>per excellentia</b> <br> #par excellence <br> *Francese: par excellence <br> *Italiano: per eccellenza <br> *Espaniol: por excelencia <br> <b>per exemplo</b> <br> #for example, for instance <br> *Francese: par exemple <br> *Italiano: per esempio, ad esempio <br> *Espaniol: por exemplo <br> <b>per favor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per favore, per piacere <br> *Espaniol: por favor <br> <b>per isso(= pro isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, voilà pourquoi <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò, per questa ragione, per questo motivo <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esas razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>per medio de</b> <br> #by means of <br> *Francese: au moyen de <br> *Italiano: mer mezzo di, con <br> *Espaniol: por medio de <br> <b>per ubi</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par où <br> *Italiano: per dove, attraverso <br> *Espaniol: por dónde <br> <b>per virtute de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vertue de <br> *Italiano: in virtù di <br> *Espaniol: en virtúd de <br> <b>permulte, permulta, permulto</b> <br> #very much, very many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de, <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> plur. : plusieurs <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>permulto</b> <br> #very much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #why, for what reason <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché? <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>pessimamente(= pessimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimamente <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente, de la peor manera <br> <b>pessime, pessima, pessimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimo, pésima <br> <b>pessimo(= pessimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente <br> <b>ph(digrapho): pe hache /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ph pi acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ph(digraphe): pé ache /f/ <br> <b>piano</b> <br> #piano <br> *Francese: piano <br> *Italiano: piano <br> *Espaniol: piano <br> <b>plu(= plus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures veces(= plures vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces, repetidamente <br> <b>plures vices</b> <br> #several times; repeatedly <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: plusieurs <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: beaucoup <br> <b>plurimo</b> <br> #much, exceedingly <br> *Francese: beaucoup, très, extrêmenent, excessivement <br> *Italiano: molto, estremamente, eccessivamente, troppo <br> *Espaniol: mucho, extremadamente, excesivamente <br> <b>plurimo(= usualmente, communmente)</b> <br> #for the most part, commonly, usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude, en général <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, in generale, abitualmente <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces, normalmente, habitualmente <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #plus <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus(a) illac de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #more(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: plus de(plus d'argent) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>plus a la de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus de</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de <br> <b>plus de(vinti annos)</b> <br> #more than, over, above(twenty years) <br> *Francese: plus de(vingt ans) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de(veinte años) <br> <b>plus grande(que)</b> <br> #greater, bigger(than) <br> *Francese: plus grand(e)(que) <br> *Italiano: più grande <br> *Espaniol: más grande(que) <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later on <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: più tardi <br> *Espaniol: más tarde, después <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, as in "later than expected" <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: depués <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, subsequently <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más pronto, más bien, preferentemente <br> <b>plus. . . (que)</b> <br> #more. . . (than) <br> *Francese: plus...(que) <br> *Italiano: più. . . che <br> *Espaniol: más. . . (que) <br> <b>plus:(le) plus</b> <br> #(the) most(as in "what pleased me(the) most") <br> *Francese: plus:(le) plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más:(el) más <br> <b>plus:(tres) plus(quatro)</b> <br> #(three) plus(four) <br> *Francese: plus:(trois) plus(quatre) <br> *Italiano: più(tre) più(quattro) <br> *Espaniol: más:(tres) más(cuatro) <br> <b>poc, poca, poco(= pauc, pauca, pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>poco(= pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>poco a poco(= pauco a pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu à peu, petit à petit <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: puis, alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, in seguito <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: étant donné que <br> *Italiano: poiché, dato che <br> *Espaniol: porque, dado que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> #as, since, because <br> *Francese: comme, puisque <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: como, porque <br> <b>por(= pro, per)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: per <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pour <br> <b>porque(= proque, perque)</b> <br> #because, why <br> *Francese: parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>post</b> <br> #afterwards, after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: detrás, atrás, luego <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind; after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>post que</b> <br> #since, because <br> *Francese: puisque <br> *Italiano: perché, dato che, poiché <br> *Espaniol: puesto que, porque <br> <b>post todo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après tout <br> *Italiano: dopo tutto <br> *Espaniol: después de todo <br> <b>post-deman</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après-demain <br> *Italiano: dopodomani <br> *Espaniol: pasado mañana <br> <b>postea</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, posteriormente, luego <br> <b>postere, postera, postero</b> <br> #coming after, following <br> *Francese: suivant(e) <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: siguiente <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, back <br> *Francese: postérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: posteriore, dietro <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, buttock <br> *Francese: le postérieur, le derrière <br> *Italiano: posteriore <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, later <br> *Francese: postérieur(e), après, plus tard <br> *Italiano: posterioremente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posteriormente</b> <br> #subsequently, later <br> *Francese: postérieurement <br> *Italiano: posteriormente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posteriormente, más tarde <br> <b>postquam</b> <br> #after, as soon as <br> *Francese: après que, aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después de, en cuanto <br> <b>pot'esser(= pote esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi, <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>pote esser(= pot'esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt, en réalité <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in realtà <br> *Espaniol: más bien, en realidad <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt, plus tôt, de préférence <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in raltà, preferenzialmente, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien, más pronto, preferentemente <br> <b>precio minimo</b> <br> #minimum price <br> *Francese: prix minimum, prix minimal <br> *Italiano: prezzo minimo <br> *Espaniol: precio mínimo <br> <b>presertim(= super toto)</b> <br> #especially, particularly, chiefly <br> *Francese: surtout, particulièrement <br> *Italiano: soprattutto, particolarmente, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, particularmente, principalmente <br> <b>presso(= apud)</b> <br> #near, close <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di, appresso a, vicino a, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de, cercano a <br> <b>presto</b> <br> #presto, quickly, quick as a wink <br> *Francese: vite, rapidement <br> *Italiano: presto, rapidamente, velocemente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: presto, rápidamente, rápido <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au delà, passé <br> *Italiano: passato, al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccettuato, escluso, al di fuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: además de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #past, along(side of), beyond <br> *Francese: passé, le long, au delà <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado, más allá de <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: en outre, de plus, d'ailleurs, du reste <br> *Italiano: inoltre, del resto <br> *Espaniol: además, es más <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #henceforth, hereafter <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: d'ora in poi, da questo momento, da adesso in avanti <br> *Espaniol: de ahora en adelante, de aquí en adelante <br> <b>pridem(= passato)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a longtemps <br> *Italiano: da lungo tempo, da tempo, da molto tempo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo, hace tiempo <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #first, in the first place, first of all <br> *Francese: premièrement, en premier lieu, d'abord <br> *Italiano: principalmente, in primo luogoo <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, en primer lugar <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #primarily, chiefly <br> *Francese: principalement, avant tout, surtout <br> *Italiano: principalmenre, innanzitutto, soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, principalmente <br> <b>prime, prima, primo</b> <br> #first, prime <br> *Francese: premier, première <br> *Italiano: primo, prima <br> *Espaniol: primero, primera <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, in place of, in exchange or return for <br> *Francese: pour <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para; por; en lugar de, a cambio de, en vez de <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, not against <br> *Francese: pour, en faveur <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: pro, para, a favor de <br> <b>pro(+ inf)</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para, a fin de <br> <b>pro isso(= per isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> *Italiano: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esa razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>pro isso(= pro esso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> <b>pro le presente</b> <br> #for the present <br> *Francese: pour le moment <br> *Italiano: intanto, per il momento <br> *Espaniol: por el momento, para el presente <br> <b>pro nihil</b> <br> #for nothing, without cost <br> *Francese: pour rien, gratuit <br> *Italiano: per niente, gratuito, gratis, gratuitamente <br> *Espaniol: para nada, gratuito, sin costo <br> <b>pro si dicer</b> <br> #so to say <br> *Francese: pour ainsi dire <br> *Italiano: per così dire <br> *Espaniol: para así decir, por así decir <br> <b>procul</b> <br> #far off, far away, at a distance <br> *Francese: au loin <br> *Italiano: lontanamente <br> *Espaniol: lejos, fuera, a una distancia <br> <b>proprie a, propria a, proprio a</b> <br> #proper or peculiar to <br> *Francese: propre à <br> *Italiano: proprio per <br> *Espaniol: proprio para <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #own <br> *Francese: propre <br> *Italiano: proprio <br> *Espaniol: propio <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #proper, appropriate <br> *Francese: approprié(e) <br> *Italiano: appropriato, appropriata <br> *Espaniol: apropiado <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, at hand <br> *Francese: proche, à(la) portée <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, vicino <br> *Espaniol: cerca, a mano <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, close to <br> *Francese: près, près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di <br> *Espaniol: cerca de <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #on account of, by reason of, because of <br> *Francese: compte tenu de, à cause de, <br> *Italiano: per, a causa di, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por cauda de, debido a <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #why <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>proximamente</b> <br> #shortly, soon <br> *Francese: bientôt <br> *Italiano: in breve, subito, quanto prima <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en breve <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #next(as in "next week") <br> *Francese: suivant(e), prochain(e) <br> *Italiano: prossimo, seguente, successivo <br> *Espaniol: próxima, siguiente <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #very near, close <br> *Francese: très près, tout près <br> *Italiano: molto vicino, prossimo <br> *Espaniol: muy cerca <br> <b>proximo</b> <br> #neighbor, fellow being <br> *Francese: voisin, camarade <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, compagno, camerata <br> *Espaniol: prójimo, vecino, camarada <br> <b>q(littera): qu /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: q, qu(pron ku) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: q(lettre): qü ou qy /k/ <br> <b>qua</b> <br> #as, in the capacity of, qua <br> *Francese: en tant que, en qualité de <br> *Italiano: come, in qualità di <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que, en calidad de <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál, qué <br> <b>qualcosa</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualche cosa, qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: algo, alguna cosa <br> <b>qualcun, qualcuna, qualcuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno <br> <b>qualcuno</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>qualcunque</b> <br> #any, whatever, of whatever kind <br> *Francese: quelconque <br> *Italiano: chiunque, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera <br> <b>qualque(quálke)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #as, than <br> *Francese: comme, que <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como, que <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #in what manner, how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo <br> *Espaniol: de qué manera, cómo <br> <b>quamquam(quámquam)(= quanquam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique, cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuando <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuándo <br> <b>quandocunque</b> <br> #whenever <br> *Francese: toutes les fois que, peu importe quand <br> *Italiano: ogni volta che <br> *Espaniol: cuandoquiera <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #however, yet, nevertheless <br> *Francese: cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: nondimeno, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, no obstante <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quante, quanta, quanto</b> <br> #how much, how many <br> *Francese: combien de <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuánto, cuánta <br> <b>quanto</b> <br> #as much as; as far as <br> *Francese: autant que, pour autant que, en autant que <br> *Italiano: quanto, tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuanto, tanto como <br> <b>quanto a</b> <br> #as for <br> *Francese: quant à <br> *Italiano: quanto a <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto a <br> <b>quanto. . . tanto...</b> <br> #the. . . the... <br> *Francese: autant... autant <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto. . . <br> *Espaniol: cuanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>quare</b> <br> #wherefore, why <br> *Francese: pourquoi, pour quelle raison <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>quasi</b> <br> #almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way, etc. <br> *Francese: quasi, prèsque, à peu prés, dans un certain sens <br> *Italiano: quasi, approssimativamente, circa <br> *Espaniol: casi; en un cierto sentido, en cierto modo <br> <b>quasi que</b> <br> #as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: quasi che, come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #than <br> *Francese: que /k?/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: que <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: que, quoi /k?/ /koa/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #who, whom, which, that; what(= that which) <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que etate habete vos?</b> <br> #how old are you? <br> *Francese: quel âge avez-vous? <br> *Italiano: quanti hanni hai(tu) ? quanti anni ha(lei)? <br> *Espaniol: qué edad tiene usted?, cuántos años tiene usted? <br> <b>que hora</b> <br> #what time <br> *Francese: quelle heure <br> *Italiano: che ora. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: qué hora <br> <b>quecunque(kekúnkwe, kwekúnkwe)</b> <br> #whatever <br> *Francese: quoi que /koa k?/ <br> *Italiano: qualsiasi cosa <br> *Espaniol: cualquier cosa <br> <b>quem</b> <br> #what, which, whom <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quel, quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: que, quien <br> <b>qui(= hic, ci)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>qui(ki, kwi)</b> <br> #who, whom <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quién <br> <b>qui:(con, a, etc. ) qui</b> <br> #(with, to, etc. ) whom <br> *Francese: qui:(avec, à, etc. ) qui <br> *Italiano: con chi <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quia</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quicunque(ki-, kwi-)</b> <br> #whoever <br> *Francese: quiconque <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quienquiera <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: che cosa, cosa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoi <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #why, how, wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi, comment <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué, cómo <br> <b>quidem</b> <br> #certainly, truly; indeed, even <br> *Francese: certainement, vraiment, en effet, effectivement <br> *Italiano: certamente, veramente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, de verdad, verdaderamente; de hecho, incluso <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #so that, in order that <br> *Francese: tel que, afin que <br> *Italiano: talché, cosi che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: a fin que <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #who, what <br> *Francese: qui, quoi <br> *Italiano: chi, cosa <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quo(=a ubi)</b> <br> #where, at what place, whither <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar, adónde <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, because, why <br> *Francese: que, parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: qué, por qué <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, what <br> *Francese: que, quoi <br> *Italiano: che, che cosa <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #how, in what manner <br> *Francese: comment, de quelle façon, de quelle manière <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: ómo, de qué manera <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #in the manner that, as <br> *Francese: comme, tel que <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: como, de la manera en que <br> <b>quot</b> <br> #how many; as many; each, every <br> *Francese: combien, autant, chaque, chacun(e) <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuántos, tantos, cada, cada uno, cada una <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #as often as <br> *Francese: aussi souvent que <br> *Italiano: così spesso che <br> *Espaniol: tan a menudo como <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #how often, how many times <br> *Francese: combien de fois <br> *Italiano: tante volte che <br> *Espaniol: tantas veces <br> <b>r(littera): re /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: r, erre <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: r(lettre): ère /r/ <br> <b>re</b> <br> #regarding, about, of, on, concerning <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de, à propos de, concernant <br> *Italiano: su, a proposito di, concernente, sopra, rispetto a, circa <br> *Espaniol: acerca de, respecto a, con respecto a, concerniente a, sobre, de <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, ago <br> *Francese: en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hace <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, as in "to give back") <br> *Francese: en retour(comme dans "donner en retour") <br> *Italiano: di ritorno <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, backwards <br> *Francese: arrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>rh(digrapho): re hache /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: rh(pron : erre acca) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: rh(digraphe): ère ache /r/ <br> <b>s(littera): se /s/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s, esse(pronuncia 1 : s in rosa, cosa, dose, chiesa = come inglese rose; pronuncia 2 : s in signore, senior, selva, scuola come inglese ross, self) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: s(lettre): èsse /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>saepe(sái-)</b> <br> #often, frequently <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: a menudo, frecuentemente <br> <b>salvo</b> <br> #save, but; also: save or but for <br> *Francese: sauf <br> *Italiano: salvo, eccetto, ma <br> *Espaniol: salvo <br> <b>salvo error et omission</b> <br> #errors and omissions excepted <br> *Francese: sauf erreur et omission <br> *Italiano: salvo errori od omissioni, salvo errori ed omissioni <br> *Espaniol: salvo error y omisión <br> <b>salvo que</b> <br> #save or but that <br> *Francese: sauf que <br> *Italiano: salvo che, eccetto che <br> *Espaniol: salvo que <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta, abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #rather, somewhat <br> *Francese: assez, plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza, sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>satis de(tempore, etc. )(= assatis de(tempore, etc. ))</b> <br> #enough(time, etc. ), (time, etc. ) enough <br> *Francese: assez de(temps, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente : tempo sufficiente) <br> *Espaniol: bastante(tiempo, etc. ), suficiente(tiempo, etc. ) <br> <b>se</b> <br> #himself; herself; itself; themselves <br> *Francese: se, s' <br> *Italiano: se(per se), -si(avvicinarsi) <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>se(= on)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #(following) after <br> *Francese: d'après <br> *Italiano: secondo, , dopo, seguendo <br> *Espaniol: después de, siguiendo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #according to <br> *Francese: selon, en accord avec <br> *Italiano: d'accordo con, secondo <br> *Espaniol: según, de acuerdo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #along, by <br> *Francese: selon, le long de <br> *Italiano: lungo il <br> *Espaniol: a lo largo de <br> <b>secundo que</b> <br> #according as <br> *Francese: selon que, selon qu' <br> *Italiano: secondo quanto, conforme a <br> *Espaniol: según que, conforme a <br> <b>sed</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma, però <br> *Espaniol: pero <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #firstly <br> *Francese: premièrement <br> *Italiano: in primis, innanzitutto, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: primeramente <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #once <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta(sola) <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>semper(= sempre)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sempre(=semper)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sero</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, supposing that <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se, supponendo che <br> *Espaniol: si, suponiendo que <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: così, tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>si il te place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il te plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, prego, per favore, per cortesia <br> *Espaniol: si te place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #except, unless it be <br> *Francese: excepté, à moins que ce soit <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che, eccetto che, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto, a menos que <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si tosto que</b> <br> #as soon as <br> *Francese: aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: così presto che, tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto, tan pronto como <br> <b>si. . . como. . . </b><br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>sia</b> <br> #be, may be, let there be <br> *Francese: soit <br> *Italiano: sia <br> *Espaniol: sea <br> <b>sia como sia</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qu'il en soit ainsi <br> *Italiano: sia come sia, sia quel che sia <br> *Espaniol: sea como sea <br> <b>sia. . . sia. . . </b><br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: soit... soit... <br> *Italiano: sia. . . sia. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>sic(= si)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>sic(=si)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>sicut</b> <br> #so as, just as, as <br> *Francese: tel(le) que, comme <br> *Italiano: come, talché <br> *Espaniol: tal que, como <br> <b>simul</b> <br> #at once, at the same time, together <br> *Francese: simultanément, tout de suite, ensemble <br> *Italiano: allo stesso tempo, nello stesso tempo, allo stesso istante, insieme. simultaneamente <br> *Espaniol: en seguida, al mismo tiempo, juntos, juntas <br> <b>sin</b> <br> #without <br> *Francese: sans <br> *Italiano: senza <br> *Espaniol: sin <br> <b>sin dubita</b> <br> #without doubt, doubtless <br> *Francese: sans doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin duda, indudablemente <br> <b>sin falta</b> <br> #without fail <br> *Francese: sans erreur, sans faute <br> *Italiano: senza meno, senza errore, senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin falta, sin error <br> <b>sin fundamento</b> <br> #groundless, unfounded <br> *Francese: sans fondement <br> *Italiano: senza fondamentp <br> *Espaniol: sin fundamento, infundado <br> <b>sinon(= si non)</b> <br> #otherwise, else; except, save, if not, unless <br> *Francese: sinon <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: sinon <br> <b>sive</b> <br> #or if, or <br> *Francese: ou si, ou <br> *Italiano: o, oppure, o se <br> *Espaniol: o si <br> <b>sive. . . sive</b> <br> #. . . if. . . or if... <br> *Francese: si... ou si... <br> *Italiano: se. . . o se. . . <br> *Espaniol: si. . . o si. . . <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #only <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #sole, without companions, alone <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>solamente</b> <br> #only, merely <br> *Francese: seulement <br> *Italiano: solo, solamente <br> *Espaniol: solamente, meramente <br> <b>sovente(=subinde)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repeoidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>specialmente, in modo special</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: specialmente, particolarmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>sponte(= voluntarie, voluntariamente)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: spontaneamente, volontariamente, di buon grado <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>stop!</b> <br> #stop! <br> *Francese: stop! <br> *Italiano: stop! fermo! ferma! alt! <br> *Espaniol: stop! <br> <b>su</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua(di ella, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: su(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sub</b> <br> #under, below, beneath <br> *Francese: sous <br> *Italiano: sotto, dabbasso, abbasso <br> *Espaniol: debajo de, bajo <br> <b>sub los auspicios de</b> <br> #under the auspices of <br> *Francese: sous les auspices de <br> *Italiano: con gli auspici di, sotto gli auspici di <br> *Espaniol: bajo los auspicios de <br> <b>subinde</b> <br> #immediately after, just after, forthwith <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: immediatamente dopo, giusto dopo <br> *Espaniol: inmediatamente después, justo después, inmediatamente <br> <b>subinde(= sovente)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, di tanto in tanto <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repetidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>subito</b> <br> #suddenly, unexpectedly <br> *Francese: soudainement <br> *Italiano: repentinamente, immediatamente, subito <br> *Espaniol: súbitamente, de repente, inesperadamente <br> <b>subtus</b> <br> #below, beneath, underneath <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo, debajo, debajo de <br> <b>successivamente</b> <br> #successively, in succession <br> *Francese: successivement, tour à tour <br> *Italiano: successivamente, in successione, consecutivamente, di conseguenza, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: sucesivamente, en sucesión <br> <b>sue, sua, suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sues, suas, suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suoi, sue(di lui, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sufficiente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente, bastante <br> *Espaniol: suficiente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientemente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficiently, enough <br> *Francese: suffisamment, assez <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientemente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientes(= bastantes)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientes, bastantes <br> <b>sui(= su, sue)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suo, sua <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: son, sa <br> <b>summe, summa, summo(= supreme, suprema, supremo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: sommo/a, supremo/a <br> *Espaniol: sumo, suma <br> <b>super</b> <br> #about, concerning, on <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: supra, in fatto di, concernente, circa <br> *Espaniol: sobre, concerniente a <br> <b>super</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of; above, over <br> *Francese: sur, au dessus de <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>super(= in alto)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>super toto(= presertim)</b> <br> #above all <br> *Francese: par dessus tout <br> *Italiano: soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: sobre todo <br> <b>superior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: superiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: supérieur(e) <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #above, over <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #on the top, above <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba, en la parte de arriba <br> <b>supreme, suprema, supremo(= summe, summa, summo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: supremo, suprema, supremi <br> *Espaniol: supremo, suprema <br> <b>sur(= super)</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of <br> *Francese: sur <br> *Italiano: su, sopra, in cima, in alto <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>sus</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: sus(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>t(littera): te /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t, ti <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: t(lettre): té /t/ <br> <b>tal</b> <br> #such a, such <br> *Francese: tel(le) <br> *Italiano: tale, tale a <br> *Espaniol: tal <br> <b>tal et tal</b> <br> #such and such(a) <br> *Francese: tel et tel <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tal y tal <br> <b>talmente</b> <br> #so <br> *Francese: tellement <br> *Italiano: talmente, così, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: talmente <br> <b>talmente:(un libro) talmente(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful) a(book), such a(beautiful book) <br> *Francese: tellement:(un livre) tellement(beau) <br> *Italiano: talmente(un libro talmente bello che. . . ) <br> *Espaniol: talmente:(un libro) talmente(bonito) <br> <b>tam</b> <br> #so, as, to such a degree <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, così, tanto che, tanto, talmente <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta, talmente <br> <b>tam. . . quam...</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . . <br> <b>tam. . . quam...(= tanto. . . quam. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: si... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, tanto quanto, così che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tamben</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>tamen(= totavia)</b> <br> #yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding <br> *Francese: cependant, pourtant, néanmoins, <br> *Italiano: tuttavia, nonostante, nondimeno, nientemeno, pertanto, quindi, già <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, todavía, no obstante <br> <b>tan</b> <br> #so, as <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, tanto che. . . , tanto che. . . <br> *Espaniol: tan <br> <b>tan. . . como. . . (= tanto. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tante, tanta, tanto</b> <br> #so much, so many <br> *Francese: tant de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tanto, tanta <br> <b>tante. . . como..., tanta. . . como. . . , tanto. . . como. . . </b><br> #as much, as many. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . , tanta. . . como. . . <br> <b>tanto</b> <br> #so, so much <br> *Francese: tant <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto <br> <b>tanto(grande) como. . . </b><br> #as(big) as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi(grand(e)) que <br> *Italiano: tanto grande che <br> *Espaniol: tan(grande) como. . . <br> <b>tanto melio</b> <br> #so much the better <br> *Francese: tant mieux <br> *Italiano: tanto meglio <br> *Espaniol: tanto mejor <br> <b>tanto pejo</b> <br> #so much the worse <br> *Francese: tant pis <br> *Italiano: tanto peggio <br> *Espaniol: tanto peor <br> <b>tanto per cento</b> <br> #so much per hundred, percentage <br> *Francese: tant pour cent <br> *Italiano: tanto per cento <br> *Espaniol: tanto por ciento, porcentaje <br> <b>tanto plus. . . que...</b> <br> #all the more. . . that... <br> *Francese: d'autant plus... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto più che <br> *Espaniol: tanto más. . . que. . . <br> <b>tanto. . . como...</b> <br> #as much. . . as... <br> *Francese: autant... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . <br> <b>tarde</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>te</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: te, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, te(tu sei, te lo dico, lo dico a te) <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>te</b> <br> #yourself [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "you hurt yourself", "to yourself") <br> *Francese: te, toi, toi-même <br> *Italiano: te, ti, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>th(digrapho): te hache /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t : ti acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: th(digraphe): té ache /t/ <br> t, ti <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ti(= te)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ti, te <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: te, toi <br> <b>tosto</b> <br> #presently, soon, promptly <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: pronto, subito, presto, rapidamente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto, presentemente, rápidamente <br> <b>tot</b> <br> #so many, such a great number <br> *Francese: tanto che, talmente tanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tellement beaucoup <br> <b>totalmente(= completamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: totalement(=complètement) <br> *Italiano: totalmente, completamente <br> *Espaniol: totalmente(=completamente= <br> <b>totavia</b> <br> #yet, still, nevertheless <br> *Francese: toutefois <br> *Italiano: tuttavia <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo <br> <b>tote le, tota la, toto lo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo, tutta la <br> *Espaniol: todo el, toda la, todo lo <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, "all the parts, members, etc. of a whole series or group") <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, the whole of <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, toute, chaque <br> *Italiano: tutto/a, ogni <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>totes(les) duo, totos(los) duos, totas(las) duas</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: tous les deux, toutes les deux <br> *Italiano: tutti e due, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>totes les, totas las, totos los</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tous les, toutes les <br> *Italiano: tutti i, tutti gli, tutte le <br> *Espaniol: todos los, todas las <br> <b>totes, totas, totos</b> <br> #all, everyone <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni cosa <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, quite, wholly <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto(ben) considerato</b> <br> #all things considered <br> *Francese: tout(bien) considéré <br> *Italiano: tutto considerato <br> *Espaniol: considerando(bien) totas las cosas <br> <b>toto le(= toto lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo el <br> <b>toto le(caseo)</b> <br> #all the(cheese), the entire(cheese) <br> *Francese: tout le(fromage) <br> *Italiano: tutto il(formaggio) <br> *Espaniol: todo el(queso) <br> <b>toto lo(= toto le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo lo <br> <b>totos los(homines)</b> <br> #all(men) <br> *Francese: tous les(hommes) <br> *Italiano: tutti gli(uomini) <br> *Espaniol: todos los hombres <br> <b>totos minus ille</b> <br> #all but him <br> *Francese: tous sauf lui <br> *Italiano: tutti meno lui, tutti salvo lui <br> *Espaniol: todos menos él <br> <b>tra(= trans)</b> <br> #through <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers de <br> *Italiano: attraverso, tra <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>trans</b> <br> #across, over, beyond, on the farther side of <br> *Francese: au delà de, de l'autre côté de <br> *Italiano: al di là di, dall'altra parte di, dall'altro lato <br> *Espaniol: al otro lado de, más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>traverso(= a / al transverso(de))</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: au travers, de part en part <br> *Italiano: attraverso, da parte a parte, da lato a lato <br> *Espaniol: a través de, de parte a parte de <br> <b>tro(= troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>trop(=troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>troppo(= trop, tro)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo, troppi, troppa, troppe <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada, demasiados, demasiadas <br> <b>troppo(de)(aqua, libros, etc. )(= de tro(de)(aqua, libros, etc. ))</b> <br> #too much(water, etc. ), too many(books, etc. ) <br> *Francese: trop(d'eau, de livres, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: troppo(troppa acqua, troppi libri, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: demasiado(agua, etc. ), demasiados(libros) <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tú <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tu <br> <b>tu mesme, tu mesma, tu mesmo, tu ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: toi-même <br> *Italiano: tu stesso, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: tú mismo, tú misma <br> <b>tue, tua, tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: tuo, tua <br> *Espaniol: tuyo, tuya <br> <b>tues, tuas, tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiennes <br> *Italiano: tue, tuoi <br> *Espaniol: tuyos, tuyas <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, afterwards <br> *Francese: alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, después <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, next <br> *Francese: alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: quindi, in questo caso <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, por consiguiente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #in that case, consequently <br> *Francese: alors, dans ce cas, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: allora, in questo caso, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, consiguientemente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, in quel momento <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tus</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tes <br> *Italiano: tuo <br> *Espaniol: tus <br> <b>u(littera): u /u/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: u <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: u(lettre): u /ü/ <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where, in or at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove, in che luogo <br> *Espaniol: dónde, en qué lugar <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where; when, as soon as; wherewith; in which <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: donde <br> <b>ubicunque</b> <br> #wherever <br> *Francese: partout où..., n'importe où... <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>ubique</b> <br> #everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever <br> *Francese: partout, peu importe où, n'importe où, <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: donde sea, en cualquier lugar <br> <b>ulle, ulla, ullo</b> <br> #any, anyone <br> *Francese: aucun, aucune, nul(le) <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna, alcuno, alcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguno, alguna <br> <b>ulles, ullas, ullos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: aucuns, aucunes, nul(le)s <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcuna, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #subsequent, later <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, subsecuente <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #ulterior, situated beyond, thither <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, situado más allá <br> <b>ulteriormente</b> <br> #later(on), subsequently <br> *Francese: ultérieurement <br> *Italiano: ulteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #besides <br> *Francese: en outre <br> *Italiano: inoltre <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #on the other side, beyond, farther <br> *Francese: au délà, de l'autre côté, plus loin <br> *Italiano: al di là, dall'altra parte <br> *Espaniol: en el otro lado, más allá, más lejos <br> <b>ultra(= plus a la de, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>ultra illo</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: au délà de ça <br> *Italiano: al di la di questo, oltre questo, oltre ad esso <br> *Espaniol: más allá de aquello, además de ello <br> <b>ultra que</b> <br> #aside from the fact that <br> *Francese: outre que <br> *Italiano: oltre che <br> *Espaniol: aparte del hecho de que <br> <b>ultramar</b> <br> #overseas <br> *Francese: outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare <br> *Espaniol: en ultra mar <br> <b>ultramar:(paises) de ultramar</b> <br> #overseas(countries) <br> *Francese: outre-mer:(pays) d'outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare, paese d'oltremare, d'oltre mare <br> *Espaniol: ultramar:(países) de ultramar <br> <b>un altere, una altera, uno altero</b> <br> #another <br> *Francese: un autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>un de, una de, uno de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un de, une de <br> *Italiano: uno di, una di <br> *Espaniol: uno de, una de <br> <b>un die</b> <br> #one day, sometime <br> *Francese: un jour <br> *Italiano: un giorno <br> *Espaniol: un día, algún día <br> <b>un pauco(de)</b> <br> #a little <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un poco(de)(= un pauco(de))</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un que, una que, uno que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un que, une que <br> *Italiano: uno che, una che <br> *Espaniol: uno que, una que <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #a, an <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, una <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, uno, una <br> <b>una hora</b> <br> #one o'clock <br> *Francese: une heure <br> *Italiano: un'ora <br> *Espaniol: la una(hora) <br> <b>una tal(persona)</b> <br> #such a(person) <br> *Francese: une telle(personne) <br> *Italiano: una tale(persona) <br> *Espaniol: una tal(persona) <br> <b>una vece(= una vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice</b> <br> #once, formerly, at one time, on a single occasion <br> *Francese: un fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice que</b> <br> #once, once that <br> *Francese: une fois que <br> *Italiano: una volta che <br> *Espaniol: una vez que <br> <b>unaltere, un altere(= le un le altere)</b> <br> #each other, one another <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, from which place <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, da quale luogo <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, wherefore, for which reason or cause <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde(= de ubi)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>unes de, unas de, unos de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos de, unas de <br> <b>unes que, unas que, unos que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s que <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos que, unas que <br> <b>unes, unas, unos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des <br> *Italiano: dei, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: unos, unas <br> <b>uno(= on, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: un, uno <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>unquam(= olim, aliquando)</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: n'importe quand, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un momento, in un dato momento, ad un certo punto, quando <br> *Espaniol: en algún momento <br> <b>usquam(= alicubi)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: a alguna parte <br> <b>usque(a)</b> <br> #(all the way) to, up to(a point in space or time); also: till, until <br> *Francese: jusque, jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a trans</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à travers <br> *Italiano: attraverso <br> *Espaniol: hasta el otro lado de <br> <b>usque al presente</b> <br> #up to the present <br> *Francese: jusqu'à présent <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino a questo momento <br> *Espaniol: hasta el presente <br> <b>usque nunc</b> <br> #up to now <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta ahora <br> <b>usque quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: jusqu'à quand <br> *Italiano: fino a quando <br> *Espaniol: hasta cuándo <br> <b>usque tosto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à bientôt <br> *Italiano: a presto <br> *Espaniol: hasta pronto <br> <b>usualmente, de costume, plurimo</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, di solito, abitualmente, di norma <br> *Espaniol: usualmente <br> <b>ut</b> <br> #as, how, in order that, to the end that, just as <br> *Francese: afin que, pour que, juste comme <br> *Italiano: al fine di <br> *Espaniol: a fin que, para que <br> <b>ut. . . ita. . . </b><br> #the. . . the. . . , as. . . so. . . <br> *Francese: autant... autant... <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>utroque</b> <br> #either or both of two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: ambedue <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera de los dos, los dos <br> <b>utrum. . . an</b> <br> #whether. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou...ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: a ver si. . . o. . . <br> <b>v(littera): ve /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: v, vi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: v(lettre): vé /v/ <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #exceedingly, very much <br> *Francese: excessivement, beaucou <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, moltissimo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muchísimo <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #vehemently, strongly <br> *Francese: énergiquement, fortement <br> *Italiano: fortemente, energicamente, con veemenza <br> *Espaniol: vehementemente, energicamente, fuertemente <br> <b>vale!</b> <br> #vale!, farewell! <br> *Francese: salut, adieu <br> *Italiano: ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: salve!, salud! <br> <b>vece(=vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vel</b> <br> #or, or rather <br> *Francese: ou, ou plutôt <br> *Italiano: o, piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: o, o más bien <br> <b>vel. . . vel...</b> <br> #either. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>vere(= vero)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>vero(= vere)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>verso</b> <br> #towards, toward; also: to, in the direction of, etc. <br> *Francese: vers <br> *Italiano: verso, nella direzione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia, en dirección a <br> <b>verso a basso</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: vers le bas <br> *Italiano: verso il basso, giù <br> *Espaniol: hacia abajo <br> <b>vespera</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>vespere</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>via</b> <br> #away <br> *Francese: loin, loin de là <br> *Italiano: via, fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, lejos <br> <b>via</b> <br> #via, by way of <br> *Francese: via, par <br> *Italiano: via, per via del, a causa di <br> *Espaniol: vía, por vía de <br> <b>via!</b> <br> #away! <br> *Francese: plus loin! <br> *Italiano: via ! fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #time(as in "three times") <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta(tre volte, una volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #turn(as in "my turn"); also: stead <br> *Francese: tour(comme dans "à mon tour") <br> *Italiano: volta(a mia volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice versa</b> <br> #vice versa <br> *Francese: vice versa <br> *Italiano: viceversa <br> *Espaniol: vice versa <br> <b>vis-à-vis</b> <br> #opposite, face to face, vis-à-vis <br> *Francese: vis-à-vis <br> *Italiano: di fronte, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis, cara a cara, en situación opuesta <br> <b>visto</b> <br> #considering, in view of <br> *Francese: vu <br> *Italiano: visto, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto, considerando <br> <b>visto que</b> <br> #considering that <br> *Francese: vu que <br> *Italiano: visto che, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto que, considerando que, en vista de que <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely, barely <br> *Francese: difficilement, à peine, <br> *Italiano: difficilmente <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente, difíilmente <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #with difficulty <br> *Francese: avec difficulté <br> *Italiano: con difficoltà <br> *Espaniol: con dificultad <br> <b>voi(= vos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: voi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vous <br> <b>voluntariamente(= voluntarie, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>voluntarie(= voluntariamente, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons(as in "you are", "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: voi(ma si usa il lei, per cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: tu, ustéd <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in polite or formal use; addressing one person or several persons(as in "you are", "I love you" "for you") <br> *Francese: vous <br> *Italiano: voi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourself [in polite or formal use(as in "you hurt yourself, " "to yourself")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourselves [in all uses(as in "you hurt yourselves", "to yourselves")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, <br> <b>vos mesme, vos mesma, vos mesmo, vos ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos mesmes, vos mesmas, vos mesmos, vos ipses</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, ustedes mismos, ustedes mismas <br> <b>Vostra Excellentia</b> <br> #Your Excellency <br> *Francese: Votre Excellence <br> *Italiano: Sua Eccellenza(meno usato : Vostra Eccellenza) <br> *Espaniol: Su Excelencia <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: suo(di Lei, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostro <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: sus(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostri, vostre <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(le/di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>vulgo(= communmente)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: communément, ordinairement, généralement <br> *Italiano: vilgo, generalmente, comunemente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente <br> <b>w(littera): duple ve /u/ aut /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: w(doppio vu; vu doppio; non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: w(lettre): double vé /v/ ou /ou/ <br> <b>x(littera): xe /ks/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: x(ics, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: x(lettre): iks /ks/ ou /gz/ ou /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>y(littera): i greco /y/ aut /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: y(i greca, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: y(lettre): i grec /i/ <br> <b>ya(= ja, jam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: déjà <br> *Italiano: già <br> *Espaniol: ya <br> <b>yo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je, moi <br> *Italiano: io, me, mi <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>z(littera): zeta /z/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: z, zeta <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: z(lettre): zède /z/ <br></p> 145 2005-04-21T16:24:07Z Josu Lavin 2 /* Dictionario de Parolas et Particulas Grammaticales */ =Dictionario de Parolas e Particulas Grammatical= ==ra: Dictionario de Parolas et Particulas Grammaticales== ==Dictionary of Grammatical Words and Particles== IMPORTANTISSIME: [A corriger. Tote le entratas debe esser corrigite secundo Interlingua de IALA] <b>a (+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à (+ inf. ) <br> *Italiano: a <br> *Espaniol: a (+ inf) <br> <b>a (littera): a /a/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a (lettre): a /a/ <br> <b>a ambe lateres</b> <br> ra: <b>a ambos lateres</b> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des deux côtés <br> *Italiano: ad ambo i lati <br> *Espaniol: a ambos lados <br> <b>a basso</b> <br> #down, downward <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: abbasso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo <br> <b>a basso(les traitores)!</b> <br> #down with(the traitors)! <br> *Francese: à bas(les traîtres) <br> *Italiano: abbasso(i traditori !) <br> *Espaniol: abajo los traidores! <br> <b>a causa de</b> <br> #because of <br> *Francese: à cause de <br> *Italiano: a causa di, per causa di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por causa de, debido a <br> <b>a condition que</b> <br> #on condition that, provided that <br> *Francese: à(la) condition que <br> *Italiano: a condizione che <br> *Espaniol: a condición de que, con tal de que <br> <b>a conto</b> <br> #on account <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto <br> *Espaniol: en cuenta <br> <b>a conto de</b> <br> #to the account of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: in acconto a/di <br> *Espaniol: a cuenta de <br> <b>a contratempore</b> <br> #at the wrong moment <br> *Francese: à contretemps <br> *Italiano: nel momento sbagliato <br> *Espaniol: a contratiempo, en mal momento <br> <b>a derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à droite <br> *Italiano: a destra <br> *Espaniol: a derecha, a la derecha <br> <b>a distantia</b> <br> #at a distance <br> *Francese: à distance <br> *Italiano: a distanza di/da <br> *Espaniol: a distancia <br> <b>a fin de</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de, pour <br> *Italiano: in modo da <br> *Espaniol: a fin de, para <br> <b>a fin que</b> <br> #in order that <br> *Francese: afin que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: a fin de que, para que <br> <b>a flor de</b> <br> #flush with, on a level with <br> *Francese: à fleur de <br> *Italiano: a livello di <br> *Espaniol: a flor de <br> <b>a fortia de</b> <br> #by means of, by dint of <br> *Francese: à force de <br> *Italiano: a forza di <br> *Espaniol: a fuerza de, por medio de <br> <b>a fundo</b> <br> #thoroughly <br> *Francese: à fond <br> *Italiano: a fondo <br> *Espaniol: a fondo <br> <b>a grado</b> <br> #at will <br> *Francese: à volonté, à discrétion <br> *Italiano: in grado di, a discrezione di <br> *Espaniol: a voluntad <br> <b>a in</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: in, all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: a, al interior de <br> <b>a inter</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: (a) entre <br> <b>a la(= a illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>a la aventura</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: aléatoirement, au hazard <br> *Italiano: all'avventura, <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>a la derecta</b> <br> #(to the) right <br> *Francese: à la droite <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha <br> <b>a la entrata de(le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> #at the beginning of(winter, etc. ) <br> *Francese: au début de, au commencement de(l'hiver, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: all'inizio di <br> *Espaniol: al principio de(invierno, etc. ) <br> <b>a la exclusion de</b> <br> #to the exclusion of <br> *Francese: à l'exclusion de <br> *Italiano: con l'esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: a la exclusión de <br> ad esclusione di <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>a lo longo</b> <br> #in the long run <br> *Francese: avec le temps, à la longue <br> *Italiano: alla lunga, con il tempo <br> *Espaniol: a la larga <br> <b>a lo plus</b> <br> #at(the) best <br> *Francese: au plus <br> *Italiano: al più <br> *Espaniol: a lo más <br> <b>a lo plus tarde</b> <br> #at the latest <br> *Francese: au plus tard <br> *Italiano: al più tardi <br> *Espaniol: a más tardar <br> <b>a medietate</b> <br> #half(= to half the full amount or degree) <br> *Francese: à moitié <br> *Italiano: alla metà <br> *Espaniol: a mitad <br> <b>a medietate del cammino</b> <br> #halfway <br> *Francese: à mi-chemin <br> *Italiano: alla metà /nel mezzo del cammino <br> *Espaniol: a medio camino <br> <b>a minus que</b> <br> #unless <br> *Francese: à moins que <br> *Italiano: a meno che <br> *Espaniol: a menos que <br> <b>a omne costo(= a toto costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: ad ogni costo, a qualsiasi costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a omne proposito</b> <br> #at every turn <br> *Francese: à tout propos <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: a todo propósito <br> <b>a parte</b> <br> #apart, aside <br> *Francese: à part <br> *Italiano: a parte <br> *Espaniol: aparte, separadamente <br> <b>a partir de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a partire da, partendo da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à partir de <br> <b>a pena(= apena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: appena <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente <br> <b>a presso de</b> <br> #at the home(court, etc. ) of <br> *Francese: ????????? <br> *Italiano: appresso a, presso <br> *Espaniol: a casa de(corte, etc. ) de <br> <b>a proba de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: a prova di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'épreuve de <br> <b>a proposito de</b> <br> #with regard to, apropos of <br> *Francese: à propos de, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: a proposito di <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>a proposito!</b> <br> #by the way! incidentally <br> *Francese: à propos! <br> *Italiano: a proposito! <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a proposito:(dicer una cosa) a proposito</b> <br> #(to say something) to the purpose, apropos, to the point <br> *Francese: à propos <br> *Italiano: a proposito <br> *Espaniol: a propósito <br> <b>a retro</b> <br> #backwards <br> *Francese: à reculons, en reculant <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hacia atrás <br> <b>a tempore</b> <br> #in(good) time <br> *Francese: à temps <br> *Italiano: a tempo <br> *Espaniol: a tiempo <br> <b>a toto costo(= a omne costo)</b> <br> #at all costs, at any costs <br> *Francese: à tout prix <br> *Italiano: a ogni costo <br> *Espaniol: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> <b>a transverso</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: à travers, de bord en bord <br> *Italiano: di/a traverso <br> *Espaniol: a través <br> <b>a transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers(de) <br> *Italiano: a traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: da dove, da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> #where, whither <br> *Francese: a dove, a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: où <br> <b>a ubi(= quo)</b> <br> #where, at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar <br> <b>a un alto grado</b> <br> #to a high degree <br> *Francese: à un haut degré <br> *Italiano: ad un alto grado <br> *Espaniol: a un alto grado <br> <b>a veces(= a vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, qualche volta <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a vices</b> <br> #at times <br> *Francese: parfois <br> *Italiano: a volte, alle volte <br> *Espaniol: a veces <br> <b>a, ad</b> <br> #to, at <br> *Francese: à, vers, en, dans <br> *Italiano: a, ad, verso, nel <br> *Espaniol: a, hacia; en <br> <b>ab(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: da <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de(+inf) <br> <b>ab(= desde)</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis <br> *Italiano: da <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #actually <br> *Francese: actuellement <br> *Italiano: attualmente <br> *Espaniol: actualmente <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> #at present, (just) now <br> *Francese: à présent, maintenant <br> *Italiano: al momento, attualmente, adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: actualmente, en la actualidad <br> <b>adeo</b> <br> #farewell, good-by(e) <br> *Francese: adieu <br> *Italiano: addio, ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: adiós <br> <b>adhuc</b> <br> #to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici, jusqu'à présent, <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino adesso, fino a qui, fin qui, fino a qua <br> *Espaniol: a este lugar, hasta aquí, hasta ahora, todavía <br> <b>al(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: sur le point de(+inf), près de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: al, sul punto di, <br> *Espaniol: al(+inf) <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> #to the <br> *Francese: au <br> *Italiano: al <br> *Espaniol: al <br> <b>al(= alique)</b> <br> #something <br> *Francese: quelque chose, <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>al contrario</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>al currente(de)</b> <br> #informed(about) <br> *Francese: au courant de <br> *Italiano: al corrente di, informato su <br> *Espaniol: al corriente(de), informado(sobre) <br> <b>al detrimento de</b> <br> #to the detriment of <br> *Francese: au détriment de <br> *Italiano: a danno di, a scapito di <br> *Espaniol: en detrimento de <br> <b>al estraniero</b> <br> #abroad <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: en el extranjero <br> <b>al exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>al exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'esterno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur de <br> <b>al extero</b> <br> #abroad(as in "to go abroad; to live abroad"), in foreign parts <br> *Francese: à l'étranger <br> *Italiano: all'estero <br> *Espaniol: al extranjero, en el extranjero <br> <b>al extremo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extrême <br> *Italiano: all'estremo, estremamente <br> *Espaniol: al extremo <br> <b>al fin</b> <br> #in the end, at last <br> *Francese: enfin, à la fin <br> *Italiano: alla fine, infine <br> *Espaniol: al fin <br> <b>al fundo de</b> <br> #at the bottom of <br> *Francese: au fond de <br> *Italiano: al fondo di, in fondo a <br> *Espaniol: al fondo de <br> <b>al fundo del corde</b> <br> #at the bottom of one's heart <br> *Francese: au fond du cœur <br> *Italiano: nel fondo del cuore <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo del corazón <br> <b>al hasardo</b> <br> #at random <br> *Francese: au hazard <br> *Italiano: al caso <br> *Espaniol: al azar <br> <b>al interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur <br> <b>al interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: all'interno di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'intérieur de <br> <b>al ir a(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: andando a <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ????????? <br> <b>al latere</b> <br> #aside <br> *Francese: à côté <br> *Italiano: al lato di, accanto a, lateralmente, a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado <br> <b>al latere de</b> <br> #beside <br> *Francese: à côté de, au côté de <br> *Italiano: a fianco di <br> *Espaniol: al lado de <br> <b>al minus</b> <br> #at least <br> *Francese: au moins <br> *Italiano: al meno, alla fine, per lo meno <br> *Espaniol: al menos, por lo menos <br> <b>al presente</b> <br> #at present <br> *Francese: à présent <br> *Italiano: al presente, al momento <br> *Espaniol: en el presente, en la actualidad <br> <b>al transverso(de)</b> <br> #through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers(de) <br> *Italiano: al traverso di <br> *Espaniol: a través(de) <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: un poco, un po', qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: un poco <br> <b>alcun, alcuna, alcuno(= alicun, alicuna, alicuno)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alcunas veces(= alcunas vices, alicunas vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelques fois <br> <b>alcuno(= alicuno)</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: qualcuno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelqu'un <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #alias <br> *Francese: alias <br> *Italiano: alias, altro <br> *Espaniol: alias <br> <b>alias</b> <br> #at another time <br> *Francese: (à) un autre moment, un autre temps, un autre instant <br> *Italiano: in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: en otro tiempo, en otro momento <br> <b>alias(= alteramente)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement, d'une autre façon, d'une autre manière <br> *Italiano: in un altro modo, diversamente, in un'altra maniera <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>alibi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: alibi <br> *Espaniol: en alguna otra parte <br> <b>alicubi</b> <br> #anywhere as in("did you see him anywhere?") <br> *Francese: quelque part comme dans("l'avez-vous vu quelque part?"), n'importe où comme dans("il va n'importe où") <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte, non importa dove, in qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>alicubi(= usquam)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: da qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: en cualquier lugar <br> <b>alicun, alicuna, alicuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: quelque, un peu <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno; un poco <br> <b>alicuna cosa(= alcuna cosa)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: alguna cosa <br> <b>alicunas vices(= alcunas vices)</b> <br> #sometimes <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, qualvolta <br> *Espaniol: algunas veces <br> <b>alicunes, alicunas, alicunos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des, quelques, quelques-uns, quelques-unes <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcune, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>alicuno(= alcuno)</b> <br> #someone, somebody; anyone, anybody <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: alcuno, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>alie, alia, alio(= altere, altera, altero)</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: autre <br> *Italiano: altro <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somehow <br> *Francese: d'une manière ou d'une autre <br> *Italiano: in un modo o in un altro, nell'uno o nell'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de una manera u otra <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte, qualche luogo <br> *Espaniol: en alguna parte <br> <b>aliquando(= alquando)</b> <br> #at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> *Francese: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: in un dato momento, quando, allorché <br> *Espaniol: alguna vez, en algún que otro momento, en un momento dado <br> <b>aliquanto(= alquanto)</b> <br> #somewhat, to some degree <br> *Francese: quelque peu <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: algo así, en algún grado <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: in qualche cosa <br> *Espaniol: algo <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> #somewhat <br> *Francese: un peu <br> *Italiano: un po', un poco <br> *Espaniol: algo, un poco <br> <b>aliquot</b> <br> #some, several, a few <br> *Francese: un po', un poco <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque, un peu <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi, dunque, allorché <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en aquel tiempo <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> #then, in that case, consequently) <br> *Francese: donc, dans ce cas, conséquemment, en conséquence <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, in questo caso, allora, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en tal caso, consequentemente, en consecuencia, por consiguiente <br> <b>alquando(= aliquando)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: una buona volta, un dato momento <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> <b>alquanto(= aliquanto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: alquanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quelque peu <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> #likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> *Francese: ainsi, de plus, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: anche, ugualmente, allo stesso modo, comunque, in ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, es más, además <br> <b>alte, alta, alto</b> <br> #high <br> *Francese: haut, haute <br> *Italiano: alto, alta, alti, alte <br> *Espaniol: alto, alta <br> <b>altera vece(= altera vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une autre fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, in un altro momento <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once again, once more <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez, una vez más <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> #a second time, once more, once again <br> *Francese: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> *Italiano: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> *Espaniol: otra vez <br> <b>alteramente(= alias)</b> <br> #otherwise(= in another manner) <br> *Francese: autrement <br> *Italiano: altrimenti, diversamente, in un'altro modo <br> *Espaniol: de otra manera <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, additional <br> *Francese: autre, additionnel(le) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(in più, addizionale) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, adicional <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> #other, different <br> *Francese: autre, différent(e) <br> *Italiano: altro, altra, altri, altre(differente) <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra, diferente <br> <b>alterubi</b> <br> #elsewhere <br> *Francese: ailleurs <br> *Italiano: d'altra parte, altrimenti, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: en otra parte <br> <b>ambes, ambas, ambos</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: les deux, tous deux, toutes deux <br> *Italiano: ambo, ambedue, tutti e due <br> *Espaniol: ambos, ambas <br> <b>an</b> <br> #whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>an(= est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: - <br> *Espaniol: es que(particula interrogativa) <br> <b>an ille habe le libro?(= est-que ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: ha il libro ? egli ha il libro? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>analogo a</b> <br> #analogous to <br> *Francese: analogue à. semblable à <br> *Italiano: analogo a, simile a <br> *Espaniol: análogo a <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #encore! <br> *Francese: encore! <br> *Italiano: ancora! <br> *Espaniol: aún!, todavía! <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> #still, yet <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún, todavía <br> <b>annon</b> <br> #or not <br> *Francese: ou non, ou pas <br> *Italiano: o no <br> *Espaniol: o no <br> <b>anque(io)(= etiam(io))</b> <br> #(I) too, (me) too <br> *Francese: (moi) aussi <br> *Italiano: anch'io, pure io, io pure <br> *Espaniol: también(yo), (yo) también <br> <b>anque [anke](= etiam, tamben)</b> <br> #also, too <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, above <br> *Francese: avant, cité plus haut <br> *Italiano: prima <br> *Espaniol: antes, citado anteriormente <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: prima di <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier <br> *Francese: avant <br> *Italiano: davanti a <br> *Espaniol: delante de, ante <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, earlier than <br> *Francese: plus tôt que, antérieurement à <br> *Italiano: prima(temp) <br> *Espaniol: antes, anterior <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front of <br> *Francese: devant <br> *Italiano: davanti, di fronte <br> *Espaniol: antes, en frente de <br> <b>ante</b> <br> #before, in front, ahead; also: forward <br> *Francese: devant, en face de <br> *Italiano: innanzi, dinnanzi, di fronte, frontalmente <br> *Espaniol: antes; delante <br> <b>ante le tempore</b> <br> #ahead of time, too early <br> *Francese: trop tôt, avant le temps <br> *Italiano: prima del tempo <br> *Espaniol: antes de tiempo, demasiado pronto <br> <b>ante que</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: avant que <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de que <br> <b>ante toto</b> <br> #after all <br> *Francese: avant tout <br> *Italiano: prima di tutto <br> *Espaniol: ante todo <br> <b>antea(=potius, plus tosto)</b> <br> #before, formerly, previously <br> *Francese: plus tôt, précédemment, antérieurement <br> *Italiano: prima, precedentemente <br> *Espaniol: antes, anteriormente, previamente <br> <b>ante-heri</b> <br> #day before yesterday <br> *Francese: avant-hier <br> *Italiano: l'altro ieri, ieri l'altro <br> *Espaniol: anteayer <br> <b>anteriormente</b> <br> #formerly, before <br> *Francese: antérieurement <br> *Italiano: anteriormente <br> *Espaniol: anteriormente <br> <b>apena(= a pena)</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely <br> *Francese: à peine <br> *Italiano: a pena <br> *Espaniol: a penas, escasamente <br> <b>apud(= presso)</b> <br> #near, with, at, by <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, junto a <br> <b>aquelle, aquella, aquello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là(ex. ce garçon-là), cet ...-là(ex. cet homme-là), cette ...-là(ex. cette fille-là), [pron. dém. ]celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>aquelles, aquellas, aquellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli, quelle <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>aquesse, aquessa, aquesso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>aqueste, aquesta, aquesto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>aqui(= hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> #rather(= fairly, quite) <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante; suficiente <br> <b>assi</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful bokk) <br> *Francese: così(così bello, tanto bello che) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful book) <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> <b>assi... como...(= si. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que ... <br> *Italiano: così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: así. . . como. . . <br> <b>atque</b> <br> #and, and also, and even <br> *Francese: et, et même <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e, y también, e incluso <br> <b>aut(= o)</b> <br> #or <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o, altrimenti <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>aut. . . aut...(= o. . . o. . . )</b> <br> #either. . . or... <br> *Francese: ou. . . ou. . . <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before <br> *Francese: en avant de, au devant de <br> *Italiano: prima di, prima che <br> *Espaniol: antes de <br> <b>avante</b> <br> #before(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant, au devant <br> *Italiano: davanti a, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: adelante, al frente, delante <br> <b>avante!</b> <br> #before!(= in front, ahead) <br> *Francese: en avant! <br> *Italiano: avanti ! <br> *Espaniol: adelante!, al frente! <br> <b>b(littera): be /b/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: b, bi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: b(lettre): bé /b/ <br> <b>basse, bassa, basso</b> <br> #low <br> *Francese: bas, basse <br> *Italiano: basso, bassa <br> *Espaniol: bajo <br> <b>basso</b> <br> #bottom, lower part(of a thing) <br> *Francese: bas <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: base, parte de abajo(de una cosa), la parte más baja(de una cosa) <br> <b>basta</b> <br> #enough! stop! <br> *Francese: assez! <br> *Italiano: basta! <br> *Espaniol: basta! <br> <b>bastante(= sufficiente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>bastante(= sufficientemente)</b> <br> #enough, sufficiently <br> *Francese: assez, suffisamment <br> *Italiano: sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficientemente <br> <b>bastantes(= sufficientes)</b> <br> #enough, sufficient <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: sufficienti <br> *Espaniol: bastantes, suficientes <br> <b>ben</b> <br> #well <br> *Francese: bien <br> *Italiano: bene <br> *Espaniol: bien <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #although <br> *Francese: quoique, bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de que, aunque <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> #though <br> *Francese: bien que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: ben que <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #all right! <br> *Francese: très bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! giusto ! benissimo ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> #good! <br> *Francese: bien! <br> *Italiano: bene ! <br> *Espaniol: bien!, bueno! <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #encore <br> *Francese: bis, encore une fois, de nouveau <br> *Italiano: bis, ancora una volta, di nuovo <br> *Espaniol: bis, de nuevo, otra vez, repetición <br> <b>bis</b> <br> #twice <br> *Francese: deux fois <br> *Italiano: due volte <br> *Espaniol: dos veces <br> <b>bon!</b> <br> #good!, fine!, all right! <br> *Francese: bon! <br> *Italiano: buono ! <br> *Espaniol: bien! <br> <b>bon, bona, bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: buono, buona <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: bon, bonne <br> <b>bona nocte!</b> <br> #good night! <br> *Francese: bonne nuit! <br> *Italiano: buona notte, buonanotte <br> *Espaniol: buenas noches! <br> <b>bravo!</b> <br> #bravo! <br> *Francese: bravo! <br> *Italiano: bravo! brava! bravi! brave! <br> *Espaniol: bravo! <br> <b>c(littera): ce /k/ aut /ts/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c, ci(pron. come ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c(lettre): cé /k/ ou /s/ <br> <b>cata</b> <br> #each <br> *Francese: chaque <br> *Italiano: ogni <br> *Espaniol: cada <br> <b>cata un, cata una, cata uno</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: chacun, chacune <br> *Italiano: ognuno, agnuna <br> *Espaniol: cada uno, cada una <br> <b>ce</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce, c'... <br> *Italiano: ciò, questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>ce ci</b> <br> #this(here) <br> *Francese: ciò, questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>ce la</b> <br> #that(there, yonder) <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: cela <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #(the) former(first of two) <br> *Francese: quello là, quella là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: celui-là, celle-là <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> #1. that; those <br> *Francese: quello, quella <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> <b>celles, cellas, cellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: quei, quegli, quelle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quello là <br> *Espaniol: aquello <br> <b>cento:(tres) per cento, (tres) pro cento</b> <br> #(three) per cent <br> *Francese: cento(ce, come in ch inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (trois) pour cent <br> <b>certe, certa, certo</b> <br> #a certain. . . <br> *Francese: un certain, une certaine <br> *Italiano: certo, un certo <br> *Espaniol: cierto, cierta <br> <b>certo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certo, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, cierto <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #other <br> *Francese: altro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autre <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> #remaining <br> *Francese: restante, rimanente, resto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: restant <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #besides, for the rest <br> *Francese: d'altra parte, quanto al resto, peraltro <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d'autre part, quant au reste <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> #otherwise, in other respects <br> *Francese: diversamente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: autrement, par ailleurs <br> <b>ch(digrapho): ce hache /k/ aut /sh/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ch(pron come k) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ch(digraphe ou digramme): cé-ache /k/ ou /sh/ <br> <b>ci(=hic)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>ci juncto(= hic juncto)</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(joined) <br> *Francese: ci-joint(e) <br> *Italiano: qui con <br> *Espaniol: junto con esto <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour de <br> *Italiano: circa <br> *Espaniol: alrededor de <br> <b>circa</b> <br> #around <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours, environ, approximativement <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: cerca, alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>circum</b> <br> #around, around about <br> *Francese: autour, aux alentours <br> *Italiano: circa, approssimativamente <br> *Espaniol: alrededor, aproximadamente <br> <b>cis</b> <br> #on this side(of) <br> *Francese: de ce côté(de) <br> *Italiano: da questa parte, da questo lato <br> *Espaniol: a este lado(de) <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #quickly, speedily <br> *Francese: vite <br> *Italiano: rapidamente, velocemente <br> *Espaniol: rápidamente <br> <b>cito</b> <br> #soon <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #secretly <br> *Francese: secrètement <br> *Italiano: segretamente <br> *Espaniol: secretamente, en secreto <br> <b>clam</b> <br> #without the knowledge of, unknown to <br> *Francese: sans la connaissance de, inconnu(e) à <br> *Italiano: senza sapere che, senza conoscenza di, senza cognizione <br> *Espaniol: sin el conocimiento de, desconocido a <br> <b>communmente(= vulgo)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: vulgairement, communément <br> *Italiano: comunemente, volgarmente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente, normalmente <br> <b>como</b> <br> #as; also: like, similarly to <br> *Francese: comme <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como</b> <br> #how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como <br> <b>como illa est bella!</b> <br> #how beautiful she is! <br> *Francese: Comme elle est belle! <br> *Italiano: come è bella lei <br> *Espaniol: qué bonita es ella! <br> <b>como si</b> <br> #as though, as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>como:(facete) como(vos volate)</b> <br> #(do) as(you wish) <br> *Francese: comme:(faites) comme(vous voulez) <br> *Italiano: come(fate) <br> *Espaniol: (haced) como(vosotros queráis) <br> <b>comocunque</b> <br> #however, in whatever manner <br> *Francese: cependant, de toute façon <br> *Italiano: comunque, in ogni modo, ad ogni modo <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, de cualquier forma, como sea <br> <b>comparabile a</b> <br> #comparable to <br> *Francese: comparable à <br> *Italiano: comparabile a/con <br> *Espaniol: comparable a <br> <b>comparabile con</b> <br> #comparable with <br> *Francese: comparable avec <br> *Italiano: comparabile con <br> *Espaniol: comparable con <br> <b>completamente(= totalmente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: complètement <br> *Italiano: completamente, totalmente <br> *Espaniol: completamente(= totalmente) <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, by means of <br> *Francese: avec, au moyen de <br> *Italiano: con, per mezzo di <br> *Espaniol: con, por medio de <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, having, carrying, characterized by) <br> *Francese: avec, ayant, caractérisé(e) par <br> *Italiano: con <br> *Espaniol: con, que tiene. . . , caracterizado por. . . <br> <b>con</b> <br> #with, together with <br> *Francese: avec, (ensemble) avec <br> *Italiano: con, insieme a <br> *Espaniol: con <br> <b>concernente</b> <br> #concerning <br> *Francese: concernant <br> *Italiano: concernente <br> *Espaniol: concerniente <br> <b>conforme</b> <br> #conformable, in conformity <br> *Francese: conforme, en conformité <br> *Italiano: conforme <br> *Espaniol: conforme, en conformidad <br> <b>conforme a</b> <br> #in conformity with, according to <br> *Francese: selon, conforme à, en conformité avec <br> *Italiano: conforme a, in conformità a/di <br> *Espaniol: conforme a <br> <b>conjunctamente</b> <br> #conjointly, conjunctly, jointly, together <br> *Francese: conjointement, ensemble <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente, con, insieme <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente <br> <b>conjunctamente con</b> <br> #in with, together with, in conjunction with <br> *Francese: conjointement avec <br> *Italiano: congiuntamente a <br> *Espaniol: conjuntamente con <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #on the contrary <br> *Francese: au contraire <br> *Italiano: al contrario, diversamente <br> *Espaniol: al contrario <br> <b>contra</b> <br> #opposite, facing <br> *Francese: contre, faisant face à <br> *Italiano: contrariamente, al contrario <br> *Espaniol: en situación opuesta, enfrentado <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in one's presence, openly, publicly <br> *Francese: en présence de quelqu'un, publiquement <br> *Italiano: in presenza di, davanti a, pubblicamente <br> *Espaniol: en la presencia de, abiertamente, públicamente <br> <b>coram</b> <br> #in the presence of <br> *Francese: en présence de <br> *Italiano: in presenza di <br> *Espaniol: en presencia de <br> <b>cras(= deman)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>cuje, cuja, cujo</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: cuyo, cuya <br> <b>cum(=con)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: avec <br> <b>d(littera): de /d/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: di/d <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: d(lettre): dé /d/ <br> <b>de</b> <br> #from; also: since <br> *Francese: de, depuis <br> *Italiano: da, dal, dallo, dalla, dagli, dalle <br> *Espaniol: de, desde <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of <br> *Francese: de <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, belonging or pertaining to <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, à la, au, aux, (appartenant à la, au, aux) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, made of <br> *Francese: de(fait de) <br> *Italiano: di(fatto di) <br> *Espaniol: de, hecho de <br> <b>de</b> <br> #of, with, by means of <br> *Francese: de, de la, du, des, par, avec, au moyen de(de la, du, des) <br> *Italiano: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: de, con <br> <b>de(+ inf)</b> <br> #to; for <br> *Francese: de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: di <br> *Espaniol: de(+ inf) <br> <b>de accordo</b> <br> #in accord <br> *Francese: d'accord <br> *Italiano: d'accordo <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from the top to the bottom <br> *Francese: de haut en bas <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> #from top to bottom, from top to toe <br> *Francese: de haut en bas, de la tête aux pieds <br> *Italiano: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> *Espaniol: de arriba abajo <br> <b>de bon corde</b> <br> #gladly, willingly <br> *Francese: de bon coeur <br> *Italiano: di buon cuore, generoso <br> *Espaniol: de buena gana, alegremente <br> <b>de bon grado</b> <br> #willingly, with pleasure <br> *Francese: avec plaisir <br> *Italiano: di buon grado, volentieri <br> *Espaniol: de buen grado, con placer, de buena gana <br> <b>de bon gusto</b> <br> #in good taste <br> *Francese: de bon goût <br> *Italiano: di buon gusto <br> *Espaniol: de buen gusto <br> <b>de bona hora</b> <br> #early <br> *Francese: de bonne heure <br> *Italiano: di buono'ora, presto, tosto <br> *Espaniol: de buena hora <br> <b>de ci a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour, etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: da qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de commun accordo</b> <br> #by common consent <br> *Francese: d'un commun accord <br> *Italiano: di comune accordo <br> *Espaniol: de común acuerdo <br> <b>de concerto</b> <br> #in concert, in unison <br> *Francese: de concert <br> *Italiano: di concerto, d'accordo con <br> *Espaniol: de concierto, al unísono <br> <b>de costume, usualmente</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, d'abitudine, di norma, solitamente <br> *Espaniol: como de costumbre, habitualmente, usualmente <br> <b>de derecto</b> <br> #by right(s) <br> *Francese: de droit <br> *Italiano: di diritto <br> *Espaniol: de derecho <br> <b>de die in die</b> <br> #from day to day <br> *Francese: de jour en jour <br> *Italiano: di giorno in giorno <br> *Espaniol: de día en día <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #de facto <br> *Francese: de facto <br> *Italiano: di fatto <br> *Espaniol: de facto, de hecho <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> #in fact, de facto <br> *Francese: en fait, de fait, par le fait <br> *Italiano: infatti, difatti <br> *Espaniol: de hecho, de facto <br> <b>de hic a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> #(an hour etc. ) from now <br> *Francese: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: di qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> <b>de la parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di, dalla parte di <br> *Espaniol: de(la) parte de <br> <b>de longe(= de longo)</b> <br> #afar, from a distance <br> *Francese: de loin <br> *Italiano: dalla distanza di, da <br> *Espaniol: de lejos <br> <b>de mal grado</b> <br> #unwillingly, in spite of oneself <br> *Francese: de mauvais gré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, malvolentieri <br> *Espaniol: de mala gana <br> <b>de mal gusto</b> <br> #in bad taste <br> *Francese: de mauvais goût <br> *Italiano: di cattivo gusto, inopportuno <br> *Espaniol: de mal gusto <br> <b>de mal in pejo</b> <br> #from bad to worse <br> *Francese: de mal en pis <br> *Italiano: di male in peggio <br> *Espaniol: de mal en peor <br> <b>de maniera que</b> <br> #so that <br> *Francese: de manière que <br> *Italiano: in modo che <br> *Espaniol: de manera que <br> <b>de memoria</b> <br> #from memory, by heart <br> *Francese: de mémoire, par coeur <br> *Italiano: a memoria, a mente <br> *Espaniol: de memoria <br> <b>de nocte</b> <br> #by night <br> *Francese: de nuit <br> *Italiano: di notte <br> *Espaniol: de noche <br> <b>de novo</b> <br> #again, anew, afresh <br> *Francese: de nouveau <br> *Italiano: di nuovo, ancora <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo <br> <b>de omne latere</b> <br> #from every side <br> *Francese: de tout côté <br> *Italiano: da ogni alto <br> *Espaniol: de todo lado <br> <b>de parte a parte</b> <br> #through and through <br> *Francese: de part en part <br> *Italiano: da parte a parte <br> *Espaniol: de parte a parte <br> <b>de parte de</b> <br> #on the part of <br> *Francese: de la part de <br> *Italiano: da parte di <br> *Espaniol: de parte de <br> <b>de plus</b> <br> #furthermore, besides <br> *Francese: de plus <br> *Italiano: di più <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>de plus in plus</b> <br> #more and more <br> *Francese: de plus en plus <br> *Italiano: più e più <br> *Espaniol: de más en más <br> <b>de qui</b> <br> #whose <br> *Francese: de qui, dont <br> *Italiano: di cui <br> *Espaniol: de quien <br> <b>de tempore ??</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de tempore in tempore</b> <br> #from time to time <br> *Francese: de temps en temps <br> *Italiano: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> *Espaniol: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> <b>de toto(le) corde</b> <br> #wholeheartedly <br> *Francese: de tout coeur <br> *Italiano: di tutto cuore <br> *Espaniol: de todo corazón <br> <b>de totos lateres</b> <br> #on all sides <br> *Francese: de tous les côtés <br> *Italiano: da ogni lato, da ogni parte <br> *Espaniol: de todos lados <br> <b>de transverso</b> <br> #askew, awry <br> *Francese: de travers <br> *Italiano: di traverso, trasversalmente <br> *Espaniol: de tavés <br> <b>de troppo(= de tro)</b> <br> #superfluous, in the way <br> *Francese: de trop <br> *Italiano: di troppo, superfluo <br> *Espaniol: superfluo <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> #from where, whence <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, donde <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>de un extremo al altero</b> <br> #from one extreme to the other <br> *Francese: d'un extrême à l'autre <br> *Italiano: da un estremo all'altro <br> *Espaniol: de un extremo al otro <br> <b>debitamente</b> <br> #duly, properly <br> *Francese: dûment, justement, convenablement <br> *Italiano: debitamente, giustamente, propriamente <br> *Espaniol: debidamente, propiamente <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, following in time <br> *Francese: ensuite, alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: di seguito, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, entonces, <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #afterwards, then, next in order <br> *Francese: di seguito, dopo, poi, secondo l'ordine, seguendo l'ordine <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ensuite, suivant dans l'ordre <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> #thereafter, next <br> *Francese: successivo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: suivant(e) <br> <b>del(= de le)</b> <br> #of the <br> *Francese: du <br> *Italiano: del, dello <br> *Espaniol: del <br> <b>del altere latere</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de l'autre côté <br> *Italiano: dall'altro lato, d'altro canto <br> *Espaniol: del otro lado <br> <b>del principio</b> <br> #from the outset or start <br> *Francese: du début <br> *Italiano: da principio, dall'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: del principio <br> <b>del toto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: du tout <br> *Italiano: di tutto <br> *Espaniol: del todo <br> <b>deman(= cras)</b> <br> #tomorrow <br> *Francese: demain <br> *Italiano: domani <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>deman matino</b> <br> #tomorrow morning <br> *Francese: demain matin <br> *Italiano: domani mattina, domattina <br> *Espaniol: mañana a la mañana, mañana por la mañana <br> <b>deman vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la tarde, mañana por la noche <br> <b>depois(= depost)</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite, plus tard <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, più tardi <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>depois que(= depost que)</b> <br> #since(from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che, dopo di che <br> *Espaniol: después de que <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #after, since <br> *Francese: depuis, après <br> *Italiano: dopo <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>depost</b> <br> #afterwards, later <br> *Francese: puis, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, luego <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuando <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis quand <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: desde cuándo <br> <b>depost que</b> <br> #since(= from the time that) <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después(de) que, desde que <br> <b>desde</b> <br> #since, from <br> *Francese: depuis, de <br> *Italiano: dopo di <br> *Espaniol: desde <br> <b>detra</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: dietro <br> *Espaniol: detrás <br> <b>dextra</b> <br> #on the right of <br> *Francese: à la droite de <br> *Italiano: alla destra di <br> *Espaniol: a la derecha de <br> <b>difficile a(+ inf), difficile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: difficile à(+inf), difficile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: difficile a/da <br> *Espaniol: difícil de(+ inf) <br> <b>directo:(ir, ambular, etc. ) directo</b> <br> #(to go, walk, etc. ) straight <br> *Francese: droit, tout droit:(aller, se diriger, etc. ) tout droit <br> *Italiano: diritto, sempre diritto <br> *Espaniol: directamente <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #until, up to the time that <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>donec</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: fino a, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>duas horas</b> <br> #two o'clock <br> *Francese: deux heures <br> *Italiano: due ore <br> *Espaniol: las dos(horas) <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #provided that, if only <br> *Francese: pourvu que, si seulement <br> *Italiano: solo se <br> *Espaniol: contal de que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #until <br> *Francese: jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta que <br> <b>dum</b> <br> #while, as long as <br> *Francese: pendant que, tant que <br> *Italiano: fintanto che, fino a che <br> *Espaniol: mientras <br> <b>dunque</b> <br> #therefore <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: dunque, quindi, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>durante</b> <br> #during <br> *Francese: durant, pendant <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: durante <br> <b>durante que</b> <br> #while, whilst <br> *Francese: pendant que <br> *Italiano: durante <br> *Espaniol: mientras, mientras que <br> <b>e(= et)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et <br> <b>e(littera): e /e/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: e(lettre): e /?/ <br> <b>e. . . e...(= et. . . et. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: e. . . e. . . <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: et... et... <br> <b>ecce</b> <br> #lo!, see!, behold!, here is <br> *Francese: voici <br> *Italiano: ecco, ecco qui, ecco qua <br> *Espaniol: he aquí, helo aquí <br> <b>ego(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: io <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: moi(= je) <br> <b>el(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli, lui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>ella(= illa)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ella, lei <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: elle <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #equally <br> *Francese: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: également <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> #likewise, also <br> *Francese: également <br> *Italiano: egualmente, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente, también <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #against <br> *Francese: contre <br> *Italiano: contro <br> *Espaniol: contra <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #in respect to <br> *Francese: par rapport à <br> *Italiano: in rapporto a <br> *Espaniol: con respecto a <br> <b>erga</b> <br> #towards <br> *Francese: di fronte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis <br> <b>ergo</b> <br> #consequently, accordingly, therefore, then <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente, ergo, por eso <br> <b>esse, essa, esso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esser in dubita</b> <br> #to be in doubt <br> *Francese: être dans le doute, douter <br> *Italiano: essere in dubbio/nel dubbio <br> *Espaniol: estar en duda, dudar <br> <b>esser satis</b> <br> #to be enough <br> *Francese: être assez, être suffisant <br> *Italiano: essere sufficiente <br> *Espaniol: ser suficiente, ser bastante <br> <b>esso(=isso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>este, esta, esto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> <b>esto(= isto)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: questo, questo qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ceci <br> <b>est-que [ést-ke](= an)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: est-ce que <br> <b>est-que ille habe le libro?(= an ille habe le libro)</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: (egli) ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: e, anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> #and <br> *Francese: et <br> *Italiano: e <br> *Espaniol: y, e <br> <b>et cetera, etc. </b><br> #and so on, and so forth, etc. <br> *Francese: et ainsi de suite, et cetera, etc. <br> *Italiano: eccetera, così di seguito <br> *Espaniol: etcetera, etc. <br> <b>et. . . et. . . (= e. . . e. . . )</b> <br> #as well. . . as..., both. . . and... <br> *Francese: et. . . et. . . <br> *Italiano: e. . . e. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>etiam(= anque, tamben)</b> <br> #also, likewise, too; even, even yet; yet <br> *Francese: aussi, même, <br> *Italiano: anche, lo stesso, allo stesso modo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: también, del mismo modo, igualmente, incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #and yet <br> *Francese: et même <br> *Italiano: e ancora <br> *Espaniol: e incluso <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #even if <br> *Francese: même si <br> *Italiano: anche se <br> *Espaniol: incluso si <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: benché <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoique, bien que <br> <b>ex</b> <br> #out of; from <br> *Francese: hors de <br> *Italiano: ex, fuori da <br> *Espaniol: fuera de; desde, de <br> <b>ex tempore</b> <br> #extempore <br> *Francese: ex tempore, imrpovvisato <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: impromptu, improvisé <br> <b>exactamente(= justo)</b> <br> #exactly, just <br> *Francese: exactement, juste, justement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esatto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: exactamente, justo <br> <b>excepto</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto, exceptuando <br> <b>excessivamente(= in excesso, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: eccessivamente, troppo, in eccesso <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: excessivement <br> <b>expresso</b> <br> #purposely <br> *Francese: exprès <br> *Italiano: espresso <br> *Espaniol: intencionadamente <br> <b>extero</b> <br> #foreign countries <br> *Francese: pays étrangers(à l'étranger) <br> *Italiano: estero, paese straniero <br> *Espaniol: países extranjeros <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de, <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además de, en adición a <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #besides, in addition, extra <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, d'autre part, par ailleurs <br> *Italiano: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> *Espaniol: además, en adición, extra <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #excepting, except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #outside of, without, beyond <br> *Francese: hors de, en dehors de, au délà de <br> *Italiano: fuori di, al di fuori di, oltre a <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>extra</b> <br> #without, on the outside <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: fuera, en la parte de afuera <br> <b>f(littera): fe /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: f, effe <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: f(lettre): èfe /f/ <br> <b>facie a(= ob, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: face à, en face de, devant, considérant, en raison de <br> *Italiano: davanti a, in ragione di, di fronte a <br> *Espaniol: cara a, hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>facie a facie</b> <br> #face to face <br> *Francese: face à face <br> *Italiano: faccia a faccia <br> *Espaniol: cara cara <br> <b>facile a(+ inf), facile de(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: facile à(+inf), facile de(+inf) <br> *Italiano: facile da, facile a <br> *Espaniol: fácil de(+ inf) <br> <b>for</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>for</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, fuori da/che <br> *Espaniol: fuera de, excepto <br> <b>for</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>for</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: à l'extérieur <br> <b>for de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: hors de, à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: fuori da, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>for de se(= foras de se, foris de se)</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au délà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #except <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #from without <br> *Francese: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> #out of doors, outside, out <br> *Francese: dehors <br> *Italiano: fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, afuera <br> <b>foras de</b> <br> #outside of, without <br> *Francese: au dehors de <br> *Italiano: senza, al di fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera de <br> <b>foras de dubita, foris de dubita</b> <br> #beyond doubt <br> *Francese: hors de tout doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: fuera de duda <br> <b>foras de lo commun(= foris de lo commun)</b> <br> #out of the ordinary <br> *Francese: hors de l'ordinaire <br> *Italiano: fuori dall'ordinario <br> *Espaniol: fuera de lo común <br> <b>foras de proposito</b> <br> #ill-timed, irrelevant, beside the mark <br> *Francese: hors de propos <br> *Italiano: irrilevante <br> *Espaniol: fuera de propósito, irrelevante <br> <b>foras de se</b> <br> #beside oneself <br> *Francese: hors de soi <br> *Italiano: fuori di sé <br> *Espaniol: fuera de sí <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, possiblement <br> *Italiano: può essere, forse <br> *Espaniol: posiblemente, quizás, tal vez, es posible que. . . <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> #perhaps, maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être, probablement <br> *Italiano: può essere, probabilmente, forse <br> *Espaniol: probablemente, quizás, tal vez <br> <b>frequentemente</b> <br> #frequently, often <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: frequentemente, sovente, spesso <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, a menudo <br> <b>frustra</b> <br> #in vain <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>g(littera): ge /g/ aut /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: g/gi(pron. : come j di John) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: g(lettre): jé /gh/ ou /j/ <br> <b>grande(= magne, magna, magno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grand, grande <br> *Italiano: grande, gran <br> *Espaniol: grande; magno, magna <br> <b>grandemente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grandement <br> *Italiano: grandemente <br> *Espaniol: grandemente <br> <b>gratias a</b> <br> #thanks to, due or owing to <br> *Francese: grâce à <br> *Italiano: grazie a <br> *Espaniol: gracias a, debido a <br> <b>gratias!</b> <br> #thank you! thanks! <br> *Francese: grâce! <br> *Italiano: grazie <br> *Espaniol: gracias! <br> <b>gratis</b> <br> #gratis, free(of charge) <br> *Francese: gratis, gratuit <br> *Italiano: gratis, gratuito <br> *Espaniol: gratis <br> <b>guai</b> <br> #woe <br> *Francese: ennui, malheur, chagrin, peine <br> *Italiano: guai <br> *Espaniol: pena <br> <b>h(littera): hache /h/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: h, acca(muta, ma dopo C e G cambia la pronuncia da dolce a dura(chi=ki; ghi=g di girl inglese) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: h(lettre): ache /muet/ <br> <b>haber satis</b> <br> #to have enough <br> *Francese: avoir assez <br> *Italiano: avere abbastanza, avere a sufficienza <br> *Espaniol: tener suficiente, tener bastante <br> <b>hac</b> <br> #here, this way, on this side <br> *Francese: ici, par là, de ce côté <br> *Italiano: qui, di qui, di qua, da questa parte, in questo luogo <br> *Espaniol: aquí, en este lado <br> <b>hallo!</b> <br> #hello! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>halto</b> <br> #halt, stop <br> *Francese: halte, arrêt, stop <br> *Italiano: stop, alt, fermo! basta! <br> *Espaniol: alto <br> <b>halto!</b> <br> #halt! <br> *Francese: halte! <br> *Italiano: fermo!, ferma! stop! alt! altolà! <br> *Espaniol: alto! <br> <b>heri</b> <br> #yesterday <br> *Francese: hier <br> *Italiano: ieri <br> *Espaniol: ayer <br> <b>heri vespera</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>heri vespere</b> <br> #last night <br> *Francese: la nuit dernière <br> *Italiano: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> *Espaniol: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> <b>hic</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>hic(= iste)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qui <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: -ci <br> <b>hic juncto</b> <br> #herewith, hereto(attached) <br> *Francese: qui accanto, qui con <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ci-joint <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this place <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui(da qui in poi, da qui in avanti) <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este sitio en adelante <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this reason) <br> *Francese: de là, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, por esta razón <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> #hence, henceforth, from this time <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: de aquí en adelante, desde este tiempo en adelante <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, cela <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> #this(thing, idea) <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, ceci, cela <br> <b>hoc est</b> <br> #that is(to say) <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: come a dire, cioé <br> *Espaniol: es decir <br> <b>hoc pluve</b> <br> #it is raining <br> *Francese: il pleut <br> *Italiano: piove, sta piovendo <br> *Espaniol: llueve, está lloviendo <br> <b>hodie</b> <br> #today <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui <br> *Italiano: oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy <br> <b>hodie ipse</b> <br> #this very say <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: oggi stesso <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>hodie mesmo</b> <br> #this very day <br> *Francese: aujourd'hui même <br> *Italiano: anche oggi <br> *Espaniol: hoy mismo <br> <b>holla!</b> <br> #holla! <br> *Francese: allo! <br> *Italiano: ciao! <br> *Espaniol: hola! <br> <b>homo(=on, uno)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un, uno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: on <br> <b>i(littera): i /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: i <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: i(lettre): i /i/ <br> <b>ibi</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <b>ibid. , ib. </b><br> #ibid. , ib. <br> *Francese: ibid. , ib. <br> *Italiano: ibid. , ib. <br> *Espaniol: ibid. , ib. <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #ibidem <br> *Francese: ibidem <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: ibidem, en el mismo lugar <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> #in the same place, in that very place <br> *Francese: au même endroit <br> *Italiano: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> *Espaniol: en el mismo lugar <br> <b>id</b> <br> #1. it; 2. that <br> *Francese: ce <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>id est, i. e. </b><br> #that is(to say), i. e. <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire, i. e. <br> *Italiano: cioé <br> *Espaniol: esto es, es decir <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #idem <br> *Francese: idem <br> *Italiano: idem, lo stesso <br> *Espaniol: idem <br> <b>idem</b> <br> #the same(thing) <br> *Francese: la même chose, le même <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, idem <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa; lo mismo <br> <b>igitur</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: donc, par conséquent <br> *Italiano: quindi, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, por consiguiente <br> <b>il</b> <br> #it <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce, c', il <br> <b>il(= ille)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: egli <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il <br> <b>il conveni de(facer lo)</b> <br> #it is fitting, advisable, to(do it) <br> *Francese: il convient de(le faire) <br> *Italiano: conviene(farlo) <br> *Espaniol: conviene(hacerlo) <br> <b>il est a dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: c'est-à-dire <br> *Italiano: cioè <br> *Espaniol: es decir, o sea <br> <b>il est bon que, il est bono que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon que, c'est bon que <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: es bueno que <br> <b>il est bon, il est bono</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est bon, c'est bon <br> *Italiano: va bene <br> *Espaniol: es bueno <br> <b>il est necessari que, il est necessario que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario che, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est necessari, il est necessario</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire, c'est nécessaire <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario <br> <b>il est necesse que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> *Italiano: è necessario, bisogna <br> *Espaniol: es necesario que <br> <b>il est vero, nonne?</b> <br> #it is true, isn't it?, isn't that so? <br> *Francese: c'est vrai, non? n'est-ce pas vrai? n'est-il pas vrai? <br> *Italiano: è vero ? non è vero ? <br> *Espaniol: es verdad, no es así? <br> <b>il face</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a(deux ans) <br> *Italiano: fa(due anni fa) <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>il face(un) grande calor</b> <br> #it is very hot <br> *Francese: il fait une grande chaleur <br> *Italiano: fa un gran caldo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho calor <br> <b>il face frigido</b> <br> #it is cold(weather) <br> *Francese: il fait froid <br> *Italiano: fa freddo <br> *Espaniol: hace frío <br> <b>il ha</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il habe</b> <br> #there is, there aree <br> *Francese: il y a <br> *Italiano: c'è <br> *Espaniol: hay <br> <b>il importa que. . . </b><br> #it is essential that. . . <br> *Francese: il faut que <br> *Italiano: è che, bisogna, è necessario che <br> *Espaniol: importa que, es importante que, es esencial que <br> <b>il pare que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il paraît que <br> *Italiano: sembra che <br> *Espaniol: parece que <br> <b>il se tracta de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il s'agit de <br> *Italiano: si tratta di <br> *Espaniol: se trata de <br> <b>il va sin dicer</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il va sans dire <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #her(as in "of her, " "with her") <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illa</b> <br> #she <br> *Francese: elle <br> *Italiano: ella, essa, lei <br> *Espaniol: ella <br> <b>illac</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allí <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ille habe 20 annos</b> <br> #he is 20 years old <br> *Francese: venti anni fa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: il a vingt(20) ans <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #he; she; it <br> *Francese: il, elle <br> *Italiano: egli, ella, lui, lei, esso, essa <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #him; her; it(as in "with him, " "with it"; "for him, " "for it") <br> *Francese: lui, elle(comme dans "avec lui, " "avec elle"; "pour lui" "pour elle") <br> *Italiano: lui, lei(con lei, per lei, a lui, con lui, per lei, per lui) <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that(one) <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, pron. dém. : celui-là. celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #that, those <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello là, quella là <br> *Espaniol: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> #the former(= first of two) <br> *Francese: celui-là, celle-là <br> *Italiano: quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: aquel, aquella <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #them(as in "with them, " "for them") <br> *Francese: eux, elles(comme dans "avec eux" ou "avec elles", "pour eux" ou "pour elles") <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro(con essi, con loro, a loro, per loro) <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> #they <br> *Francese: ils, elles <br> *Italiano: essi, esse, loro <br> *Espaniol: ellos, ellas <br> <b>illes, illas, illos(= aquelles, aquellas, aquellos)</b> <br> #those <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-là, pron. dém. : ceux-là <br> *Italiano: quelli là, quelle là <br> *Espaniol: aquellos, aquellas <br> <b>illi(= illes)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: essi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ??????? <br> <b>illic(= illac)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: là <br> <b>illo</b> <br> #it [used as subject, and as object of a prep.] <br> *Francese: ça <br> *Italiano: ciò, quello <br> *Espaniol: ello <br> <b>in</b> <br> #in, into <br> *Francese: dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nello, nella <br> *Espaniol: en, dentro <br> <b>in(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en(part. prés. ) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: = gerundio <br> <b>in alicun modo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque façon <br> *Italiano: in qualche modo <br> *Espaniol: de algún modo, de alguna manera <br> <b>in alicuna forma</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque forme <br> *Italiano: in qualche forma <br> *Espaniol: de alguna forma <br> <b>in alicuna maniera</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de quelque manière <br> *Italiano: in qualche maniera <br> *Espaniol: de alguna manera <br> <b>in alta voce</b> <br> #aloud, loudly, not in a whisper <br> *Francese: à haute voix <br> *Italiano: ad alta voce <br> *Espaniol: en alta voz <br> <b>in alteras parolas</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans d'autres mots <br> *Italiano: in altre parole, in altri termini <br> *Espaniol: en otras palabras <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #(up) on top; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> #upward(s), up; also: upstairs <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, su <br> *Espaniol: arriba, hacia arriba <br> <b>in alto(= super)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, below; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas, en dessous <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> #down, downward; also: downstairs <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> <b>in caso de</b> <br> #in case of <br> *Francese: en cas de <br> *Italiano: in caso di, nel caso che <br> *Espaniol: en caso de <br> <b>in caso de necessitate</b> <br> #in case of need, of necessity <br> *Francese: en cas de nécessité <br> *Italiano: in caso di necessità, all'occorrenza <br> *Espaniol: en caso de necesidad <br> <b>in caso que</b> <br> #in case(that) <br> *Francese: au cas où <br> *Italiano: nel caso che, in caso di <br> *Espaniol: en caso de que <br> <b>in certos casos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans certains cas <br> *Italiano: in certi casi <br> *Espaniol: en ciertos casos <br> <b>in commemoration de</b> <br> #in commemoration of <br> *Francese: en commémoration de <br> *Italiano: in commemorazione di, in ricordo di, in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en conmemoración de <br> <b>in commun</b> <br> #in common <br> *Francese: en commun <br> *Italiano: in comune <br> *Espaniol: en común <br> <b>in conclusion, in fin</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: en conclusion <br> *Italiano: in conclusione <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión <br> <b>in consequentia</b> <br> #in consequence, accordingly <br> *Francese: en conséquence <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza, conseguentemente <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia <br> <b>in consequentia de</b> <br> #in consequence of <br> *Francese: en conséquence de <br> *Italiano: in conseguenza di <br> *Espaniol: en consecuencia de <br> <b>in consideration de</b> <br> #in consideration of, on account of <br> *Francese: en considération de <br> *Italiano: in considerazione di <br> *Espaniol: en consideración de <br> <b>in despecto de</b> <br> #in spite of, despite <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, a dispetto di, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>in domo de</b> <br> #at the house of <br> *Francese: à la résidence de <br> *Italiano: in casa di, presso <br> *Espaniol: en la casa de <br> <b>in effecto</b> <br> #in fact, indeed <br> *Francese: en fait, effectivement <br> *Italiano: infatti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: en efecto <br> <b>in evidentia</b> <br> #evident <br> *Francese: en évidence <br> *Italiano: in evidenza <br> *Espaniol: en evidencia <br> <b>in excesso(= excessivamente, troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en excès(=excessivement, trop) <br> *Italiano: in eccesso, troppo, eccessivamente <br> *Espaniol: en exceso, excesivamente, demasiado <br> <b>in favor de</b> <br> #on behalf of, in favor of <br> *Francese: en faveur de <br> *Italiano: in favore di <br> *Espaniol: a favor de <br> <b>in fin</b> <br> #in short, to sum up <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion, finalement <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en conclusión, en fin <br> <b>in fin, in conclusion</b> <br> #in conclusion <br> *Francese: enfin, en conclusion <br> *Italiano: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> *Espaniol: en fin, en conclusión <br> <b>in general</b> <br> #in general <br> *Francese: en général <br> *Italiano: in generale, in genere, di norma, usualmente, normalmente <br> *Espaniol: en general <br> <b>in honor de</b> <br> #in honor of <br> *Francese: en honneur de <br> *Italiano: in onore di <br> *Espaniol: en honor de <br> <b>in la proximitate de</b> <br> #in the proximity or vicinity of <br> *Francese: à proximité de <br> *Italiano: in prossimità di <br> *Espaniol: en la proximidad o vecindad de <br> <b>in la via de(= facie a, ob)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>in le curso de. . . </b><br> #in the course of. . . <br> *Francese: au cours de <br> *Italiano: in corso di <br> *Espaniol: en el curso de <br> <b>in le exterior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur <br> *Italiano: all'esterno <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior <br> <b>in le exterior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'extérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'esterno di <br> *Espaniol: en el exterior de <br> <b>in le fundo</b> <br> #fundamentally, at bottom <br> *Francese: au fond, fondamentalement <br> *Italiano: in fondo <br> *Espaniol: en el fondo, fundamentalmente <br> <b>in le gusto de. . . </b><br> #in the manner of. . . <br> *Francese: au goût de <br> *Italiano: al gusto di <br> *Espaniol: al gusto de, a la manera de <br> <b>in le interim</b> <br> #in the interim <br> *Francese: dans l'intérim <br> *Italiano: nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: en el interim <br> <b>in le interior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior <br> <b>in le interior de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di <br> *Espaniol: en el interior de <br> <b>in le passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le passé <br> *Italiano: nel passato <br> *Espaniol: en el pasado <br> <b>in le principio</b> <br> #in the beginning <br> *Francese: au début <br> *Italiano: all'inizio, inizialmente <br> *Espaniol: al principio <br> <b>in loco de</b> <br> #in lieu of, instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: in luogo di, al posto di, invece di <br> *Espaniol: en lugar de <br> <b>in medio de</b> <br> #in the middle of <br> *Francese: au milieu de <br> *Italiano: in mezzo a <br> *Espaniol: en medio de <br> <b>in memoria de</b> <br> #in memory of <br> *Francese: en mémoire de <br> *Italiano: in memoria di <br> *Espaniol: en memoria de <br> <b>in modo special, specialmente</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: in particolare, specialmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>in modo. . . (= -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>in nomine de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: au nom de <br> *Italiano: in nome di <br> *Espaniol: en nombre de <br> <b>in nulla parte</b> <br> #nowhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in nessun luogo, da nessuna parte <br> *Espaniol: en ninguna parte <br> <b>in nulle caso</b> <br> #in no case <br> *Francese: en aucun cas <br> *Italiano: in alcun caso, in nessun caso, mai <br> *Espaniol: en ningún caso <br> <b>in omne caso</b> <br> #in any case <br> *Francese: en tout cas <br> *Italiano: in ogni caso, in utti i casi, sempre <br> *Espaniol: en todo caso <br> <b>in parte</b> <br> #in part, partially <br> *Francese: en partie <br> *Italiano: in parte <br> *Espaniol: en parte, parcialmente <br> <b>in particular</b> <br> #in particular, particularly <br> *Francese: en particulier <br> *Italiano: in particolare <br> *Espaniol: en particular, particularmente <br> <b>in pauco</b> <br> #shortly, before long <br> *Francese: d'ici peu <br> *Italiano: in poco tempo, da qui a un poco, in un attimo <br> *Espaniol: en poco tiempo, dentro de poco, en breve <br> <b>in plus</b> <br> #furthermore, in addition, also <br> *Francese: de plus, en plus, en outre <br> *Italiano: di più, in più, <br> *Espaniol: además, adicionalmente <br> <b>in primo loco</b> <br> #first, in the first place <br> *Francese: en premier lieu <br> *Italiano: in primo luogo, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: en primer lugar <br> <b>in principio</b> <br> #in principle, as a rule <br> *Francese: en principe <br> *Italiano: in principio <br> *Espaniol: en principio <br> <b>in su loco</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à sa place <br> *Italiano: al suo posto <br> *Espaniol: en su lugar <br> <b>in summa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en somme <br> *Italiano: insomma <br> *Espaniol: en suma <br> <b>in tanto que</b> <br> #inasmuch as, in so far as <br> *Francese: en tant que <br> *Italiano: in tanto che, fin tanto che <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que <br> <b>in toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly, in toto <br> *Francese: en tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo <br> <b>in toto et per toto</b> <br> #entirely, wholly <br> *Francese: en tout et pour tout <br> *Italiano: in tutto e per tutto <br> *Espaniol: en todo y por todo <br> <b>in vano</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vain <br> *Italiano: invano, inutilmente <br> *Espaniol: en vano <br> <b>in vice de</b> <br> #instead of <br> *Francese: au lieu de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: en vez de, en lugar de <br> <b>in vista de</b> <br> #in view of <br> *Francese: en vue de <br> *Italiano: in vista di <br> *Espaniol: en vista de <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that cause, therefore <br> *Francese: de ce fait, de là <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò <br> *Espaniol: por esa causa, por consiguiente <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that place, from there, thence <br> *Francese: d'ici <br> *Italiano: da qui <br> *Espaniol: desde aquí, desde este sitio <br> <b>inde</b> <br> #from that time, after that, thereupon, thenceforward <br> *Francese: désormais, dorénavant <br> *Italiano: da questo momento <br> *Espaniol: desde este momento, después de eso <br> <b>inferior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: inférieur(e) <br> *Italiano: inferiore <br> *Espaniol: inferior <br> <b>infime, infima, infimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: infime <br> *Italiano: infimo, infima <br> *Espaniol: ínfimo, ínfima <br> <b>1</b> <br> #below, under, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous <br> *Italiano: sotto, in basso, in profondità <br> *Espaniol: debajo de <br> <b>infra</b> <br> #below, underneath, beneath <br> *Francese: sous, dessous, en dessous <br> *Italiano: dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: debajo <br> <b>insimul(= junctamente)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #among <br> *Francese: parmi <br> *Italiano: tra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter</b> <br> #between <br> *Francese: entre <br> *Italiano: tra, fra <br> *Espaniol: entre <br> <b>inter alia</b> <br> #inter alia, among other things <br> *Francese: entre autres choses, parmi tant d'autres <br> *Italiano: tra l'altro <br> *Espaniol: entre otras cosas <br> <b>interdum</b> <br> #sometimes, occasionally; for some time; meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: parfois, à l'occasion, pour quelque temps, entre-temps <br> *Italiano: qualchevolta, talvolta, durante, nel frattempo <br> *Espaniol: a veces, de vez en cuando; durante algún tiempo; entretanto <br> <b>interea</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>interim(= intertanto)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: entre-temps <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto, mientras tanto <br> <b>intertanto(= interim)</b> <br> #meanwhile, in the meantime <br> *Francese: en attendant <br> *Italiano: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> *Espaniol: entretanto <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: entre, dans <br> *Italiano: in, nel, nella, dentro il <br> *Espaniol: dentro <br> <b>intra</b> <br> #within <br> *Francese: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> *Italiano: all'interno di, nel, in <br> *Espaniol: dentro de <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: hacia dentro <br> <b>intro</b> <br> #inwardly, internally, on the inside, in <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: internamente, interiormente, enm el interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, into, to the inside <br> *Francese: vers l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: verso l'interno <br> *Espaniol: al interior <br> <b>intus</b> <br> #inside, on the inside, within <br> *Francese: à l'intérieur <br> *Italiano: all'interno <br> *Espaniol: en el interior, dentro de <br> <b>io(=ego)</b> <br> #I <br> *Francese: je(=moi) <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>io mesme, io mesma, io mesmo, io ipse</b> <br> #myself <br> *Francese: moi même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso <br> *Espaniol: yo mismo, yo mismo <br> <b>ipse</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: -même <br> *Italiano: stesso <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma(yo mismo, tú mismo, él mismo, etc. <br> <b>is</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: questo <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ce <br> <b>isse(= esse)</b> <br> #this, that, these, those <br> *Francese: ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-là, ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa, questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: ese <br> <b>isse, issa, isso(= aquesse, aquessa, aquesso)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: ese, esa, eso <br> <b>isses, issas, issos(= aquesses, aquessas, aquessos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questi, queste <br> *Espaniol: esos, esas <br> <b>isso</b> <br> #this, that <br> *Francese: ce. ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, quello <br> *Espaniol: eso <br> <b>ista nocte</b> <br> #tonight <br> *Francese: cette nuit <br> *Italiano: questa notte, stanotte <br> *Espaniol: esta noche <br> <b>ista vespera</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera, stasera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste vespere</b> <br> #this evening, tonight <br> *Francese: ce soir <br> *Italiano: questa sera <br> *Espaniol: esta tarde, esta noche <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #the latter(= second of two) <br> *Francese: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> *Italiano: questo/a qui <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> #this(one) <br> *Francese: celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>iste, ista, isto(= aqueste, aquesta, aquesto)</b> <br> #this <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: este, esta, esto <br> <b>istes, istas, istos(= aquestes, aquestas, aquestos)</b> <br> #these <br> *Francese: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> *Italiano: questo qui, questa qui <br> *Espaniol: estos, estas <br> <b>isto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ce, ceci, cela <br> *Italiano: questo, questa <br> *Espaniol: esto <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #accordingly, under the circumstances <br> *Francese: en conséquence, dans les circonstances <br> *Italiano: così, di conseguenza, <br> *Espaniol: de acuerdo con, bako las circunstancias <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #and so, consequently <br> *Francese: et ainsi, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: e così <br> *Espaniol: así, consecuentemente, por consiguiente <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #just so, yes <br> *Francese: justement, oui <br> *Italiano: sì, giusto <br> *Espaniol: justamente, sí <br> <b>ita</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>itaque</b> <br> #and so, therefore <br> *Francese: et ainsi, donc <br> *Italiano: e così, dunque <br> *Espaniol: y así, por consiguiente <br> <b>itero</b> <br> #again, anew <br> *Francese: encore <br> *Italiano: ancora, di nuovo, nuovamente <br> *Espaniol: de nuevo, nuevamente <br> <b>itero et itero</b> <br> #again and again, repeatedly <br> *Francese: encore et encore <br> *Italiano: ancora ed ancora <br> *Espaniol: una y otra vez, repetidamente <br> <b>j(littera): jota /j/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: j(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo; si usa nelle parole antiche o straniere) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: j(lettre): ji /j/(et non /dj/) <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #already; at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely <br> *Francese: déjà, tout de suite, il y a un moment, en effet, sûrement <br> *Italiano: già, al momento, proprio adesso <br> *Espaniol: ya, ahora mismo <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> #indeed, certainly, of course <br> *Francese: en effet, bien sûr <br> *Italiano: in effetti, già, sicuramente, certamente <br> *Espaniol: ya, ciertamente <br> <b>jammais</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>jammais!</b> <br> #never! <br> *Francese: jamais! <br> *Italiano: mai giammai ! <br> *Espaniol: jamás!, nunca! <br> <b>jo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je <br> *Italiano: io <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>junctamente(=insimul)</b> <br> #together <br> *Francese: ensemble <br> *Italiano: insieme, con <br> *Espaniol: juntos, juntas <br> <b>justo(= exactamente)</b> <br> #just, exactly <br> *Francese: juste, exactement <br> *Italiano: giusto, esattamente <br> *Espaniol: justo, exactamente <br> <b>justo nunc(= justo ora)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>justo ora(= justo nunc)</b> <br> #just now, right now <br> *Francese: juste maintenant <br> *Italiano: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: justo ahora <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near by <br> *Francese: près <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca, al lado <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> #near, near to, next to, etc. <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de <br> <b>k(littera): ka /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: k(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo), kappa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: k(lettre): ka /k/ <br> <b>l(littera): le /l/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: l, elle <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l(lettre): èle /l/ <br> <b>l'(= le, la, lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: l'(= le, la) <br> <b>la</b> <br> #her(as in "I see her", "I write her a letter") <br> *Francese: la, lui(comme dans "je la vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: la, lei(io la vedo, io le ho scritto una lettera) <br> *Espaniol: la, le <br> <b>la(= illac)</b> <br> #there <br> *Francese: là <br> *Italiano: là <br> *Espaniol: allá, allí <br> <b>la medietate del mundo</b> <br> #half the world <br> *Francese: la moitié du monde <br> *Italiano: mezzo mondo <br> *Espaniol: la mitad del mundo, medio mundo <br> <b>la mesma cosa</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: la même chose <br> *Italiano: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, la medesima cosa <br> *Espaniol: la misma cosa, lo mismo <br> <b>la vespera</b> <br> #in the evening, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: por la tarde <br> <b>la:(un dollar) la(libra)</b> <br> #(one dollar) a(pound) <br> *Francese: la:(un dollar) la(livre) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: (un dolar) la(libra) <br> <b>le(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: el(+ inf) <br> <b>le de, la de, lo de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui de, celle de <br> *Italiano: quello di, quella di <br> *Espaniol: el de, la de, lo de <br> <b>le die sequente</b> <br> #the next day, the following day <br> *Francese: le jour suivant <br> *Italiano: il giorno dopo, il giorno seguente, il giorno successivo <br> *Espaniol: el día siguiente <br> <b>le lore, la lore, lo lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur, la leur <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>le melior, la melior, lo melior(= le optime, la optima, lo optimo; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> #the best <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le mie et le tue, la mia et la tua, lo mio et lo tuo</b> <br> #mine and thine <br> *Francese: le mien et le tien. la mienne et la tienne <br> *Italiano: il mio e il tuo, la mia e la tua <br> *Espaniol: el mío y el tuyo, la mía y la tuya, lo mío y lo tuyo <br> <b>le mie, la mia, lo mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: el mío, la mía, lo mío <br> <b>le minime, la minima, lo minino(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minor, la minor, lo minor(= le minime, la minima, lo minimo; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il minore, la minore <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le minus</b> <br> #the least(as in "what pleases me(the) least") <br> *Francese: le moins <br> *Italiano: il meno <br> *Espaniol: el menor <br> <b>le minus belle, la minus bella, lo minus bello</b> <br> #the least beautiful <br> *Francese: le moins beau, la moins belle <br> *Italiano: il meno bello, lameno bella <br> *Espaniol: el menos bello, la menos bella, lo menos bello <br> <b>le nostre, la nostra, lo nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre, la nôtre <br> *Italiano: il nostro, la nostra <br> *Espaniol: el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro <br> <b>le optime, la optima, lo optimo(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor <br> <b>le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire la pire <br> *Italiano: il pessimo, la pessima <br> *Espaniol: el pésimo, la pésima, lo pésimo <br> <b>le plus belle, la plus bella, lo plus bello</b> <br> #the most beautiful <br> *Francese: le plus beau, la plus belle <br> *Italiano: il più bello, la più bella <br> *Espaniol: el más bonito, la más bonita, lo más bonito <br> <b>le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le optime, la optima, lo optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore, la migliore <br> *Espaniol: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> <b>le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande(= le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno(= le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> *Italiano: il più grande, la più grande <br> *Espaniol: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> <b>le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo)</b> <br> #the worst <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> *Espaniol: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> <b>le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le minime, la minima, lo minimo)</b> <br> #the greatest, biggest <br> *Francese: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> *Italiano: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> <b>le plus. . . -mente(= lo plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>le plus. . . , la plus. . . , lo plus. . . </b><br> #the most. . . <br> *Francese: le plus..., la plus... <br> *Italiano: il più. . . la più. . . <br> *Espaniol: el más. . . , la más. . . , lo más. . . <br> <b>le qual, la qual, lo qual</b> <br> #which; that; who <br> *Francese: lequel, laquelle <br> *Italiano: il quale, la quale <br> *Espaniol: el cual, la cual, lo cual <br> <b>le que, la que, lo que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: celui qui, celle qui <br> *Italiano: quello che, quella che <br> *Espaniol: el que, la que, lo que <br> <b>le sue, la sua, lo suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: le sien, la sienne(de lui, d'elle) <br> *Italiano: il suo, la sua <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>le toto</b> <br> #the whole <br> *Francese: le tout <br> *Italiano: il tutto <br> *Espaniol: el todo <br> <b>le tue, la tua, lo tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: il tuo, la tua <br> *Espaniol: el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo <br> <b>le un le altere, la una la altera, lo uno lo altero(= unaltre)</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(one). . . the other(one) <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre, l'une l'autre <br> *Italiano: l'un l'altro <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>le vespere</b> <br> #in the evenong, evenings <br> *Francese: le soir <br> *Italiano: la sera <br> *Espaniol: la tarde <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il vostro, la vostra <br> *Espaniol: el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il Suo, la Sua(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de usted) <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> *Italiano: il loro, la loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ustedes) <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #him(as in "I see him", "I write him a letter") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je le vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it", "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: le, la, lo <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: le, la, l' <br> *Italiano: il, lo, la <br> *Espaniol: el, la, lo <br> <b>les de, las de, los de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux de, celles de <br> *Italiano: quelli di, quelle di <br> *Espaniol: los de, las de <br> <b>les duo, las duas, los duos</b> <br> #the two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: i due, ambo, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>les lores, las lores, los lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>les mies, las mias, los mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: los míos, las mías <br> <b>les nostres, las nostras, los nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: i nostri <br> *Espaniol: los nuestros, las nuestras <br> <b>les que, las que, los que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ceux que, ceux qui, celles que. celles qui <br> *Italiano: quelli che, quelle che <br> *Espaniol: los que, las que <br> <b>les sues, las suas, los suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: les siens, les siennes(de lui ou d'elle) <br> *Italiano: i loro, le loro <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>les tues, las tuas, los tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiens, les tiennes <br> *Italiano: i tuoi, le tue <br> *Espaniol: los tuyos, las tuyas <br> <b>les unes les alteres</b> <br> #one another, each other, each(of them). . . the others, other ones <br> *Francese: les uns les autres <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros <br> <b>les unes les alteres, las unas las alteras, los unos los alteros</b> <br> #one another, each other <br> *Francese: les uns les autres, <br> *Italiano: gli uni gli altri <br> *Espaniol: unos los otros, unos a los otros, unas a las otras <br> les unes les autres <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i vostri <br> *Espaniol: los vuestros, las vuestras <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Suoi(di Lei) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de usted) <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: les vôtres <br> *Italiano: i Loro(di Loro) <br> *Espaniol: los suyos, las suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #the <br> *Francese: les <br> *Italiano: i, le <br> *Espaniol: los, las <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> #them(as in "I see them", "I write them a letter") <br> *Francese: les, leur(comme dans "je les vois", "je leur écris une lettre") <br> *Italiano: li, le <br> *Espaniol: les, los, las <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #on the left hand <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra, sinistrorso <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> #to the left <br> *Francese: à gauche <br> *Italiano: a sinistra <br> *Espaniol: a la izquierda <br> <b>li(= le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ?????? <br> <b>lo</b> <br> #it(as in "I like it, " "I'll give it another thought") <br> *Francese: le, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> *Italiano: lo <br> *Espaniol: lo <br> <b>lo plus. . . -mente(= le plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le plus... -ment <br> *Italiano: il più. . . -mente <br> *Espaniol: lo más. . . -mente <br> <b>lo que</b> <br> #that which <br> *Francese: ce que <br> *Italiano: quello che <br> *Espaniol: lo que <br> <b>loco</b> <br> #place <br> *Francese: lieu <br> *Italiano: luogo <br> *Espaniol: lugar <br> <b>longamente</b> <br> #long, for a long time <br> *Francese: longtemps <br> *Italiano: a lungo, lungamente <br> *Espaniol: durante mucho tiempo <br> <b>longe(= longo)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>longo(= longe)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano <br> *Espaniol: lejos(= no cerca) <br> <b>lontan(= lontano)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lontano(= lontan)</b> <br> #far(= not near); away, far away <br> *Francese: loin <br> *Italiano: lontano, distante <br> *Espaniol: lejos; distante, lejano <br> <b>lor</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: su(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lore</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: le leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ellos, o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #their <br> *Francese: leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: sus(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>lores</b> <br> #theirs <br> *Francese: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> *Italiano: loro <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> <b>los altos et(los) bassos</b> <br> #th ups and downs <br> *Francese: les hauts et les bas <br> *Italiano: gli alti e bassi <br> *Espaniol: los altos y(los) bajos <br> <b>los mios</b> <br> #my people, my family <br> *Francese: les miens <br> *Italiano: i miei <br> *Espaniol: los míos <br> <b>m(littera): me /m/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: m, emme <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: m(lettre): ème /m/ <br> <b>ma(= mais)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>magis</b> <br> #rather <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>magne, magna, magno(= grande)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: grande <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: grand, grande <br> <b>mais(= ma)</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma <br> *Espaniol: pero, mas <br> <b>major</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: maggiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: majeur(e), principal(e) <br> <b>mal, mala, malo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: male, malvagio <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mal, mauvais, mauvaise <br> <b>malgrado(= malgre)</b> <br> #in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>malgre(= malgrado)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: malgrado <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: malgré <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #early in the morning <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: stamane, stamattina presto <br> *Espaniol: temprano por la mañana <br> <b>mane</b> <br> #morning <br> *Francese: matin <br> *Italiano: mattino <br> *Espaniol: mañana <br> <b>mane vespera</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>mane vespere</b> <br> #tomorrow night <br> *Francese: demain soir <br> *Italiano: domani sera <br> *Espaniol: mañana por la noche <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #certainly <br> *Francese: certainement <br> *Italiano: certamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #especially, principally <br> *Francese: spécialement, principalement <br> *Italiano: specialmente. principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmentre, principalmente <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #exceedingly, very <br> *Francese: excessivement, très <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, troppo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muy <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> #most <br> *Francese: il più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus <br> <b>maxime, maxima, maximo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: il più, la più <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le plus, la plus <br> <b>me</b> <br> #me <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: me, mi(dallo a me, mi piace) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>me</b> <br> #myself(as in "I hurt myself", "I said to myself") <br> *Francese: moi-même <br> *Italiano: io stesso, me stesso(io stesso ho scritto quel libro; l'ho scritto io stesso; l'ho fatto per me stesso) <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>media hora</b> <br> #half an hour <br> *Francese: demi-heure <br> *Italiano: mezz'ora <br> *Espaniol: media hora <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #average, mean <br> *Francese: moyen, moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: demi <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> #middle <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: mezzo, mezza <br> *Espaniol: medio, media <br> <b>medietate</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: mitad <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #half <br> *Francese: moitié, demi <br> *Italiano: metà <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #mean, medium <br> *Francese: moyenne <br> *Italiano: medio, media <br> *Espaniol: medio <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #means(= agent or instrument by which an end is attained) <br> *Francese: moyen <br> *Italiano: mediante, con <br> *Espaniol: medios(=agente o instrumento mediante el cual se obtiene un fin) <br> <b>medio</b> <br> #middle, also: midst <br> *Francese: milieu <br> *Italiano: medio, in mezzo, in <br> *Espaniol: medio, también: entre <br> <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>melio</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>melior</b> <br> #better <br> *Francese: meilleur, mieux <br> *Italiano: migliore, meglio <br> *Espaniol: mejor <br> <b>meno(= minus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>-mente(= in modo. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese:ly <br> *Francese: -ment <br> *Italiano: -mente <br> *Espaniol: -mente <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> #same <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo <br> *Espaniol: mismo, misma <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #even <br> *Francese: même <br> *Italiano: incluso, stesso <br> *Espaniol: incluso <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> #likewise <br> *Francese: même, semblable <br> *Italiano: stesso, medesimo, ugualmente <br> *Espaniol: igualmente <br> <b>mesmo quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: même quand <br> *Italiano: anche quando <br> *Espaniol: incluso cuando <br> <b>mi</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mi <br> <b>mi(= me)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: me, moi <br> *Italiano: mio <br> *Espaniol: me <br> <b>mie, mia, mio</b> <br> #mine <br> *Francese: le mien, la mienne <br> *Italiano: il mio, la mia <br> *Espaniol: mío, mía <br> <b>mies, mias, mios</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: les miens, les miennes <br> *Italiano: i miei, le mie <br> *Espaniol: míos, mías <br> <b>minimamente</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minimalement <br> *Italiano: minimamente <br> *Espaniol: mínimamente <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #by no means, not in the least, no! <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon, pas du tout, non! <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo, no, assolutamente <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera, en lo más mínimo, no! <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #least <br> *Francese: almeno <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: le moins <br> <b>minime</b> <br> #very little <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #least, smallest, minimal <br> *Francese: le moins, la moins, le plus petit, la plus petite, minimal <br> *Italiano: minimo, la minima. . . la più piccola <br> *Espaniol: mínimo, mínima <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> #very small, tiny <br> *Francese: très petit <br> *Italiano: molto piccolo <br> *Espaniol: muy pequeño, diminuto <br> <b>minor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: minore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: mineur(e) <br> <b>minus</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins <br> *Italiano: meno, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos <br> <b>minus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #less(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: moins de(moins d'argent) <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>minus de</b> <br> #less <br> *Francese: moins de <br> *Italiano: meno di, senza <br> *Espaniol: menos de <br> <b>minus de(dece annos)</b> <br> #less than(ten years) <br> *Francese: moins de(dix ans) <br> *Italiano: meno di <br> *Espaniol: menos de(diez años) <br> <b>minus. . . (que)</b> <br> #less. . . (than) <br> *Francese: moins...(que) <br> *Italiano: meno che <br> *Espaniol: menos. . . (que) <br> <b>minus:(quatro) minus(tres)</b> <br> #(four) minus(three) <br> *Francese: moins:(quatre) moins(trois) <br> *Italiano: meno <br> *Espaniol: menos:(cuatro) menos(tres) <br> <b>minus:(totos) minus(ille)</b> <br> #(all) except, but(him) <br> *Francese: (tous) sauf(lui) <br> *Italiano: (tutti) meno(lui) <br> *Espaniol: menos:(todos) menos él <br> <b>mis</b> <br> #my <br> *Francese: mon, ma <br> *Italiano: mio, mia <br> *Espaniol: mis <br> <b>mox</b> <br> #soon, at once, directly <br> *Francese: bientôt, tout-de-suite <br> *Italiano: presto, tosto, subito, prima possibile <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en seguida <br> <b>multas gratias</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: merci beaucoup <br> *Italiano: grazie molte, molte grazie, grazie infinite, grazie mille, grazie tante <br> *Espaniol: muchas gracias <br> <b>multas vices</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plusieurs fois <br> *Italiano: più volte <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces <br> <b>multe de, multa de, multo de</b> <br> #much, many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de <br> *Italiano: molto di <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto, molta, molti <br> *Espaniol: mucho, mucha <br> <b>multes, multas, multos</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: plusieurs, de nombreux, de nombreuses <br> *Italiano: molte, molti, numerosi, numerose <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> <b>multissime, multissima, multissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une grande quantité de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimo, muchísima <br> <b>multissimes, multissimas, multissimos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un grand nombre de <br> *Italiano: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> *Espaniol: muchísimos, muchísimas <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>multo</b> <br> #very <br> *Francese: très <br> *Italiano: molto, tanto <br> *Espaniol: muy <br> <b>multo ben</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bien <br> *Italiano: molto bene <br> *Espaniol: muy bien <br> <b>multo bon</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très bon <br> *Italiano: molto buono <br> *Espaniol: muy bueno <br> <b>n(littera): ne /n/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: n, enne <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: n(lettre): ène /n/ <br> <b>nam</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: pour que <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, by nature <br> *Francese: naturellement, par tempérament <br> *Italiano: naturalmente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, por naturaleza <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, in a natural way <br> *Francese: nuturellement, simplement <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, semplicemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, de una manera natural <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> #naturally, of course <br> *Francese: bien sûr, évidemment <br> *Italiano: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> *Espaniol: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #lest <br> *Francese: de crainte que... ne(+subj. ) <br> *Italiano: perché no <br> *Espaniol: para que non(+subj) <br> <b>ne</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne... pas <br> *Italiano: no, non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>nec(= ni)</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>nec. . . nec. . . (= ni. . . ni. . . )</b> <br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni. . . ni. . . <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>necun, necuna, necuno(= nulle, nulla, nullo)</b> <br> #none, not any <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>necuno(= nemo)</b> <br> #nobody, no one, none <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno, alcuno <br> *Espaniol: ninguno <br> <b>nel(= in le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: dans le <br> *Italiano: nel <br> *Espaniol: en el <br> <b>nemine(= nemo)</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>nemo</b> <br> #no one, nobody <br> *Francese: personne <br> *Italiano: nessuno <br> *Espaniol: nadie, ninguno <br> <b>neque(= nec)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>neutro</b> <br> #neither <br> *Francese: ni un ni <br> *Italiano: né uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #neither, nor, also not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ni <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni</b> <br> #that not <br> *Francese: ?????? <br> *Italiano: né <br> *Espaniol: ni <br> <b>ni uno ni le altero</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ni l'un ni l'autre <br> *Italiano: né l'uno né l'altro <br> *Espaniol: ni uno ni otro <br> <b>ni. . . ni. . . </b><br> #neither. . . nor. . . <br> *Francese: ni... ni... <br> *Italiano: né. . . né. . . <br> *Espaniol: ni. . . ni. . . <br> <b>nihil(= nil)</b> <br> #nothing <br> *Francese: rien <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nada <br> <b>nihil de particular</b> <br> #nothing particular <br> *Francese: rien de particulier <br> *Italiano: niente di particolare, nulla di particolare <br> *Espaniol: nada de particular <br> <b>nimie, nimia, nimio(= troppo)</b> <br> #too much, too many <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada <br> <b>nimis(=troppo)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>nisi</b> <br> #if not, unless <br> *Francese: si non, à moins que <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che <br> *Espaniol: si no, a menos que <br> <b>no</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: no, non(no, non è vero; non fare) <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>no!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>nocte</b> <br> #night <br> *Francese: nuit <br> *Italiano: notte <br> *Espaniol: noche <br> <b>noi(= nos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: noi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: nous <br> <b>nolente</b> <br> #unwillingly, against one's will <br> *Francese: involontairement <br> *Italiano: involontariamente, nolente, senza volere <br> *Espaniol: involuntariamente, sin querer <br> <b>non</b> <br> #no <br> *Francese: non <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: no <br> <b>non</b> <br> #not <br> *Francese: ne. . . pas <br> *Italiano: non <br> *Espaniol: non <br> <b>non est?(= nonne?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>non importa</b> <br> #it doesn't matter, never mind <br> *Francese: c'est sans importance <br> *Italiano: non importa <br> *Espaniol: no importa <br> <b>non mesmo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ugualmente no <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pas même, même pas <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solamente. . . sed etiam. . . </b><br> #not only. . . but also. . . <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> <b>non solo. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais anque...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais même ... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non solo. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> #not only. . . but also... <br> *Francese: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> *Italiano: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> *Espaniol: no solo. . . sino también <br> <b>non!</b> <br> #no! <br> *Francese: non! <br> *Italiano: no ! <br> *Espaniol: no! <br> <b>non. . . jam(= non. . . ja)</b> <br> #no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no. . . ya <br> <b>non. . . jammais(= nunquam)</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: ne... jamais <br> *Italiano: non. . . mai <br> *Espaniol: no. . . jamás <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, no longer <br> *Francese: ne... plus <br> *Italiano: non. . . più <br> *Espaniol: no más. . . <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> #no more, not any more, nothing more <br> *Francese: ne... rien de plus <br> *Italiano: no, nulla più <br> *Espaniol: nada más <br> <b>nondum</b> <br> #not yet <br> *Francese: pas encore <br> *Italiano: non ancora <br> *Espaniol: aún no, todavía no <br> <b>nonne?(= non est?)</b> <br> #is it not? <br> *Francese: n'est-ce pas? <br> *Italiano: no? <br> *Espaniol: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> <b>nonnulle, nonnulla, nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de; plural: algunos, algunas <br> <b>nonnullo</b> <br> #some, several <br> *Francese: un peu de <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #despite, in spite of <br> *Francese: malgré <br> *Italiano: malgrado, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: a pesar de <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> #nevertheless <br> *Francese: non-obstant <br> *Italiano: nonostante <br> *Espaniol: no obstante <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #ourselves <br> *Francese: nous-mêmes <br> *Italiano: noi stessi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros mismos, nosotras mismas <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #us <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nos <br> <b>nos</b> <br> #we <br> *Francese: nous <br> *Italiano: noi <br> *Espaniol: nosotros, nosotras <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: le nôtre <br> *Italiano: nostro, nostra <br> *Espaniol: nuestro, nuestra <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #our <br> *Francese: notres <br> *Italiano: nostri, nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> #ours <br> *Francese: les nôtres <br> *Italiano: le nostre <br> *Espaniol: nuestros, nuestras <br> <b>nullamente</b> <br> #in no way, not at all <br> *Francese: d'aucune façon <br> *Italiano: in alcun modo, in nessun modo <br> *Espaniol: de ninguna manera <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #not any, no <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna <br> *Espaniol: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, as in "null and void") <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, (comme dans: "nul et sans effet") <br> *Italiano: nulla, niente <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> #null, worthless <br> *Francese: nul, nulle, sans valeur <br> *Italiano: nulla, nullo, senza valore <br> *Espaniol: nulo, nula, sin valor <br> <b>num(= an, est-que)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: est-ce que <br> *Italiano: egli ha. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: es que. . . <br> <b>num ille habe le libro?</b> <br> #has he the book? <br> *Francese: est-ce qu'il a le livre?, a-t-il le livre? <br> *Italiano: egli ha il libro ? <br> *Espaniol: es que él tiene el libro? <br> <b>nunc(= ora)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora <br> <b>nunc. . . nunc...(= ora. . . ora. . . )</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>nunquam</b> <br> #never <br> *Francese: jamais <br> *Italiano: mai <br> *Espaniol: nunca <br> <b>nuper</b> <br> #newly, lately, recently <br> *Francese: nouvellement, dernièrement, récemment <br> *Italiano: nuovamente, ultimamente, recentemente <br> *Espaniol: nuevamente, últimamente, recientemente <br> <b>nusquam</b> <br> #nowhere; not. . . anywhere <br> *Francese: nulle part <br> *Italiano: in alcun luogo, in nessun luogo <br> *Espaniol: a ninguna parte <br> <b>o(= aut)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou <br> *Italiano: o <br> *Espaniol: o, u <br> <b>o(littera): o /o/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: o, o <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: o(lettre): o /o/ <br> <b>o. . . o...(= aut. . . aut. . . )</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>ob(= facie a, in la via de)</b> <br> #towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> *Francese: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> *Italiano: prima di, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> <b>olim</b> <br> #at a future time, sometime in the future <br> *Francese: à un moment donné, une bonne fois <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un dato momento, una buona volta <br> *Espaniol: en un momento en el futuro, algún día en el futuro <br> <b>olim(= aliquando, unquam</b> <br> #once, formerly <br> *Francese: une fois, anciennement <br> *Italiano: una volta, anticamente, un tempo <br> *Espaniol: una vez, antiguamente <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the books" <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #all, as in "all the cheese" <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutte, tutti <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>omne</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, chaque, chacun des, cahcune des <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni, ciascuno <br> *Espaniol: todo, cada <br> <b>omne cosa</b> <br> #everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: toda cosa, todo <br> <b>omnes</b> <br> #all <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>on(= uno, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>optimamente(= optimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux possible <br> *Italiano: ottimamente, il meglio possibile <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente, lo mejor posible <br> <b>optime, optima, optimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimo, óptima <br> <b>optimo(= optimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le mieux <br> *Italiano: il migliore <br> *Espaniol: óptimamente <br> <b>ora(= nunc)</b> <br> #now, at the present time <br> *Francese: maintenant <br> *Italiano: ora, adesso <br> *Espaniol: ahora, en la actualidad <br> <b>ora mesmo</b> <br> #right now <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: adesso, giusto adesso, proprio ora <br> *Espaniol: ahora mismo <br> <b>ora. . . ora...</b> <br> #now. . . then. . . <br> *Francese: parfois... parfois... <br> *Italiano: adesso, ora <br> *Espaniol: ora. . . ora. . . <br> <b>out!</b> <br> #out! <br> *Francese: dehors! <br> *Italiano: fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>p(littera): pe /p/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: p, pi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: p(lettre): pé /p/ <br> <b>partir pro(Paris)</b> <br> #to leave or set out for(Paris) <br> *Francese: partir pour(Paris) <br> *Italiano: partire per <br> *Espaniol: partir para(Paris) <br> <b>parve, parva, parvo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: petit, petite <br> *Italiano: piccolo, piccola <br> *Espaniol: pequeño, pequeña <br> <b>passato</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: passé <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado <br> <b>passato</b> <br> #ago <br> *Francese: il y a, ça fait <br> *Italiano: fa, passato, trascorso <br> *Espaniol: hace <br> <b>passato(= pridem)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a bien longtemps, ça fait bien longtemps <br> *Italiano: tempo fa <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo <br> <b>passim</b> <br> #here and there, scattered, at random, in different places, passim <br> *Francese: ici et là, éparpillé, aléatoire <br> *Italiano: qui e là, qui e lì, qua e là, in luoghi diversi <br> *Espaniol: aquí y allí, esparcido, al azar, en diferentes lugares <br> <b>pauc de, pauca de, pauco de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu de <br> *Italiano: poco di, un po' di <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #few, not many <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> #little, not much <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>pauchissime, pauchissima, pauchissimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: très peu <br> *Italiano: molto poco <br> *Espaniol: poquísimo, poquísima <br> <b>pauco</b> <br> #little, to a small degree <br> *Francese: à un moindre degré <br> *Italiano: poco, in minima parte <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>pauco a pauco</b> <br> #little by little <br> *Francese: petit à petit, peu à peu <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>paulatim</b> <br> #gradually, by degrees, little by little, a little at a time <br> *Francese: graduellement, petit à petit, peu à peu, un peu à la fois <br> *Italiano: poco a poco, gradualmente, un po' alla volta, un po' per volta <br> *Espaniol: gradualmente, por grados, poco a poco, un poco cada vez <br> <b>pejo</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pis, pire <br> *Italiano: peggio <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>pejor</b> <br> #worse <br> *Francese: pire <br> *Italiano: peggiore <br> *Espaniol: peor <br> <b>per</b> <br> #by, by the agency of; through; by means of; also: per <br> *Francese: par <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por, ; a través de; por medio de; también: por <br> <b>per</b> <br> #through, from one side to the other of; also: during, throughout <br> *Francese: par, à travers, au travers de; aussi: pendant <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: per <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: pour(+ inf) <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: por(+ inf) <br> <b>per aventura</b> <br> #by chance <br> *Francese: par aventure <br> *Italiano: per caso <br> *Espaniol: por ventura, por casualidad <br> <b>per avion</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par avion <br> *Italiano: via aerea <br> *Espaniol: por avión <br> <b>per capite</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par tête, per capita <br> *Italiano: a testa, ad ognuno <br> *Espaniol: por cabeza, per capita <br> <b>per consequente</b> <br> #consequently <br> *Francese: par conséquent <br> *Italiano: di conseguenza <br> *Espaniol: por consiguiente <br> <b>per excellentia</b> <br> #par excellence <br> *Francese: par excellence <br> *Italiano: per eccellenza <br> *Espaniol: por excelencia <br> <b>per exemplo</b> <br> #for example, for instance <br> *Francese: par exemple <br> *Italiano: per esempio, ad esempio <br> *Espaniol: por exemplo <br> <b>per favor</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per favore, per piacere <br> *Espaniol: por favor <br> <b>per isso(= pro isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, voilà pourquoi <br> *Italiano: per questo, perciò, per questa ragione, per questo motivo <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esas razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>per medio de</b> <br> #by means of <br> *Francese: au moyen de <br> *Italiano: mer mezzo di, con <br> *Espaniol: por medio de <br> <b>per ubi</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: par où <br> *Italiano: per dove, attraverso <br> *Espaniol: por dónde <br> <b>per virtute de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: en vertue de <br> *Italiano: in virtù di <br> *Espaniol: en virtúd de <br> <b>permulte, permulta, permulto</b> <br> #very much, very many <br> *Francese: beaucoup de, <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: muchos, muchas <br> plur. : plusieurs <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>permulto</b> <br> #very much <br> *Francese: beaucoup <br> *Italiano: molto <br> *Espaniol: mucho <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>perque</b> <br> #why, for what reason <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché? <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>pessimamente(= pessimo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimamente <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente, de la peor manera <br> <b>pessime, pessima, pessimo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: le pire, la pire <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimo, pésima <br> <b>pessimo(= pessimamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: de la pire façon <br> *Italiano: pessimo <br> *Espaniol: pésimamente <br> <b>ph(digrapho): pe hache /f/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ph pi acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: ph(digraphe): pé ache /f/ <br> <b>piano</b> <br> #piano <br> *Francese: piano <br> *Italiano: piano <br> *Espaniol: piano <br> <b>plu(= plus)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures</b> <br> #several <br> *Francese: quelques <br> *Italiano: qualche <br> *Espaniol: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> <b>plures veces(= plures vices)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces, repetidamente <br> <b>plures vices</b> <br> #several times; repeatedly <br> *Francese: quelques fois <br> *Italiano: qualche volta, a volte <br> *Espaniol: varias veces <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #many <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: plusieurs <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> #much <br> *Francese: molti, molte <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: beaucoup <br> <b>plurimo</b> <br> #much, exceedingly <br> *Francese: beaucoup, très, extrêmenent, excessivement <br> *Italiano: molto, estremamente, eccessivamente, troppo <br> *Espaniol: mucho, extremadamente, excesivamente <br> <b>plurimo(= usualmente, communmente)</b> <br> #for the most part, commonly, usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude, en général <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, in generale, abitualmente <br> *Espaniol: muchas veces, normalmente, habitualmente <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus</b> <br> #plus <br> *Francese: plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más <br> <b>plus(a) illac de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> #more(money, etc. ) <br> *Francese: plus de(plus d'argent) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más(dinero, etc. ) <br> <b>plus a la de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> #more or less <br> *Francese: plus ou moins <br> *Italiano: più o meno <br> *Espaniol: más o menos <br> <b>plus de</b> <br> #more <br> *Francese: plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de <br> <b>plus de(vinti annos)</b> <br> #more than, over, above(twenty years) <br> *Francese: plus de(vingt ans) <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: más de(veinte años) <br> <b>plus grande(que)</b> <br> #greater, bigger(than) <br> *Francese: plus grand(e)(que) <br> *Italiano: più grande <br> *Espaniol: más grande(que) <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later on <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: più tardi <br> *Espaniol: más tarde, después <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, as in "later than expected" <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: depués <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> #later, subsequently <br> *Francese: plus tard <br> *Italiano: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más pronto, más bien, preferentemente <br> <b>plus. . . (que)</b> <br> #more. . . (than) <br> *Francese: plus...(que) <br> *Italiano: più. . . che <br> *Espaniol: más. . . (que) <br> <b>plus:(le) plus</b> <br> #(the) most(as in "what pleased me(the) most") <br> *Francese: plus:(le) plus <br> *Italiano: più <br> *Espaniol: más:(el) más <br> <b>plus:(tres) plus(quatro)</b> <br> #(three) plus(four) <br> *Francese: plus:(trois) plus(quatre) <br> *Italiano: più(tre) più(quattro) <br> *Espaniol: más:(tres) más(cuatro) <br> <b>poc, poca, poco(= pauc, pauca, pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco, poca <br> <b>poco(= pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu <br> *Italiano: poco, po' <br> *Espaniol: poco <br> <b>poco a poco(= pauco a pauco)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: peu à peu, petit à petit <br> *Italiano: poco a poco <br> *Espaniol: poco a poco <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: puis, alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, dopo, in seguito <br> *Espaniol: después <br> <b>pois</b> <br> #for <br> *Francese: étant donné que <br> *Italiano: poiché, dato che <br> *Espaniol: porque, dado que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: depuis que <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> #as, since, because <br> *Francese: comme, puisque <br> *Italiano: poiché <br> *Espaniol: como, porque <br> <b>por(= pro, per)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: per <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: pour <br> <b>porque(= proque, perque)</b> <br> #because, why <br> *Francese: parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>post</b> <br> #afterwards, after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind, back, backwards <br> *Francese: derrière <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: detrás, atrás, luego <br> <b>post</b> <br> #behind; after <br> *Francese: après <br> *Italiano: dietro, posteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después de <br> <b>post que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después que <br> <b>post que</b> <br> #since, because <br> *Francese: puisque <br> *Italiano: perché, dato che, poiché <br> *Espaniol: puesto que, porque <br> <b>post todo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après tout <br> *Italiano: dopo tutto <br> *Espaniol: después de todo <br> <b>post-deman</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: après-demain <br> *Italiano: dopodomani <br> *Espaniol: pasado mañana <br> <b>postea</b> <br> #afterwards, thereafter <br> *Francese: ensuite <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: después, posteriormente, luego <br> <b>postere, postera, postero</b> <br> #coming after, following <br> *Francese: suivant(e) <br> *Italiano: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> *Espaniol: siguiente <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, back <br> *Francese: postérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: posteriore, dietro <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, buttock <br> *Francese: le postérieur, le derrière <br> *Italiano: posteriore <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> #posterior, later <br> *Francese: postérieur(e), après, plus tard <br> *Italiano: posterioremente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posterior <br> <b>posteriormente</b> <br> #subsequently, later <br> *Francese: postérieurement <br> *Italiano: posteriormente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> *Espaniol: posteriormente, más tarde <br> <b>postquam</b> <br> #after, as soon as <br> *Francese: après que, aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: dopo che <br> *Espaniol: después de, en cuanto <br> <b>pot'esser(= pote esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi, <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>pote esser(= pot'esser)</b> <br> #maybe <br> *Francese: peut-être <br> *Italiano: può essere, può darsi <br> *Espaniol: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, more truly or accurately <br> *Francese: plutôt, en réalité <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in realtà <br> *Espaniol: más bien, en realidad <br> <b>potius</b> <br> #rather, sooner, preferably <br> *Francese: plutôt, plus tôt, de préférence <br> *Italiano: piuttosto, in raltà, preferenzialmente, preferibilmente <br> *Espaniol: más bien, más pronto, preferentemente <br> <b>precio minimo</b> <br> #minimum price <br> *Francese: prix minimum, prix minimal <br> *Italiano: prezzo minimo <br> *Espaniol: precio mínimo <br> <b>presertim(= super toto)</b> <br> #especially, particularly, chiefly <br> *Francese: surtout, particulièrement <br> *Italiano: soprattutto, particolarmente, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, particularmente, principalmente <br> <b>presso(= apud)</b> <br> #near, close <br> *Francese: près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di, appresso a, vicino a, prossimo a <br> *Espaniol: cerca de, al lado de, cercano a <br> <b>presto</b> <br> #presto, quickly, quick as a wink <br> *Francese: vite, rapidement <br> *Italiano: presto, rapidamente, velocemente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: presto, rápidamente, rápido <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #beyond <br> *Francese: au delà, passé <br> *Italiano: passato, al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #except, excepting <br> *Francese: excepté <br> *Italiano: eccettuato, escluso, al di fuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #in addition to <br> *Francese: en plus de <br> *Italiano: più di <br> *Espaniol: además de <br> <b>preter</b> <br> #past, along(side of), beyond <br> *Francese: passé, le long, au delà <br> *Italiano: passato <br> *Espaniol: pasado, más allá de <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: en outre, de plus, d'ailleurs, du reste <br> *Italiano: inoltre, del resto <br> *Espaniol: además, es más <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> #henceforth, hereafter <br> *Francese: dorénavant, désormais <br> *Italiano: d'ora in poi, da questo momento, da adesso in avanti <br> *Espaniol: de ahora en adelante, de aquí en adelante <br> <b>pridem(= passato)</b> <br> #long ago <br> *Francese: il y a longtemps <br> *Italiano: da lungo tempo, da tempo, da molto tempo <br> *Espaniol: hace mucho tiempo, hace tiempo <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #first, in the first place, first of all <br> *Francese: premièrement, en premier lieu, d'abord <br> *Italiano: principalmente, in primo luogoo <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, en primer lugar <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> #primarily, chiefly <br> *Francese: principalement, avant tout, surtout <br> *Italiano: principalmenre, innanzitutto, soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: primariamente, principalmente <br> <b>prime, prima, primo</b> <br> #first, prime <br> *Francese: premier, première <br> *Italiano: primo, prima <br> *Espaniol: primero, primera <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, in place of, in exchange or return for <br> *Francese: pour <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para; por; en lugar de, a cambio de, en vez de <br> <b>pro</b> <br> #for, not against <br> *Francese: pour, en faveur <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: pro, para, a favor de <br> <b>pro(+ inf)</b> <br> #in order to <br> *Francese: afin de, dans le but de <br> *Italiano: per <br> *Espaniol: para, a fin de <br> <b>pro isso(= per isso)</b> <br> #for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> *Francese: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> *Italiano: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Espaniol: por eso, por esa razón, por consiguiente <br> <b>pro isso(= pro esso)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> <b>pro le presente</b> <br> #for the present <br> *Francese: pour le moment <br> *Italiano: intanto, per il momento <br> *Espaniol: por el momento, para el presente <br> <b>pro nihil</b> <br> #for nothing, without cost <br> *Francese: pour rien, gratuit <br> *Italiano: per niente, gratuito, gratis, gratuitamente <br> *Espaniol: para nada, gratuito, sin costo <br> <b>pro si dicer</b> <br> #so to say <br> *Francese: pour ainsi dire <br> *Italiano: per così dire <br> *Espaniol: para así decir, por así decir <br> <b>procul</b> <br> #far off, far away, at a distance <br> *Francese: au loin <br> *Italiano: lontanamente <br> *Espaniol: lejos, fuera, a una distancia <br> <b>proprie a, propria a, proprio a</b> <br> #proper or peculiar to <br> *Francese: propre à <br> *Italiano: proprio per <br> *Espaniol: proprio para <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #own <br> *Francese: propre <br> *Italiano: proprio <br> *Espaniol: propio <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> #proper, appropriate <br> *Francese: approprié(e) <br> *Italiano: appropriato, appropriata <br> *Espaniol: apropiado <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, at hand <br> *Francese: proche, à(la) portée <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, vicino <br> *Espaniol: cerca, a mano <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #near, close to <br> *Francese: près, près de <br> *Italiano: presso, presso di <br> *Espaniol: cerca de <br> <b>propter</b> <br> #on account of, by reason of, because of <br> *Francese: compte tenu de, à cause de, <br> *Italiano: per, a causa di, in ragione di <br> *Espaniol: a causa de, por cauda de, debido a <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> #why <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>proximamente</b> <br> #shortly, soon <br> *Francese: bientôt <br> *Italiano: in breve, subito, quanto prima <br> *Espaniol: pronto, en breve <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #next(as in "next week") <br> *Francese: suivant(e), prochain(e) <br> *Italiano: prossimo, seguente, successivo <br> *Espaniol: próxima, siguiente <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> #very near, close <br> *Francese: très près, tout près <br> *Italiano: molto vicino, prossimo <br> *Espaniol: muy cerca <br> <b>proximo</b> <br> #neighbor, fellow being <br> *Francese: voisin, camarade <br> *Italiano: prossimo, vicino, compagno, camerata <br> *Espaniol: prójimo, vecino, camarada <br> <b>q(littera): qu /k/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: q, qu(pron ku) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: q(lettre): qü ou qy /k/ <br> <b>qua</b> <br> #as, in the capacity of, qua <br> *Francese: en tant que, en qualité de <br> *Italiano: come, in qualità di <br> *Espaniol: en tanto que, en calidad de <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál <br> <b>qual</b> <br> #which <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quale <br> *Espaniol: cuál, qué <br> <b>qualcosa</b> <br> #something, anything <br> *Francese: quelque chose <br> *Italiano: qualche cosa, qualcosa <br> *Espaniol: algo, alguna cosa <br> <b>qualcun, qualcuna, qualcuno</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna, alguno <br> <b>qualcuno</b> <br> #someone, anyone <br> *Francese: quelqu'un <br> *Italiano: qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: alguno <br> <b>qualcunque</b> <br> #any, whatever, of whatever kind <br> *Francese: quelconque <br> *Italiano: chiunque, qualcuno <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera <br> <b>qualque(quálke)</b> <br> #some, any; also: a few <br> *Francese: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno, <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguna <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #as, than <br> *Francese: comme, que <br> *Italiano: come <br> *Espaniol: como, que <br> <b>quam</b> <br> #in what manner, how <br> *Francese: comment <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo <br> *Espaniol: de qué manera, cómo <br> <b>quamquam(quámquam)(= quanquam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique, cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuando <br> <b>quando</b> <br> #when <br> *Francese: quand <br> *Italiano: quando <br> *Espaniol: cuándo <br> <b>quandocunque</b> <br> #whenever <br> *Francese: toutes les fois que, peu importe quand <br> *Italiano: ogni volta che <br> *Espaniol: cuandoquiera <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #however, yet, nevertheless <br> *Francese: cependant, néanmoins <br> *Italiano: nondimeno, nonostante <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, no obstante <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> #though, although <br> *Francese: bien que, quoique <br> *Italiano: benché <br> *Espaniol: aunque <br> <b>quante, quanta, quanto</b> <br> #how much, how many <br> *Francese: combien de <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuánto, cuánta <br> <b>quanto</b> <br> #as much as; as far as <br> *Francese: autant que, pour autant que, en autant que <br> *Italiano: quanto, tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuanto, tanto como <br> <b>quanto a</b> <br> #as for <br> *Francese: quant à <br> *Italiano: quanto a <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto a <br> <b>quanto. . . tanto...</b> <br> #the. . . the... <br> *Francese: autant... autant <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto. . . <br> *Espaniol: cuanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>quare</b> <br> #wherefore, why <br> *Francese: pourquoi, pour quelle raison <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: porque <br> <b>quasi</b> <br> #almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way, etc. <br> *Francese: quasi, prèsque, à peu prés, dans un certain sens <br> *Italiano: quasi, approssimativamente, circa <br> *Espaniol: casi; en un cierto sentido, en cierto modo <br> <b>quasi que</b> <br> #as if <br> *Francese: comme si <br> *Italiano: quasi che, come se <br> *Espaniol: como si <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #than <br> *Francese: que /k?/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #that <br> *Francese: que <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: que, quoi /k?/ /koa/ <br> *Italiano: che <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> #who, whom, which, that; what(= that which) <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>que etate habete vos?</b> <br> #how old are you? <br> *Francese: quel âge avez-vous? <br> *Italiano: quanti hanni hai(tu) ? quanti anni ha(lei)? <br> *Espaniol: qué edad tiene usted?, cuántos años tiene usted? <br> <b>que hora</b> <br> #what time <br> *Francese: quelle heure <br> *Italiano: che ora. . . ? <br> *Espaniol: qué hora <br> <b>quecunque(kekúnkwe, kwekúnkwe)</b> <br> #whatever <br> *Francese: quoi que /koa k?/ <br> *Italiano: qualsiasi cosa <br> *Espaniol: cualquier cosa <br> <b>quem</b> <br> #what, which, whom <br> *Francese: quel(le) <br> *Italiano: quel, quello, quella <br> *Espaniol: que, quien <br> <b>qui(= hic, ci)</b> <br> #here <br> *Francese: ici <br> *Italiano: qui <br> *Espaniol: aquí <br> <b>qui(ki, kwi)</b> <br> #who, whom <br> *Francese: qui /ki/ <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quién <br> <b>qui:(con, a, etc. ) qui</b> <br> #(with, to, etc. ) whom <br> *Francese: qui:(avec, à, etc. ) qui <br> *Italiano: con chi <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quia</b> <br> #because <br> *Francese: parce que <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quicunque(ki-, kwi-)</b> <br> #whoever <br> *Francese: quiconque <br> *Italiano: chi <br> *Espaniol: quienquiera <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #what <br> *Francese: che cosa, cosa <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: quoi <br> <b>quid</b> <br> #why, how, wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi, comment <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué, cómo <br> <b>quidem</b> <br> #certainly, truly; indeed, even <br> *Francese: certainement, vraiment, en effet, effectivement <br> *Italiano: certamente, veramente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: ciertamente, de verdad, verdaderamente; de hecho, incluso <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #so that, in order that <br> *Francese: tel que, afin que <br> *Italiano: talché, cosi che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: a fin que <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #wherefore <br> *Francese: pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: por qué <br> <b>quo</b> <br> #who, what <br> *Francese: qui, quoi <br> *Italiano: chi, cosa <br> *Espaniol: quien <br> <b>quo(=a ubi)</b> <br> #where, at what place, whither <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: a dónde, a qué lugar, adónde <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, because, why <br> *Francese: que, parce que, pourquoi <br> *Italiano: perché <br> *Espaniol: qué, por qué <br> <b>quod</b> <br> #that, what <br> *Francese: que, quoi <br> *Italiano: che, che cosa <br> *Espaniol: que <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #how, in what manner <br> *Francese: comment, de quelle façon, de quelle manière <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: ómo, de qué manera <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> #in the manner that, as <br> *Francese: comme, tel que <br> *Italiano: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> *Espaniol: como, de la manera en que <br> <b>quot</b> <br> #how many; as many; each, every <br> *Francese: combien, autant, chaque, chacun(e) <br> *Italiano: quanto <br> *Espaniol: cuántos, tantos, cada, cada uno, cada una <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #as often as <br> *Francese: aussi souvent que <br> *Italiano: così spesso che <br> *Espaniol: tan a menudo como <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> #how often, how many times <br> *Francese: combien de fois <br> *Italiano: tante volte che <br> *Espaniol: tantas veces <br> <b>r(littera): re /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: r, erre <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: r(lettre): ère /r/ <br> <b>re</b> <br> #regarding, about, of, on, concerning <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de, à propos de, concernant <br> *Italiano: su, a proposito di, concernente, sopra, rispetto a, circa <br> *Espaniol: acerca de, respecto a, con respecto a, concerniente a, sobre, de <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, ago <br> *Francese: en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás, hace <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, as in "to give back") <br> *Francese: en retour(comme dans "donner en retour") <br> *Italiano: di ritorno <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>retro</b> <br> #back, backwards <br> *Francese: arrière, en arrière <br> *Italiano: retro, dietro, addietro <br> *Espaniol: atrás <br> <b>rh(digrapho): re hache /r/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: rh(pron : erre acca) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: rh(digraphe): ère ache /r/ <br> <b>s(littera): se /s/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s, esse(pronuncia 1 : s in rosa, cosa, dose, chiesa = come inglese rose; pronuncia 2 : s in signore, senior, selva, scuola come inglese ross, self) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: s(lettre): èsse /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>saepe(sái-)</b> <br> #often, frequently <br> *Francese: souvent, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: a menudo, frecuentemente <br> <b>salvo</b> <br> #save, but; also: save or but for <br> *Francese: sauf <br> *Italiano: salvo, eccetto, ma <br> *Espaniol: salvo <br> <b>salvo error et omission</b> <br> #errors and omissions excepted <br> *Francese: sauf erreur et omission <br> *Italiano: salvo errori od omissioni, salvo errori ed omissioni <br> *Espaniol: salvo error y omisión <br> <b>salvo que</b> <br> #save or but that <br> *Francese: sauf que <br> *Italiano: salvo che, eccetto che <br> *Espaniol: salvo que <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #enough <br> *Francese: assez <br> *Italiano: basta, abbastanza <br> *Espaniol: bastante <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> #rather, somewhat <br> *Francese: assez, plutôt <br> *Italiano: abbastanza, sufficientemente <br> *Espaniol: bastante, suficiente <br> <b>satis de(tempore, etc. )(= assatis de(tempore, etc. ))</b> <br> #enough(time, etc. ), (time, etc. ) enough <br> *Francese: assez de(temps, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente : tempo sufficiente) <br> *Espaniol: bastante(tiempo, etc. ), suficiente(tiempo, etc. ) <br> <b>se</b> <br> #himself; herself; itself; themselves <br> *Francese: se, s' <br> *Italiano: se(per se), -si(avvicinarsi) <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>se(= on)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: si <br> *Espaniol: se <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #(following) after <br> *Francese: d'après <br> *Italiano: secondo, , dopo, seguendo <br> *Espaniol: después de, siguiendo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #according to <br> *Francese: selon, en accord avec <br> *Italiano: d'accordo con, secondo <br> *Espaniol: según, de acuerdo a <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> #along, by <br> *Francese: selon, le long de <br> *Italiano: lungo il <br> *Espaniol: a lo largo de <br> <b>secundo que</b> <br> #according as <br> *Francese: selon que, selon qu' <br> *Italiano: secondo quanto, conforme a <br> *Espaniol: según que, conforme a <br> <b>sed</b> <br> #but <br> *Francese: mais <br> *Italiano: ma, però <br> *Espaniol: pero <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #firstly <br> *Francese: premièrement <br> *Italiano: in primis, innanzitutto, principalmente <br> *Espaniol: primeramente <br> <b>semel</b> <br> #once <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta(sola) <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>semper(= sempre)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sempre(=semper)</b> <br> #always <br> *Francese: toujours <br> *Italiano: sempre <br> *Espaniol: siempre <br> <b>sero</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, supposing that <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se, supponendo che <br> *Espaniol: si, suponiendo que <br> <b>si</b> <br> #if, whether <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: se <br> *Espaniol: si <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: si <br> *Italiano: così, tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>si il te place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il te plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, prego, per favore, per cortesia <br> *Espaniol: si te place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: s'il vous plaît <br> *Italiano: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> *Espaniol: si os place, por favor <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #except, unless it be <br> *Francese: excepté, à moins que ce soit <br> *Italiano: se non, a meno che, eccetto che, all'infuori di <br> *Espaniol: excepto, a menos que <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si non</b> <br> #if not <br> *Francese: si non <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: si no <br> <b>si tosto que</b> <br> #as soon as <br> *Francese: aussitôt que <br> *Italiano: così presto che, tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: en cuanto, tan pronto como <br> <b>si. . . como. . . </b><br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>sia</b> <br> #be, may be, let there be <br> *Francese: soit <br> *Italiano: sia <br> *Espaniol: sea <br> <b>sia como sia</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: qu'il en soit ainsi <br> *Italiano: sia come sia, sia quel che sia <br> *Espaniol: sea como sea <br> <b>sia. . . sia. . . </b><br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: soit... soit... <br> *Italiano: sia. . . sia. . . <br> *Espaniol: sea. . . sea. . . <br> <b>sic(= si)</b> <br> #yes <br> *Francese: oui <br> *Italiano: sì <br> *Espaniol: sí <br> <b>sic(=si)</b> <br> #thus, so <br> *Francese: ainsi <br> *Italiano: così <br> *Espaniol: así <br> <b>sicut</b> <br> #so as, just as, as <br> *Francese: tel(le) que, comme <br> *Italiano: come, talché <br> *Espaniol: tal que, como <br> <b>simul</b> <br> #at once, at the same time, together <br> *Francese: simultanément, tout de suite, ensemble <br> *Italiano: allo stesso tempo, nello stesso tempo, allo stesso istante, insieme. simultaneamente <br> *Espaniol: en seguida, al mismo tiempo, juntos, juntas <br> <b>sin</b> <br> #without <br> *Francese: sans <br> *Italiano: senza <br> *Espaniol: sin <br> <b>sin dubita</b> <br> #without doubt, doubtless <br> *Francese: sans doute <br> *Italiano: senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin duda, indudablemente <br> <b>sin falta</b> <br> #without fail <br> *Francese: sans erreur, sans faute <br> *Italiano: senza meno, senza errore, senza dubbio <br> *Espaniol: sin falta, sin error <br> <b>sin fundamento</b> <br> #groundless, unfounded <br> *Francese: sans fondement <br> *Italiano: senza fondamentp <br> *Espaniol: sin fundamento, infundado <br> <b>sinon(= si non)</b> <br> #otherwise, else; except, save, if not, unless <br> *Francese: sinon <br> *Italiano: se non <br> *Espaniol: sinon <br> <b>sive</b> <br> #or if, or <br> *Francese: ou si, ou <br> *Italiano: o, oppure, o se <br> *Espaniol: o si <br> <b>sive. . . sive</b> <br> #. . . if. . . or if... <br> *Francese: si... ou si... <br> *Italiano: se. . . o se. . . <br> *Espaniol: si. . . o si. . . <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #only <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> #sole, without companions, alone <br> *Francese: seul(e) <br> *Italiano: solo <br> *Espaniol: solo, sola <br> <b>solamente</b> <br> #only, merely <br> *Francese: seulement <br> *Italiano: solo, solamente <br> *Espaniol: solamente, meramente <br> <b>sovente(=subinde)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repeoidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>specialmente, in modo special</b> <br> #especially <br> *Francese: en particulier, spécialement <br> *Italiano: specialmente, particolarmente <br> *Espaniol: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> <b>sponte(= voluntarie, voluntariamente)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: spontaneamente, volontariamente, di buon grado <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>stop!</b> <br> #stop! <br> *Francese: stop! <br> *Italiano: stop! fermo! ferma! alt! <br> *Espaniol: stop! <br> <b>su</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua(di ella, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: su(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sub</b> <br> #under, below, beneath <br> *Francese: sous <br> *Italiano: sotto, dabbasso, abbasso <br> *Espaniol: debajo de, bajo <br> <b>sub los auspicios de</b> <br> #under the auspices of <br> *Francese: sous les auspices de <br> *Italiano: con gli auspici di, sotto gli auspici di <br> *Espaniol: bajo los auspicios de <br> <b>subinde</b> <br> #immediately after, just after, forthwith <br> *Francese: tout de suite <br> *Italiano: immediatamente dopo, giusto dopo <br> *Espaniol: inmediatamente después, justo después, inmediatamente <br> <b>subinde(= sovente)</b> <br> #repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> *Francese: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> *Italiano: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, di tanto in tanto <br> *Espaniol: frecuentemente, repetidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> <b>subito</b> <br> #suddenly, unexpectedly <br> *Francese: soudainement <br> *Italiano: repentinamente, immediatamente, subito <br> *Espaniol: súbitamente, de repente, inesperadamente <br> <b>subtus</b> <br> #below, beneath, underneath <br> *Francese: en bas <br> *Italiano: in basso, dabbasso, sotto <br> *Espaniol: abajo, debajo, debajo de <br> <b>successivamente</b> <br> #successively, in succession <br> *Francese: successivement, tour à tour <br> *Italiano: successivamente, in successione, consecutivamente, di conseguenza, dopo, poi <br> *Espaniol: sucesivamente, en sucesión <br> <b>sue, sua, suo</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: son, sa <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sues, suas, suos</b> <br> #his; hers; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suoi, sue(di lui, di lei) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>sufficiente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e) <br> *Italiano: sufficiente, bastante <br> *Espaniol: suficiente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientemente(= bastante)</b> <br> #sufficiently, enough <br> *Francese: suffisamment, assez <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientemente, bastante <br> <b>sufficientes(= bastantes)</b> <br> #sufficient, enough <br> *Francese: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> *Italiano: suffientemente <br> *Espaniol: suficientes, bastantes <br> <b>sui(= su, sue)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suo, sua <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: son, sa <br> <b>summe, summa, summo(= supreme, suprema, supremo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: sommo/a, supremo/a <br> *Espaniol: sumo, suma <br> <b>super</b> <br> #about, concerning, on <br> *Francese: sur, au sujet de <br> *Italiano: supra, in fatto di, concernente, circa <br> *Espaniol: sobre, concerniente a <br> <b>super</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of; above, over <br> *Francese: sur, au dessus de <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>super(= in alto)</b> <br> #above, on top <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> *Espaniol: arriba, sobre <br> <b>super toto(= presertim)</b> <br> #above all <br> *Francese: par dessus tout <br> *Italiano: soprattutto <br> *Espaniol: sobre todo <br> <b>superior</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: superiore <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: supérieur(e) <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #above, over <br> *Francese: en haut <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba <br> <b>supra</b> <br> #on the top, above <br> *Francese: au dessus <br> *Italiano: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> *Espaniol: arriba, en la parte de arriba <br> <b>supreme, suprema, supremo(= summe, summa, summo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: suprème <br> *Italiano: supremo, suprema, supremi <br> *Espaniol: supremo, suprema <br> <b>sur(= super)</b> <br> #on, upon; on top of <br> *Francese: sur <br> *Italiano: su, sopra, in cima, in alto <br> *Espaniol: sobre <br> <b>sus</b> <br> #his; her; its <br> *Francese: ses <br> *Italiano: suo, sua <br> *Espaniol: sus(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> <b>t(littera): te /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t, ti <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: t(lettre): té /t/ <br> <b>tal</b> <br> #such a, such <br> *Francese: tel(le) <br> *Italiano: tale, tale a <br> *Espaniol: tal <br> <b>tal et tal</b> <br> #such and such(a) <br> *Francese: tel et tel <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tal y tal <br> <b>talmente</b> <br> #so <br> *Francese: tellement <br> *Italiano: talmente, così, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: talmente <br> <b>talmente:(un libro) talmente(bello)</b> <br> #so(beautiful) a(book), such a(beautiful book) <br> *Francese: tellement:(un livre) tellement(beau) <br> *Italiano: talmente(un libro talmente bello che. . . ) <br> *Espaniol: talmente:(un libro) talmente(bonito) <br> <b>tam</b> <br> #so, as, to such a degree <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, così, tanto che, tanto, talmente <br> *Espaniol: tan, tanto, tanta, talmente <br> <b>tam. . . quam...</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto quanto <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . . <br> <b>tam. . . quam...(= tanto. . . quam. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as. . . <br> *Francese: si... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, tanto quanto, così che <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tamben</b> <br> #also <br> *Francese: aussi <br> *Italiano: anche <br> *Espaniol: también <br> <b>tamen(= totavia)</b> <br> #yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding <br> *Francese: cependant, pourtant, néanmoins, <br> *Italiano: tuttavia, nonostante, nondimeno, nientemeno, pertanto, quindi, già <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo, todavía, no obstante <br> <b>tan</b> <br> #so, as <br> *Francese: si, tellement <br> *Italiano: sì, tanto che. . . , tanto che. . . <br> *Espaniol: tan <br> <b>tan. . . como. . . (= tanto. . . como. . . )</b> <br> #as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> *Espaniol: tan. . . como. . . <br> <b>tante, tanta, tanto</b> <br> #so much, so many <br> *Francese: tant de <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tanto, tanta <br> <b>tante. . . como..., tanta. . . como. . . , tanto. . . como. . . </b><br> #as much, as many. . . as... <br> *Francese: aussi... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . , tanta. . . como. . . <br> <b>tanto</b> <br> #so, so much <br> *Francese: tant <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto <br> <b>tanto(grande) como. . . </b><br> #as(big) as. . . <br> *Francese: aussi(grand(e)) que <br> *Italiano: tanto grande che <br> *Espaniol: tan(grande) como. . . <br> <b>tanto melio</b> <br> #so much the better <br> *Francese: tant mieux <br> *Italiano: tanto meglio <br> *Espaniol: tanto mejor <br> <b>tanto pejo</b> <br> #so much the worse <br> *Francese: tant pis <br> *Italiano: tanto peggio <br> *Espaniol: tanto peor <br> <b>tanto per cento</b> <br> #so much per hundred, percentage <br> *Francese: tant pour cent <br> *Italiano: tanto per cento <br> *Espaniol: tanto por ciento, porcentaje <br> <b>tanto plus. . . que...</b> <br> #all the more. . . that... <br> *Francese: d'autant plus... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto più che <br> *Espaniol: tanto más. . . que. . . <br> <b>tanto. . . como...</b> <br> #as much. . . as... <br> *Francese: autant... que... <br> *Italiano: tanto che <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . como. . . <br> <b>tarde</b> <br> #late <br> *Francese: tard <br> *Italiano: tardi <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>te</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: te, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, te(tu sei, te lo dico, lo dico a te) <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>te</b> <br> #yourself [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "you hurt yourself", "to yourself") <br> *Francese: te, toi, toi-même <br> *Italiano: te, ti, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: te <br> <b>th(digrapho): te hache /t/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: t : ti acca <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: th(digraphe): té ache /t/ <br> t, ti <br> *Espaniol: <br> <b>ti(= te)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: ti, te <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: te, toi <br> <b>tosto</b> <br> #presently, soon, promptly <br> *Francese: tôt <br> *Italiano: pronto, subito, presto, rapidamente, tosto <br> *Espaniol: pronto, presentemente, rápidamente <br> <b>tot</b> <br> #so many, such a great number <br> *Francese: tanto che, talmente tanto <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: tellement beaucoup <br> <b>totalmente(= completamente)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: totalement(=complètement) <br> *Italiano: totalmente, completamente <br> *Espaniol: totalmente(=completamente= <br> <b>totavia</b> <br> #yet, still, nevertheless <br> *Francese: toutefois <br> *Italiano: tuttavia <br> *Espaniol: sin embargo <br> <b>tote le, tota la, toto lo</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo, tutta la <br> *Espaniol: todo el, toda la, todo lo <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, "all the parts, members, etc. of a whole series or group") <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #all, the whole of <br> *Francese: tout, toute <br> *Italiano: tutto, tutta <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> #every, each <br> *Francese: tout, toute, chaque <br> *Italiano: tutto/a, ogni <br> *Espaniol: todo, toda <br> <b>totes(les) duo, totos(los) duos, totas(las) duas</b> <br> #both <br> *Francese: tous les deux, toutes les deux <br> *Italiano: tutti e due, ambedue <br> *Espaniol: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> <b>totes les, totas las, totos los</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tous les, toutes les <br> *Italiano: tutti i, tutti gli, tutte le <br> *Espaniol: todos los, todas las <br> <b>totes, totas, totos</b> <br> #all, everyone <br> *Francese: tous, toutes <br> *Italiano: tutti, tutte <br> *Espaniol: todos, todas <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, everything <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto, ogni cosa <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto</b> <br> #all, quite, wholly <br> *Francese: tout <br> *Italiano: tutto <br> *Espaniol: todo <br> <b>toto(ben) considerato</b> <br> #all things considered <br> *Francese: tout(bien) considéré <br> *Italiano: tutto considerato <br> *Espaniol: considerando(bien) totas las cosas <br> <b>toto le(= toto lo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo el <br> <b>toto le(caseo)</b> <br> #all the(cheese), the entire(cheese) <br> *Francese: tout le(fromage) <br> *Italiano: tutto il(formaggio) <br> *Espaniol: todo el(queso) <br> <b>toto lo(= toto le)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: tout le, toute la <br> *Italiano: tutto il, tutto lo <br> *Espaniol: todo lo <br> <b>totos los(homines)</b> <br> #all(men) <br> *Francese: tous les(hommes) <br> *Italiano: tutti gli(uomini) <br> *Espaniol: todos los hombres <br> <b>totos minus ille</b> <br> #all but him <br> *Francese: tous sauf lui <br> *Italiano: tutti meno lui, tutti salvo lui <br> *Espaniol: todos menos él <br> <b>tra(= trans)</b> <br> #through <br> *Francese: à travers, au travers de <br> *Italiano: attraverso, tra <br> *Espaniol: a través de <br> <b>trans</b> <br> #across, over, beyond, on the farther side of <br> *Francese: au delà de, de l'autre côté de <br> *Italiano: al di là di, dall'altra parte di, dall'altro lato <br> *Espaniol: al otro lado de, más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>traverso(= a / al transverso(de))</b> <br> #through, from side to side <br> *Francese: au travers, de part en part <br> *Italiano: attraverso, da parte a parte, da lato a lato <br> *Espaniol: a través de, de parte a parte de <br> <b>tro(= troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>trop(=troppo)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo <br> *Espaniol: demasiado <br> <b>troppo(= trop, tro)</b> <br> #too, too much <br> *Francese: trop <br> *Italiano: troppo, troppi, troppa, troppe <br> *Espaniol: demasiado, demasiada, demasiados, demasiadas <br> <b>troppo(de)(aqua, libros, etc. )(= de tro(de)(aqua, libros, etc. ))</b> <br> #too much(water, etc. ), too many(books, etc. ) <br> *Francese: trop(d'eau, de livres, etc. ) <br> *Italiano: troppo(troppa acqua, troppi libri, ecc. ) <br> *Espaniol: demasiado(agua, etc. ), demasiados(libros) <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tú <br> <b>tu</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: tu, ti, te <br> *Espaniol: tu <br> <b>tu mesme, tu mesma, tu mesmo, tu ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: toi-même <br> *Italiano: tu stesso, te stesso <br> *Espaniol: tú mismo, tú misma <br> <b>tue, tua, tuo</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: le tien, la tienne <br> *Italiano: tuo, tua <br> *Espaniol: tuyo, tuya <br> <b>tues, tuas, tuos</b> <br> #yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: les tiennes <br> *Italiano: tue, tuoi <br> *Espaniol: tuyos, tuyas <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, afterwards <br> *Francese: alors, par la suite <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, después <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, quindi <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tum</b> <br> #then, next <br> *Francese: alors, ensuite <br> *Italiano: quindi, in questo caso <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, por consiguiente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #in that case, consequently <br> *Francese: alors, dans ce cas, conséquemment <br> *Italiano: allora, in questo caso, di conseguenza, perciò <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese caso, consiguientemente <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> #then, at that time <br> *Francese: alors, à ce moment <br> *Italiano: allora, in quel momento <br> *Espaniol: entonces, en ese momento <br> <b>tus</b> <br> #your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> *Francese: tes <br> *Italiano: tuo <br> *Espaniol: tus <br> <b>u(littera): u /u/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: u <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: u(lettre): u /ü/ <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where, in or at what place <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove, in che luogo <br> *Espaniol: dónde, en qué lugar <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> #where; when, as soon as; wherewith; in which <br> *Francese: où <br> *Italiano: dove <br> *Espaniol: donde <br> <b>ubicunque</b> <br> #wherever <br> *Francese: partout où..., n'importe où... <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: dondequiera <br> <b>ubique</b> <br> #everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever <br> *Francese: partout, peu importe où, n'importe où, <br> *Italiano: dappertutto, ovunque <br> *Espaniol: donde sea, en cualquier lugar <br> <b>ulle, ulla, ullo</b> <br> #any, anyone <br> *Francese: aucun, aucune, nul(le) <br> *Italiano: nessuno, nessuna, alcuno, alcuna <br> *Espaniol: algún, alguno, alguna <br> <b>ulles, ullas, ullos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: aucuns, aucunes, nul(le)s <br> *Italiano: alcuno, alcuna, alcuni <br> *Espaniol: algunos, algunas <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #subsequent, later <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, subsecuente <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> #ulterior, situated beyond, thither <br> *Francese: ultérieur(e) <br> *Italiano: ulteriore <br> *Espaniol: ulterior, situado más allá <br> <b>ulteriormente</b> <br> #later(on), subsequently <br> *Francese: ultérieurement <br> *Italiano: ulteriormente <br> *Espaniol: después, seguidamente <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #besides <br> *Francese: en outre <br> *Italiano: inoltre <br> *Espaniol: además <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> #on the other side, beyond, farther <br> *Francese: au délà, de l'autre côté, plus loin <br> *Italiano: al di là, dall'altra parte <br> *Espaniol: en el otro lado, más allá, más lejos <br> <b>ultra(= plus a la de, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> #on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> *Francese: au delà de <br> *Italiano: al di là di <br> *Espaniol: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> <b>ultra illo</b> <br> #besides, moreover <br> *Francese: au délà de ça <br> *Italiano: al di la di questo, oltre questo, oltre ad esso <br> *Espaniol: más allá de aquello, además de ello <br> <b>ultra que</b> <br> #aside from the fact that <br> *Francese: outre que <br> *Italiano: oltre che <br> *Espaniol: aparte del hecho de que <br> <b>ultramar</b> <br> #overseas <br> *Francese: outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare <br> *Espaniol: en ultra mar <br> <b>ultramar:(paises) de ultramar</b> <br> #overseas(countries) <br> *Francese: outre-mer:(pays) d'outre-mer <br> *Italiano: oltremare, paese d'oltremare, d'oltre mare <br> *Espaniol: ultramar:(países) de ultramar <br> <b>un altere, una altera, uno altero</b> <br> #another <br> *Francese: un autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: otro, otra <br> <b>un de, una de, uno de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un de, une de <br> *Italiano: uno di, una di <br> *Espaniol: uno de, una de <br> <b>un die</b> <br> #one day, sometime <br> *Francese: un jour <br> *Italiano: un giorno <br> *Espaniol: un día, algún día <br> <b>un pauco(de)</b> <br> #a little <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un poco(de)(= un pauco(de))</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un peu(de) <br> *Italiano: un po' di <br> *Espaniol: un poco(de) <br> <b>un que, una que, uno que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: un que, une que <br> *Italiano: uno che, una che <br> *Espaniol: uno que, una que <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #a, an <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, una <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: un, une <br> *Italiano: un, una <br> *Espaniol: un, uno, una <br> <b>una hora</b> <br> #one o'clock <br> *Francese: une heure <br> *Italiano: un'ora <br> *Espaniol: la una(hora) <br> <b>una tal(persona)</b> <br> #such a(person) <br> *Francese: une telle(personne) <br> *Italiano: una tale(persona) <br> *Espaniol: una tal(persona) <br> <b>una vece(= una vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: une fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice</b> <br> #once, formerly, at one time, on a single occasion <br> *Francese: un fois <br> *Italiano: una volta <br> *Espaniol: una vez <br> <b>una vice que</b> <br> #once, once that <br> *Francese: une fois que <br> *Italiano: una volta che <br> *Espaniol: una vez que <br> <b>unaltere, un altere(= le un le altere)</b> <br> #each other, one another <br> *Francese: l'un l'autre <br> *Italiano: un altro, un'altra <br> *Espaniol: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, from which place <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove, da quale luogo <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde</b> <br> #whence, wherefore, for which reason or cause <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de donde <br> <b>unde(= de ubi)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: d'où <br> *Italiano: da dove <br> *Espaniol: de dónde <br> <b>unes de, unas de, unos de</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s de <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos de, unas de <br> <b>unes que, unas que, unos que</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: quelques-un(e)s que <br> *Italiano: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> *Espaniol: unos que, unas que <br> <b>unes, unas, unos</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: des <br> *Italiano: dei, degli, delle <br> *Espaniol: unos, unas <br> <b>uno(= on, homo)</b> <br> #one <br> *Francese: on <br> *Italiano: un, uno <br> *Espaniol: uno, se <br> <b>unquam(= olim, aliquando)</b> <br> #ever, at any time <br> *Francese: n'importe quand, un moment donné <br> *Italiano: una volta, in un momento, in un dato momento, ad un certo punto, quando <br> *Espaniol: en algún momento <br> <b>usquam(= alicubi)</b> <br> #somewhere <br> *Francese: quelque part <br> *Italiano: qualche parte <br> *Espaniol: a alguna parte <br> <b>usque(a)</b> <br> #(all the way) to, up to(a point in space or time); also: till, until <br> *Francese: jusque, jusqu'à <br> *Italiano: fino a <br> *Espaniol: hasta <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #to here <br> *Francese: jusqu'ici <br> *Italiano: fino a qui <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> #up to now, hitherto <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta aquí <br> <b>usque a trans</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à travers <br> *Italiano: attraverso <br> *Espaniol: hasta el otro lado de <br> <b>usque al presente</b> <br> #up to the present <br> *Francese: jusqu'à présent <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora, fino a questo momento <br> *Espaniol: hasta el presente <br> <b>usque nunc</b> <br> #up to now <br> *Francese: jusqu'à maintenant <br> *Italiano: fino ad ora <br> *Espaniol: hasta ahora <br> <b>usque quando</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: jusqu'à quand <br> *Italiano: fino a quando <br> *Espaniol: hasta cuándo <br> <b>usque tosto</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: à bientôt <br> *Italiano: a presto <br> *Espaniol: hasta pronto <br> <b>usualmente, de costume, plurimo</b> <br> #usually <br> *Francese: d'habitude <br> *Italiano: usualmente, di solito, abitualmente, di norma <br> *Espaniol: usualmente <br> <b>ut</b> <br> #as, how, in order that, to the end that, just as <br> *Francese: afin que, pour que, juste comme <br> *Italiano: al fine di <br> *Espaniol: a fin que, para que <br> <b>ut. . . ita. . . </b><br> #the. . . the. . . , as. . . so. . . <br> *Francese: autant... autant... <br> *Italiano: tanto. . . quanto <br> *Espaniol: tanto. . . tanto. . . <br> <b>utroque</b> <br> #either or both of two <br> *Francese: les deux <br> *Italiano: ambedue <br> *Espaniol: cualquiera de los dos, los dos <br> <b>utrum. . . an</b> <br> #whether. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou...ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: a ver si. . . o. . . <br> <b>v(littera): ve /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: v, vi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: v(lettre): vé /v/ <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #exceedingly, very much <br> *Francese: excessivement, beaucou <br> *Italiano: eccessivamente, molto, moltissimo <br> *Espaniol: excesivamente, muchísimo <br> <b>valde</b> <br> #vehemently, strongly <br> *Francese: énergiquement, fortement <br> *Italiano: fortemente, energicamente, con veemenza <br> *Espaniol: vehementemente, energicamente, fuertemente <br> <b>vale!</b> <br> #vale!, farewell! <br> *Francese: salut, adieu <br> *Italiano: ciao, salve <br> *Espaniol: salve!, salud! <br> <b>vece(=vice)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vel</b> <br> #or, or rather <br> *Francese: ou, ou plutôt <br> *Italiano: o, piuttosto <br> *Espaniol: o, o más bien <br> <b>vel. . . vel...</b> <br> #either. . . or. . . <br> *Francese: ou... ou... <br> *Italiano: o. . . o. . . <br> *Espaniol: o. . . o. . . <br> <b>vere(= vero)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>vero(= vere)</b> <br> #truly, really, indeed, even <br> *Francese: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> *Italiano: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> *Espaniol: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> <b>verso</b> <br> #towards, toward; also: to, in the direction of, etc. <br> *Francese: vers <br> *Italiano: verso, nella direzione di <br> *Espaniol: hacia, en dirección a <br> <b>verso a basso</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: vers le bas <br> *Italiano: verso il basso, giù <br> *Espaniol: hacia abajo <br> <b>vespera</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>vespere</b> <br> #evening <br> *Francese: soir <br> *Italiano: sera <br> *Espaniol: tarde <br> <b>via</b> <br> #away <br> *Francese: loin, loin de là <br> *Italiano: via, fuori <br> *Espaniol: fuera, lejos <br> <b>via</b> <br> #via, by way of <br> *Francese: via, par <br> *Italiano: via, per via del, a causa di <br> *Espaniol: vía, por vía de <br> <b>via!</b> <br> #away! <br> *Francese: plus loin! <br> *Italiano: via ! fuori ! <br> *Espaniol: fuera! <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #time(as in "three times") <br> *Francese: fois <br> *Italiano: volta(tre volte, una volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice</b> <br> #turn(as in "my turn"); also: stead <br> *Francese: tour(comme dans "à mon tour") <br> *Italiano: volta(a mia volta) <br> *Espaniol: vez <br> <b>vice versa</b> <br> #vice versa <br> *Francese: vice versa <br> *Italiano: viceversa <br> *Espaniol: vice versa <br> <b>vis-à-vis</b> <br> #opposite, face to face, vis-à-vis <br> *Francese: vis-à-vis <br> *Italiano: di fronte, davanti a <br> *Espaniol: vis-à-vis, cara a cara, en situación opuesta <br> <b>visto</b> <br> #considering, in view of <br> *Francese: vu <br> *Italiano: visto, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto, considerando <br> <b>visto que</b> <br> #considering that <br> *Francese: vu que <br> *Italiano: visto che, considerato che <br> *Espaniol: visto que, considerando que, en vista de que <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #hardly, scarcely, barely <br> *Francese: difficilement, à peine, <br> *Italiano: difficilmente <br> *Espaniol: apenas, escasamente, difíilmente <br> <b>vix</b> <br> #with difficulty <br> *Francese: avec difficulté <br> *Italiano: con difficoltà <br> *Espaniol: con dificultad <br> <b>voi(= vos)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: voi <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: vous <br> <b>voluntariamente(= voluntarie, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>voluntarie(= voluntariamente, sponte)</b> <br> #voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> *Francese: volontairement <br> *Italiano: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> *Espaniol: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons(as in "you are", "I love you", "for you") <br> *Francese: tu, toi <br> *Italiano: voi(ma si usa il lei, per cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: tu, ustéd <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #you, in polite or formal use; addressing one person or several persons(as in "you are", "I love you" "for you") <br> *Francese: vous <br> *Italiano: voi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourself [in polite or formal use(as in "you hurt yourself, " "to yourself")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos</b> <br> #yourselves [in all uses(as in "you hurt yourselves", "to yourselves")] <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, <br> <b>vos mesme, vos mesma, vos mesmo, vos ipse</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: usted mismo, usted misma <br> <b>vos mesmes, vos mesmas, vos mesmos, vos ipses</b> <br> #yourself <br> *Francese: vous-même <br> *Italiano: voi stessi <br> *Espaniol: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, ustedes mismos, ustedes mismas <br> <b>Vostra Excellentia</b> <br> #Your Excellency <br> *Francese: Votre Excellence <br> *Italiano: Sua Eccellenza(meno usato : Vostra Eccellenza) <br> *Espaniol: Su Excelencia <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: suo(di Lei, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: vostro, vostra <br> *Espaniol: vuestro, vuestra <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de usted) <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: votre <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyo, suya(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostro <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: sus(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: su(de ustedes) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: vostri, vostre <br> *Espaniol: vuestros, vuestras <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de usted) <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> #yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> *Francese: vos <br> *Italiano: Loro(le/di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> *Espaniol: suyos, suyas(de ustedes) <br> <b>vulgo(= communmente)</b> <br> #commonly, vulgo <br> *Francese: communément, ordinairement, généralement <br> *Italiano: vilgo, generalmente, comunemente <br> *Espaniol: comúnmente, vulgarmente <br> <b>w(littera): duple ve /u/ aut /v/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: w(doppio vu; vu doppio; non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: w(lettre): double vé /v/ ou /ou/ <br> <b>x(littera): xe /ks/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: x(ics, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: x(lettre): iks /ks/ ou /gz/ ou /s/ ou /z/ <br> <b>y(littera): i greco /y/ aut /i/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: y(i greca, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: y(lettre): i grec /i/ <br> <b>ya(= ja, jam)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: déjà <br> *Italiano: già <br> *Espaniol: ya <br> <b>yo(= io)</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: je, moi <br> *Italiano: io, me, mi <br> *Espaniol: yo <br> <b>z(littera): zeta /z/</b> <br> *Anglese: <br> *Francese: z, zeta <br> *Italiano: <br> *Espaniol: z(lettre): zède /z/ <br></p> 146 2005-04-21T17:32:49Z Josu Lavin 2 IMPORTANTISSIME: [A corriger. Tote le entratas debe esser corrigite secundo Interlingua de IALA] a (+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: a (+ inf) <br> fr: à (+ inf. ) <br> it: a <br> pt: <br> <br> a (littera): a /a/</b> <br> en: <br> es: a (lettre): a /a/ <br> fr: a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> a ambe lateres</b> <br> en: <br> es: a ambos lados <br> fr: des deux côtés <br> it: ad ambo i lati <br> pt: <br> <br> a basso</b> <br> en: down, downward <br> es: abajo <br> fr: en bas <br> it: abbasso, dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> a basso(les traitores)!</b> <br> en: down with(the traitors)! <br> es: abajo los traidores! <br> fr: à bas(les traîtres) <br> it: abbasso(i traditori !) <br> pt: <br> <br> a causa de</b> <br> en: because of <br> es: a causa de, por causa de, debido a <br> fr: à cause de <br> it: a causa di, per causa di <br> pt: <br> <br> a condition que</b> <br> en: on condition that, provided that <br> es: a condición de que, con tal de que <br> fr: à(la) condition que <br> it: a condizione che <br> pt: <br> <br> a conto</b> <br> en: on account <br> es: en cuenta <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: in acconto <br> pt: <br> <br> a conto de</b> <br> en: to the account of <br> es: a cuenta de <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: in acconto a/di <br> pt: <br> <br> a contratempore</b> <br> en: at the wrong moment <br> es: a contratiempo, en mal momento <br> fr: à contretemps <br> it: nel momento sbagliato <br> pt: <br> <br> a derecta</b> <br> en: (to the) right <br> es: a derecha, a la derecha <br> fr: à droite <br> it: a destra <br> pt: <br> <br> a distantia</b> <br> en: at a distance <br> es: a distancia <br> fr: à distance <br> it: a distanza di/da <br> pt: <br> <br> a fin de</b> <br> en: in order to <br> es: a fin de, para <br> fr: afin de, dans le but de, pour <br> it: in modo da <br> pt: <br> <br> a fin que</b> <br> en: in order that <br> es: a fin de que, para que <br> fr: afin que <br> it: in modo che <br> pt: <br> <br> a flor de</b> <br> en: flush with, on a level with <br> es: a flor de <br> fr: à fleur de <br> it: a livello di <br> pt: <br> <br> a fortia de</b> <br> en: by means of, by dint of <br> es: a fuerza de, por medio de <br> fr: à force de <br> it: a forza di <br> pt: <br> <br> a fundo</b> <br> en: thoroughly <br> es: a fondo <br> fr: à fond <br> it: a fondo <br> pt: <br> <br> a grado</b> <br> en: at will <br> es: a voluntad <br> fr: à volonté, à discrétion <br> it: in grado di, a discrezione di <br> pt: <br> <br> a in</b> <br> en: <br> es: a, al interior de <br> fr: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> it: in, all'interno di <br> pt: <br> <br> a inter</b> <br> en: <br> es: (a) entre <br> fr: entre <br> it: tra, fra <br> pt: <br> <br> a la(= a illac)</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allá, allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> a la aventura</b> <br> en: at random <br> es: al azar <br> fr: aléatoirement, au hazard <br> it: all'avventura, <br> pt: <br> <br> a la derecta</b> <br> en: (to the) right <br> es: a la derecha <br> fr: à la droite <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> a la entrata de(le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> en: at the beginning of(winter, etc. ) <br> es: al principio de(invierno, etc. ) <br> fr: au début de, au commencement de(l'hiver, etc. ) <br> it: all'inizio di <br> pt: <br> <br> a la exclusion de</b> <br> en: to the exclusion of <br> es: a la exclusión de <br> fr: à l'exclusion de <br> it: con l'esclusione di, ad esclusione di <br><br> pt: <br> <br> a lo longo</b> <br> en: in the long run <br> es: a la larga <br> fr: avec le temps, à la longue <br> it: alla lunga, con il tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> a lo plus</b> <br> en: at(the) best <br> es: a lo más <br> fr: au plus <br> it: al più <br> pt: <br> <br> a lo plus tarde</b> <br> en: at the latest <br> es: a más tardar <br> fr: au plus tard <br> it: al più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> a medietate</b> <br> en: half(= to half the full amount or degree) <br> es: a mitad <br> fr: à moitié <br> it: alla metà <br> pt: <br> <br> a medietate del cammino</b> <br> en: halfway <br> es: a medio camino <br> fr: à mi-chemin <br> it: alla metà /nel mezzo del cammino <br> pt: <br> <br> a minus que</b> <br> en: unless <br> es: a menos que <br> fr: à moins que <br> it: a meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> a omne costo(= a toto costo)</b> <br> en: at all costs, at any costs <br> es: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> fr: à tout prix <br> it: ad ogni costo, a qualsiasi costo <br> pt: <br> <br> a omne proposito</b> <br> en: at every turn <br> es: a todo propósito <br> fr: à tout propos <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> a parte</b> <br> en: apart, aside <br> es: aparte, separadamente <br> fr: à part <br> it: a parte <br> pt: <br> <br> a partir de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à partir de <br> fr: a partire da, partendo da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> a pena(= apena)</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely <br> es: apenas, escasamente <br> fr: à peine <br> it: appena <br> pt: <br> <br> a presso de</b> <br> en: at the home(court, etc. ) of <br> es: a casa de(corte, etc. ) de <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: appresso a, presso <br> pt: <br> <br> a proba de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'épreuve de <br> fr: a prova di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> a proposito de</b> <br> en: with regard to, apropos of <br> es: con respecto a <br> fr: à propos de, au sujet de <br> it: a proposito di <br> pt: <br> <br> a proposito!</b> <br> en: by the way! incidentally <br> es: a propósito <br> fr: à propos! <br> it: a proposito! <br> pt: <br> <br> a proposito:(dicer una cosa) a proposito</b> <br> en: (to say something) to the purpose, apropos, to the point <br> es: a propósito <br> fr: à propos <br> it: a proposito <br> pt: <br> <br> a retro</b> <br> en: backwards <br> es: atrás, hacia atrás <br> fr: à reculons, en reculant <br> it: dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> a tempore</b> <br> en: in(good) time <br> es: a tiempo <br> fr: à temps <br> it: a tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> a toto costo(= a omne costo)</b> <br> en: at all costs, at any costs <br> es: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> fr: à tout prix <br> it: a ogni costo <br> pt: <br> <br> a transverso</b> <br> en: through, from side to side <br> es: a través <br> fr: à travers, de bord en bord <br> it: di/a traverso <br> pt: <br> <br> a transverso(de)</b> <br> en: through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> es: a través de <br> fr: à travers(de) <br> it: a traverso di <br> pt: <br> <br> a ubi</b> <br> en: where, whither <br> es: où <br> fr: da dove, da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> a ubi</b> <br> en: where, whither <br> es: où <br> fr: a dove, a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> a ubi(= quo)</b> <br> en: where, at what place <br> es: a dónde, a qué lugar <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> a un alto grado</b> <br> en: to a high degree <br> es: a un alto grado <br> fr: à un haut degré <br> it: ad un alto grado <br> pt: <br> <br> a veces(= a vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: a veces <br> fr: parfois <br> it: a volte, qualche volta <br> pt: <br> <br> a vices</b> <br> en: at times <br> es: a veces <br> fr: parfois <br> it: a volte, alle volte <br> pt: <br> <br> a, ad</b> <br> en: to, at <br> es: a, hacia; en <br> fr: à, vers, en, dans <br> it: a, ad, verso, nel <br> pt: <br> <br> ab(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de(+inf) <br> fr: da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ab(= desde)</b> <br> en: since, from <br> es: desde <br> fr: depuis <br> it: da <br> pt: <br> <br> actualmente</b> <br> en: actually <br> es: actualmente <br> fr: actuellement <br> it: attualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> actualmente</b> <br> en: at present, (just) now <br> es: actualmente, en la actualidad <br> fr: à présent, maintenant <br> it: al momento, attualmente, adesso, ora <br> pt: <br> <br> adeo</b> <br> en: farewell, good-by(e) <br> es: adiós <br> fr: adieu <br> it: addio, ciao, salve <br> pt: <br> <br> adhuc</b> <br> en: to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still <br> es: a este lugar, hasta aquí, hasta ahora, todavía <br> fr: jusqu'ici, jusqu'à présent, <br> it: fino ad ora, fino adesso, fino a qui, fin qui, fino a qua <br> pt: <br> <br> al(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: al(+inf) <br> fr: sur le point de(+inf), près de(+inf) <br> it: al, sul punto di, <br> pt: <br> <br> al(= a le)</b> <br> en: to the <br> es: al <br> fr: au <br> it: al <br> pt: <br> <br> al(= a le)</b> <br> en: to the <br> es: al <br> fr: au <br> it: al <br> pt: <br> <br> al(= alique)</b> <br> en: something <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose, <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> al contrario</b> <br> en: on the contrary <br> es: al contrario <br> fr: au contraire <br> it: al contrario <br> pt: <br> <br> al currente(de)</b> <br> en: informed(about) <br> es: al corriente(de), informado(sobre) <br> fr: au courant de <br> it: al corrente di, informato su <br> pt: <br> <br> al detrimento de</b> <br> en: to the detriment of <br> es: en detrimento de <br> fr: au détriment de <br> it: a danno di, a scapito di <br> pt: <br> <br> al estraniero</b> <br> en: abroad <br> es: en el extranjero <br> fr: à l'étranger <br> it: all'estero <br> pt: <br> <br> al exterior</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'extérieur <br> fr: all'esterno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> al exterior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'extérieur de <br> fr: all'esterno di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> al extero</b> <br> en: abroad(as in "to go abroad; to live abroad"), in foreign parts <br> es: al extranjero, en el extranjero <br> fr: à l'étranger <br> it: all'estero <br> pt: <br> <br> al extremo</b> <br> en: <br> es: al extremo <br> fr: à l'extrême <br> it: all'estremo, estremamente <br> pt: <br> <br> al fin</b> <br> en: in the end, at last <br> es: al fin <br> fr: enfin, à la fin <br> it: alla fine, infine <br> pt: <br> <br> al fundo de</b> <br> en: at the bottom of <br> es: al fondo de <br> fr: au fond de <br> it: al fondo di, in fondo a <br> pt: <br> <br> al fundo del corde</b> <br> en: at the bottom of one's heart <br> es: en el fondo del corazón <br> fr: au fond du cœur <br> it: nel fondo del cuore <br> pt: <br> <br> al hasardo</b> <br> en: at random <br> es: al azar <br> fr: au hazard <br> it: al caso <br> pt: <br> <br> al interior</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'intérieur <br> fr: all'interno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> al interior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'intérieur de <br> fr: all'interno di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> al ir a(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ????????? <br> fr: andando a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> al latere</b> <br> en: aside <br> es: al lado <br> fr: à côté <br> it: al lato di, accanto a, lateralmente, a fianco di <br> pt: <br> <br> al latere de</b> <br> en: beside <br> es: al lado de <br> fr: à côté de, au côté de <br> it: a fianco di <br> pt: <br> <br> al minus</b> <br> en: at least <br> es: al menos, por lo menos <br> fr: au moins <br> it: al meno, alla fine, per lo meno <br> pt: <br> <br> al presente</b> <br> en: at present <br> es: en el presente, en la actualidad <br> fr: à présent <br> it: al presente, al momento <br> pt: <br> <br> al transverso(de)</b> <br> en: through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> es: a través(de) <br> fr: à travers, au travers(de) <br> it: al traverso di <br> pt: <br> <br> alco(= alique)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> alco(= alique)</b> <br> en: somewhat <br> es: un poco <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: un poco, un po', qualcosa <br> pt: <br> <br> alcun, alcuna, alcuno(= alicun, alicuna, alicuno)</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelque <br> it: qualche <br> pt: <br> <br> alcunas veces(= alcunas vices, alicunas vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: quelques fois <br> fr: qualche volta, a volte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> alcuno(= alicuno)</b> <br> en: someone, anyone <br> es: quelqu'un <br> fr: qualcuno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> alias</b> <br> en: alias <br> es: alias <br> fr: alias <br> it: alias, altro <br> pt: <br> <br> alias</b> <br> en: at another time <br> es: en otro tiempo, en otro momento <br> fr: (à) un autre moment, un autre temps, un autre instant <br> it: in un altro momento <br> pt: <br> <br> alias(= alteramente)</b> <br> en: otherwise(= in another manner) <br> es: de otra manera <br> fr: autrement, d'une autre façon, d'une autre manière <br> it: in un altro modo, diversamente, in un'altra maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> alibi</b> <br> en: elsewhere <br> es: en alguna otra parte <br> fr: ailleurs <br> it: alibi <br> pt: <br> <br> alicubi</b> <br> en: anywhere as in("did you see him anywhere?") <br> es: dondequiera <br> fr: quelque part comme dans("l'avez-vous vu quelque part?"), n'importe où comme dans("il va n'importe où") <br> it: da qualche parte, non importa dove, in qualche luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> alicubi(= usquam)</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: en cualquier lugar <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: da qualche parte <br> pt: <br> <br> alicun, alicuna, alicuno</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna, alguno; un poco <br> fr: quelque, un peu <br> it: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> alicuna cosa(= alcuna cosa)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: alguna cosa <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> alicunas vices(= alcunas vices)</b> <br> en: sometimes <br> es: algunas veces <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, qualvolta <br> pt: <br> <br> alicunes, alicunas, alicunos</b> <br> en: <br> es: algunos, algunas <br> fr: des, quelques, quelques-uns, quelques-unes <br> it: alcuno, alcune, alcuni <br> pt: <br> <br> alicuno(= alcuno)</b> <br> en: someone, somebody; anyone, anybody <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelqu'un <br> it: alcuno, qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> alie, alia, alio(= altere, altera, altero)</b> <br> en: other <br> es: otro, otra <br> fr: autre <br> it: altro <br> pt: <br> <br> aliqua</b> <br> en: somehow <br> es: de una manera u otra <br> fr: d'une manière ou d'une autre <br> it: in un modo o in un altro, nell'uno o nell'altro modo <br> pt: <br> <br> aliqua</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: en alguna parte <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: qualche parte, qualche luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> aliquando(= alquando)</b> <br> en: at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> es: alguna vez, en algún que otro momento, en un momento dado <br> fr: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> it: in un dato momento, quando, allorché <br> pt: <br> <br> aliquanto(= alquanto)</b> <br> en: somewhat, to some degree <br> es: algo así, en algún grado <br> fr: quelque peu <br> it: in qualche modo <br> pt: <br> <br> alique(= alque)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: in qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> alique(= alque)</b> <br> en: somewhat <br> es: algo, un poco <br> fr: un peu <br> it: un po', un poco <br> pt: <br> <br> aliquot</b> <br> en: some, several, a few <br> es: quelque, un peu <br> fr: un po', un poco <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> alora(= tunc)</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en aquel tiempo <br> fr: alors <br> it: allora, quindi, dunque, allorché <br> pt: <br> <br> alora(= tunc)</b> <br> en: then, in that case, consequently) <br> es: entonces, en tal caso, consequentemente, en consecuencia, por consiguiente <br> fr: donc, dans ce cas, conséquemment, en conséquence <br> it: dunque, quindi, in questo caso, allora, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> alquando(= aliquando)</b> <br> en: <br> es: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> fr: una buona volta, un dato momento <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> alquanto(= aliquanto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: quelque peu <br> fr: alquanto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> en: also, too <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> en: likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> es: igualmente, es más, además <br> fr: ainsi, de plus, par ailleurs <br> it: anche, ugualmente, allo stesso modo, comunque, in ogni modo <br> pt: <br> <br> alte, alta, alto</b> <br> en: high <br> es: alto, alta <br> fr: haut, haute <br> it: alto, alta, alti, alte <br> pt: <br> <br> altera vece(= altera vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: otra vez, una vez más <br> fr: une autre fois <br> it: un'altra volta, in un altro momento <br> pt: <br> <br> altera vice</b> <br> en: a second time, once again, once more <br> es: otra vez, una vez más <br> fr: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> it: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> altera vice</b> <br> en: a second time, once more, once again <br> es: otra vez <br> fr: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> it: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> alteramente(= alias)</b> <br> en: otherwise(= in another manner) <br> es: de otra manera <br> fr: autrement <br> it: altrimenti, diversamente, in un'altro modo <br> pt: <br> <br> altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> en: other, additional <br> es: otro, otra, adicional <br> fr: autre, additionnel(le) <br> it: altro, altra, altri, altre(in più, addizionale) <br> pt: <br> <br> altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> en: other, different <br> es: otro, otra, diferente <br> fr: autre, différent(e) <br> it: altro, altra, altri, altre(differente) <br> pt: <br> <br> alterubi</b> <br> en: elsewhere <br> es: en otra parte <br> fr: ailleurs <br> it: d'altra parte, altrimenti, diversamente <br> pt: <br> <br> ambes, ambas, ambos</b> <br> en: both <br> es: ambos, ambas <br> fr: les deux, tous deux, toutes deux <br> it: ambo, ambedue, tutti e due <br> pt: <br> <br> an</b> <br> en: whether <br> es: si <br> fr: si <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> an(= est-que)</b> <br> en: <br> es: es que(particula interrogativa) <br> fr: est-ce que <br> it: - <br> pt: <br> <br> an ille habe le libro?(= est-que ille habe le libro)</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> it: ha il libro ? egli ha il libro? <br> pt: <br> <br> analogo a</b> <br> en: analogous to <br> es: análogo a <br> fr: analogue à. semblable à <br> it: analogo a, simile a <br> pt: <br> <br> ancora</b> <br> en: encore! <br> es: aún!, todavía! <br> fr: encore! <br> it: ancora! <br> pt: <br> <br> ancora</b> <br> en: still, yet <br> es: aún, todavía <br> fr: encore <br> it: ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> annon</b> <br> en: or not <br> es: o no <br> fr: ou non, ou pas <br> it: o no <br> pt: <br> <br> anque(io)(= etiam(io))</b> <br> en: (I) too, (me) too <br> es: también(yo), (yo) también <br> fr: (moi) aussi <br> it: anch'io, pure io, io pure <br> pt: <br> <br> anque [anke](= etiam, tamben)</b> <br> en: also, too <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> ante</b> <br> en: before, above <br> es: antes, citado anteriormente <br> fr: avant, cité plus haut <br> it: prima <br> pt: <br> <br> ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier <br> es: antes de <br> fr: avant <br> it: prima di <br> pt: <br> <br> ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier <br> es: delante de, ante <br> fr: avant <br> it: davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier than <br> es: antes, anterior <br> fr: plus tôt que, antérieurement à <br> it: prima(temp) <br> pt: <br> <br> ante</b> <br> en: before, in front of <br> es: antes, en frente de <br> fr: devant <br> it: davanti, di fronte <br> pt: <br> <br> ante</b> <br> en: before, in front, ahead; also: forward <br> es: antes; delante <br> fr: devant, en face de <br> it: innanzi, dinnanzi, di fronte, frontalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> ante le tempore</b> <br> en: ahead of time, too early <br> es: antes de tiempo, demasiado pronto <br> fr: trop tôt, avant le temps <br> it: prima del tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> ante que</b> <br> en: before <br> es: antes de que <br> fr: avant que <br> it: prima di, prima che <br> pt: <br> <br> ante toto</b> <br> en: after all <br> es: ante todo <br> fr: avant tout <br> it: prima di tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> antea(=potius, plus tosto)</b> <br> en: before, formerly, previously <br> es: antes, anteriormente, previamente <br> fr: plus tôt, précédemment, antérieurement <br> it: prima, precedentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> ante-heri</b> <br> en: day before yesterday <br> es: anteayer <br> fr: avant-hier <br> it: l'altro ieri, ieri l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> anteriormente</b> <br> en: formerly, before <br> es: anteriormente <br> fr: antérieurement <br> it: anteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> apena(= a pena)</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely <br> es: a penas, escasamente <br> fr: à peine <br> it: a pena <br> pt: <br> <br> apud(= presso)</b> <br> en: near, with, at, by <br> es: cerca de, junto a <br> fr: près de <br> it: presso <br> pt: <br> <br> aquelle, aquella, aquello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: that <br> es: aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là(ex. ce garçon-là), cet ...-là(ex. cet homme-là), cette ...-là(ex. cette fille-là), [pron. dém. ]celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> aquelles, aquellas, aquellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: aquellos, aquellas <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> it: quelli, quelle <br> pt: <br> <br> aquesse, aquessa, aquesso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: ese, esa, eso <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> aqueste, aquesta, aquesto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> aqui(= hic)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> assatis(= satis)</b> <br> en: enough <br> es: bastante; suficiente <br> fr: assez <br> it: basta <br> pt: <br> <br> assatis(= satis)</b> <br> en: rather(= fairly, quite) <br> es: bastante; suficiente <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: abbastanza <br> pt: <br> <br> assi</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful bokk) <br> es: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> fr: così(così bello, tanto bello che) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful book) <br> es: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> assi... como...(= si. . . como. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as... <br> es: así. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que ... <br> it: così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> atque</b> <br> en: and, and also, and even <br> es: y, e, y también, e incluso <br> fr: et, et même <br> it: e <br> pt: <br> <br> aut(= o)</b> <br> en: or <br> es: o, u <br> fr: ou <br> it: o, altrimenti <br> pt: <br> <br> aut. . . aut...(= o. . . o. . . )</b> <br> en: either. . . or... <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou. . . ou. . . <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> avante</b> <br> en: before <br> es: antes de <br> fr: en avant de, au devant de <br> it: prima di, prima che <br> pt: <br> <br> avante</b> <br> en: before(= in front, ahead) <br> es: adelante, al frente, delante <br> fr: en avant, au devant <br> it: davanti a, di fronte a <br> pt: <br> <br> avante!</b> <br> en: before!(= in front, ahead) <br> es: adelante!, al frente! <br> fr: en avant! <br> it: avanti ! <br> pt: <br> <br> b(littera): be /b/</b> <br> en: <br> es: b(lettre): bé /b/ <br> fr: b, bi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> basse, bassa, basso</b> <br> en: low <br> es: bajo <br> fr: bas, basse <br> it: basso, bassa <br> pt: <br> <br> basso</b> <br> en: bottom, lower part(of a thing) <br> es: base, parte de abajo(de una cosa), la parte más baja(de una cosa) <br> fr: bas <br> it: dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> basta</b> <br> en: enough! stop! <br> es: basta! <br> fr: assez! <br> it: basta! <br> pt: <br> <br> bastante(= sufficiente)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficient <br> es: bastante, suficiente <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e) <br> it: sufficiente <br> pt: <br> <br> bastante(= sufficientemente)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficiently <br> es: bastante, suficientemente <br> fr: assez, suffisamment <br> it: sufficientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> bastantes(= sufficientes)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficient <br> es: bastantes, suficientes <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> it: sufficienti <br> pt: <br> <br> ben</b> <br> en: well <br> es: bien <br> fr: bien <br> it: bene <br> pt: <br> <br> ben que</b> <br> en: although <br> es: a pesar de que, aunque <br> fr: quoique, bien que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> ben que</b> <br> en: though <br> es: ben que <br> fr: bien que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> ben!</b> <br> en: all right! <br> es: bien! <br> fr: très bien! <br> it: bene ! giusto ! benissimo ! <br> pt: <br> <br> ben!</b> <br> en: good! <br> es: bien!, bueno! <br> fr: bien! <br> it: bene ! <br> pt: <br> <br> bis</b> <br> en: encore <br> es: bis, de nuevo, otra vez, repetición <br> fr: bis, encore une fois, de nouveau <br> it: bis, ancora una volta, di nuovo <br> pt: <br> <br> bis</b> <br> en: twice <br> es: dos veces <br> fr: deux fois <br> it: due volte <br> pt: <br> <br> bon!</b> <br> en: good!, fine!, all right! <br> es: bien! <br> fr: bon! <br> it: buono ! <br> pt: <br> <br> bon, bona, bono</b> <br> en: <br> es: bon, bonne <br> fr: buono, buona <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> bona nocte!</b> <br> en: good night! <br> es: buenas noches! <br> fr: bonne nuit! <br> it: buona notte, buonanotte <br> pt: <br> <br> bravo!</b> <br> en: bravo! <br> es: bravo! <br> fr: bravo! <br> it: bravo! brava! bravi! brave! <br> pt: <br> <br> c(littera): ce /k/ aut /ts/</b> <br> en: <br> es: c(lettre): cé /k/ ou /s/ <br> fr: c, ci(pron. come ch inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> cata</b> <br> en: each <br> es: cada <br> fr: chaque <br> it: ogni <br> pt: <br> <br> cata un, cata una, cata uno</b> <br> en: <br> es: cada uno, cada una <br> fr: chacun, chacune <br> it: ognuno, agnuna <br> pt: <br> <br> ce</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: ce, c'... <br> it: ciò, questo <br> pt: <br> <br> ce ci</b> <br> en: this(here) <br> es: ceci <br> fr: ciò, questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ce la</b> <br> en: that(there, yonder) <br> es: cela <br> fr: quello, quella <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: (the) former(first of two) <br> es: celui-là, celle-là <br> fr: quello là, quella là <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: 1. that; those <br> es: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> fr: quello, quella <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> celles, cellas, cellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> fr: quei, quegli, quelle <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> cello(= illo)</b> <br> en: that(one) <br> es: aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quello là <br> pt: <br> <br> cello(= illo)</b> <br> en: the former <br> es: aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quello là <br> pt: <br> <br> cento:(tres) per cento, (tres) pro cento</b> <br> en: (three) per cent <br> es: (trois) pour cent <br> fr: cento(ce, come in ch inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> certe, certa, certo</b> <br> en: a certain. . . <br> es: cierto, cierta <br> fr: un certain, une certaine <br> it: certo, un certo <br> pt: <br> <br> certo</b> <br> en: <br> es: ciertamente, cierto <br> fr: certainement <br> it: certo, certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> en: other <br> es: autre <br> fr: altro <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> en: remaining <br> es: restant <br> fr: restante, rimanente, resto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> cetero</b> <br> en: besides, for the rest <br> es: d'autre part, quant au reste <br> fr: d'altra parte, quanto al resto, peraltro <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> cetero</b> <br> en: otherwise, in other respects <br> es: autrement, par ailleurs <br> fr: diversamente <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ch(digrapho): ce hache /k/ aut /sh/</b> <br> en: <br> es: ch(digraphe ou digramme): cé-ache /k/ ou /sh/ <br> fr: ch(pron come k) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ci(=hic)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> ci juncto(= hic juncto)</b> <br> en: herewith, hereto(joined) <br> es: junto con esto <br> fr: ci-joint(e) <br> it: qui con <br> pt: <br> <br> circa</b> <br> en: around <br> es: alrededor de <br> fr: autour de <br> it: circa <br> pt: <br> <br> circa</b> <br> en: around <br> es: cerca, alrededor, aproximadamente <br> fr: autour, aux alentours, environ, approximativement <br> it: circa, approssimativamente <br> pt: <br> <br> circum</b> <br> en: around, around about <br> es: alrededor, aproximadamente <br> fr: autour, aux alentours <br> it: circa, approssimativamente <br> pt: <br> <br> cis</b> <br> en: on this side(of) <br> es: a este lado(de) <br> fr: de ce côté(de) <br> it: da questa parte, da questo lato <br> pt: <br> <br> cito</b> <br> en: quickly, speedily <br> es: rápidamente <br> fr: vite <br> it: rapidamente, velocemente <br> pt: <br> <br> cito</b> <br> en: soon <br> es: pronto <br> fr: tôt <br> it: presto, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> clam</b> <br> en: secretly <br> es: secretamente, en secreto <br> fr: secrètement <br> it: segretamente <br> pt: <br> <br> clam</b> <br> en: without the knowledge of, unknown to <br> es: sin el conocimiento de, desconocido a <br> fr: sans la connaissance de, inconnu(e) à <br> it: senza sapere che, senza conoscenza di, senza cognizione <br> pt: <br> <br> communmente(= vulgo)</b> <br> en: commonly, vulgo <br> es: comúnmente, vulgarmente, normalmente <br> fr: vulgairement, communément <br> it: comunemente, volgarmente <br> pt: <br> <br> como</b> <br> en: as; also: like, similarly to <br> es: como <br> fr: comme <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> como</b> <br> en: how <br> es: como <br> fr: comment <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> como illa est bella!</b> <br> en: how beautiful she is! <br> es: qué bonita es ella! <br> fr: Comme elle est belle! <br> it: come è bella lei <br> pt: <br> <br> como si</b> <br> en: as though, as if <br> es: como si <br> fr: comme si <br> it: come se <br> pt: <br> <br> como:(facete) como(vos volate)</b> <br> en: (do) as(you wish) <br> es: (haced) como(vosotros queráis) <br> fr: comme:(faites) comme(vous voulez) <br> it: come(fate) <br> pt: <br> <br> comocunque</b> <br> en: however, in whatever manner <br> es: sin embargo, de cualquier forma, como sea <br> fr: cependant, de toute façon <br> it: comunque, in ogni modo, ad ogni modo <br> pt: <br> <br> comparabile a</b> <br> en: comparable to <br> es: comparable a <br> fr: comparable à <br> it: comparabile a/con <br> pt: <br> <br> comparabile con</b> <br> en: comparable with <br> es: comparable con <br> fr: comparable avec <br> it: comparabile con <br> pt: <br> <br> completamente(= totalmente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: completamente(= totalmente) <br> fr: complètement <br> it: completamente, totalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> con</b> <br> en: with, by means of <br> es: con, por medio de <br> fr: avec, au moyen de <br> it: con, per mezzo di <br> pt: <br> <br> con</b> <br> en: with, having, carrying, characterized by) <br> es: con, que tiene. . . , caracterizado por. . . <br> fr: avec, ayant, caractérisé(e) par <br> it: con <br> pt: <br> <br> con</b> <br> en: with, together with <br> es: con <br> fr: avec, (ensemble) avec <br> it: con, insieme a <br> pt: <br> <br> concernente</b> <br> en: concerning <br> es: concerniente <br> fr: concernant <br> it: concernente <br> pt: <br> <br> conforme</b> <br> en: conformable, in conformity <br> es: conforme, en conformidad <br> fr: conforme, en conformité <br> it: conforme <br> pt: <br> <br> conforme a</b> <br> en: in conformity with, according to <br> es: conforme a <br> fr: selon, conforme à, en conformité avec <br> it: conforme a, in conformità a/di <br> pt: <br> <br> conjunctamente</b> <br> en: conjointly, conjunctly, jointly, together <br> es: conjuntamente <br> fr: conjointement, ensemble <br> it: congiuntamente, con, insieme <br> pt: <br> <br> conjunctamente con</b> <br> en: in with, together with, in conjunction with <br> es: conjuntamente con <br> fr: conjointement avec <br> it: congiuntamente a <br> pt: <br> <br> contra</b> <br> en: against <br> es: contra <br> fr: contre <br> it: contro <br> pt: <br> <br> contra</b> <br> en: on the contrary <br> es: al contrario <br> fr: au contraire <br> it: al contrario, diversamente <br> pt: <br> <br> contra</b> <br> en: opposite, facing <br> es: en situación opuesta, enfrentado <br> fr: contre, faisant face à <br> it: contrariamente, al contrario <br> pt: <br> <br> coram</b> <br> en: in one's presence, openly, publicly <br> es: en la presencia de, abiertamente, públicamente <br> fr: en présence de quelqu'un, publiquement <br> it: in presenza di, davanti a, pubblicamente <br> pt: <br> <br> coram</b> <br> en: in the presence of <br> es: en presencia de <br> fr: en présence de <br> it: in presenza di <br> pt: <br> <br> cras(= deman)</b> <br> en: tomorrow <br> es: mañana <br> fr: demain <br> it: domani <br> pt: <br> <br> cuje, cuja, cujo</b> <br> en: whose <br> es: cuyo, cuya <br> fr: dont <br> it: di cui <br> pt: <br> <br> cum(=con)</b> <br> en: <br> es: avec <br> fr: con <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> d(littera): de /d/</b> <br> en: <br> es: d(lettre): dé /d/ <br> fr: di/d <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> de</b> <br> en: from; also: since <br> es: de, desde <br> fr: de, depuis <br> it: da, dal, dallo, dalla, dagli, dalle <br> pt: <br> <br> de</b> <br> en: of <br> es: de <br> fr: de <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> de</b> <br> en: of, belonging or pertaining to <br> es: de <br> fr: de, de la, du, à la, au, aux, (appartenant à la, au, aux) <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> de</b> <br> en: of, made of <br> es: de, hecho de <br> fr: de(fait de) <br> it: di(fatto di) <br> pt: <br> <br> de</b> <br> en: of, with, by means of <br> es: de, con <br> fr: de, de la, du, des, par, avec, au moyen de(de la, du, des) <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: to; for <br> es: de(+ inf) <br> fr: de(+inf) <br> it: di <br> pt: <br> <br> de accordo</b> <br> en: in accord <br> es: de acuerdo <br> fr: d'accord <br> it: d'accordo <br> pt: <br> <br> de alto a basso</b> <br> en: from the top to the bottom <br> es: de arriba abajo <br> fr: de haut en bas <br> it: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> pt: <br> <br> de alto a basso</b> <br> en: from top to bottom, from top to toe <br> es: de arriba abajo <br> fr: de haut en bas, de la tête aux pieds <br> it: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> pt: <br> <br> de bon corde</b> <br> en: gladly, willingly <br> es: de buena gana, alegremente <br> fr: de bon coeur <br> it: di buon cuore, generoso <br> pt: <br> <br> de bon grado</b> <br> en: willingly, with pleasure <br> es: de buen grado, con placer, de buena gana <br> fr: avec plaisir <br> it: di buon grado, volentieri <br> pt: <br> <br> de bon gusto</b> <br> en: in good taste <br> es: de buen gusto <br> fr: de bon goût <br> it: di buon gusto <br> pt: <br> <br> de bona hora</b> <br> en: early <br> es: de buena hora <br> fr: de bonne heure <br> it: di buono'ora, presto, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> de ci a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> en: (an hour, etc. ) from now <br> es: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> fr: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> it: da qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> de commun accordo</b> <br> en: by common consent <br> es: de común acuerdo <br> fr: d'un commun accord <br> it: di comune accordo <br> pt: <br> <br> de concerto</b> <br> en: in concert, in unison <br> es: de concierto, al unísono <br> fr: de concert <br> it: di concerto, d'accordo con <br> pt: <br> <br> de costume, usualmente</b> <br> en: usually <br> es: como de costumbre, habitualmente, usualmente <br> fr: d'habitude <br> it: usualmente, d'abitudine, di norma, solitamente <br> pt: <br> <br> de derecto</b> <br> en: by right(s) <br> es: de derecho <br> fr: de droit <br> it: di diritto <br> pt: <br> <br> de die in die</b> <br> en: from day to day <br> es: de día en día <br> fr: de jour en jour <br> it: di giorno in giorno <br> pt: <br> <br> de facto</b> <br> en: de facto <br> es: de facto, de hecho <br> fr: de facto <br> it: di fatto <br> pt: <br> <br> de facto</b> <br> en: in fact, de facto <br> es: de hecho, de facto <br> fr: en fait, de fait, par le fait <br> it: infatti, difatti <br> pt: <br> <br> de hic a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> en: (an hour etc. ) from now <br> es: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> fr: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> it: di qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> de la parte de</b> <br> en: on the part of <br> es: de(la) parte de <br> fr: de la part de <br> it: da parte di, dalla parte di <br> pt: <br> <br> de longe(= de longo)</b> <br> en: afar, from a distance <br> es: de lejos <br> fr: de loin <br> it: dalla distanza di, da <br> pt: <br> <br> de mal grado</b> <br> en: unwillingly, in spite of oneself <br> es: de mala gana <br> fr: de mauvais gré <br> it: malgrado, malvolentieri <br> pt: <br> <br> de mal gusto</b> <br> en: in bad taste <br> es: de mal gusto <br> fr: de mauvais goût <br> it: di cattivo gusto, inopportuno <br> pt: <br> <br> de mal in pejo</b> <br> en: from bad to worse <br> es: de mal en peor <br> fr: de mal en pis <br> it: di male in peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> de maniera que</b> <br> en: so that <br> es: de manera que <br> fr: de manière que <br> it: in modo che <br> pt: <br> <br> de memoria</b> <br> en: from memory, by heart <br> es: de memoria <br> fr: de mémoire, par coeur <br> it: a memoria, a mente <br> pt: <br> <br> de nocte</b> <br> en: by night <br> es: de noche <br> fr: de nuit <br> it: di notte <br> pt: <br> <br> de novo</b> <br> en: again, anew, afresh <br> es: de nuevo <br> fr: de nouveau <br> it: di nuovo, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> de omne latere</b> <br> en: from every side <br> es: de todo lado <br> fr: de tout côté <br> it: da ogni alto <br> pt: <br> <br> de parte a parte</b> <br> en: through and through <br> es: de parte a parte <br> fr: de part en part <br> it: da parte a parte <br> pt: <br> <br> de parte de</b> <br> en: on the part of <br> es: de parte de <br> fr: de la part de <br> it: da parte di <br> pt: <br> <br> de plus</b> <br> en: furthermore, besides <br> es: además <br> fr: de plus <br> it: di più <br> pt: <br> <br> de plus in plus</b> <br> en: more and more <br> es: de más en más <br> fr: de plus en plus <br> it: più e più <br> pt: <br> <br> de qui</b> <br> en: whose <br> es: de quien <br> fr: de qui, dont <br> it: di cui <br> pt: <br> <br> de tempore ??</b> <br> en: from time to time <br> es: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> fr: de temps en temps <br> it: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> pt: <br> <br> de tempore in tempore</b> <br> en: from time to time <br> es: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> fr: de temps en temps <br> it: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> pt: <br> <br> de toto(le) corde</b> <br> en: wholeheartedly <br> es: de todo corazón <br> fr: de tout coeur <br> it: di tutto cuore <br> pt: <br> <br> de totos lateres</b> <br> en: on all sides <br> es: de todos lados <br> fr: de tous les côtés <br> it: da ogni lato, da ogni parte <br> pt: <br> <br> de transverso</b> <br> en: askew, awry <br> es: de tavés <br> fr: de travers <br> it: di traverso, trasversalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> de troppo(= de tro)</b> <br> en: superfluous, in the way <br> es: superfluo <br> fr: de trop <br> it: di troppo, superfluo <br> pt: <br> <br> de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, donde <br> pt: <br> <br> de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> en: from where, whence <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, donde <br> pt: <br> <br> de un extremo al altero</b> <br> en: from one extreme to the other <br> es: de un extremo al otro <br> fr: d'un extrême à l'autre <br> it: da un estremo all'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> debitamente</b> <br> en: duly, properly <br> es: debidamente, propiamente <br> fr: dûment, justement, convenablement <br> it: debitamente, giustamente, propriamente <br> pt: <br> <br> deinde</b> <br> en: afterwards, then, following in time <br> es: después, entonces, <br> fr: ensuite, alors, par la suite <br> it: di seguito, dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> deinde</b> <br> en: afterwards, then, next in order <br> es: ensuite, suivant dans l'ordre <br> fr: di seguito, dopo, poi, secondo l'ordine, seguendo l'ordine <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> deinde</b> <br> en: thereafter, next <br> es: suivant(e) <br> fr: successivo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> del(= de le)</b> <br> en: of the <br> es: del <br> fr: du <br> it: del, dello <br> pt: <br> <br> del altere latere</b> <br> en: <br> es: del otro lado <br> fr: de l'autre côté <br> it: dall'altro lato, d'altro canto <br> pt: <br> <br> del principio</b> <br> en: from the outset or start <br> es: del principio <br> fr: du début <br> it: da principio, dall'inizio, inizialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> del toto</b> <br> en: <br> es: del todo <br> fr: du tout <br> it: di tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> deman(= cras)</b> <br> en: tomorrow <br> es: mañana <br> fr: demain <br> it: domani <br> pt: <br> <br> deman matino</b> <br> en: tomorrow morning <br> es: mañana a la mañana, mañana por la mañana <br> fr: demain matin <br> it: domani mattina, domattina <br> pt: <br> <br> deman vespere</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la tarde, mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> depois(= depost)</b> <br> en: afterwards, later <br> es: después <br> fr: puis, ensuite, plus tard <br> it: poi, dopo, più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> depois que(= depost que)</b> <br> en: since(from the time that) <br> es: después de que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: dopo che, dopo di che <br> pt: <br> <br> depost</b> <br> en: after, since <br> es: después de <br> fr: depuis, après <br> it: dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> depost</b> <br> en: afterwards, later <br> es: después, luego <br> fr: puis, ensuite <br> it: poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> depost quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: desde cuando <br> fr: depuis quand <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> depost quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: desde cuándo <br> fr: depuis quand <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> depost que</b> <br> en: since(= from the time that) <br> es: después(de) que, desde que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> desde</b> <br> en: since, from <br> es: desde <br> fr: depuis, de <br> it: dopo di <br> pt: <br> <br> detra</b> <br> en: behind, back, backwards <br> es: detrás <br> fr: derrière, en arrière <br> it: dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> dextra</b> <br> en: on the right of <br> es: a la derecha de <br> fr: à la droite de <br> it: alla destra di <br> pt: <br> <br> difficile a(+ inf), difficile de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: difícil de(+ inf) <br> fr: difficile à(+inf), difficile de(+inf) <br> it: difficile a/da <br> pt: <br> <br> directo:(ir, ambular, etc. ) directo</b> <br> en: (to go, walk, etc. ) straight <br> es: directamente <br> fr: droit, tout droit:(aller, se diriger, etc. ) tout droit <br> it: diritto, sempre diritto <br> pt: <br> <br> donec</b> <br> en: until, up to the time that <br> es: hasta <br> fr: jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> donec</b> <br> en: while, as long as <br> es: mientras <br> fr: pendant que <br> it: fino a, fino a che <br> pt: <br> <br> duas horas</b> <br> en: two o'clock <br> es: las dos(horas) <br> fr: deux heures <br> it: due ore <br> pt: <br> <br> dum</b> <br> en: provided that, if only <br> es: contal de que <br> fr: pourvu que, si seulement <br> it: solo se <br> pt: <br> <br> dum</b> <br> en: until <br> es: hasta que <br> fr: jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> dum</b> <br> en: while, as long as <br> es: mientras <br> fr: pendant que, tant que <br> it: fintanto che, fino a che <br> pt: <br> <br> dunque</b> <br> en: therefore <br> es: por consiguiente <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: dunque, quindi, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> durante</b> <br> en: during <br> es: durante <br> fr: durant, pendant <br> it: durante <br> pt: <br> <br> durante que</b> <br> en: while, whilst <br> es: mientras, mientras que <br> fr: pendant que <br> it: durante <br> pt: <br> <br> e(= et)</b> <br> en: <br> es: et <br> fr: e <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> e(littera): e /e/</b> <br> en: <br> es: e(lettre): e /?/ <br> fr: e <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> e. . . e...(= et. . . et. . . )</b> <br> en: <br> es: et... et... <br> fr: e. . . e. . . <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ecce</b> <br> en: lo!, see!, behold!, here is <br> es: he aquí, helo aquí <br> fr: voici <br> it: ecco, ecco qui, ecco qua <br> pt: <br> <br> ego(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: moi(= je) <br> fr: io <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> el(= ille)</b> <br> en: <br> es: il <br> fr: egli, lui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ella(= illa)</b> <br> en: <br> es: elle <br> fr: ella, lei <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> equalmente</b> <br> en: equally <br> es: également <br> fr: egualmente, ugualmente <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> equalmente</b> <br> en: likewise, also <br> es: igualmente, también <br> fr: également <br> it: egualmente, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> erga</b> <br> en: against <br> es: contra <br> fr: contre <br> it: contro <br> pt: <br> <br> erga</b> <br> en: in respect to <br> es: con respecto a <br> fr: par rapport à <br> it: in rapporto a <br> pt: <br> <br> erga</b> <br> en: towards <br> es: vis-à-vis <br> fr: di fronte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ergo</b> <br> en: consequently, accordingly, therefore, then <br> es: por consiguiente, ergo, por eso <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> esse, essa, esso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> fr: questo, questa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> esser in dubita</b> <br> en: to be in doubt <br> es: estar en duda, dudar <br> fr: être dans le doute, douter <br> it: essere in dubbio/nel dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> esser satis</b> <br> en: to be enough <br> es: ser suficiente, ser bastante <br> fr: être assez, être suffisant <br> it: essere sufficiente <br> pt: <br> <br> esso(=isso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ceci <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> este, esta, esto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> fr: questo, questa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> esto(= isto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ceci <br> fr: questo, questo qui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> est-que [ést-ke](= an)</b> <br> en: <br> es: est-ce que <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> est-que ille habe le libro?(= an ille habe le libro)</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> it: (egli) ha il libro ? <br> pt: <br> <br> et(= e)</b> <br> en: also <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: e, anche <br> pt: <br> <br> et(= e)</b> <br> en: and <br> es: y, e <br> fr: et <br> it: e <br> pt: <br> <br> et cetera, etc. </b><br> and so on, and so forth, etc. <br> es: etcetera, etc. <br> fr: et ainsi de suite, et cetera, etc. <br> it: eccetera, così di seguito <br> pt: <br> <br> et. . . et. . . (= e. . . e. . . )</b> <br> en: as well. . . as..., both. . . and... <br> es: sea. . . sea. . . <br> fr: et. . . et. . . <br> it: e. . . e. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> etiam(= anque, tamben)</b> <br> en: also, likewise, too; even, even yet; yet <br> es: también, del mismo modo, igualmente, incluso <br> fr: aussi, même, <br> it: anche, lo stesso, allo stesso modo, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> etsi</b> <br> en: and yet <br> es: e incluso <br> fr: et même <br> it: e ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> etsi</b> <br> en: even if <br> es: incluso si <br> fr: même si <br> it: anche se <br> pt: <br> <br> etsi</b> <br> en: though, although <br> es: quoique, bien que <br> fr: benché <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ex</b> <br> en: out of; from <br> es: fuera de; desde, de <br> fr: hors de <br> it: ex, fuori da <br> pt: <br> <br> ex tempore</b> <br> en: extempore <br> es: impromptu, improvisé <br> fr: ex tempore, imrpovvisato <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> exactamente(= justo)</b> <br> en: exactly, just <br> es: exactamente, justo <br> fr: exactement, juste, justement <br> it: giusto, esatto, esattamente <br> pt: <br> <br> excepto</b> <br> en: except, excepting <br> es: excepto, exceptuando <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto <br> pt: <br> <br> excessivamente(= in excesso, troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: excessivement <br> fr: eccessivamente, troppo, in eccesso <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> expresso</b> <br> en: purposely <br> es: intencionadamente <br> fr: exprès <br> it: espresso <br> pt: <br> <br> extero</b> <br> en: foreign countries <br> es: países extranjeros <br> fr: pays étrangers(à l'étranger) <br> it: estero, paese straniero <br> pt: <br> <br> extra</b> <br> en: besides, in addition to <br> es: además de, en adición a <br> fr: en plus de, <br> it: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> pt: <br> <br> extra</b> <br> en: besides, in addition, extra <br> es: además, en adición, extra <br> fr: de plus, en plus, d'autre part, par ailleurs <br> it: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> pt: <br> <br> extra</b> <br> en: excepting, except <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto <br> pt: <br> <br> extra</b> <br> en: outside of, without, beyond <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: hors de, en dehors de, au délà de <br> it: fuori di, al di fuori di, oltre a <br> pt: <br> <br> extra</b> <br> en: without, on the outside <br> es: fuera, en la parte de afuera <br> fr: à l'extérieur <br> it: all'esterno di <br> pt: <br> <br> f(littera): fe /f/</b> <br> en: <br> es: f(lettre): èfe /f/ <br> fr: f, effe <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> facie a(= ob, in la via de)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: cara a, hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: face à, en face de, devant, considérant, en raison de <br> it: davanti a, in ragione di, di fronte a <br> pt: <br> <br> facie a facie</b> <br> en: face to face <br> es: cara cara <br> fr: face à face <br> it: faccia a faccia <br> pt: <br> <br> facile a(+ inf), facile de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: fácil de(+ inf) <br> fr: facile à(+inf), facile de(+inf) <br> it: facile da, facile a <br> pt: <br> <br> for</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au délà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> for</b> <br> en: except <br> es: fuera de, excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto, fuori da/che <br> pt: <br> <br> for</b> <br> en: from without <br> es: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> fr: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> for</b> <br> en: out of doors, outside, out <br> es: à l'extérieur <br> fr: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> for de</b> <br> en: outside of, without <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: hors de, à l'extérieur de <br> it: fuori da, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> for de se(= foras de se, foris de se)</b> <br> en: beside oneself <br> es: fuera de sí <br> fr: hors de soi <br> it: fuori di sé <br> pt: <br> <br> foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au délà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: except <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: from without <br> es: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> fr: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: out of doors, outside, out <br> es: fuera, afuera <br> fr: dehors <br> it: fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> foras de</b> <br> en: outside of, without <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: au dehors de <br> it: senza, al di fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> foras de dubita, foris de dubita</b> <br> en: beyond doubt <br> es: fuera de duda <br> fr: hors de tout doute <br> it: senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> foras de lo commun(= foris de lo commun)</b> <br> en: out of the ordinary <br> es: fuera de lo común <br> fr: hors de l'ordinaire <br> it: fuori dall'ordinario <br> pt: <br> <br> foras de proposito</b> <br> en: ill-timed, irrelevant, beside the mark <br> es: fuera de propósito, irrelevante <br> fr: hors de propos <br> it: irrilevante <br> pt: <br> <br> foras de se</b> <br> en: beside oneself <br> es: fuera de sí <br> fr: hors de soi <br> it: fuori di sé <br> pt: <br> <br> forsan</b> <br> en: perhaps, maybe <br> es: posiblemente, quizás, tal vez, es posible que. . . <br> fr: peut-être, possiblement <br> it: può essere, forse <br> pt: <br> <br> forsan</b> <br> en: perhaps, maybe <br> es: probablemente, quizás, tal vez <br> fr: peut-être, probablement <br> it: può essere, probabilmente, forse <br> pt: <br> <br> frequentemente</b> <br> en: frequently, often <br> es: frecuentemente, a menudo <br> fr: souvent, fréquemment <br> it: frequentemente, sovente, spesso <br> pt: <br> <br> frustra</b> <br> en: in vain <br> es: en vano <br> fr: en vain <br> it: invano <br> pt: <br> <br> g(littera): ge /g/ aut /j/</b> <br> en: <br> es: g(lettre): jé /gh/ ou /j/ <br> fr: g/gi(pron. : come j di John) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> grande(= magne, magna, magno)</b> <br> en: <br> es: grande; magno, magna <br> fr: grand, grande <br> it: grande, gran <br> pt: <br> <br> grandemente</b> <br> en: <br> es: grandemente <br> fr: grandement <br> it: grandemente <br> pt: <br> <br> gratias a</b> <br> en: thanks to, due or owing to <br> es: gracias a, debido a <br> fr: grâce à <br> it: grazie a <br> pt: <br> <br> gratias!</b> <br> en: thank you! thanks! <br> es: gracias! <br> fr: grâce! <br> it: grazie <br> pt: <br> <br> gratis</b> <br> en: gratis, free(of charge) <br> es: gratis <br> fr: gratis, gratuit <br> it: gratis, gratuito <br> pt: <br> <br> guai</b> <br> en: woe <br> es: pena <br> fr: ennui, malheur, chagrin, peine <br> it: guai <br> pt: <br> <br> h(littera): hache /h/</b> <br> en: <br> es: h(lettre): ache /muet/ <br> fr: h, acca(muta, ma dopo C e G cambia la pronuncia da dolce a dura(chi=ki; ghi=g di girl inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> haber satis</b> <br> en: to have enough <br> es: tener suficiente, tener bastante <br> fr: avoir assez <br> it: avere abbastanza, avere a sufficienza <br> pt: <br> <br> hac</b> <br> en: here, this way, on this side <br> es: aquí, en este lado <br> fr: ici, par là, de ce côté <br> it: qui, di qui, di qua, da questa parte, in questo luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> hallo!</b> <br> en: hello! <br> es: hola! <br> fr: allo! <br> it: ciao <br> pt: <br> <br> halto</b> <br> en: halt, stop <br> es: alto <br> fr: halte, arrêt, stop <br> it: stop, alt, fermo! basta! <br> pt: <br> <br> halto!</b> <br> en: halt! <br> es: alto! <br> fr: halte! <br> it: fermo!, ferma! stop! alt! altolà! <br> pt: <br> <br> heri</b> <br> en: yesterday <br> es: ayer <br> fr: hier <br> it: ieri <br> pt: <br> <br> heri vespera</b> <br> en: last night <br> es: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> fr: la nuit dernière <br> it: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> pt: <br> <br> heri vespere</b> <br> en: last night <br> es: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> fr: la nuit dernière <br> it: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> pt: <br> <br> hic</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> hic(= iste)</b> <br> en: <br> es: -ci <br> fr: qui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> hic juncto</b> <br> en: herewith, hereto(attached) <br> es: ci-joint <br> fr: qui accanto, qui con <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this place <br> es: de aquí en adelante, desde este sitio en adelante <br> fr: d'ici <br> it: da qui(da qui in poi, da qui in avanti) <br> pt: <br> <br> hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this reason) <br> es: de aquí en adelante, por esta razón <br> fr: de là, par conséquent <br> it: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this time <br> es: de aquí en adelante, desde este tiempo en adelante <br> fr: dorénavant, désormais <br> it: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> hoc</b> <br> en: it <br> es: ce, cela <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> hoc</b> <br> en: this(thing, idea) <br> es: ce, ceci, cela <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> hoc est</b> <br> en: that is(to say) <br> es: es decir <br> fr: c'est-à-dire <br> it: come a dire, cioé <br> pt: <br> <br> hoc pluve</b> <br> en: it is raining <br> es: llueve, está lloviendo <br> fr: il pleut <br> it: piove, sta piovendo <br> pt: <br> <br> hodie</b> <br> en: today <br> es: hoy <br> fr: aujourd'hui <br> it: oggi <br> pt: <br> <br> hodie ipse</b> <br> en: this very say <br> es: hoy mismo <br> fr: aujourd'hui même <br> it: oggi stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> hodie mesmo</b> <br> en: this very day <br> es: hoy mismo <br> fr: aujourd'hui même <br> it: anche oggi <br> pt: <br> <br> holla!</b> <br> en: holla! <br> es: hola! <br> fr: allo! <br> it: ciao! <br> pt: <br> <br> homo(=on, uno)</b> <br> en: <br> es: on <br> fr: un, uno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> i(littera): i /i/</b> <br> en: <br> es: i(lettre): i /i/ <br> fr: i <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ibi</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> ibid. , ib. </b><br> ibid. , ib. <br> es: ibid. , ib. <br> fr: ibid. , ib. <br> it: ibid. , ib. <br> pt: <br> <br> ibidem</b> <br> en: ibidem <br> es: ibidem, en el mismo lugar <br> fr: ibidem <br> it: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> pt: <br> <br> ibidem</b> <br> en: in the same place, in that very place <br> es: en el mismo lugar <br> fr: au même endroit <br> it: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> pt: <br> <br> id</b> <br> en: 1. it; 2. that <br> es: esto <br> fr: ce <br> it: questo <br> pt: <br> <br> id est, i. e. </b><br> that is(to say), i. e. <br> es: esto es, es decir <br> fr: c'est-à-dire, i. e. <br> it: cioé <br> pt: <br> <br> idem</b> <br> en: idem <br> es: idem <br> fr: idem <br> it: idem, lo stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> idem</b> <br> en: the same(thing) <br> es: la misma cosa; lo mismo <br> fr: la même chose, le même <br> it: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, idem <br> pt: <br> <br> igitur</b> <br> en: <br> es: entonces, por consiguiente <br> fr: donc, par conséquent <br> it: quindi, di conseguenza, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> il</b> <br> en: it <br> es: ce, c', il <br> fr: egli <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> il(= ille)</b> <br> en: <br> es: il <br> fr: egli <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> il conveni de(facer lo)</b> <br> en: it is fitting, advisable, to(do it) <br> es: conviene(hacerlo) <br> fr: il convient de(le faire) <br> it: conviene(farlo) <br> pt: <br> <br> il est a dicer</b> <br> en: <br> es: es decir, o sea <br> fr: c'est-à-dire <br> it: cioè <br> pt: <br> <br> il est bon que, il est bono que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es bueno que <br> fr: il est bon que, c'est bon que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> il est bon, il est bono</b> <br> en: <br> es: es bueno <br> fr: il est bon, c'est bon <br> it: va bene <br> pt: <br> <br> il est necessari que, il est necessario que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario que <br> fr: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> it: è necessario che, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> il est necessari, il est necessario</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario <br> fr: il est nécessaire, c'est nécessaire <br> it: è necessario, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> il est necesse que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario que <br> fr: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> it: è necessario, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> il est vero, nonne?</b> <br> en: it is true, isn't it?, isn't that so? <br> es: es verdad, no es así? <br> fr: c'est vrai, non? n'est-ce pas vrai? n'est-il pas vrai? <br> it: è vero ? non è vero ? <br> pt: <br> <br> il face</b> <br> en: ago <br> es: hace <br> fr: il y a(deux ans) <br> it: fa(due anni fa) <br> pt: <br> <br> il face(un) grande calor</b> <br> en: it is very hot <br> es: hace mucho calor <br> fr: il fait une grande chaleur <br> it: fa un gran caldo <br> pt: <br> <br> il face frigido</b> <br> en: it is cold(weather) <br> es: hace frío <br> fr: il fait froid <br> it: fa freddo <br> pt: <br> <br> il ha</b> <br> en: <br> es: hay <br> fr: il y a <br> it: c'è <br> pt: <br> <br> il habe</b> <br> en: there is, there aree <br> es: hay <br> fr: il y a <br> it: c'è <br> pt: <br> <br> il importa que. . . </b><br> it is essential that. . . <br> es: importa que, es importante que, es esencial que <br> fr: il faut que <br> it: è che, bisogna, è necessario che <br> pt: <br> <br> il pare que</b> <br> en: <br> es: parece que <br> fr: il paraît que <br> it: sembra che <br> pt: <br> <br> il se tracta de</b> <br> en: <br> es: se trata de <br> fr: il s'agit de <br> it: si tratta di <br> pt: <br> <br> il va sin dicer</b> <br> en: <br> es: il va sans dire <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> illa</b> <br> en: her(as in "of her, " "with her") <br> es: ella <br> fr: elle <br> it: ella, essa, lei <br> pt: <br> <br> illa</b> <br> en: she <br> es: ella <br> fr: elle <br> it: ella, essa, lei <br> pt: <br> <br> illac</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> ille habe 20 annos</b> <br> en: he is 20 years old <br> es: il a vingt(20) ans <br> fr: venti anni fa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: he; she; it <br> es: él, ella, ello <br> fr: il, elle <br> it: egli, ella, lui, lei, esso, essa <br> pt: <br> <br> ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: him; her; it(as in "with him, " "with it"; "for him, " "for it") <br> es: él, ella, ello <br> fr: lui, elle(comme dans "avec lui, " "avec elle"; "pour lui" "pour elle") <br> it: lui, lei(con lei, per lei, a lui, con lui, per lei, per lui) <br> pt: <br> <br> ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: that(one) <br> es: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, pron. dém. : celui-là. celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: that, those <br> es: aquel, aquella <br> fr: <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: the former <br> es: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello là, quella là <br> pt: <br> <br> ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: the former(= first of two) <br> es: aquel, aquella <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> illes, illas, illos</b> <br> en: them(as in "with them, " "for them") <br> es: ellos, ellas <br> fr: eux, elles(comme dans "avec eux" ou "avec elles", "pour eux" ou "pour elles") <br> it: essi, esse, loro(con essi, con loro, a loro, per loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> illes, illas, illos</b> <br> en: they <br> es: ellos, ellas <br> fr: ils, elles <br> it: essi, esse, loro <br> pt: <br> <br> illes, illas, illos(= aquelles, aquellas, aquellos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: aquellos, aquellas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-là, pron. dém. : ceux-là <br> it: quelli là, quelle là <br> pt: <br> <br> illi(= illes)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ??????? <br> fr: essi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> illic(= illac)</b> <br> en: <br> es: là <br> fr: là <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> illo</b> <br> en: it [used as subject, and as object of a prep.] <br> es: ello <br> fr: ça <br> it: ciò, quello <br> pt: <br> <br> in</b> <br> en: in, into <br> es: en, dentro <br> fr: dans <br> it: in, nel, nello, nella <br> pt: <br> <br> in(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: = gerundio <br> fr: en(part. prés. ) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> in alicun modo</b> <br> en: <br> es: de algún modo, de alguna manera <br> fr: de quelque façon <br> it: in qualche modo <br> pt: <br> <br> in alicuna forma</b> <br> en: <br> es: de alguna forma <br> fr: de quelque forme <br> it: in qualche forma <br> pt: <br> <br> in alicuna maniera</b> <br> en: <br> es: de alguna manera <br> fr: de quelque manière <br> it: in qualche maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> in alta voce</b> <br> en: aloud, loudly, not in a whisper <br> es: en alta voz <br> fr: à haute voix <br> it: ad alta voce <br> pt: <br> <br> in alteras parolas</b> <br> en: <br> es: en otras palabras <br> fr: dans d'autres mots <br> it: in altre parole, in altri termini <br> pt: <br> <br> in alto</b> <br> en: (up) on top; also: upstairs <br> es: arriba, hacia arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, su <br> pt: <br> <br> in alto</b> <br> en: upward(s), up; also: upstairs <br> es: arriba, hacia arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, su <br> pt: <br> <br> in alto(= super)</b> <br> en: above, on top <br> es: arriba, sobre <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> in basso</b> <br> en: down, below; also: downstairs <br> es: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> fr: en bas, en dessous <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> in basso</b> <br> en: down, downward; also: downstairs <br> es: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> fr: en bas <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> in caso de</b> <br> en: in case of <br> es: en caso de <br> fr: en cas de <br> it: in caso di, nel caso che <br> pt: <br> <br> in caso de necessitate</b> <br> en: in case of need, of necessity <br> es: en caso de necesidad <br> fr: en cas de nécessité <br> it: in caso di necessità, all'occorrenza <br> pt: <br> <br> in caso que</b> <br> en: in case(that) <br> es: en caso de que <br> fr: au cas où <br> it: nel caso che, in caso di <br> pt: <br> <br> in certos casos</b> <br> en: <br> es: en ciertos casos <br> fr: dans certains cas <br> it: in certi casi <br> pt: <br> <br> in commemoration de</b> <br> en: in commemoration of <br> es: en conmemoración de <br> fr: en commémoration de <br> it: in commemorazione di, in ricordo di, in memoria di <br> pt: <br> <br> in commun</b> <br> en: in common <br> es: en común <br> fr: en commun <br> it: in comune <br> pt: <br> <br> in conclusion, in fin</b> <br> en: in conclusion <br> es: en conclusión <br> fr: en conclusion <br> it: in conclusione <br> pt: <br> <br> in consequentia</b> <br> en: in consequence, accordingly <br> es: en consecuencia <br> fr: en conséquence <br> it: in conseguenza, conseguentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> in consequentia de</b> <br> en: in consequence of <br> es: en consecuencia de <br> fr: en conséquence de <br> it: in conseguenza di <br> pt: <br> <br> in consideration de</b> <br> en: in consideration of, on account of <br> es: en consideración de <br> fr: en considération de <br> it: in considerazione di <br> pt: <br> <br> in despecto de</b> <br> en: in spite of, despite <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado, a dispetto di, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> in domo de</b> <br> en: at the house of <br> es: en la casa de <br> fr: à la résidence de <br> it: in casa di, presso <br> pt: <br> <br> in effecto</b> <br> en: in fact, indeed <br> es: en efecto <br> fr: en fait, effectivement <br> it: infatti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> in evidentia</b> <br> en: evident <br> es: en evidencia <br> fr: en évidence <br> it: in evidenza <br> pt: <br> <br> in excesso(= excessivamente, troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: en exceso, excesivamente, demasiado <br> fr: en excès(=excessivement, trop) <br> it: in eccesso, troppo, eccessivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> in favor de</b> <br> en: on behalf of, in favor of <br> es: a favor de <br> fr: en faveur de <br> it: in favore di <br> pt: <br> <br> in fin</b> <br> en: in short, to sum up <br> es: en conclusión, en fin <br> fr: enfin, en conclusion, finalement <br> it: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> in fin, in conclusion</b> <br> en: in conclusion <br> es: en fin, en conclusión <br> fr: enfin, en conclusion <br> it: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> in general</b> <br> en: in general <br> es: en general <br> fr: en général <br> it: in generale, in genere, di norma, usualmente, normalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> in honor de</b> <br> en: in honor of <br> es: en honor de <br> fr: en honneur de <br> it: in onore di <br> pt: <br> <br> in la proximitate de</b> <br> en: in the proximity or vicinity of <br> es: en la proximidad o vecindad de <br> fr: à proximité de <br> it: in prossimità di <br> pt: <br> <br> in la via de(= facie a, ob)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> it: prima di, davanti a, in ragione di <br> pt: <br> <br> in le curso de. . . </b><br> in the course of. . . <br> es: en el curso de <br> fr: au cours de <br> it: in corso di <br> pt: <br> <br> in le exterior</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el exterior <br> fr: à l'extérieur <br> it: all'esterno <br> pt: <br> <br> in le exterior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el exterior de <br> fr: à l'extérieur de <br> it: all'esterno di <br> pt: <br> <br> in le fundo</b> <br> en: fundamentally, at bottom <br> es: en el fondo, fundamentalmente <br> fr: au fond, fondamentalement <br> it: in fondo <br> pt: <br> <br> in le gusto de. . . </b><br> in the manner of. . . <br> es: al gusto de, a la manera de <br> fr: au goût de <br> it: al gusto di <br> pt: <br> <br> in le interim</b> <br> en: in the interim <br> es: en el interim <br> fr: dans l'intérim <br> it: nel frattempo <br> pt: <br> <br> in le interior</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el interior <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> in le interior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el interior de <br> fr: à l'intérieur de <br> it: all'interno di <br> pt: <br> <br> in le passato</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el pasado <br> fr: dans le passé <br> it: nel passato <br> pt: <br> <br> in le principio</b> <br> en: in the beginning <br> es: al principio <br> fr: au début <br> it: all'inizio, inizialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> in loco de</b> <br> en: in lieu of, instead of <br> es: en lugar de <br> fr: au lieu de <br> it: in luogo di, al posto di, invece di <br> pt: <br> <br> in medio de</b> <br> en: in the middle of <br> es: en medio de <br> fr: au milieu de <br> it: in mezzo a <br> pt: <br> <br> in memoria de</b> <br> en: in memory of <br> es: en memoria de <br> fr: en mémoire de <br> it: in memoria di <br> pt: <br> <br> in modo special, specialmente</b> <br> en: especially <br> es: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> fr: en particulier, spécialement <br> it: in particolare, specialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> in modo. . . (= -mente)</b> <br> en:ly <br> es: -mente <br> fr: -ment <br> it: -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> in nomine de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en nombre de <br> fr: au nom de <br> it: in nome di <br> pt: <br> <br> in nulla parte</b> <br> en: nowhere <br> es: en ninguna parte <br> fr: nulle part <br> it: in nessun luogo, da nessuna parte <br> pt: <br> <br> in nulle caso</b> <br> en: in no case <br> es: en ningún caso <br> fr: en aucun cas <br> it: in alcun caso, in nessun caso, mai <br> pt: <br> <br> in omne caso</b> <br> en: in any case <br> es: en todo caso <br> fr: en tout cas <br> it: in ogni caso, in utti i casi, sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> in parte</b> <br> en: in part, partially <br> es: en parte, parcialmente <br> fr: en partie <br> it: in parte <br> pt: <br> <br> in particular</b> <br> en: in particular, particularly <br> es: en particular, particularmente <br> fr: en particulier <br> it: in particolare <br> pt: <br> <br> in pauco</b> <br> en: shortly, before long <br> es: en poco tiempo, dentro de poco, en breve <br> fr: d'ici peu <br> it: in poco tempo, da qui a un poco, in un attimo <br> pt: <br> <br> in plus</b> <br> en: furthermore, in addition, also <br> es: además, adicionalmente <br> fr: de plus, en plus, en outre <br> it: di più, in più, <br> pt: <br> <br> in primo loco</b> <br> en: first, in the first place <br> es: en primer lugar <br> fr: en premier lieu <br> it: in primo luogo, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> in principio</b> <br> en: in principle, as a rule <br> es: en principio <br> fr: en principe <br> it: in principio <br> pt: <br> <br> in su loco</b> <br> en: <br> es: en su lugar <br> fr: à sa place <br> it: al suo posto <br> pt: <br> <br> in summa</b> <br> en: <br> es: en suma <br> fr: en somme <br> it: insomma <br> pt: <br> <br> in tanto que</b> <br> en: inasmuch as, in so far as <br> es: en tanto que <br> fr: en tant que <br> it: in tanto che, fin tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> in toto</b> <br> en: entirely, wholly, in toto <br> es: en todo <br> fr: en tout <br> it: in tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> in toto et per toto</b> <br> en: entirely, wholly <br> es: en todo y por todo <br> fr: en tout et pour tout <br> it: in tutto e per tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> in vano</b> <br> en: <br> es: en vano <br> fr: en vain <br> it: invano, inutilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> in vice de</b> <br> en: instead of <br> es: en vez de, en lugar de <br> fr: au lieu de <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> in vista de</b> <br> en: in view of <br> es: en vista de <br> fr: en vue de <br> it: in vista di <br> pt: <br> <br> inde</b> <br> en: from that cause, therefore <br> es: por esa causa, por consiguiente <br> fr: de ce fait, de là <br> it: per questo, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> inde</b> <br> en: from that place, from there, thence <br> es: desde aquí, desde este sitio <br> fr: d'ici <br> it: da qui <br> pt: <br> <br> inde</b> <br> en: from that time, after that, thereupon, thenceforward <br> es: desde este momento, después de eso <br> fr: désormais, dorénavant <br> it: da questo momento <br> pt: <br> <br> inferior</b> <br> en: <br> es: inferior <br> fr: inférieur(e) <br> it: inferiore <br> pt: <br> <br> infime, infima, infimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: ínfimo, ínfima <br> fr: infime <br> it: infimo, infima <br> pt: <br> <br> 1</b> <br> en: below, under, beneath <br> es: debajo de <br> fr: sous, dessous <br> it: sotto, in basso, in profondità <br> pt: <br> <br> infra</b> <br> en: below, underneath, beneath <br> es: debajo <br> fr: sous, dessous, en dessous <br> it: dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> insimul(= junctamente)</b> <br> en: together <br> es: juntos, juntas <br> fr: ensemble <br> it: insieme <br> pt: <br> <br> inter</b> <br> en: among <br> es: entre <br> fr: parmi <br> it: tra <br> pt: <br> <br> inter</b> <br> en: between <br> es: entre <br> fr: entre <br> it: tra, fra <br> pt: <br> <br> inter alia</b> <br> en: inter alia, among other things <br> es: entre otras cosas <br> fr: entre autres choses, parmi tant d'autres <br> it: tra l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> interdum</b> <br> en: sometimes, occasionally; for some time; meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: a veces, de vez en cuando; durante algún tiempo; entretanto <br> fr: parfois, à l'occasion, pour quelque temps, entre-temps <br> it: qualchevolta, talvolta, durante, nel frattempo <br> pt: <br> <br> interea</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto <br> fr: entre-temps <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> interim(= intertanto)</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto, mientras tanto <br> fr: entre-temps <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> intertanto(= interim)</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto <br> fr: en attendant <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> intra</b> <br> en: within <br> es: dentro <br> fr: entre, dans <br> it: in, nel, nella, dentro il <br> pt: <br> <br> intra</b> <br> en: within <br> es: dentro de <br> fr: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> it: all'interno di, nel, in <br> pt: <br> <br> intro</b> <br> en: inwardly <br> es: hacia dentro <br> fr: vers l'intérieur <br> it: verso l'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> intro</b> <br> en: inwardly, internally, on the inside, in <br> es: internamente, interiormente, enm el interior <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> intus</b> <br> en: inside, into, to the inside <br> es: al interior <br> fr: vers l'intérieur <br> it: verso l'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> intus</b> <br> en: inside, on the inside, within <br> es: en el interior, dentro de <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> io(=ego)</b> <br> en: I <br> es: yo <br> fr: je(=moi) <br> it: io <br> pt: <br> <br> io mesme, io mesma, io mesmo, io ipse</b> <br> en: myself <br> es: yo mismo, yo mismo <br> fr: moi même <br> it: io stesso, me stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> ipse</b> <br> en:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> es: mismo, misma(yo mismo, tú mismo, él mismo, etc. <br> fr: -même <br> it: stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> is</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: ce <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> isse(= esse)</b> <br> en: this, that, these, those <br> es: ese <br> fr: ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-là, ceux-ci <br> it: questo, questa, questo qui, questa qui <br> pt: <br> <br> isse, issa, isso(= aquesse, aquessa, aquesso)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: ese, esa, eso <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> isses, issas, issos(= aquesses, aquessas, aquessos)</b> <br> en: these <br> es: esos, esas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> it: questi, queste <br> pt: <br> <br> isso</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: eso <br> fr: ce. ceci, cela <br> it: questo, quello <br> pt: <br> <br> ista nocte</b> <br> en: tonight <br> es: esta noche <br> fr: cette nuit <br> it: questa notte, stanotte <br> pt: <br> <br> ista vespera</b> <br> en: this evening, tonight <br> es: esta tarde, esta noche <br> fr: ce soir <br> it: questa sera, stasera <br> pt: <br> <br> iste vespere</b> <br> en: this evening, tonight <br> es: esta tarde, esta noche <br> fr: ce soir <br> it: questa sera <br> pt: <br> <br> iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: the latter <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo/a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: the latter(= second of two) <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo/a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: this(one) <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo <br> pt: <br> <br> iste, ista, isto(= aqueste, aquesta, aquesto)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> istes, istas, istos(= aquestes, aquestas, aquestos)</b> <br> en: these <br> es: estos, estas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> it: questo qui, questa qui <br> pt: <br> <br> isto</b> <br> en: <br> es: esto <br> fr: ce, ceci, cela <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> ita</b> <br> en: accordingly, under the circumstances <br> es: de acuerdo con, bako las circunstancias <br> fr: en conséquence, dans les circonstances <br> it: così, di conseguenza, <br> pt: <br> <br> ita</b> <br> en: and so, consequently <br> es: así, consecuentemente, por consiguiente <br> fr: et ainsi, conséquemment <br> it: e così <br> pt: <br> <br> ita</b> <br> en: just so, yes <br> es: justamente, sí <br> fr: justement, oui <br> it: sì, giusto <br> pt: <br> <br> ita</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> itaque</b> <br> en: and so, therefore <br> es: y así, por consiguiente <br> fr: et ainsi, donc <br> it: e così, dunque <br> pt: <br> <br> itero</b> <br> en: again, anew <br> es: de nuevo, nuevamente <br> fr: encore <br> it: ancora, di nuovo, nuovamente <br> pt: <br> <br> itero et itero</b> <br> en: again and again, repeatedly <br> es: una y otra vez, repetidamente <br> fr: encore et encore <br> it: ancora ed ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> j(littera): jota /j/</b> <br> en: <br> es: j(lettre): ji /j/(et non /dj/) <br> fr: j(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo; si usa nelle parole antiche o straniere) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> jam(= ja)</b> <br> en: already; at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely <br> es: ya, ahora mismo <br> fr: déjà, tout de suite, il y a un moment, en effet, sûrement <br> it: già, al momento, proprio adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> jam(= ja)</b> <br> en: indeed, certainly, of course <br> es: ya, ciertamente <br> fr: en effet, bien sûr <br> it: in effetti, già, sicuramente, certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> jammais</b> <br> en: ever, at any time <br> es: siempre <br> fr: jamais <br> it: mai <br> pt: <br> <br> jammais!</b> <br> en: never! <br> es: jamás!, nunca! <br> fr: jamais! <br> it: mai giammai ! <br> pt: <br> <br> jo(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: yo <br> fr: je <br> it: io <br> pt: <br> <br> junctamente(=insimul)</b> <br> en: together <br> es: juntos, juntas <br> fr: ensemble <br> it: insieme, con <br> pt: <br> <br> justo(= exactamente)</b> <br> en: just, exactly <br> es: justo, exactamente <br> fr: juste, exactement <br> it: giusto, esattamente <br> pt: <br> <br> justo nunc(= justo ora)</b> <br> en: just now, right now <br> es: justo ahora <br> fr: juste maintenant <br> it: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> justo ora(= justo nunc)</b> <br> en: just now, right now <br> es: justo ahora <br> fr: juste maintenant <br> it: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> juxta</b> <br> en: near, near by <br> es: cerca, al lado <br> fr: près <br> it: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> juxta</b> <br> en: near, near to, next to, etc. <br> es: cerca de, al lado de <br> fr: près de <br> it: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> k(littera): ka /k/</b> <br> en: <br> es: k(lettre): ka /k/ <br> fr: k(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo), kappa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> l(littera): le /l/</b> <br> en: <br> es: l(lettre): èle /l/ <br> fr: l, elle <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> l'(= le, la, lo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: l'(= le, la) <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> la</b> <br> en: her(as in "I see her", "I write her a letter") <br> es: la, le <br> fr: la, lui(comme dans "je la vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> it: la, lei(io la vedo, io le ho scritto una lettera) <br> pt: <br> <br> la(= illac)</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allá, allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> la medietate del mundo</b> <br> en: half the world <br> es: la mitad del mundo, medio mundo <br> fr: la moitié du monde <br> it: mezzo mondo <br> pt: <br> <br> la mesma cosa</b> <br> en: <br> es: la misma cosa, lo mismo <br> fr: la même chose <br> it: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, la medesima cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> la vespera</b> <br> en: in the evening, evenings <br> es: por la tarde <br> fr: le soir <br> it: la sera <br> pt: <br> <br> la:(un dollar) la(libra)</b> <br> en: (one dollar) a(pound) <br> es: (un dolar) la(libra) <br> fr: la:(un dollar) la(livre) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> le(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el(+ inf) <br> fr: le(+ inf) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> le de, la de, lo de</b> <br> en: <br> es: el de, la de, lo de <br> fr: celui de, celle de <br> it: quello di, quella di <br> pt: <br> <br> le die sequente</b> <br> en: the next day, the following day <br> es: el día siguiente <br> fr: le jour suivant <br> it: il giorno dopo, il giorno seguente, il giorno successivo <br> pt: <br> <br> le lore, la lore, lo lore</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: le leur, la leur <br> it: il loro, la loro <br> pt: <br> <br> le melior, la melior, lo melior(= le optime, la optima, lo optimo; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> en: the best <br> es: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> le mie et le tue, la mia et la tua, lo mio et lo tuo</b> <br> en: mine and thine <br> es: el mío y el tuyo, la mía y la tuya, lo mío y lo tuyo <br> fr: le mien et le tien. la mienne et la tienne <br> it: il mio e il tuo, la mia e la tua <br> pt: <br> <br> le mie, la mia, lo mio</b> <br> en: mine <br> es: el mío, la mía, lo mío <br> fr: le mien, la mienne <br> it: il mio, la mia <br> pt: <br> <br> le minime, la minima, lo minino(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> le minor, la minor, lo minor(= le minime, la minima, lo minimo; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il minore, la minore <br> pt: <br> <br> le minus</b> <br> en: the least(as in "what pleases me(the) least") <br> es: el menor <br> fr: le moins <br> it: il meno <br> pt: <br> <br> le minus belle, la minus bella, lo minus bello</b> <br> en: the least beautiful <br> es: el menos bello, la menos bella, lo menos bello <br> fr: le moins beau, la moins belle <br> it: il meno bello, lameno bella <br> pt: <br> <br> le nostre, la nostra, lo nostro</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro <br> fr: le nôtre, la nôtre <br> it: il nostro, la nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> le optime, la optima, lo optimo(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el mejor, la mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el pésimo, la pésima, lo pésimo <br> fr: le pire la pire <br> it: il pessimo, la pessima <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus belle, la plus bella, lo plus bello</b> <br> en: the most beautiful <br> es: el más bonito, la más bonita, lo más bonito <br> fr: le plus beau, la plus belle <br> it: il più bello, la più bella <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le optime, la optima, lo optimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande(= le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> fr: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> it: il più grande, la più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno(= le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> fr: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> it: il più grande, la più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le minime, la minima, lo minimo)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus. . . -mente(= lo plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: lo más. . . -mente <br> fr: le plus... -ment <br> it: il più. . . -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> le plus. . . , la plus. . . , lo plus. . . </b><br> the most. . . <br> es: el más. . . , la más. . . , lo más. . . <br> fr: le plus..., la plus... <br> it: il più. . . la più. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> le qual, la qual, lo qual</b> <br> en: which; that; who <br> es: el cual, la cual, lo cual <br> fr: lequel, laquelle <br> it: il quale, la quale <br> pt: <br> <br> le que, la que, lo que</b> <br> en: <br> es: el que, la que, lo que <br> fr: celui qui, celle qui <br> it: quello che, quella che <br> pt: <br> <br> le sue, la sua, lo suo</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: le sien, la sienne(de lui, d'elle) <br> it: il suo, la sua <br> pt: <br> <br> le toto</b> <br> en: the whole <br> es: el todo <br> fr: le tout <br> it: il tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> le tue, la tua, lo tuo</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo <br> fr: le tien, la tienne <br> it: il tuo, la tua <br> pt: <br> <br> le un le altere, la una la altera, lo uno lo altero(= unaltre)</b> <br> en: one another, each other, each(one). . . the other(one) <br> es: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> fr: l'un l'autre, l'une l'autre <br> it: l'un l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> le vespere</b> <br> en: in the evenong, evenings <br> es: la tarde <br> fr: le soir <br> it: la sera <br> pt: <br> <br> le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il vostro, la vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de usted) <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il Suo, la Sua(di Lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ustedes) <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il loro, la loro(di Loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> le, la, lo</b> <br> en: him(as in "I see him", "I write him a letter") <br> es: le, la, lo <br> fr: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je le vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> le, la, lo</b> <br> en: it(as in "I like it", "I'll give it another thought") <br> es: le, la, lo <br> fr: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> le, la, lo</b> <br> en: the <br> es: el, la, lo <br> fr: le, la, l' <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> les de, las de, los de</b> <br> en: <br> es: los de, las de <br> fr: ceux de, celles de <br> it: quelli di, quelle di <br> pt: <br> <br> les duo, las duas, los duos</b> <br> en: the two <br> es: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> fr: les deux <br> it: i due, ambo, ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> les lores, las lores, los lores</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: i loro, le loro <br> pt: <br> <br> les mies, las mias, los mios</b> <br> en: <br> es: los míos, las mías <br> fr: les miens, les miennes <br> it: i miei, le mie <br> pt: <br> <br> les nostres, las nostras, los nostros</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: los nuestros, las nuestras <br> fr: les nôtres <br> it: i nostri <br> pt: <br> <br> les que, las que, los que</b> <br> en: <br> es: los que, las que <br> fr: ceux que, ceux qui, celles que. celles qui <br> it: quelli che, quelle che <br> pt: <br> <br> les sues, las suas, los suos</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: les siens, les siennes(de lui ou d'elle) <br> it: i loro, le loro <br> pt: <br> <br> les tues, las tuas, los tuos</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: los tuyos, las tuyas <br> fr: les tiens, les tiennes <br> it: i tuoi, le tue <br> pt: <br> <br> les unes les alteres</b> <br> en: one another, each other, each(of them). . . the others, other ones <br> es: unos los otros, unos a los otros <br> fr: les uns les autres <br> it: gli uni gli altri <br> pt: <br> <br> les unes les alteres, las unas las alteras, los unos los alteros</b> <br> en: one another, each other <br> es: unos los otros, unos a los otros, unas a las otras <br> fr: les uns les autres, <br> it: gli uni gli altri <br> pt: <br> <br> les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: los vuestros, las vuestras <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i vostri <br> pt: <br> <br> les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de usted) <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i Suoi(di Lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de ustedes) <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i Loro(di Loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> les, las, los</b> <br> en: the <br> es: los, las <br> fr: les <br> it: i, le <br> pt: <br> <br> les, las, los</b> <br> en: them(as in "I see them", "I write them a letter") <br> es: les, los, las <br> fr: les, leur(comme dans "je les vois", "je leur écris une lettre") <br> it: li, le <br> pt: <br> <br> levorso</b> <br> en: on the left hand <br> es: a la izquierda <br> fr: à gauche <br> it: a sinistra, sinistrorso <br> pt: <br> <br> levorso</b> <br> en: to the left <br> es: a la izquierda <br> fr: à gauche <br> it: a sinistra <br> pt: <br> <br> li(= le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ?????? <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> lo</b> <br> en: it(as in "I like it, " "I'll give it another thought") <br> es: lo <br> fr: le, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> it: lo <br> pt: <br> <br> lo plus. . . -mente(= le plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: lo más. . . -mente <br> fr: le plus... -ment <br> it: il più. . . -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> lo que</b> <br> en: that which <br> es: lo que <br> fr: ce que <br> it: quello che <br> pt: <br> <br> loco</b> <br> en: place <br> es: lugar <br> fr: lieu <br> it: luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> longamente</b> <br> en: long, for a long time <br> es: durante mucho tiempo <br> fr: longtemps <br> it: a lungo, lungamente <br> pt: <br> <br> longe(= longo)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos(= no cerca) <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano <br> pt: <br> <br> longo(= longe)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos(= no cerca) <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano <br> pt: <br> <br> lontan(= lontano)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos; distante, lejano <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano, distante <br> pt: <br> <br> lontano(= lontan)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos; distante, lejano <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano, distante <br> pt: <br> <br> lor</b> <br> en: their <br> es: su(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> lore</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: suyo, suya(de ellos, o ellas) <br> fr: le leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> lores</b> <br> en: their <br> es: sus(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> lores</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: suyos, suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> los altos et(los) bassos</b> <br> en: th ups and downs <br> es: los altos y(los) bajos <br> fr: les hauts et les bas <br> it: gli alti e bassi <br> pt: <br> <br> los mios</b> <br> en: my people, my family <br> es: los míos <br> fr: les miens <br> it: i miei <br> pt: <br> <br> m(littera): me /m/</b> <br> en: <br> es: m(lettre): ème /m/ <br> fr: m, emme <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ma(= mais)</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero, mas <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma <br> pt: <br> <br> magis</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> magis</b> <br> en: rather <br> es: más bien <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto <br> pt: <br> <br> magne, magna, magno(= grande)</b> <br> en: <br> es: grand, grande <br> fr: grande <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> mais(= ma)</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero, mas <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma <br> pt: <br> <br> major</b> <br> en: <br> es: majeur(e), principal(e) <br> fr: maggiore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> mal, mala, malo</b> <br> en: <br> es: mal, mauvais, mauvaise <br> fr: male, malvagio <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> malgrado(= malgre)</b> <br> en: in spite of <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado <br> pt: <br> <br> malgre(= malgrado)</b> <br> en: <br> es: malgré <br> fr: malgrado <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> mane</b> <br> en: early in the morning <br> es: temprano por la mañana <br> fr: <br> it: stamane, stamattina presto <br> pt: <br> <br> mane</b> <br> en: morning <br> es: mañana <br> fr: matin <br> it: mattino <br> pt: <br> <br> mane vespera</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> mane vespere</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> maxime</b> <br> en: certainly <br> es: ciertamente <br> fr: certainement <br> it: certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> maxime</b> <br> en: especially, principally <br> es: especialmentre, principalmente <br> fr: spécialement, principalement <br> it: specialmente. principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> maxime</b> <br> en: exceedingly, very <br> es: excesivamente, muy <br> fr: excessivement, très <br> it: eccessivamente, molto, troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> maxime</b> <br> en: most <br> es: le plus <br> fr: il più <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> maxime, maxima, maximo</b> <br> en: <br> es: le plus, la plus <br> fr: il più, la più <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> me</b> <br> en: me <br> es: me <br> fr: me, moi <br> it: me, mi(dallo a me, mi piace) <br> pt: <br> <br> me</b> <br> en: myself(as in "I hurt myself", "I said to myself") <br> es: me <br> fr: moi-même <br> it: io stesso, me stesso(io stesso ho scritto quel libro; l'ho scritto io stesso; l'ho fatto per me stesso) <br> pt: <br> <br> media hora</b> <br> en: half an hour <br> es: media hora <br> fr: demi-heure <br> it: mezz'ora <br> pt: <br> <br> medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: average, mean <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: moyen, moyenne <br> it: medio, media <br> pt: <br> <br> medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: half <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: demi <br> it: mezzo, mezza <br> pt: <br> <br> medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: middle <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: milieu <br> it: mezzo, mezza <br> pt: <br> <br> medietate</b> <br> en: half <br> es: mitad <br> fr: moitié, demi <br> it: metà <br> pt: <br> <br> medio</b> <br> en: half <br> es: medio <br> fr: moitié, demi <br> it: metà <br> pt: <br> <br> medio</b> <br> en: mean, medium <br> es: medio <br> fr: moyenne <br> it: medio, media <br> pt: <br> <br> medio</b> <br> en: means(= agent or instrument by which an end is attained) <br> es: medios(=agente o instrumento mediante el cual se obtiene un fin) <br> fr: moyen <br> it: mediante, con <br> pt: <br> <br> medio</b> <br> en: middle, also: midst <br> es: medio, también: entre <br> fr: milieu <br> it: medio, in mezzo, in <br> pt: <br> <br> melio</b> <br> en: better <br> es: mejor <br> fr: meilleur, mieux <br> it: migliore, meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> melior</b> <br> en: better <br> es: mejor <br> fr: meilleur, mieux <br> it: migliore, meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> meno(= minus)</b> <br> en: <br> es: menos <br> fr: moins <br> it: meno <br> pt: <br> <br> -mente(= in modo. . . )</b> <br> en:ly <br> es: -mente <br> fr: -ment <br> it: -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> en: same <br> es: mismo, misma <br> fr: même <br> it: stesso, medesimo <br> pt: <br> <br> mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> en:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> es: mismo, misma <br> fr: même <br> it: stesso, medesimo <br> pt: <br> <br> mesmo</b> <br> en: even <br> es: incluso <br> fr: même <br> it: incluso, stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> mesmo</b> <br> en: likewise <br> es: igualmente <br> fr: même, semblable <br> it: stesso, medesimo, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> mesmo quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: incluso cuando <br> fr: même quand <br> it: anche quando <br> pt: <br> <br> mi</b> <br> en: my <br> es: mi <br> fr: mon, ma <br> it: mio, mia <br> pt: <br> <br> mi(= me)</b> <br> en: <br> es: me <br> fr: me, moi <br> it: mio <br> pt: <br> <br> mie, mia, mio</b> <br> en: mine <br> es: mío, mía <br> fr: le mien, la mienne <br> it: il mio, la mia <br> pt: <br> <br> mies, mias, mios</b> <br> en: <br> es: míos, mías <br> fr: les miens, les miennes <br> it: i miei, le mie <br> pt: <br> <br> minimamente</b> <br> en: <br> es: mínimamente <br> fr: minimalement <br> it: minimamente <br> pt: <br> <br> minime</b> <br> en: by no means, not in the least, no! <br> es: de ninguna manera, en lo más mínimo, no! <br> fr: d'aucune façon, pas du tout, non! <br> it: in alcun modo, in nessun modo, no, assolutamente <br> pt: <br> <br> minime</b> <br> en: least <br> es: le moins <br> fr: almeno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> minime</b> <br> en: very little <br> es: muy pequeño <br> fr: très peu <br> it: molto poco <br> pt: <br> <br> minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> en: least, smallest, minimal <br> es: mínimo, mínima <br> fr: le moins, la moins, le plus petit, la plus petite, minimal <br> it: minimo, la minima. . . la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> en: very small, tiny <br> es: muy pequeño, diminuto <br> fr: très petit <br> it: molto piccolo <br> pt: <br> <br> minor</b> <br> en: <br> es: mineur(e) <br> fr: minore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> minus</b> <br> en: less <br> es: menos <br> fr: moins <br> it: meno, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> minus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> en: less(money, etc. ) <br> es: menos(dinero, etc. ) <br> fr: moins de(moins d'argent) <br> it: meno di, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> minus de</b> <br> en: less <br> es: menos de <br> fr: moins de <br> it: meno di, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> minus de(dece annos)</b> <br> en: less than(ten years) <br> es: menos de(diez años) <br> fr: moins de(dix ans) <br> it: meno di <br> pt: <br> <br> minus. . . (que)</b> <br> en: less. . . (than) <br> es: menos. . . (que) <br> fr: moins...(que) <br> it: meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> minus:(quatro) minus(tres)</b> <br> en: (four) minus(three) <br> es: menos:(cuatro) menos(tres) <br> fr: moins:(quatre) moins(trois) <br> it: meno <br> pt: <br> <br> minus:(totos) minus(ille)</b> <br> en: (all) except, but(him) <br> es: menos:(todos) menos él <br> fr: (tous) sauf(lui) <br> it: (tutti) meno(lui) <br> pt: <br> <br> mis</b> <br> en: my <br> es: mis <br> fr: mon, ma <br> it: mio, mia <br> pt: <br> <br> mox</b> <br> en: soon, at once, directly <br> es: pronto, en seguida <br> fr: bientôt, tout-de-suite <br> it: presto, tosto, subito, prima possibile <br> pt: <br> <br> multas gratias</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchas gracias <br> fr: merci beaucoup <br> it: grazie molte, molte grazie, grazie infinite, grazie mille, grazie tante <br> pt: <br> <br> multas vices</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchas veces <br> fr: plusieurs fois <br> it: più volte <br> pt: <br> <br> multe de, multa de, multo de</b> <br> en: much, many <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup de <br> it: molto di <br> pt: <br> <br> multe, multa, multo</b> <br> en: many <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto, molta, molti <br> pt: <br> <br> multe, multa, multo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto, molta, molti <br> pt: <br> <br> multes, multas, multos</b> <br> en: many <br> es: muchos, muchas <br> fr: plusieurs, de nombreux, de nombreuses <br> it: molte, molti, numerosi, numerose <br> pt: <br> <br> multissime, multissima, multissimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchísimo, muchísima <br> fr: une grande quantité de <br> it: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> pt: <br> <br> multissimes, multissimas, multissimos</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchísimos, muchísimas <br> fr: un grand nombre de <br> it: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> pt: <br> <br> multo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: mucho <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> multo</b> <br> en: very <br> es: muy <br> fr: très <br> it: molto, tanto <br> pt: <br> <br> multo ben</b> <br> en: <br> es: muy bien <br> fr: très bien <br> it: molto bene <br> pt: <br> <br> multo bon</b> <br> en: <br> es: muy bueno <br> fr: très bon <br> it: molto buono <br> pt: <br> <br> n(littera): ne /n/</b> <br> en: <br> es: n(lettre): ène /n/ <br> fr: n, enne <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> nam</b> <br> en: for <br> es: porque <br> fr: pour que <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, by nature <br> es: naturalmente, por naturaleza <br> fr: naturellement, par tempérament <br> it: naturalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, in a natural way <br> es: naturalmente, de una manera natural <br> fr: nuturellement, simplement <br> it: naturalmente, semplicemente <br> pt: <br> <br> naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, of course <br> es: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> fr: bien sûr, évidemment <br> it: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> ne</b> <br> en: lest <br> es: para que non(+subj) <br> fr: de crainte que... ne(+subj. ) <br> it: perché no <br> pt: <br> <br> ne</b> <br> en: not <br> es: no <br> fr: ne... pas <br> it: no, non <br> pt: <br> <br> nec(= ni)</b> <br> en: neither, nor, also not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> nec. . . nec. . . (= ni. . . ni. . . )</b> <br> en: neither. . . nor. . . <br> es: ni. . . ni. . . <br> fr: ni. . . ni. . . <br> it: né. . . né. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> necun, necuna, necuno(= nulle, nulla, nullo)</b> <br> en: none, not any <br> es: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> fr: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> it: nessuno, nessuna <br> pt: <br> <br> necuno(= nemo)</b> <br> en: nobody, no one, none <br> es: ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno, alcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> nel(= in le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el <br> fr: dans le <br> it: nel <br> pt: <br> <br> nemine(= nemo)</b> <br> en: no one, nobody <br> es: nadie, ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno <br> pt: <br> <br> nemo</b> <br> en: no one, nobody <br> es: nadie, ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno <br> pt: <br> <br> neque(= nec)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> neutro</b> <br> en: neither <br> es: ni uno ni otro <br> fr: ni un ni <br> it: né uno né l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> ni</b> <br> en: neither, nor, also not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> ni</b> <br> en: not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> ni</b> <br> en: that not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ?????? <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> ni uno ni le altero</b> <br> en: <br> es: ni uno ni otro <br> fr: ni l'un ni l'autre <br> it: né l'uno né l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> ni. . . ni. . . </b><br> neither. . . nor. . . <br> es: ni. . . ni. . . <br> fr: ni... ni... <br> it: né. . . né. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> nihil(= nil)</b> <br> en: nothing <br> es: nada <br> fr: rien <br> it: nulla, niente <br> pt: <br> <br> nihil de particular</b> <br> en: nothing particular <br> es: nada de particular <br> fr: rien de particulier <br> it: niente di particolare, nulla di particolare <br> pt: <br> <br> nimie, nimia, nimio(= troppo)</b> <br> en: too much, too many <br> es: demasiado, demasiada <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> nimis(=troppo)</b> <br> en: too, too much <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> nisi</b> <br> en: if not, unless <br> es: si no, a menos que <br> fr: si non, à moins que <br> it: se non, a meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> no</b> <br> en: no <br> es: no <br> fr: non <br> it: no, non(no, non è vero; non fare) <br> pt: <br> <br> no!</b> <br> en: no! <br> es: no! <br> fr: non! <br> it: no! <br> pt: <br> <br> nocte</b> <br> en: night <br> es: noche <br> fr: nuit <br> it: notte <br> pt: <br> <br> noi(= nos)</b> <br> en: <br> es: nous <br> fr: noi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> nolente</b> <br> en: unwillingly, against one's will <br> es: involuntariamente, sin querer <br> fr: involontairement <br> it: involontariamente, nolente, senza volere <br> pt: <br> <br> non</b> <br> en: no <br> es: no <br> fr: non <br> it: non <br> pt: <br> <br> non</b> <br> en: not <br> es: non <br> fr: ne. . . pas <br> it: non <br> pt: <br> <br> non est?(= nonne?)</b> <br> en: is it not? <br> es: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> fr: n'est-ce pas? <br> it: no? <br> pt: <br> <br> non importa</b> <br> en: it doesn't matter, never mind <br> es: no importa <br> fr: c'est sans importance <br> it: non importa <br> pt: <br> <br> non mesmo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pas même, même pas <br> fr: ugualmente no <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . ma anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . mais anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solamente. . . sed etiam. . . </b><br> not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . ma anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais même... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . mais anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non solo. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> non!</b> <br> en: no! <br> es: no! <br> fr: non! <br> it: no ! <br> pt: <br> <br> non. . . jam(= non. . . ja)</b> <br> en: no longer <br> es: no. . . ya <br> fr: ne... plus <br> it: non. . . più <br> pt: <br> <br> non. . . jammais(= nunquam)</b> <br> en: never <br> es: no. . . jamás <br> fr: ne... jamais <br> it: non. . . mai <br> pt: <br> <br> non. . . plus</b> <br> en: no more, not any more, no longer <br> es: no más. . . <br> fr: ne... plus <br> it: non. . . più <br> pt: <br> <br> non. . . plus</b> <br> en: no more, not any more, nothing more <br> es: nada más <br> fr: ne... rien de plus <br> it: no, nulla più <br> pt: <br> <br> nondum</b> <br> en: not yet <br> es: aún no, todavía no <br> fr: pas encore <br> it: non ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> nonne?(= non est?)</b> <br> en: is it not? <br> es: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> fr: n'est-ce pas? <br> it: no? <br> pt: <br> <br> nonnulle, nonnulla, nonnullo</b> <br> en: some, several <br> es: un poco de; plural: algunos, algunas <br> fr: un peu de <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> nonnullo</b> <br> en: some, several <br> es: un poco de <br> fr: un peu de <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> nonobstante</b> <br> en: despite, in spite of <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> nonobstante</b> <br> en: nevertheless <br> es: no obstante <br> fr: non-obstant <br> it: nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> nos</b> <br> en: ourselves <br> es: nosotros mismos, nosotras mismas <br> fr: nous-mêmes <br> it: noi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> nos</b> <br> en: us <br> es: nos <br> fr: nous <br> it: noi <br> pt: <br> <br> nos</b> <br> en: we <br> es: nosotros, nosotras <br> fr: nous <br> it: noi <br> pt: <br> <br> nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> en: our <br> es: nuestro, nuestra <br> fr: notre <br> it: nostro, nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: nuestro, nuestra <br> fr: le nôtre <br> it: nostro, nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> en: our <br> es: nuestros, nuestras <br> fr: notres <br> it: nostri, nostre <br> pt: <br> <br> nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: nuestros, nuestras <br> fr: les nôtres <br> it: le nostre <br> pt: <br> <br> nullamente</b> <br> en: in no way, not at all <br> es: de ninguna manera <br> fr: d'aucune façon <br> it: in alcun modo, in nessun modo <br> pt: <br> <br> nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: not any, no <br> es: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> fr: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> it: nessuno, nessuna <br> pt: <br> <br> nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: null, as in "null and void") <br> es: nulo, nula <br> fr: nul, nulle, (comme dans: "nul et sans effet") <br> it: nulla, niente <br> pt: <br> <br> nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: null, worthless <br> es: nulo, nula, sin valor <br> fr: nul, nulle, sans valeur <br> it: nulla, nullo, senza valore <br> pt: <br> <br> num(= an, est-que)</b> <br> en: <br> es: es que. . . <br> fr: est-ce que <br> it: egli ha. . . ? <br> pt: <br> <br> num ille habe le libro?</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre?, a-t-il le livre? <br> it: egli ha il libro ? <br> pt: <br> <br> nunc(= ora)</b> <br> en: now, at the present time <br> es: ahora <br> fr: maintenant <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> nunc. . . nunc...(= ora. . . ora. . . )</b> <br> en: now. . . then. . . <br> es: ora. . . ora. . . <br> fr: parfois... parfois... <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> nunquam</b> <br> en: never <br> es: nunca <br> fr: jamais <br> it: mai <br> pt: <br> <br> nuper</b> <br> en: newly, lately, recently <br> es: nuevamente, últimamente, recientemente <br> fr: nouvellement, dernièrement, récemment <br> it: nuovamente, ultimamente, recentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> nusquam</b> <br> en: nowhere; not. . . anywhere <br> es: a ninguna parte <br> fr: nulle part <br> it: in alcun luogo, in nessun luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> o(= aut)</b> <br> en: <br> es: o, u <br> fr: ou <br> it: o <br> pt: <br> <br> o(littera): o /o/</b> <br> en: <br> es: o(lettre): o /o/ <br> fr: o, o <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> o. . . o...(= aut. . . aut. . . )</b> <br> en: <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou... ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> ob(= facie a, in la via de)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> it: prima di, davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> olim</b> <br> en: at a future time, sometime in the future <br> es: en un momento en el futuro, algún día en el futuro <br> fr: à un moment donné, une bonne fois <br> it: una volta, in un dato momento, una buona volta <br> pt: <br> <br> olim(= aliquando, unquam</b> <br> en: once, formerly <br> es: una vez, antiguamente <br> fr: une fois, anciennement <br> it: una volta, anticamente, un tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> omne</b> <br> en: all, as in "all the books" <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> omne</b> <br> en: all, as in "all the cheese" <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutte, tutti <br> pt: <br> <br> omne</b> <br> en: every, each <br> es: todo, cada <br> fr: tout, chaque, chacun des, cahcune des <br> it: tutto, ogni, ciascuno <br> pt: <br> <br> omne cosa</b> <br> en: everything <br> es: toda cosa, todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> omnes</b> <br> en: all <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> on(= uno, homo)</b> <br> en: one <br> es: uno, se <br> fr: on <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> optimamente(= optimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimamente, lo mejor posible <br> fr: le mieux possible <br> it: ottimamente, il meglio possibile <br> pt: <br> <br> optime, optima, optimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimo, óptima <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> it: il migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> optimo(= optimamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimamente <br> fr: le mieux <br> it: il migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> ora(= nunc)</b> <br> en: now, at the present time <br> es: ahora, en la actualidad <br> fr: maintenant <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> ora mesmo</b> <br> en: right now <br> es: ahora mismo <br> fr: tout de suite <br> it: adesso, giusto adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> ora. . . ora...</b> <br> en: now. . . then. . . <br> es: ora. . . ora. . . <br> fr: parfois... parfois... <br> it: adesso, ora <br> pt: <br> <br> out!</b> <br> en: out! <br> es: fuera! <br> fr: dehors! <br> it: fuori ! <br> pt: <br> <br> p(littera): pe /p/</b> <br> en: <br> es: p(lettre): pé /p/ <br> fr: p, pi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> partir pro(Paris)</b> <br> en: to leave or set out for(Paris) <br> es: partir para(Paris) <br> fr: partir pour(Paris) <br> it: partire per <br> pt: <br> <br> parve, parva, parvo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pequeño, pequeña <br> fr: petit, petite <br> it: piccolo, piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> passato</b> <br> en: <br> es: pasado <br> fr: passé <br> it: passato <br> pt: <br> <br> passato</b> <br> en: ago <br> es: hace <br> fr: il y a, ça fait <br> it: fa, passato, trascorso <br> pt: <br> <br> passato(= pridem)</b> <br> en: long ago <br> es: hace mucho tiempo <br> fr: il y a bien longtemps, ça fait bien longtemps <br> it: tempo fa <br> pt: <br> <br> passim</b> <br> en: here and there, scattered, at random, in different places, passim <br> es: aquí y allí, esparcido, al azar, en diferentes lugares <br> fr: ici et là, éparpillé, aléatoire <br> it: qui e là, qui e lì, qua e là, in luoghi diversi <br> pt: <br> <br> pauc de, pauca de, pauco de</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu de <br> it: poco di, un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> en: few, not many <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> en: little, not much <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> pauchissime, pauchissima, pauchissimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: poquísimo, poquísima <br> fr: très peu <br> it: molto poco <br> pt: <br> <br> pauco</b> <br> en: little, to a small degree <br> es: poco <br> fr: à un moindre degré <br> it: poco, in minima parte <br> pt: <br> <br> pauco a pauco</b> <br> en: little by little <br> es: poco a poco <br> fr: petit à petit, peu à peu <br> it: poco a poco <br> pt: <br> <br> paulatim</b> <br> en: gradually, by degrees, little by little, a little at a time <br> es: gradualmente, por grados, poco a poco, un poco cada vez <br> fr: graduellement, petit à petit, peu à peu, un peu à la fois <br> it: poco a poco, gradualmente, un po' alla volta, un po' per volta <br> pt: <br> <br> pejo</b> <br> en: worse <br> es: peor <br> fr: pis, pire <br> it: peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> pejor</b> <br> en: worse <br> es: peor <br> fr: pire <br> it: peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> per</b> <br> en: by, by the agency of; through; by means of; also: per <br> es: por, ; a través de; por medio de; también: por <br> fr: par <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> per</b> <br> en: through, from one side to the other of; also: during, throughout <br> es: a través de <br> fr: par, à travers, au travers de; aussi: pendant <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> per(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: per <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> per(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: por(+ inf) <br> fr: pour(+ inf) <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> per aventura</b> <br> en: by chance <br> es: por ventura, por casualidad <br> fr: par aventure <br> it: per caso <br> pt: <br> <br> per avion</b> <br> en: <br> es: por avión <br> fr: par avion <br> it: via aerea <br> pt: <br> <br> per capite</b> <br> en: <br> es: por cabeza, per capita <br> fr: par tête, per capita <br> it: a testa, ad ognuno <br> pt: <br> <br> per consequente</b> <br> en: consequently <br> es: por consiguiente <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> per excellentia</b> <br> en: par excellence <br> es: por excelencia <br> fr: par excellence <br> it: per eccellenza <br> pt: <br> <br> per exemplo</b> <br> en: for example, for instance <br> es: por exemplo <br> fr: par exemple <br> it: per esempio, ad esempio <br> pt: <br> <br> per favor</b> <br> en: <br> es: por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per favore, per piacere <br> pt: <br> <br> per isso(= pro isso)</b> <br> en: for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> es: por eso, por esas razón, por consiguiente <br> fr: c'est pourquoi, voilà pourquoi <br> it: per questo, perciò, per questa ragione, per questo motivo <br> pt: <br> <br> per medio de</b> <br> en: by means of <br> es: por medio de <br> fr: au moyen de <br> it: mer mezzo di, con <br> pt: <br> <br> per ubi</b> <br> en: <br> es: por dónde <br> fr: par où <br> it: per dove, attraverso <br> pt: <br> <br> per virtute de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en virtúd de <br> fr: en vertue de <br> it: in virtù di <br> pt: <br> <br> permulte, permulta, permulto</b> <br> en: very much, very many <br> es: muchos, muchas <br> fr: beaucoup de, <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> permulto</b> <br> en: very much <br> es: mucho <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> perque</b> <br> en: because <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> perque</b> <br> en: why, for what reason <br> es: porque <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché? <br> pt: <br> <br> pessimamente(= pessimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimamente, de la peor manera <br> fr: de la pire façon <br> it: pessimamente <br> pt: <br> <br> pessime, pessima, pessimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimo, pésima <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: pessimo <br> pt: <br> <br> pessimo(= pessimamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimamente <br> fr: de la pire façon <br> it: pessimo <br> pt: <br> <br> ph(digrapho): pe hache /f/</b> <br> en: <br> es: ph(digraphe): pé ache /f/ <br> fr: ph pi acca <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> piano</b> <br> en: piano <br> es: piano <br> fr: piano <br> it: piano <br> pt: <br> <br> plu(= plus)</b> <br> en: <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> plures</b> <br> en: several <br> es: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> fr: quelques <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> plures</b> <br> en: several <br> es: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> fr: quelques <br> it: qualche <br> pt: <br> <br> plures veces(= plures vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: varias veces, repetidamente <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, a volte <br> pt: <br> <br> plures vices</b> <br> en: several times; repeatedly <br> es: varias veces <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, a volte <br> pt: <br> <br> plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> en: many <br> es: plusieurs <br> fr: molti, molte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: beaucoup <br> fr: molti, molte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> plurimo</b> <br> en: much, exceedingly <br> es: mucho, extremadamente, excesivamente <br> fr: beaucoup, très, extrêmenent, excessivement <br> it: molto, estremamente, eccessivamente, troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> plurimo(= usualmente, communmente)</b> <br> en: for the most part, commonly, usually <br> es: muchas veces, normalmente, habitualmente <br> fr: d'habitude, en général <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, in generale, abitualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> plus</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> plus</b> <br> en: plus <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> plus(a) illac de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> plus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> en: more(money, etc. ) <br> es: más(dinero, etc. ) <br> fr: plus de(plus d'argent) <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> plus a la de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> plus aut minus</b> <br> en: more or less <br> es: más o menos <br> fr: plus ou moins <br> it: più o meno <br> pt: <br> <br> plus aut minus</b> <br> en: more or less <br> es: más o menos <br> fr: plus ou moins <br> it: più o meno <br> pt: <br> <br> plus de</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más de <br> fr: plus de <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> plus de(vinti annos)</b> <br> en: more than, over, above(twenty years) <br> es: más de(veinte años) <br> fr: plus de(vingt ans) <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> plus grande(que)</b> <br> en: greater, bigger(than) <br> es: más grande(que) <br> fr: plus grand(e)(que) <br> it: più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> plus tarde</b> <br> en: later on <br> es: más tarde, después <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> plus tarde</b> <br> en: later, as in "later than expected" <br> es: depués <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> plus tarde</b> <br> en: later, subsequently <br> es: después, seguidamente <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> plus tosto</b> <br> en: rather, more truly or accurately <br> es: más bien <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> plus tosto</b> <br> en: rather, sooner, preferably <br> es: más pronto, más bien, preferentemente <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> plus. . . (que)</b> <br> en: more. . . (than) <br> es: más. . . (que) <br> fr: plus...(que) <br> it: più. . . che <br> pt: <br> <br> plus:(le) plus</b> <br> en: (the) most(as in "what pleased me(the) most") <br> es: más:(el) más <br> fr: plus:(le) plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> plus:(tres) plus(quatro)</b> <br> en: (three) plus(four) <br> es: más:(tres) más(cuatro) <br> fr: plus:(trois) plus(quatre) <br> it: più(tre) più(quattro) <br> pt: <br> <br> poc, poca, poco(= pauc, pauca, pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> poco(= pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> poco a poco(= pauco a pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco a poco <br> fr: peu à peu, petit à petit <br> it: poco a poco <br> pt: <br> <br> pois</b> <br> en: afterwards, thereafter <br> es: después <br> fr: puis, alors, ensuite <br> it: poi, dopo, in seguito <br> pt: <br> <br> pois</b> <br> en: for <br> es: porque, dado que <br> fr: étant donné que <br> it: poiché, dato che <br> pt: <br> <br> pois que</b> <br> en: <br> es: después que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> pois que</b> <br> en: as, since, because <br> es: como, porque <br> fr: comme, puisque <br> it: poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> por(= pro, per)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pour <br> fr: per <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> porque(= proque, perque)</b> <br> en: because, why <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que, pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> post</b> <br> en: afterwards, after <br> es: después de <br> fr: après <br> it: dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> post</b> <br> en: behind, back, backwards <br> es: detrás, atrás, luego <br> fr: derrière <br> it: dietro, posteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> post</b> <br> en: behind; after <br> es: después de <br> fr: après <br> it: dietro, posteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> post que</b> <br> en: <br> es: después que <br> fr: après que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> post que</b> <br> en: since, because <br> es: puesto que, porque <br> fr: puisque <br> it: perché, dato che, poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> post todo</b> <br> en: <br> es: después de todo <br> fr: après tout <br> it: dopo tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> post-deman</b> <br> en: <br> es: pasado mañana <br> fr: après-demain <br> it: dopodomani <br> pt: <br> <br> postea</b> <br> en: afterwards, thereafter <br> es: después, posteriormente, luego <br> fr: ensuite <br> it: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> postere, postera, postero</b> <br> en: coming after, following <br> es: siguiente <br> fr: suivant(e) <br> it: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, back <br> es: posterior <br> fr: postérieur(e) <br> it: posteriore, dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, buttock <br> es: posterior <br> fr: le postérieur, le derrière <br> it: posteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, later <br> es: posterior <br> fr: postérieur(e), après, plus tard <br> it: posterioremente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> posteriormente</b> <br> en: subsequently, later <br> es: posteriormente, más tarde <br> fr: postérieurement <br> it: posteriormente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> postquam</b> <br> en: after, as soon as <br> es: después de, en cuanto <br> fr: après que, aussitôt que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> pot'esser(= pote esser)</b> <br> en: maybe <br> es: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> fr: peut-être <br> it: può essere, può darsi, <br> pt: <br> <br> pote esser(= pot'esser)</b> <br> en: maybe <br> es: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> fr: peut-être <br> it: può essere, può darsi <br> pt: <br> <br> potius</b> <br> en: rather, more truly or accurately <br> es: más bien, en realidad <br> fr: plutôt, en réalité <br> it: piuttosto, in realtà <br> pt: <br> <br> potius</b> <br> en: rather, sooner, preferably <br> es: más bien, más pronto, preferentemente <br> fr: plutôt, plus tôt, de préférence <br> it: piuttosto, in raltà, preferenzialmente, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> precio minimo</b> <br> en: minimum price <br> es: precio mínimo <br> fr: prix minimum, prix minimal <br> it: prezzo minimo <br> pt: <br> <br> presertim(= super toto)</b> <br> en: especially, particularly, chiefly <br> es: especialmente, particularmente, principalmente <br> fr: surtout, particulièrement <br> it: soprattutto, particolarmente, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> presso(= apud)</b> <br> en: near, close <br> es: cerca de, al lado de, cercano a <br> fr: près de <br> it: presso, presso di, appresso a, vicino a, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> presto</b> <br> en: presto, quickly, quick as a wink <br> es: presto, rápidamente, rápido <br> fr: vite, rapidement <br> it: presto, rapidamente, velocemente, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> preter</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au delà, passé <br> it: passato, al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> preter</b> <br> en: except, excepting <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccettuato, escluso, al di fuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> preter</b> <br> en: in addition to <br> es: además de <br> fr: en plus de <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> preter</b> <br> en: past, along(side of), beyond <br> es: pasado, más allá de <br> fr: passé, le long, au delà <br> it: passato <br> pt: <br> <br> preterea</b> <br> en: besides, moreover <br> es: además, es más <br> fr: en outre, de plus, d'ailleurs, du reste <br> it: inoltre, del resto <br> pt: <br> <br> preterea</b> <br> en: henceforth, hereafter <br> es: de ahora en adelante, de aquí en adelante <br> fr: dorénavant, désormais <br> it: d'ora in poi, da questo momento, da adesso in avanti <br> pt: <br> <br> pridem(= passato)</b> <br> en: long ago <br> es: hace mucho tiempo, hace tiempo <br> fr: il y a longtemps <br> it: da lungo tempo, da tempo, da molto tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> primariamente</b> <br> en: first, in the first place, first of all <br> es: primariamente, en primer lugar <br> fr: premièrement, en premier lieu, d'abord <br> it: principalmente, in primo luogoo <br> pt: <br> <br> primariamente</b> <br> en: primarily, chiefly <br> es: primariamente, principalmente <br> fr: principalement, avant tout, surtout <br> it: principalmenre, innanzitutto, soprattutto <br> pt: <br> <br> prime, prima, primo</b> <br> en: first, prime <br> es: primero, primera <br> fr: premier, première <br> it: primo, prima <br> pt: <br> <br> pro</b> <br> en: for, in place of, in exchange or return for <br> es: para; por; en lugar de, a cambio de, en vez de <br> fr: pour <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> pro</b> <br> en: for, not against <br> es: pro, para, a favor de <br> fr: pour, en faveur <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> pro(+ inf)</b> <br> en: in order to <br> es: para, a fin de <br> fr: afin de, dans le but de <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> pro isso(= per isso)</b> <br> en: for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> es: por eso, por esa razón, por consiguiente <br> fr: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> it: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> pt: <br> <br> pro isso(= pro esso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> fr: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> pro le presente</b> <br> en: for the present <br> es: por el momento, para el presente <br> fr: pour le moment <br> it: intanto, per il momento <br> pt: <br> <br> pro nihil</b> <br> en: for nothing, without cost <br> es: para nada, gratuito, sin costo <br> fr: pour rien, gratuit <br> it: per niente, gratuito, gratis, gratuitamente <br> pt: <br> <br> pro si dicer</b> <br> en: so to say <br> es: para así decir, por así decir <br> fr: pour ainsi dire <br> it: per così dire <br> pt: <br> <br> procul</b> <br> en: far off, far away, at a distance <br> es: lejos, fuera, a una distancia <br> fr: au loin <br> it: lontanamente <br> pt: <br> <br> proprie a, propria a, proprio a</b> <br> en: proper or peculiar to <br> es: proprio para <br> fr: propre à <br> it: proprio per <br> pt: <br> <br> proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> en: own <br> es: propio <br> fr: propre <br> it: proprio <br> pt: <br> <br> proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> en: proper, appropriate <br> es: apropiado <br> fr: approprié(e) <br> it: appropriato, appropriata <br> pt: <br> <br> propter</b> <br> en: near, at hand <br> es: cerca, a mano <br> fr: proche, à(la) portée <br> it: prossimo, vicino, vicino <br> pt: <br> <br> propter</b> <br> en: near, close to <br> es: cerca de <br> fr: près, près de <br> it: presso, presso di <br> pt: <br> <br> propter</b> <br> en: on account of, by reason of, because of <br> es: a causa de, por cauda de, debido a <br> fr: compte tenu de, à cause de, <br> it: per, a causa di, in ragione di <br> pt: <br> <br> proque(= perque)</b> <br> en: because <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> proque(= perque)</b> <br> en: why <br> es: por qué <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> proximamente</b> <br> en: shortly, soon <br> es: pronto, en breve <br> fr: bientôt <br> it: in breve, subito, quanto prima <br> pt: <br> <br> proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> en: next(as in "next week") <br> es: próxima, siguiente <br> fr: suivant(e), prochain(e) <br> it: prossimo, seguente, successivo <br> pt: <br> <br> proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> en: very near, close <br> es: muy cerca <br> fr: très près, tout près <br> it: molto vicino, prossimo <br> pt: <br> <br> proximo</b> <br> en: neighbor, fellow being <br> es: prójimo, vecino, camarada <br> fr: voisin, camarade <br> it: prossimo, vicino, compagno, camerata <br> pt: <br> <br> q(littera): qu /k/</b> <br> en: <br> es: q(lettre): qü ou qy /k/ <br> fr: q, qu(pron ku) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> qua</b> <br> en: as, in the capacity of, qua <br> es: en tanto que, en calidad de <br> fr: en tant que, en qualité de <br> it: come, in qualità di <br> pt: <br> <br> qual</b> <br> en: which <br> es: cuál <br> fr: quel <br> it: quale <br> pt: <br> <br> qual</b> <br> en: which <br> es: cuál, qué <br> fr: quel(le) <br> it: quale <br> pt: <br> <br> qualcosa</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo, alguna cosa <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualche cosa, qualcosa <br> pt: <br> <br> qualcun, qualcuna, qualcuno</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna, alguno <br> fr: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> it: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> qualcuno</b> <br> en: someone, anyone <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelqu'un <br> it: qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> qualcunque</b> <br> en: any, whatever, of whatever kind <br> es: cualquiera <br> fr: quelconque <br> it: chiunque, qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> qualque(quálke)</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna <br> fr: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> it: qualcuno, <br> pt: <br> <br> quam</b> <br> en: as, than <br> es: como, que <br> fr: comme, que <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> quam</b> <br> en: in what manner, how <br> es: de qué manera, cómo <br> fr: comment <br> it: come, in che modo <br> pt: <br> <br> quamquam(quámquam)(= quanquam)</b> <br> en: <br> es: aunque <br> fr: bien que, quoique, cependant, néanmoins <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> quando</b> <br> en: when <br> es: cuando <br> fr: quand <br> it: quando <br> pt: <br> <br> quando</b> <br> en: when <br> es: cuándo <br> fr: quand <br> it: quando <br> pt: <br> <br> quandocunque</b> <br> en: whenever <br> es: cuandoquiera <br> fr: toutes les fois que, peu importe quand <br> it: ogni volta che <br> pt: <br> <br> quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> en: however, yet, nevertheless <br> es: sin embargo, no obstante <br> fr: cependant, néanmoins <br> it: nondimeno, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> en: though, although <br> es: aunque <br> fr: bien que, quoique <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> quante, quanta, quanto</b> <br> en: how much, how many <br> es: cuánto, cuánta <br> fr: combien de <br> it: quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> quanto</b> <br> en: as much as; as far as <br> es: cuanto, tanto como <br> fr: autant que, pour autant que, en autant que <br> it: quanto, tanto quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> quanto a</b> <br> en: as for <br> es: en cuanto a <br> fr: quant à <br> it: quanto a <br> pt: <br> <br> quanto. . . tanto...</b> <br> en: the. . . the... <br> es: cuanto. . . tanto. . . <br> fr: autant... autant <br> it: tanto. . . quanto. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> quare</b> <br> en: wherefore, why <br> es: porque <br> fr: pourquoi, pour quelle raison <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> quasi</b> <br> en: almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way, etc. <br> es: casi; en un cierto sentido, en cierto modo <br> fr: quasi, prèsque, à peu prés, dans un certain sens <br> it: quasi, approssimativamente, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> quasi que</b> <br> en: as if <br> es: como si <br> fr: comme si <br> it: quasi che, come se <br> pt: <br> <br> que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: than <br> es: que <br> fr: que /k?/ <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: that <br> es: que <br> fr: que <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: what <br> es: que <br> fr: que, quoi /k?/ /koa/ <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: who, whom, which, that; what(= that which) <br> es: que <br> fr: qui /ki/ <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> que etate habete vos?</b> <br> en: how old are you? <br> es: qué edad tiene usted?, cuántos años tiene usted? <br> fr: quel âge avez-vous? <br> it: quanti hanni hai(tu) ? quanti anni ha(lei)? <br> pt: <br> <br> que hora</b> <br> en: what time <br> es: qué hora <br> fr: quelle heure <br> it: che ora. . . ? <br> pt: <br> <br> quecunque(kekúnkwe, kwekúnkwe)</b> <br> en: whatever <br> es: cualquier cosa <br> fr: quoi que /koa k?/ <br> it: qualsiasi cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> quem</b> <br> en: what, which, whom <br> es: que, quien <br> fr: quel(le) <br> it: quel, quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> qui(= hic, ci)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> qui(ki, kwi)</b> <br> en: who, whom <br> es: quién <br> fr: qui /ki/ <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> qui:(con, a, etc. ) qui</b> <br> en: (with, to, etc. ) whom <br> es: quien <br> fr: qui:(avec, à, etc. ) qui <br> it: con chi <br> pt: <br> <br> quia</b> <br> en: because <br> es: por qué <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> quicunque(ki-, kwi-)</b> <br> en: whoever <br> es: quienquiera <br> fr: quiconque <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> quid</b> <br> en: what <br> es: quoi <br> fr: che cosa, cosa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> quid</b> <br> en: why, how, wherefore <br> es: por qué, cómo <br> fr: pourquoi, comment <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> quidem</b> <br> en: certainly, truly; indeed, even <br> es: ciertamente, de verdad, verdaderamente; de hecho, incluso <br> fr: certainement, vraiment, en effet, effectivement <br> it: certamente, veramente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> quo</b> <br> en: so that, in order that <br> es: a fin que <br> fr: tel que, afin que <br> it: talché, cosi che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> quo</b> <br> en: wherefore <br> es: por qué <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> quo</b> <br> en: who, what <br> es: quien <br> fr: qui, quoi <br> it: chi, cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> quo(=a ubi)</b> <br> en: where, at what place, whither <br> es: a dónde, a qué lugar, adónde <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> quod</b> <br> en: that, because, why <br> es: qué, por qué <br> fr: que, parce que, pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> quod</b> <br> en: that, what <br> es: que <br> fr: que, quoi <br> it: che, che cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> quomodo(= como)</b> <br> en: how, in what manner <br> es: ómo, de qué manera <br> fr: comment, de quelle façon, de quelle manière <br> it: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> quomodo(= como)</b> <br> en: in the manner that, as <br> es: como, de la manera en que <br> fr: comme, tel que <br> it: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> quot</b> <br> en: how many; as many; each, every <br> es: cuántos, tantos, cada, cada uno, cada una <br> fr: combien, autant, chaque, chacun(e) <br> it: quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> quotiens</b> <br> en: as often as <br> es: tan a menudo como <br> fr: aussi souvent que <br> it: così spesso che <br> pt: <br> <br> quotiens</b> <br> en: how often, how many times <br> es: tantas veces <br> fr: combien de fois <br> it: tante volte che <br> pt: <br> <br> r(littera): re /r/</b> <br> en: <br> es: r(lettre): ère /r/ <br> fr: r, erre <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> re</b> <br> en: regarding, about, of, on, concerning <br> es: acerca de, respecto a, con respecto a, concerniente a, sobre, de <br> fr: sur, au sujet de, à propos de, concernant <br> it: su, a proposito di, concernente, sopra, rispetto a, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> retro</b> <br> en: back, ago <br> es: atrás, hace <br> fr: en arrière <br> it: retro, dietro, addietro <br> pt: <br> <br> retro</b> <br> en: back, as in "to give back") <br> es: atrás <br> fr: en retour(comme dans "donner en retour") <br> it: di ritorno <br> pt: <br> <br> retro</b> <br> en: back, backwards <br> es: atrás <br> fr: arrière, en arrière <br> it: retro, dietro, addietro <br> pt: <br> <br> rh(digrapho): re hache /r/</b> <br> en: <br> es: rh(digraphe): ère ache /r/ <br> fr: rh(pron : erre acca) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> s(littera): se /s/</b> <br> en: <br> es: s(lettre): èsse /s/ ou /z/ <br> fr: s, esse(pronuncia 1 : s in rosa, cosa, dose, chiesa = come inglese rose; pronuncia 2 : s in signore, senior, selva, scuola come inglese ross, self) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> saepe(sái-)</b> <br> en: often, frequently <br> es: a menudo, frecuentemente <br> fr: souvent, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> salvo</b> <br> en: save, but; also: save or but for <br> es: salvo <br> fr: sauf <br> it: salvo, eccetto, ma <br> pt: <br> <br> salvo error et omission</b> <br> en: errors and omissions excepted <br> es: salvo error y omisión <br> fr: sauf erreur et omission <br> it: salvo errori od omissioni, salvo errori ed omissioni <br> pt: <br> <br> salvo que</b> <br> en: save or but that <br> es: salvo que <br> fr: sauf que <br> it: salvo che, eccetto che <br> pt: <br> <br> satis(= assatis)</b> <br> en: enough <br> es: bastante <br> fr: assez <br> it: basta, abbastanza <br> pt: <br> <br> satis(= assatis)</b> <br> en: rather, somewhat <br> es: bastante, suficiente <br> fr: assez, plutôt <br> it: abbastanza, sufficientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> satis de(tempore, etc. )(= assatis de(tempore, etc. ))</b> <br> en: enough(time, etc. ), (time, etc. ) enough <br> es: bastante(tiempo, etc. ), suficiente(tiempo, etc. ) <br> fr: assez de(temps, etc. ) <br> it: sufficiente : tempo sufficiente) <br> pt: <br> <br> se</b> <br> en: himself; herself; itself; themselves <br> es: se <br> fr: se, s' <br> it: se(per se), -si(avvicinarsi) <br> pt: <br> <br> se(= on)</b> <br> en: <br> es: se <br> fr: on <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: (following) after <br> es: después de, siguiendo a <br> fr: d'après <br> it: secondo, , dopo, seguendo <br> pt: <br> <br> secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: according to <br> es: según, de acuerdo a <br> fr: selon, en accord avec <br> it: d'accordo con, secondo <br> pt: <br> <br> secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: along, by <br> es: a lo largo de <br> fr: selon, le long de <br> it: lungo il <br> pt: <br> <br> secundo que</b> <br> en: according as <br> es: según que, conforme a <br> fr: selon que, selon qu' <br> it: secondo quanto, conforme a <br> pt: <br> <br> sed</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma, però <br> pt: <br> <br> semel</b> <br> en: firstly <br> es: primeramente <br> fr: premièrement <br> it: in primis, innanzitutto, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> semel</b> <br> en: once <br> es: una vez <br> fr: une fois <br> it: una volta(sola) <br> pt: <br> <br> semper(= sempre)</b> <br> en: always <br> es: siempre <br> fr: toujours <br> it: sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> sempre(=semper)</b> <br> en: always <br> es: siempre <br> fr: toujours <br> it: sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> sero</b> <br> en: late <br> es: tarde <br> fr: tard <br> it: tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> si</b> <br> en: if, supposing that <br> es: si, suponiendo que <br> fr: si <br> it: se, supponendo che <br> pt: <br> <br> si</b> <br> en: if, whether <br> es: si <br> fr: si <br> it: se <br> pt: <br> <br> si(= sic)</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: tan, tanto, tanta <br> fr: si <br> it: così, tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> si(= sic)</b> <br> en: yes <br> es: sí <br> fr: oui <br> it: sì <br> pt: <br> <br> si il te place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si te place, por favor <br> fr: s'il te plaît <br> it: per piacere, prego, per favore, per cortesia <br> pt: <br> <br> si il vos place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si os place, por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> pt: <br> <br> si il vos place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si os place, por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> pt: <br> <br> si non</b> <br> en: except, unless it be <br> es: excepto, a menos que <br> fr: excepté, à moins que ce soit <br> it: se non, a meno che, eccetto che, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> si non</b> <br> en: if not <br> es: si no <br> fr: si non <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> si non</b> <br> en: if not <br> es: si no <br> fr: si non <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> si tosto que</b> <br> en: as soon as <br> es: en cuanto, tan pronto como <br> fr: aussitôt que <br> it: così presto che, tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> si. . . como. . . </b><br> as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que <br> it: tanto. . . che <br> pt: <br> <br> sia</b> <br> en: be, may be, let there be <br> es: sea <br> fr: soit <br> it: sia <br> pt: <br> <br> sia como sia</b> <br> en: <br> es: sea como sea <br> fr: qu'il en soit ainsi <br> it: sia come sia, sia quel che sia <br> pt: <br> <br> sia. . . sia. . . </b><br> en: <br> es: sea. . . sea. . . <br> fr: soit... soit... <br> it: sia. . . sia. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> sic(= si)</b> <br> en: yes <br> es: sí <br> fr: oui <br> it: sì <br> pt: <br> <br> sic(=si)</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> sicut</b> <br> en: so as, just as, as <br> es: tal que, como <br> fr: tel(le) que, comme <br> it: come, talché <br> pt: <br> <br> simul</b> <br> en: at once, at the same time, together <br> es: en seguida, al mismo tiempo, juntos, juntas <br> fr: simultanément, tout de suite, ensemble <br> it: allo stesso tempo, nello stesso tempo, allo stesso istante, insieme. simultaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> sin</b> <br> en: without <br> es: sin <br> fr: sans <br> it: senza <br> pt: <br> <br> sin dubita</b> <br> en: without doubt, doubtless <br> es: sin duda, indudablemente <br> fr: sans doute <br> it: senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> sin falta</b> <br> en: without fail <br> es: sin falta, sin error <br> fr: sans erreur, sans faute <br> it: senza meno, senza errore, senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> sin fundamento</b> <br> en: groundless, unfounded <br> es: sin fundamento, infundado <br> fr: sans fondement <br> it: senza fondamentp <br> pt: <br> <br> sinon(= si non)</b> <br> en: otherwise, else; except, save, if not, unless <br> es: sinon <br> fr: sinon <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> sive</b> <br> en: or if, or <br> es: o si <br> fr: ou si, ou <br> it: o, oppure, o se <br> pt: <br> <br> sive. . . sive</b> <br> en: . . . if. . . or if... <br> es: si. . . o si. . . <br> fr: si... ou si... <br> it: se. . . o se. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> sol, sola, solo</b> <br> en: only <br> es: solo, sola <br> fr: seul(e) <br> it: solo <br> pt: <br> <br> sol, sola, solo</b> <br> en: sole, without companions, alone <br> es: solo, sola <br> fr: seul(e) <br> it: solo <br> pt: <br> <br> solamente</b> <br> en: only, merely <br> es: solamente, meramente <br> fr: seulement <br> it: solo, solamente <br> pt: <br> <br> sovente(=subinde)</b> <br> en: repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> es: frecuentemente, repeoidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> fr: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> specialmente, in modo special</b> <br> en: especially <br> es: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> fr: en particulier, spécialement <br> it: specialmente, particolarmente <br> pt: <br> <br> sponte(= voluntarie, voluntariamente)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: spontaneamente, volontariamente, di buon grado <br> pt: <br> <br> stop!</b> <br> en: stop! <br> es: stop! <br> fr: stop! <br> it: stop! fermo! ferma! alt! <br> pt: <br> <br> su</b> <br> en: his; her; its <br> es: su(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: son, sa <br> it: suo, sua(di ella, di lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> sub</b> <br> en: under, below, beneath <br> es: debajo de, bajo <br> fr: sous <br> it: sotto, dabbasso, abbasso <br> pt: <br> <br> sub los auspicios de</b> <br> en: under the auspices of <br> es: bajo los auspicios de <br> fr: sous les auspices de <br> it: con gli auspici di, sotto gli auspici di <br> pt: <br> <br> subinde</b> <br> en: immediately after, just after, forthwith <br> es: inmediatamente después, justo después, inmediatamente <br> fr: tout de suite <br> it: immediatamente dopo, giusto dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> subinde(= sovente)</b> <br> en: repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> es: frecuentemente, repetidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> fr: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, di tanto in tanto <br> pt: <br> <br> subito</b> <br> en: suddenly, unexpectedly <br> es: súbitamente, de repente, inesperadamente <br> fr: soudainement <br> it: repentinamente, immediatamente, subito <br> pt: <br> <br> subtus</b> <br> en: below, beneath, underneath <br> es: abajo, debajo, debajo de <br> fr: en bas <br> it: in basso, dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> successivamente</b> <br> en: successively, in succession <br> es: sucesivamente, en sucesión <br> fr: successivement, tour à tour <br> it: successivamente, in successione, consecutivamente, di conseguenza, dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> sue, sua, suo</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: suyo, suya(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: son, sa <br> it: suo, sua <br> pt: <br> <br> sues, suas, suos</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: suyos, suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: ses <br> it: suoi, sue(di lui, di lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> sufficiente(= bastante)</b> <br> en: sufficient, enough <br> es: suficiente, bastante <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e) <br> it: sufficiente, bastante <br> pt: <br> <br> sufficientemente(= bastante)</b> <br> en: sufficiently, enough <br> es: suficientemente, bastante <br> fr: suffisamment, assez <br> it: suffientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> sufficientes(= bastantes)</b> <br> en: sufficient, enough <br> es: suficientes, bastantes <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> it: suffientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> sui(= su, sue)</b> <br> en: <br> es: son, sa <br> fr: suo, sua <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> summe, summa, summo(= supreme, suprema, supremo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: sumo, suma <br> fr: suprème <br> it: sommo/a, supremo/a <br> pt: <br> <br> super</b> <br> en: about, concerning, on <br> es: sobre, concerniente a <br> fr: sur, au sujet de <br> it: supra, in fatto di, concernente, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> super</b> <br> en: on, upon; on top of; above, over <br> es: sobre <br> fr: sur, au dessus de <br> it: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> pt: <br> <br> super(= in alto)</b> <br> en: above, on top <br> es: arriba, sobre <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> pt: <br> <br> super toto(= presertim)</b> <br> en: above all <br> es: sobre todo <br> fr: par dessus tout <br> it: soprattutto <br> pt: <br> <br> superior</b> <br> en: <br> es: supérieur(e) <br> fr: superiore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> supra</b> <br> en: above, over <br> es: arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> pt: <br> <br> supra</b> <br> en: on the top, above <br> es: arriba, en la parte de arriba <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> pt: <br> <br> supreme, suprema, supremo(= summe, summa, summo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: supremo, suprema <br> fr: suprème <br> it: supremo, suprema, supremi <br> pt: <br> <br> sur(= super)</b> <br> en: on, upon; on top of <br> es: sobre <br> fr: sur <br> it: su, sopra, in cima, in alto <br> pt: <br> <br> sus</b> <br> en: his; her; its <br> es: sus(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: ses <br> it: suo, sua <br> pt: <br> <br> t(littera): te /t/</b> <br> en: <br> es: t(lettre): té /t/ <br> fr: t, ti <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> tal</b> <br> en: such a, such <br> es: tal <br> fr: tel(le) <br> it: tale, tale a <br> pt: <br> <br> tal et tal</b> <br> en: such and such(a) <br> es: tal y tal <br> fr: tel et tel <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> talmente</b> <br> en: so <br> es: talmente <br> fr: tellement <br> it: talmente, così, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> talmente:(un libro) talmente(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful) a(book), such a(beautiful book) <br> es: talmente:(un libro) talmente(bonito) <br> fr: tellement:(un livre) tellement(beau) <br> it: talmente(un libro talmente bello che. . . ) <br> pt: <br> <br> tam</b> <br> en: so, as, to such a degree <br> es: tan, tanto, tanta, talmente <br> fr: si, tellement <br> it: sì, così, tanto che, tanto, talmente <br> pt: <br> <br> tam. . . quam...</b> <br> en: as. . . as. . . <br> es: tan. . . como. . . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> tam. . . quam...(= tanto. . . quam. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as. . . <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: si... que... <br> it: tanto che, tanto quanto, così che <br> pt: <br> <br> tamben</b> <br> en: also <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> tamen(= totavia)</b> <br> en: yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding <br> es: sin embargo, todavía, no obstante <br> fr: cependant, pourtant, néanmoins, <br> it: tuttavia, nonostante, nondimeno, nientemeno, pertanto, quindi, già <br> pt: <br> <br> tan</b> <br> en: so, as <br> es: tan <br> fr: si, tellement <br> it: sì, tanto che. . . , tanto che. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> tan. . . como. . . (= tanto. . . como. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> tante, tanta, tanto</b> <br> en: so much, so many <br> es: tanto, tanta <br> fr: tant de <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> tante. . . como..., tanta. . . como. . . , tanto. . . como. . . </b><br> as much, as many. . . as... <br> es: tanto. . . como. . . , tanta. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> tanto</b> <br> en: so, so much <br> es: tanto <br> fr: tant <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> tanto(grande) como. . . </b><br> as(big) as. . . <br> es: tan(grande) como. . . <br> fr: aussi(grand(e)) que <br> it: tanto grande che <br> pt: <br> <br> tanto melio</b> <br> en: so much the better <br> es: tanto mejor <br> fr: tant mieux <br> it: tanto meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> tanto pejo</b> <br> en: so much the worse <br> es: tanto peor <br> fr: tant pis <br> it: tanto peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> tanto per cento</b> <br> en: so much per hundred, percentage <br> es: tanto por ciento, porcentaje <br> fr: tant pour cent <br> it: tanto per cento <br> pt: <br> <br> tanto plus. . . que...</b> <br> en: all the more. . . that... <br> es: tanto más. . . que. . . <br> fr: d'autant plus... que... <br> it: tanto più che <br> pt: <br> <br> tanto. . . como...</b> <br> en: as much. . . as... <br> es: tanto. . . como. . . <br> fr: autant... que... <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> tarde</b> <br> en: late <br> es: tarde <br> fr: tard <br> it: tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> te</b> <br> en: you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "I love you", "for you") <br> es: te <br> fr: te, toi <br> it: tu, te(tu sei, te lo dico, lo dico a te) <br> pt: <br> <br> te</b> <br> en: yourself [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "you hurt yourself", "to yourself") <br> es: te <br> fr: te, toi, toi-même <br> it: te, ti, te stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> th(digrapho): te hache /t/</b> <br> en: <br> es: th(digraphe): té ache /t/ <br> fr: t : ti acca <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ti(= te)</b> <br> en: <br> es: te, toi <br> fr: ti, te <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> tosto</b> <br> en: presently, soon, promptly <br> es: pronto, presentemente, rápidamente <br> fr: tôt <br> it: pronto, subito, presto, rapidamente, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> tot</b> <br> en: so many, such a great number <br> es: tellement beaucoup <br> fr: tanto che, talmente tanto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> totalmente(= completamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: totalmente(=completamente= <br> fr: totalement(=complètement) <br> it: totalmente, completamente <br> pt: <br> <br> totavia</b> <br> en: yet, still, nevertheless <br> es: sin embargo <br> fr: toutefois <br> it: tuttavia <br> pt: <br> <br> tote le, tota la, toto lo</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo el, toda la, todo lo <br> fr: tout le, toute la <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo, tutta la <br> pt: <br> <br> tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: all, "all the parts, members, etc. of a whole series or group") <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutta <br> pt: <br> <br> tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: all, the whole of <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutta <br> pt: <br> <br> tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: every, each <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute, chaque <br> it: tutto/a, ogni <br> pt: <br> <br> totes(les) duo, totos(los) duos, totas(las) duas</b> <br> en: both <br> es: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> fr: tous les deux, toutes les deux <br> it: tutti e due, ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> totes les, totas las, totos los</b> <br> en: <br> es: todos los, todas las <br> fr: tous les, toutes les <br> it: tutti i, tutti gli, tutte le <br> pt: <br> <br> totes, totas, totos</b> <br> en: all, everyone <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> toto</b> <br> en: all, everything <br> es: todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto, ogni cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> toto</b> <br> en: all, quite, wholly <br> es: todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> toto(ben) considerato</b> <br> en: all things considered <br> es: considerando(bien) totas las cosas <br> fr: tout(bien) considéré <br> it: tutto considerato <br> pt: <br> <br> toto le(= toto lo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo el <br> fr: tout le <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo <br> pt: <br> <br> toto le(caseo)</b> <br> en: all the(cheese), the entire(cheese) <br> es: todo el(queso) <br> fr: tout le(fromage) <br> it: tutto il(formaggio) <br> pt: <br> <br> toto lo(= toto le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo lo <br> fr: tout le, toute la <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo <br> pt: <br> <br> totos los(homines)</b> <br> en: all(men) <br> es: todos los hombres <br> fr: tous les(hommes) <br> it: tutti gli(uomini) <br> pt: <br> <br> totos minus ille</b> <br> en: all but him <br> es: todos menos él <br> fr: tous sauf lui <br> it: tutti meno lui, tutti salvo lui <br> pt: <br> <br> tra(= trans)</b> <br> en: through <br> es: a través de <br> fr: à travers, au travers de <br> it: attraverso, tra <br> pt: <br> <br> trans</b> <br> en: across, over, beyond, on the farther side of <br> es: al otro lado de, más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de, de l'autre côté de <br> it: al di là di, dall'altra parte di, dall'altro lato <br> pt: <br> <br> traverso(= a / al transverso(de))</b> <br> en: through, from side to side <br> es: a través de, de parte a parte de <br> fr: au travers, de part en part <br> it: attraverso, da parte a parte, da lato a lato <br> pt: <br> <br> tro(= troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> trop(=troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> troppo(= trop, tro)</b> <br> en: too, too much <br> es: demasiado, demasiada, demasiados, demasiadas <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo, troppi, troppa, troppe <br> pt: <br> <br> troppo(de)(aqua, libros, etc. )(= de tro(de)(aqua, libros, etc. ))</b> <br> en: too much(water, etc. ), too many(books, etc. ) <br> es: demasiado(agua, etc. ), demasiados(libros) <br> fr: trop(d'eau, de livres, etc. ) <br> it: troppo(troppa acqua, troppi libri, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> tu</b> <br> en: you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tú <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: tu, ti, te <br> pt: <br> <br> tu</b> <br> en: your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tu <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: tu, ti, te <br> pt: <br> <br> tu mesme, tu mesma, tu mesmo, tu ipse</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: tú mismo, tú misma <br> fr: toi-même <br> it: tu stesso, te stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> tue, tua, tuo</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tuyo, tuya <br> fr: le tien, la tienne <br> it: tuo, tua <br> pt: <br> <br> tues, tuas, tuos</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tuyos, tuyas <br> fr: les tiennes <br> it: tue, tuoi <br> pt: <br> <br> tum</b> <br> en: then, afterwards <br> es: entonces, después <br> fr: alors, par la suite <br> it: allora, quindi <br> pt: <br> <br> tum</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en ese momento <br> fr: alors, à ce moment <br> it: allora, quindi <br> pt: <br> <br> tum</b> <br> en: then, next <br> es: entonces, en ese caso, por consiguiente <br> fr: alors, ensuite <br> it: quindi, in questo caso <br> pt: <br> <br> tunc(= alora)</b> <br> en: in that case, consequently <br> es: entonces, en ese caso, consiguientemente <br> fr: alors, dans ce cas, conséquemment <br> it: allora, in questo caso, di conseguenza, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> tunc(= alora)</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en ese momento <br> fr: alors, à ce moment <br> it: allora, in quel momento <br> pt: <br> <br> tus</b> <br> en: your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tus <br> fr: tes <br> it: tuo <br> pt: <br> <br> u(littera): u /u/</b> <br> en: <br> es: u(lettre): u /ü/ <br> fr: u <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ubi</b> <br> en: where, in or at what place <br> es: dónde, en qué lugar <br> fr: où <br> it: dove, in che luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> ubi</b> <br> en: where; when, as soon as; wherewith; in which <br> es: donde <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> ubicunque</b> <br> en: wherever <br> es: dondequiera <br> fr: partout où..., n'importe où... <br> it: dappertutto, ovunque <br> pt: <br> <br> ubique</b> <br> en: everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever <br> es: donde sea, en cualquier lugar <br> fr: partout, peu importe où, n'importe où, <br> it: dappertutto, ovunque <br> pt: <br> <br> ulle, ulla, ullo</b> <br> en: any, anyone <br> es: algún, alguno, alguna <br> fr: aucun, aucune, nul(le) <br> it: nessuno, nessuna, alcuno, alcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> ulles, ullas, ullos</b> <br> en: <br> es: algunos, algunas <br> fr: aucuns, aucunes, nul(le)s <br> it: alcuno, alcuna, alcuni <br> pt: <br> <br> ulterior</b> <br> en: subsequent, later <br> es: ulterior, subsecuente <br> fr: ultérieur(e) <br> it: ulteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> ulterior</b> <br> en: ulterior, situated beyond, thither <br> es: ulterior, situado más allá <br> fr: ultérieur(e) <br> it: ulteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> ulteriormente</b> <br> en: later(on), subsequently <br> es: después, seguidamente <br> fr: ultérieurement <br> it: ulteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> ultra</b> <br> en: besides <br> es: además <br> fr: en outre <br> it: inoltre <br> pt: <br> <br> ultra</b> <br> en: on the other side, beyond, farther <br> es: en el otro lado, más allá, más lejos <br> fr: au délà, de l'autre côté, plus loin <br> it: al di là, dall'altra parte <br> pt: <br> <br> ultra(= plus a la de, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> ultra illo</b> <br> en: besides, moreover <br> es: más allá de aquello, además de ello <br> fr: au délà de ça <br> it: al di la di questo, oltre questo, oltre ad esso <br> pt: <br> <br> ultra que</b> <br> en: aside from the fact that <br> es: aparte del hecho de que <br> fr: outre que <br> it: oltre che <br> pt: <br> <br> ultramar</b> <br> en: overseas <br> es: en ultra mar <br> fr: outre-mer <br> it: oltremare <br> pt: <br> <br> ultramar:(paises) de ultramar</b> <br> en: overseas(countries) <br> es: ultramar:(países) de ultramar <br> fr: outre-mer:(pays) d'outre-mer <br> it: oltremare, paese d'oltremare, d'oltre mare <br> pt: <br> <br> un altere, una altera, uno altero</b> <br> en: another <br> es: otro, otra <br> fr: un autre <br> it: un altro, un'altra <br> pt: <br> <br> un de, una de, uno de</b> <br> en: <br> es: uno de, una de <br> fr: un de, une de <br> it: uno di, una di <br> pt: <br> <br> un die</b> <br> en: one day, sometime <br> es: un día, algún día <br> fr: un jour <br> it: un giorno <br> pt: <br> <br> un pauco(de)</b> <br> en: a little <br> es: un poco(de) <br> fr: un peu(de) <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> un poco(de)(= un pauco(de))</b> <br> en: <br> es: un poco(de) <br> fr: un peu(de) <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> un que, una que, uno que</b> <br> en: <br> es: uno que, una que <br> fr: un que, une que <br> it: uno che, una che <br> pt: <br> <br> un, una, uno</b> <br> en: a, an <br> es: un, una <br> fr: un, une <br> it: un, una <br> pt: <br> <br> un, una, uno</b> <br> en: one <br> es: un, uno, una <br> fr: un, une <br> it: un, una <br> pt: <br> <br> una hora</b> <br> en: one o'clock <br> es: la una(hora) <br> fr: une heure <br> it: un'ora <br> pt: <br> <br> una tal(persona)</b> <br> en: such a(person) <br> es: una tal(persona) <br> fr: une telle(personne) <br> it: una tale(persona) <br> pt: <br> <br> una vece(= una vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: una vez <br> fr: une fois <br> it: una volta <br> pt: <br> <br> una vice</b> <br> en: once, formerly, at one time, on a single occasion <br> es: una vez <br> fr: un fois <br> it: una volta <br> pt: <br> <br> una vice que</b> <br> en: once, once that <br> es: una vez que <br> fr: une fois que <br> it: una volta che <br> pt: <br> <br> unaltere, un altere(= le un le altere)</b> <br> en: each other, one another <br> es: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> fr: l'un l'autre <br> it: un altro, un'altra <br> pt: <br> <br> unde</b> <br> en: whence, from which place <br> es: de donde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, da quale luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> unde</b> <br> en: whence, wherefore, for which reason or cause <br> es: de donde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove <br> pt: <br> <br> unde(= de ubi)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove <br> pt: <br> <br> unes de, unas de, unos de</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos de, unas de <br> fr: quelques-un(e)s de <br> it: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> pt: <br> <br> unes que, unas que, unos que</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos que, unas que <br> fr: quelques-un(e)s que <br> it: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> pt: <br> <br> unes, unas, unos</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos, unas <br> fr: des <br> it: dei, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> uno(= on, homo)</b> <br> en: one <br> es: uno, se <br> fr: on <br> it: un, uno <br> pt: <br> <br> unquam(= olim, aliquando)</b> <br> en: ever, at any time <br> es: en algún momento <br> fr: n'importe quand, un moment donné <br> it: una volta, in un momento, in un dato momento, ad un certo punto, quando <br> pt: <br> <br> usquam(= alicubi)</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: a alguna parte <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: qualche parte <br> pt: <br> <br> usque(a)</b> <br> en: (all the way) to, up to(a point in space or time); also: till, until <br> es: hasta <br> fr: jusque, jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> usque(a) hic</b> <br> en: to here <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'ici <br> it: fino a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> usque(a) hic</b> <br> en: up to now, hitherto <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> usque a ci</b> <br> en: to here <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'ici <br> it: fino a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> usque a ci</b> <br> en: up to now, hitherto <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> usque a trans</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta el otro lado de <br> fr: à travers <br> it: attraverso <br> pt: <br> <br> usque al presente</b> <br> en: up to the present <br> es: hasta el presente <br> fr: jusqu'à présent <br> it: fino ad ora, fino a questo momento <br> pt: <br> <br> usque nunc</b> <br> en: up to now <br> es: hasta ahora <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> usque quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta cuándo <br> fr: jusqu'à quand <br> it: fino a quando <br> pt: <br> <br> usque tosto</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta pronto <br> fr: à bientôt <br> it: a presto <br> pt: <br> <br> usualmente, de costume, plurimo</b> <br> en: usually <br> es: usualmente <br> fr: d'habitude <br> it: usualmente, di solito, abitualmente, di norma <br> pt: <br> <br> ut</b> <br> en: as, how, in order that, to the end that, just as <br> es: a fin que, para que <br> fr: afin que, pour que, juste comme <br> it: al fine di <br> pt: <br> <br> ut. . . ita. . . </b><br> the. . . the. . . , as. . . so. . . <br> es: tanto. . . tanto. . . <br> fr: autant... autant... <br> it: tanto. . . quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> utroque</b> <br> en: either or both of two <br> es: cualquiera de los dos, los dos <br> fr: les deux <br> it: ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> utrum. . . an</b> <br> en: whether. . . or. . . <br> es: a ver si. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou...ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> v(littera): ve /v/</b> <br> en: <br> es: v(lettre): vé /v/ <br> fr: v, vi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> valde</b> <br> en: exceedingly, very much <br> es: excesivamente, muchísimo <br> fr: excessivement, beaucou <br> it: eccessivamente, molto, moltissimo <br> pt: <br> <br> valde</b> <br> en: vehemently, strongly <br> es: vehementemente, energicamente, fuertemente <br> fr: énergiquement, fortement <br> it: fortemente, energicamente, con veemenza <br> pt: <br> <br> vale!</b> <br> en: vale!, farewell! <br> es: salve!, salud! <br> fr: salut, adieu <br> it: ciao, salve <br> pt: <br> <br> vece(=vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: vez <br> fr: fois <br> it: volta <br> pt: <br> <br> vel</b> <br> en: or, or rather <br> es: o, o más bien <br> fr: ou, ou plutôt <br> it: o, piuttosto <br> pt: <br> <br> vel. . . vel...</b> <br> en: either. . . or. . . <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou... ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> vere(= vero)</b> <br> en: truly, really, indeed, even <br> es: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> fr: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> it: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> vero(= vere)</b> <br> en: truly, really, indeed, even <br> es: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> fr: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> it: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> verso</b> <br> en: towards, toward; also: to, in the direction of, etc. <br> es: hacia, en dirección a <br> fr: vers <br> it: verso, nella direzione di <br> pt: <br> <br> verso a basso</b> <br> en: <br> es: hacia abajo <br> fr: vers le bas <br> it: verso il basso, giù <br> pt: <br> <br> vespera</b> <br> en: evening <br> es: tarde <br> fr: soir <br> it: sera <br> pt: <br> <br> vespere</b> <br> en: evening <br> es: tarde <br> fr: soir <br> it: sera <br> pt: <br> <br> via</b> <br> en: away <br> es: fuera, lejos <br> fr: loin, loin de là <br> it: via, fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> via</b> <br> en: via, by way of <br> es: vía, por vía de <br> fr: via, par <br> it: via, per via del, a causa di <br> pt: <br> <br> via!</b> <br> en: away! <br> es: fuera! <br> fr: plus loin! <br> it: via ! fuori ! <br> pt: <br> <br> vice</b> <br> en: time(as in "three times") <br> es: vez <br> fr: fois <br> it: volta(tre volte, una volta) <br> pt: <br> <br> vice</b> <br> en: turn(as in "my turn"); also: stead <br> es: vez <br> fr: tour(comme dans "à mon tour") <br> it: volta(a mia volta) <br> pt: <br> <br> vice versa</b> <br> en: vice versa <br> es: vice versa <br> fr: vice versa <br> it: viceversa <br> pt: <br> <br> vis-à-vis</b> <br> en: opposite, face to face, vis-à-vis <br> es: vis-à-vis, cara a cara, en situación opuesta <br> fr: vis-à-vis <br> it: di fronte, davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> visto</b> <br> en: considering, in view of <br> es: visto, considerando <br> fr: vu <br> it: visto, considerato che <br> pt: <br> <br> visto que</b> <br> en: considering that <br> es: visto que, considerando que, en vista de que <br> fr: vu que <br> it: visto che, considerato che <br> pt: <br> <br> vix</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely, barely <br> es: apenas, escasamente, difíilmente <br> fr: difficilement, à peine, <br> it: difficilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> vix</b> <br> en: with difficulty <br> es: con dificultad <br> fr: avec difficulté <br> it: con difficoltà <br> pt: <br> <br> voi(= vos)</b> <br> en: <br> es: vous <br> fr: voi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> voluntariamente(= voluntarie, sponte)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> voluntarie(= voluntariamente, sponte)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> vos</b> <br> en: you, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons(as in "you are", "I love you", "for you") <br> es: tu, ustéd <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: voi(ma si usa il lei, per cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vos</b> <br> en: you, in polite or formal use; addressing one person or several persons(as in "you are", "I love you" "for you") <br> es: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes <br> fr: vous <br> it: voi <br> pt: <br> <br> vos</b> <br> en: yourself [in polite or formal use(as in "you hurt yourself, " "to yourself")] <br> es: usted mismo, usted misma <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> vos</b> <br> en: yourselves [in all uses(as in "you hurt yourselves", "to yourselves")] <br> es: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> vos mesme, vos mesma, vos mesmo, vos ipse</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: usted mismo, usted misma <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> vos mesmes, vos mesmas, vos mesmos, vos ipses</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, ustedes mismos, ustedes mismas <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> Vostra Excellentia</b> <br> en: Your Excellency <br> es: Su Excelencia <br> fr: Votre Excellence <br> it: Sua Eccellenza(meno usato : Vostra Eccellenza) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> es: vuestro, vuestra <br> fr: votre <br> it: vostro, vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: su(de usted) <br> fr: votre <br> it: suo(di Lei, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: su(de ustedes) <br> fr: votre <br> it: loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: vuestro, vuestra <br> fr: votre <br> it: vostro, vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: suyo, suya(de usted) <br> fr: votre <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: suyo, suya(de ustedes) <br> fr: votre <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> es: vuestros, vuestras <br> fr: vos <br> it: vostro <br> pt: <br> <br> vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: sus(de usted) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: su(de ustedes) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: vuestros, vuestras <br> fr: vos <br> it: vostri, vostre <br> pt: <br> <br> vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: suyos, suyas(de usted) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: suyos, suyas(de ustedes) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(le/di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> vulgo(= communmente)</b> <br> en: commonly, vulgo <br> es: comúnmente, vulgarmente <br> fr: communément, ordinairement, généralement <br> it: vilgo, generalmente, comunemente <br> pt: <br> <br> w(littera): duple ve /u/ aut /v/</b> <br> en: <br> es: w(lettre): double vé /v/ ou /ou/ <br> fr: w(doppio vu; vu doppio; non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> x(littera): xe /ks/</b> <br> en: <br> es: x(lettre): iks /ks/ ou /gz/ ou /s/ ou /z/ <br> fr: x(ics, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> y(littera): i greco /y/ aut /i/</b> <br> en: <br> es: y(lettre): i grec /i/ <br> fr: y(i greca, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> ya(= ja, jam)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ya <br> fr: déjà <br> it: già <br> pt: <br> <br> yo(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: yo <br> fr: je, moi <br> it: io, me, mi <br> pt: <br> <br> z(littera): zeta /z/</b> <br> en: <br> es: z(lettre): zède /z/ <br></p> fr: z, zeta <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> 158 2005-04-21T17:36:23Z Josu Lavin 2 IMPORTANTISSIME: [Tote le entratas debe esser corrigite secundo Interlingua de IALA] <b>a (+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: a (+ inf) <br> fr: à (+ inf. ) <br> it: a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a (littera): a /a/</b> <br> en: <br> es: a (lettre): a /a/ <br> fr: a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ambe lateres</b> <br> en: <br> es: a ambos lados <br> fr: des deux côtés <br> it: ad ambo i lati <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a basso</b> <br> en: down, downward <br> es: abajo <br> fr: en bas <br> it: abbasso, dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a basso(les traitores)!</b> <br> en: down with(the traitors)! <br> es: abajo los traidores! <br> fr: à bas(les traîtres) <br> it: abbasso(i traditori !) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a causa de</b> <br> en: because of <br> es: a causa de, por causa de, debido a <br> fr: à cause de <br> it: a causa di, per causa di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a condition que</b> <br> en: on condition that, provided that <br> es: a condición de que, con tal de que <br> fr: à(la) condition que <br> it: a condizione che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a conto</b> <br> en: on account <br> es: en cuenta <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: in acconto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a conto de</b> <br> en: to the account of <br> es: a cuenta de <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: in acconto a/di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a contratempore</b> <br> en: at the wrong moment <br> es: a contratiempo, en mal momento <br> fr: à contretemps <br> it: nel momento sbagliato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a derecta</b> <br> en: (to the) right <br> es: a derecha, a la derecha <br> fr: à droite <br> it: a destra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a distantia</b> <br> en: at a distance <br> es: a distancia <br> fr: à distance <br> it: a distanza di/da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fin de</b> <br> en: in order to <br> es: a fin de, para <br> fr: afin de, dans le but de, pour <br> it: in modo da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fin que</b> <br> en: in order that <br> es: a fin de que, para que <br> fr: afin que <br> it: in modo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a flor de</b> <br> en: flush with, on a level with <br> es: a flor de <br> fr: à fleur de <br> it: a livello di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fortia de</b> <br> en: by means of, by dint of <br> es: a fuerza de, por medio de <br> fr: à force de <br> it: a forza di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fundo</b> <br> en: thoroughly <br> es: a fondo <br> fr: à fond <br> it: a fondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a grado</b> <br> en: at will <br> es: a voluntad <br> fr: à volonté, à discrétion <br> it: in grado di, a discrezione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a in</b> <br> en: <br> es: a, al interior de <br> fr: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> it: in, all'interno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a inter</b> <br> en: <br> es: (a) entre <br> fr: entre <br> it: tra, fra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a la(= a illac)</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allá, allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a la aventura</b> <br> en: at random <br> es: al azar <br> fr: aléatoirement, au hazard <br> it: all'avventura, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a la derecta</b> <br> en: (to the) right <br> es: a la derecha <br> fr: à la droite <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a la entrata de(le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> en: at the beginning of(winter, etc. ) <br> es: al principio de(invierno, etc. ) <br> fr: au début de, au commencement de(l'hiver, etc. ) <br> it: all'inizio di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a la exclusion de</b> <br> en: to the exclusion of <br> es: a la exclusión de <br> fr: à l'exclusion de <br> it: con l'esclusione di, ad esclusione di <br><br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a lo longo</b> <br> en: in the long run <br> es: a la larga <br> fr: avec le temps, à la longue <br> it: alla lunga, con il tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a lo plus</b> <br> en: at(the) best <br> es: a lo más <br> fr: au plus <br> it: al più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a lo plus tarde</b> <br> en: at the latest <br> es: a más tardar <br> fr: au plus tard <br> it: al più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a medietate</b> <br> en: half(= to half the full amount or degree) <br> es: a mitad <br> fr: à moitié <br> it: alla metà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a medietate del cammino</b> <br> en: halfway <br> es: a medio camino <br> fr: à mi-chemin <br> it: alla metà /nel mezzo del cammino <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a minus que</b> <br> en: unless <br> es: a menos que <br> fr: à moins que <br> it: a meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a omne costo(= a toto costo)</b> <br> en: at all costs, at any costs <br> es: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> fr: à tout prix <br> it: ad ogni costo, a qualsiasi costo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a omne proposito</b> <br> en: at every turn <br> es: a todo propósito <br> fr: à tout propos <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a parte</b> <br> en: apart, aside <br> es: aparte, separadamente <br> fr: à part <br> it: a parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a partir de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à partir de <br> fr: a partire da, partendo da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a pena(= apena)</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely <br> es: apenas, escasamente <br> fr: à peine <br> it: appena <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a presso de</b> <br> en: at the home(court, etc. ) of <br> es: a casa de(corte, etc. ) de <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: appresso a, presso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proba de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'épreuve de <br> fr: a prova di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proposito de</b> <br> en: with regard to, apropos of <br> es: con respecto a <br> fr: à propos de, au sujet de <br> it: a proposito di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proposito!</b> <br> en: by the way! incidentally <br> es: a propósito <br> fr: à propos! <br> it: a proposito! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proposito:(dicer una cosa) a proposito</b> <br> en: (to say something) to the purpose, apropos, to the point <br> es: a propósito <br> fr: à propos <br> it: a proposito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a retro</b> <br> en: backwards <br> es: atrás, hacia atrás <br> fr: à reculons, en reculant <br> it: dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a tempore</b> <br> en: in(good) time <br> es: a tiempo <br> fr: à temps <br> it: a tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a toto costo(= a omne costo)</b> <br> en: at all costs, at any costs <br> es: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> fr: à tout prix <br> it: a ogni costo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a transverso</b> <br> en: through, from side to side <br> es: a través <br> fr: à travers, de bord en bord <br> it: di/a traverso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a transverso(de)</b> <br> en: through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> es: a través de <br> fr: à travers(de) <br> it: a traverso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> en: where, whither <br> es: où <br> fr: da dove, da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> en: where, whither <br> es: où <br> fr: a dove, a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ubi(= quo)</b> <br> en: where, at what place <br> es: a dónde, a qué lugar <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a un alto grado</b> <br> en: to a high degree <br> es: a un alto grado <br> fr: à un haut degré <br> it: ad un alto grado <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a veces(= a vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: a veces <br> fr: parfois <br> it: a volte, qualche volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a vices</b> <br> en: at times <br> es: a veces <br> fr: parfois <br> it: a volte, alle volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a, ad</b> <br> en: to, at <br> es: a, hacia; en <br> fr: à, vers, en, dans <br> it: a, ad, verso, nel <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ab(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de(+inf) <br> fr: da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ab(= desde)</b> <br> en: since, from <br> es: desde <br> fr: depuis <br> it: da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> en: actually <br> es: actualmente <br> fr: actuellement <br> it: attualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> en: at present, (just) now <br> es: actualmente, en la actualidad <br> fr: à présent, maintenant <br> it: al momento, attualmente, adesso, ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>adeo</b> <br> en: farewell, good-by(e) <br> es: adiós <br> fr: adieu <br> it: addio, ciao, salve <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>adhuc</b> <br> en: to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still <br> es: a este lugar, hasta aquí, hasta ahora, todavía <br> fr: jusqu'ici, jusqu'à présent, <br> it: fino ad ora, fino adesso, fino a qui, fin qui, fino a qua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: al(+inf) <br> fr: sur le point de(+inf), près de(+inf) <br> it: al, sul punto di, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> en: to the <br> es: al <br> fr: au <br> it: al <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> en: to the <br> es: al <br> fr: au <br> it: al <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(= alique)</b> <br> en: something <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose, <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al contrario</b> <br> en: on the contrary <br> es: al contrario <br> fr: au contraire <br> it: al contrario <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al currente(de)</b> <br> en: informed(about) <br> es: al corriente(de), informado(sobre) <br> fr: au courant de <br> it: al corrente di, informato su <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al detrimento de</b> <br> en: to the detriment of <br> es: en detrimento de <br> fr: au détriment de <br> it: a danno di, a scapito di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al estraniero</b> <br> en: abroad <br> es: en el extranjero <br> fr: à l'étranger <br> it: all'estero <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al exterior</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'extérieur <br> fr: all'esterno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al exterior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'extérieur de <br> fr: all'esterno di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al extero</b> <br> en: abroad(as in "to go abroad; to live abroad"), in foreign parts <br> es: al extranjero, en el extranjero <br> fr: à l'étranger <br> it: all'estero <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al extremo</b> <br> en: <br> es: al extremo <br> fr: à l'extrême <br> it: all'estremo, estremamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al fin</b> <br> en: in the end, at last <br> es: al fin <br> fr: enfin, à la fin <br> it: alla fine, infine <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al fundo de</b> <br> en: at the bottom of <br> es: al fondo de <br> fr: au fond de <br> it: al fondo di, in fondo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al fundo del corde</b> <br> en: at the bottom of one's heart <br> es: en el fondo del corazón <br> fr: au fond du cœur <br> it: nel fondo del cuore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al hasardo</b> <br> en: at random <br> es: al azar <br> fr: au hazard <br> it: al caso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al interior</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'intérieur <br> fr: all'interno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al interior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'intérieur de <br> fr: all'interno di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al ir a(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ????????? <br> fr: andando a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al latere</b> <br> en: aside <br> es: al lado <br> fr: à côté <br> it: al lato di, accanto a, lateralmente, a fianco di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al latere de</b> <br> en: beside <br> es: al lado de <br> fr: à côté de, au côté de <br> it: a fianco di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al minus</b> <br> en: at least <br> es: al menos, por lo menos <br> fr: au moins <br> it: al meno, alla fine, per lo meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al presente</b> <br> en: at present <br> es: en el presente, en la actualidad <br> fr: à présent <br> it: al presente, al momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al transverso(de)</b> <br> en: through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> es: a través(de) <br> fr: à travers, au travers(de) <br> it: al traverso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> en: somewhat <br> es: un poco <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: un poco, un po', qualcosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alcun, alcuna, alcuno(= alicun, alicuna, alicuno)</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelque <br> it: qualche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alcunas veces(= alcunas vices, alicunas vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: quelques fois <br> fr: qualche volta, a volte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alcuno(= alicuno)</b> <br> en: someone, anyone <br> es: quelqu'un <br> fr: qualcuno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alias</b> <br> en: alias <br> es: alias <br> fr: alias <br> it: alias, altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alias</b> <br> en: at another time <br> es: en otro tiempo, en otro momento <br> fr: (à) un autre moment, un autre temps, un autre instant <br> it: in un altro momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alias(= alteramente)</b> <br> en: otherwise(= in another manner) <br> es: de otra manera <br> fr: autrement, d'une autre façon, d'une autre manière <br> it: in un altro modo, diversamente, in un'altra maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alibi</b> <br> en: elsewhere <br> es: en alguna otra parte <br> fr: ailleurs <br> it: alibi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicubi</b> <br> en: anywhere as in("did you see him anywhere?") <br> es: dondequiera <br> fr: quelque part comme dans("l'avez-vous vu quelque part?"), n'importe où comme dans("il va n'importe où") <br> it: da qualche parte, non importa dove, in qualche luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicubi(= usquam)</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: en cualquier lugar <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: da qualche parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicun, alicuna, alicuno</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna, alguno; un poco <br> fr: quelque, un peu <br> it: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicuna cosa(= alcuna cosa)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: alguna cosa <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicunas vices(= alcunas vices)</b> <br> en: sometimes <br> es: algunas veces <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, qualvolta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicunes, alicunas, alicunos</b> <br> en: <br> es: algunos, algunas <br> fr: des, quelques, quelques-uns, quelques-unes <br> it: alcuno, alcune, alcuni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicuno(= alcuno)</b> <br> en: someone, somebody; anyone, anybody <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelqu'un <br> it: alcuno, qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alie, alia, alio(= altere, altera, altero)</b> <br> en: other <br> es: otro, otra <br> fr: autre <br> it: altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> en: somehow <br> es: de una manera u otra <br> fr: d'une manière ou d'une autre <br> it: in un modo o in un altro, nell'uno o nell'altro modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: en alguna parte <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: qualche parte, qualche luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliquando(= alquando)</b> <br> en: at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> es: alguna vez, en algún que otro momento, en un momento dado <br> fr: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> it: in un dato momento, quando, allorché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliquanto(= alquanto)</b> <br> en: somewhat, to some degree <br> es: algo así, en algún grado <br> fr: quelque peu <br> it: in qualche modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: in qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> en: somewhat <br> es: algo, un poco <br> fr: un peu <br> it: un po', un poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliquot</b> <br> en: some, several, a few <br> es: quelque, un peu <br> fr: un po', un poco <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en aquel tiempo <br> fr: alors <br> it: allora, quindi, dunque, allorché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> en: then, in that case, consequently) <br> es: entonces, en tal caso, consequentemente, en consecuencia, por consiguiente <br> fr: donc, dans ce cas, conséquemment, en conséquence <br> it: dunque, quindi, in questo caso, allora, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alquando(= aliquando)</b> <br> en: <br> es: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> fr: una buona volta, un dato momento <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alquanto(= aliquanto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: quelque peu <br> fr: alquanto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> en: also, too <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> en: likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> es: igualmente, es más, además <br> fr: ainsi, de plus, par ailleurs <br> it: anche, ugualmente, allo stesso modo, comunque, in ogni modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alte, alta, alto</b> <br> en: high <br> es: alto, alta <br> fr: haut, haute <br> it: alto, alta, alti, alte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altera vece(= altera vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: otra vez, una vez más <br> fr: une autre fois <br> it: un'altra volta, in un altro momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> en: a second time, once again, once more <br> es: otra vez, una vez más <br> fr: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> it: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> en: a second time, once more, once again <br> es: otra vez <br> fr: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> it: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alteramente(= alias)</b> <br> en: otherwise(= in another manner) <br> es: de otra manera <br> fr: autrement <br> it: altrimenti, diversamente, in un'altro modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> en: other, additional <br> es: otro, otra, adicional <br> fr: autre, additionnel(le) <br> it: altro, altra, altri, altre(in più, addizionale) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> en: other, different <br> es: otro, otra, diferente <br> fr: autre, différent(e) <br> it: altro, altra, altri, altre(differente) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alterubi</b> <br> en: elsewhere <br> es: en otra parte <br> fr: ailleurs <br> it: d'altra parte, altrimenti, diversamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ambes, ambas, ambos</b> <br> en: both <br> es: ambos, ambas <br> fr: les deux, tous deux, toutes deux <br> it: ambo, ambedue, tutti e due <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>an</b> <br> en: whether <br> es: si <br> fr: si <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>an(= est-que)</b> <br> en: <br> es: es que(particula interrogativa) <br> fr: est-ce que <br> it: - <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>an ille habe le libro?(= est-que ille habe le libro)</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> it: ha il libro ? egli ha il libro? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>analogo a</b> <br> en: analogous to <br> es: análogo a <br> fr: analogue à. semblable à <br> it: analogo a, simile a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> en: encore! <br> es: aún!, todavía! <br> fr: encore! <br> it: ancora! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> en: still, yet <br> es: aún, todavía <br> fr: encore <br> it: ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>annon</b> <br> en: or not <br> es: o no <br> fr: ou non, ou pas <br> it: o no <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>anque(io)(= etiam(io))</b> <br> en: (I) too, (me) too <br> es: también(yo), (yo) también <br> fr: (moi) aussi <br> it: anch'io, pure io, io pure <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>anque [anke](= etiam, tamben)</b> <br> en: also, too <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, above <br> es: antes, citado anteriormente <br> fr: avant, cité plus haut <br> it: prima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier <br> es: antes de <br> fr: avant <br> it: prima di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier <br> es: delante de, ante <br> fr: avant <br> it: davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier than <br> es: antes, anterior <br> fr: plus tôt que, antérieurement à <br> it: prima(temp) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, in front of <br> es: antes, en frente de <br> fr: devant <br> it: davanti, di fronte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, in front, ahead; also: forward <br> es: antes; delante <br> fr: devant, en face de <br> it: innanzi, dinnanzi, di fronte, frontalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante le tempore</b> <br> en: ahead of time, too early <br> es: antes de tiempo, demasiado pronto <br> fr: trop tôt, avant le temps <br> it: prima del tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante que</b> <br> en: before <br> es: antes de que <br> fr: avant que <br> it: prima di, prima che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante toto</b> <br> en: after all <br> es: ante todo <br> fr: avant tout <br> it: prima di tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>antea(=potius, plus tosto)</b> <br> en: before, formerly, previously <br> es: antes, anteriormente, previamente <br> fr: plus tôt, précédemment, antérieurement <br> it: prima, precedentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante-heri</b> <br> en: day before yesterday <br> es: anteayer <br> fr: avant-hier <br> it: l'altro ieri, ieri l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>anteriormente</b> <br> en: formerly, before <br> es: anteriormente <br> fr: antérieurement <br> it: anteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>apena(= a pena)</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely <br> es: a penas, escasamente <br> fr: à peine <br> it: a pena <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>apud(= presso)</b> <br> en: near, with, at, by <br> es: cerca de, junto a <br> fr: près de <br> it: presso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aquelle, aquella, aquello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: that <br> es: aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là(ex. ce garçon-là), cet ...-là(ex. cet homme-là), cette ...-là(ex. cette fille-là), [pron. dém. ]celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aquelles, aquellas, aquellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: aquellos, aquellas <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> it: quelli, quelle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aquesse, aquessa, aquesso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: ese, esa, eso <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aqueste, aquesta, aquesto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aqui(= hic)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> en: enough <br> es: bastante; suficiente <br> fr: assez <br> it: basta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> en: rather(= fairly, quite) <br> es: bastante; suficiente <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: abbastanza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful bokk) <br> es: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> fr: così(così bello, tanto bello che) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful book) <br> es: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi... como...(= si. . . como. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as... <br> es: así. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que ... <br> it: così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>atque</b> <br> en: and, and also, and even <br> es: y, e, y también, e incluso <br> fr: et, et même <br> it: e <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aut(= o)</b> <br> en: or <br> es: o, u <br> fr: ou <br> it: o, altrimenti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aut. . . aut...(= o. . . o. . . )</b> <br> en: either. . . or... <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou. . . ou. . . <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>avante</b> <br> en: before <br> es: antes de <br> fr: en avant de, au devant de <br> it: prima di, prima che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>avante</b> <br> en: before(= in front, ahead) <br> es: adelante, al frente, delante <br> fr: en avant, au devant <br> it: davanti a, di fronte a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>avante!</b> <br> en: before!(= in front, ahead) <br> es: adelante!, al frente! <br> fr: en avant! <br> it: avanti ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>b(littera): be /b/</b> <br> en: <br> es: b(lettre): bé /b/ <br> fr: b, bi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>basse, bassa, basso</b> <br> en: low <br> es: bajo <br> fr: bas, basse <br> it: basso, bassa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>basso</b> <br> en: bottom, lower part(of a thing) <br> es: base, parte de abajo(de una cosa), la parte más baja(de una cosa) <br> fr: bas <br> it: dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>basta</b> <br> en: enough! stop! <br> es: basta! <br> fr: assez! <br> it: basta! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bastante(= sufficiente)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficient <br> es: bastante, suficiente <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e) <br> it: sufficiente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bastante(= sufficientemente)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficiently <br> es: bastante, suficientemente <br> fr: assez, suffisamment <br> it: sufficientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bastantes(= sufficientes)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficient <br> es: bastantes, suficientes <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> it: sufficienti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben</b> <br> en: well <br> es: bien <br> fr: bien <br> it: bene <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> en: although <br> es: a pesar de que, aunque <br> fr: quoique, bien que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> en: though <br> es: ben que <br> fr: bien que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> en: all right! <br> es: bien! <br> fr: très bien! <br> it: bene ! giusto ! benissimo ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> en: good! <br> es: bien!, bueno! <br> fr: bien! <br> it: bene ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bis</b> <br> en: encore <br> es: bis, de nuevo, otra vez, repetición <br> fr: bis, encore une fois, de nouveau <br> it: bis, ancora una volta, di nuovo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bis</b> <br> en: twice <br> es: dos veces <br> fr: deux fois <br> it: due volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bon!</b> <br> en: good!, fine!, all right! <br> es: bien! <br> fr: bon! <br> it: buono ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bon, bona, bono</b> <br> en: <br> es: bon, bonne <br> fr: buono, buona <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bona nocte!</b> <br> en: good night! <br> es: buenas noches! <br> fr: bonne nuit! <br> it: buona notte, buonanotte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bravo!</b> <br> en: bravo! <br> es: bravo! <br> fr: bravo! <br> it: bravo! brava! bravi! brave! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>c(littera): ce /k/ aut /ts/</b> <br> en: <br> es: c(lettre): cé /k/ ou /s/ <br> fr: c, ci(pron. come ch inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cata</b> <br> en: each <br> es: cada <br> fr: chaque <br> it: ogni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cata un, cata una, cata uno</b> <br> en: <br> es: cada uno, cada una <br> fr: chacun, chacune <br> it: ognuno, agnuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ce</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: ce, c'... <br> it: ciò, questo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ce ci</b> <br> en: this(here) <br> es: ceci <br> fr: ciò, questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ce la</b> <br> en: that(there, yonder) <br> es: cela <br> fr: quello, quella <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: (the) former(first of two) <br> es: celui-là, celle-là <br> fr: quello là, quella là <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: 1. that; those <br> es: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> fr: quello, quella <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>celles, cellas, cellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> fr: quei, quegli, quelle <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> en: that(one) <br> es: aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quello là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> en: the former <br> es: aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quello là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cento:(tres) per cento, (tres) pro cento</b> <br> en: (three) per cent <br> es: (trois) pour cent <br> fr: cento(ce, come in ch inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>certe, certa, certo</b> <br> en: a certain. . . <br> es: cierto, cierta <br> fr: un certain, une certaine <br> it: certo, un certo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>certo</b> <br> en: <br> es: ciertamente, cierto <br> fr: certainement <br> it: certo, certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> en: other <br> es: autre <br> fr: altro <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> en: remaining <br> es: restant <br> fr: restante, rimanente, resto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> en: besides, for the rest <br> es: d'autre part, quant au reste <br> fr: d'altra parte, quanto al resto, peraltro <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> en: otherwise, in other respects <br> es: autrement, par ailleurs <br> fr: diversamente <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ch(digrapho): ce hache /k/ aut /sh/</b> <br> en: <br> es: ch(digraphe ou digramme): cé-ache /k/ ou /sh/ <br> fr: ch(pron come k) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ci(=hic)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ci juncto(= hic juncto)</b> <br> en: herewith, hereto(joined) <br> es: junto con esto <br> fr: ci-joint(e) <br> it: qui con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>circa</b> <br> en: around <br> es: alrededor de <br> fr: autour de <br> it: circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>circa</b> <br> en: around <br> es: cerca, alrededor, aproximadamente <br> fr: autour, aux alentours, environ, approximativement <br> it: circa, approssimativamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>circum</b> <br> en: around, around about <br> es: alrededor, aproximadamente <br> fr: autour, aux alentours <br> it: circa, approssimativamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cis</b> <br> en: on this side(of) <br> es: a este lado(de) <br> fr: de ce côté(de) <br> it: da questa parte, da questo lato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cito</b> <br> en: quickly, speedily <br> es: rápidamente <br> fr: vite <br> it: rapidamente, velocemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cito</b> <br> en: soon <br> es: pronto <br> fr: tôt <br> it: presto, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>clam</b> <br> en: secretly <br> es: secretamente, en secreto <br> fr: secrètement <br> it: segretamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>clam</b> <br> en: without the knowledge of, unknown to <br> es: sin el conocimiento de, desconocido a <br> fr: sans la connaissance de, inconnu(e) à <br> it: senza sapere che, senza conoscenza di, senza cognizione <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>communmente(= vulgo)</b> <br> en: commonly, vulgo <br> es: comúnmente, vulgarmente, normalmente <br> fr: vulgairement, communément <br> it: comunemente, volgarmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como</b> <br> en: as; also: like, similarly to <br> es: como <br> fr: comme <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como</b> <br> en: how <br> es: como <br> fr: comment <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como illa est bella!</b> <br> en: how beautiful she is! <br> es: qué bonita es ella! <br> fr: Comme elle est belle! <br> it: come è bella lei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como si</b> <br> en: as though, as if <br> es: como si <br> fr: comme si <br> it: come se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como:(facete) como(vos volate)</b> <br> en: (do) as(you wish) <br> es: (haced) como(vosotros queráis) <br> fr: comme:(faites) comme(vous voulez) <br> it: come(fate) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>comocunque</b> <br> en: however, in whatever manner <br> es: sin embargo, de cualquier forma, como sea <br> fr: cependant, de toute façon <br> it: comunque, in ogni modo, ad ogni modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>comparabile a</b> <br> en: comparable to <br> es: comparable a <br> fr: comparable à <br> it: comparabile a/con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>comparabile con</b> <br> en: comparable with <br> es: comparable con <br> fr: comparable avec <br> it: comparabile con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>completamente(= totalmente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: completamente(= totalmente) <br> fr: complètement <br> it: completamente, totalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>con</b> <br> en: with, by means of <br> es: con, por medio de <br> fr: avec, au moyen de <br> it: con, per mezzo di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>con</b> <br> en: with, having, carrying, characterized by) <br> es: con, que tiene. . . , caracterizado por. . . <br> fr: avec, ayant, caractérisé(e) par <br> it: con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>con</b> <br> en: with, together with <br> es: con <br> fr: avec, (ensemble) avec <br> it: con, insieme a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>concernente</b> <br> en: concerning <br> es: concerniente <br> fr: concernant <br> it: concernente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conforme</b> <br> en: conformable, in conformity <br> es: conforme, en conformidad <br> fr: conforme, en conformité <br> it: conforme <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conforme a</b> <br> en: in conformity with, according to <br> es: conforme a <br> fr: selon, conforme à, en conformité avec <br> it: conforme a, in conformità a/di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conjunctamente</b> <br> en: conjointly, conjunctly, jointly, together <br> es: conjuntamente <br> fr: conjointement, ensemble <br> it: congiuntamente, con, insieme <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conjunctamente con</b> <br> en: in with, together with, in conjunction with <br> es: conjuntamente con <br> fr: conjointement avec <br> it: congiuntamente a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>contra</b> <br> en: against <br> es: contra <br> fr: contre <br> it: contro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>contra</b> <br> en: on the contrary <br> es: al contrario <br> fr: au contraire <br> it: al contrario, diversamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>contra</b> <br> en: opposite, facing <br> es: en situación opuesta, enfrentado <br> fr: contre, faisant face à <br> it: contrariamente, al contrario <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>coram</b> <br> en: in one's presence, openly, publicly <br> es: en la presencia de, abiertamente, públicamente <br> fr: en présence de quelqu'un, publiquement <br> it: in presenza di, davanti a, pubblicamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>coram</b> <br> en: in the presence of <br> es: en presencia de <br> fr: en présence de <br> it: in presenza di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cras(= deman)</b> <br> en: tomorrow <br> es: mañana <br> fr: demain <br> it: domani <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cuje, cuja, cujo</b> <br> en: whose <br> es: cuyo, cuya <br> fr: dont <br> it: di cui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cum(=con)</b> <br> en: <br> es: avec <br> fr: con <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>d(littera): de /d/</b> <br> en: <br> es: d(lettre): dé /d/ <br> fr: di/d <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: from; also: since <br> es: de, desde <br> fr: de, depuis <br> it: da, dal, dallo, dalla, dagli, dalle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of <br> es: de <br> fr: de <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of, belonging or pertaining to <br> es: de <br> fr: de, de la, du, à la, au, aux, (appartenant à la, au, aux) <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of, made of <br> es: de, hecho de <br> fr: de(fait de) <br> it: di(fatto di) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of, with, by means of <br> es: de, con <br> fr: de, de la, du, des, par, avec, au moyen de(de la, du, des) <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: to; for <br> es: de(+ inf) <br> fr: de(+inf) <br> it: di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de accordo</b> <br> en: in accord <br> es: de acuerdo <br> fr: d'accord <br> it: d'accordo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> en: from the top to the bottom <br> es: de arriba abajo <br> fr: de haut en bas <br> it: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> en: from top to bottom, from top to toe <br> es: de arriba abajo <br> fr: de haut en bas, de la tête aux pieds <br> it: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bon corde</b> <br> en: gladly, willingly <br> es: de buena gana, alegremente <br> fr: de bon coeur <br> it: di buon cuore, generoso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bon grado</b> <br> en: willingly, with pleasure <br> es: de buen grado, con placer, de buena gana <br> fr: avec plaisir <br> it: di buon grado, volentieri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bon gusto</b> <br> en: in good taste <br> es: de buen gusto <br> fr: de bon goût <br> it: di buon gusto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bona hora</b> <br> en: early <br> es: de buena hora <br> fr: de bonne heure <br> it: di buono'ora, presto, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de ci a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> en: (an hour, etc. ) from now <br> es: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> fr: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> it: da qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de commun accordo</b> <br> en: by common consent <br> es: de común acuerdo <br> fr: d'un commun accord <br> it: di comune accordo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de concerto</b> <br> en: in concert, in unison <br> es: de concierto, al unísono <br> fr: de concert <br> it: di concerto, d'accordo con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de costume, usualmente</b> <br> en: usually <br> es: como de costumbre, habitualmente, usualmente <br> fr: d'habitude <br> it: usualmente, d'abitudine, di norma, solitamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de derecto</b> <br> en: by right(s) <br> es: de derecho <br> fr: de droit <br> it: di diritto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de die in die</b> <br> en: from day to day <br> es: de día en día <br> fr: de jour en jour <br> it: di giorno in giorno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> en: de facto <br> es: de facto, de hecho <br> fr: de facto <br> it: di fatto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> en: in fact, de facto <br> es: de hecho, de facto <br> fr: en fait, de fait, par le fait <br> it: infatti, difatti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de hic a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> en: (an hour etc. ) from now <br> es: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> fr: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> it: di qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de la parte de</b> <br> en: on the part of <br> es: de(la) parte de <br> fr: de la part de <br> it: da parte di, dalla parte di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de longe(= de longo)</b> <br> en: afar, from a distance <br> es: de lejos <br> fr: de loin <br> it: dalla distanza di, da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de mal grado</b> <br> en: unwillingly, in spite of oneself <br> es: de mala gana <br> fr: de mauvais gré <br> it: malgrado, malvolentieri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de mal gusto</b> <br> en: in bad taste <br> es: de mal gusto <br> fr: de mauvais goût <br> it: di cattivo gusto, inopportuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de mal in pejo</b> <br> en: from bad to worse <br> es: de mal en peor <br> fr: de mal en pis <br> it: di male in peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de maniera que</b> <br> en: so that <br> es: de manera que <br> fr: de manière que <br> it: in modo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de memoria</b> <br> en: from memory, by heart <br> es: de memoria <br> fr: de mémoire, par coeur <br> it: a memoria, a mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de nocte</b> <br> en: by night <br> es: de noche <br> fr: de nuit <br> it: di notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de novo</b> <br> en: again, anew, afresh <br> es: de nuevo <br> fr: de nouveau <br> it: di nuovo, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de omne latere</b> <br> en: from every side <br> es: de todo lado <br> fr: de tout côté <br> it: da ogni alto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de parte a parte</b> <br> en: through and through <br> es: de parte a parte <br> fr: de part en part <br> it: da parte a parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de parte de</b> <br> en: on the part of <br> es: de parte de <br> fr: de la part de <br> it: da parte di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de plus</b> <br> en: furthermore, besides <br> es: además <br> fr: de plus <br> it: di più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de plus in plus</b> <br> en: more and more <br> es: de más en más <br> fr: de plus en plus <br> it: più e più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de qui</b> <br> en: whose <br> es: de quien <br> fr: de qui, dont <br> it: di cui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de tempore ??</b> <br> en: from time to time <br> es: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> fr: de temps en temps <br> it: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de tempore in tempore</b> <br> en: from time to time <br> es: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> fr: de temps en temps <br> it: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de toto(le) corde</b> <br> en: wholeheartedly <br> es: de todo corazón <br> fr: de tout coeur <br> it: di tutto cuore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de totos lateres</b> <br> en: on all sides <br> es: de todos lados <br> fr: de tous les côtés <br> it: da ogni lato, da ogni parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de transverso</b> <br> en: askew, awry <br> es: de tavés <br> fr: de travers <br> it: di traverso, trasversalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de troppo(= de tro)</b> <br> en: superfluous, in the way <br> es: superfluo <br> fr: de trop <br> it: di troppo, superfluo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, donde <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> en: from where, whence <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, donde <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de un extremo al altero</b> <br> en: from one extreme to the other <br> es: de un extremo al otro <br> fr: d'un extrême à l'autre <br> it: da un estremo all'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>debitamente</b> <br> en: duly, properly <br> es: debidamente, propiamente <br> fr: dûment, justement, convenablement <br> it: debitamente, giustamente, propriamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> en: afterwards, then, following in time <br> es: después, entonces, <br> fr: ensuite, alors, par la suite <br> it: di seguito, dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> en: afterwards, then, next in order <br> es: ensuite, suivant dans l'ordre <br> fr: di seguito, dopo, poi, secondo l'ordine, seguendo l'ordine <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> en: thereafter, next <br> es: suivant(e) <br> fr: successivo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del(= de le)</b> <br> en: of the <br> es: del <br> fr: du <br> it: del, dello <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del altere latere</b> <br> en: <br> es: del otro lado <br> fr: de l'autre côté <br> it: dall'altro lato, d'altro canto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del principio</b> <br> en: from the outset or start <br> es: del principio <br> fr: du début <br> it: da principio, dall'inizio, inizialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del toto</b> <br> en: <br> es: del todo <br> fr: du tout <br> it: di tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deman(= cras)</b> <br> en: tomorrow <br> es: mañana <br> fr: demain <br> it: domani <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deman matino</b> <br> en: tomorrow morning <br> es: mañana a la mañana, mañana por la mañana <br> fr: demain matin <br> it: domani mattina, domattina <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deman vespere</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la tarde, mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depois(= depost)</b> <br> en: afterwards, later <br> es: después <br> fr: puis, ensuite, plus tard <br> it: poi, dopo, più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depois que(= depost que)</b> <br> en: since(from the time that) <br> es: después de que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: dopo che, dopo di che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost</b> <br> en: after, since <br> es: después de <br> fr: depuis, après <br> it: dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost</b> <br> en: afterwards, later <br> es: después, luego <br> fr: puis, ensuite <br> it: poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: desde cuando <br> fr: depuis quand <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: desde cuándo <br> fr: depuis quand <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost que</b> <br> en: since(= from the time that) <br> es: después(de) que, desde que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>desde</b> <br> en: since, from <br> es: desde <br> fr: depuis, de <br> it: dopo di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>detra</b> <br> en: behind, back, backwards <br> es: detrás <br> fr: derrière, en arrière <br> it: dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dextra</b> <br> en: on the right of <br> es: a la derecha de <br> fr: à la droite de <br> it: alla destra di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>difficile a(+ inf), difficile de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: difícil de(+ inf) <br> fr: difficile à(+inf), difficile de(+inf) <br> it: difficile a/da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>directo:(ir, ambular, etc. ) directo</b> <br> en: (to go, walk, etc. ) straight <br> es: directamente <br> fr: droit, tout droit:(aller, se diriger, etc. ) tout droit <br> it: diritto, sempre diritto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>donec</b> <br> en: until, up to the time that <br> es: hasta <br> fr: jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>donec</b> <br> en: while, as long as <br> es: mientras <br> fr: pendant que <br> it: fino a, fino a che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>duas horas</b> <br> en: two o'clock <br> es: las dos(horas) <br> fr: deux heures <br> it: due ore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dum</b> <br> en: provided that, if only <br> es: contal de que <br> fr: pourvu que, si seulement <br> it: solo se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dum</b> <br> en: until <br> es: hasta que <br> fr: jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dum</b> <br> en: while, as long as <br> es: mientras <br> fr: pendant que, tant que <br> it: fintanto che, fino a che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dunque</b> <br> en: therefore <br> es: por consiguiente <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: dunque, quindi, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>durante</b> <br> en: during <br> es: durante <br> fr: durant, pendant <br> it: durante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>durante que</b> <br> en: while, whilst <br> es: mientras, mientras que <br> fr: pendant que <br> it: durante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>e(= et)</b> <br> en: <br> es: et <br> fr: e <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>e(littera): e /e/</b> <br> en: <br> es: e(lettre): e /?/ <br> fr: e <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>e. . . e...(= et. . . et. . . )</b> <br> en: <br> es: et... et... <br> fr: e. . . e. . . <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ecce</b> <br> en: lo!, see!, behold!, here is <br> es: he aquí, helo aquí <br> fr: voici <br> it: ecco, ecco qui, ecco qua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ego(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: moi(= je) <br> fr: io <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>el(= ille)</b> <br> en: <br> es: il <br> fr: egli, lui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ella(= illa)</b> <br> en: <br> es: elle <br> fr: ella, lei <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> en: equally <br> es: également <br> fr: egualmente, ugualmente <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> en: likewise, also <br> es: igualmente, también <br> fr: également <br> it: egualmente, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>erga</b> <br> en: against <br> es: contra <br> fr: contre <br> it: contro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>erga</b> <br> en: in respect to <br> es: con respecto a <br> fr: par rapport à <br> it: in rapporto a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>erga</b> <br> en: towards <br> es: vis-à-vis <br> fr: di fronte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ergo</b> <br> en: consequently, accordingly, therefore, then <br> es: por consiguiente, ergo, por eso <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esse, essa, esso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> fr: questo, questa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esser in dubita</b> <br> en: to be in doubt <br> es: estar en duda, dudar <br> fr: être dans le doute, douter <br> it: essere in dubbio/nel dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esser satis</b> <br> en: to be enough <br> es: ser suficiente, ser bastante <br> fr: être assez, être suffisant <br> it: essere sufficiente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esso(=isso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ceci <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>este, esta, esto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> fr: questo, questa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esto(= isto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ceci <br> fr: questo, questo qui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>est-que [ést-ke](= an)</b> <br> en: <br> es: est-ce que <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>est-que ille habe le libro?(= an ille habe le libro)</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> it: (egli) ha il libro ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> en: also <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: e, anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> en: and <br> es: y, e <br> fr: et <br> it: e <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et cetera, etc. </b><br> and so on, and so forth, etc. <br> es: etcetera, etc. <br> fr: et ainsi de suite, et cetera, etc. <br> it: eccetera, così di seguito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et. . . et. . . (= e. . . e. . . )</b> <br> en: as well. . . as..., both. . . and... <br> es: sea. . . sea. . . <br> fr: et. . . et. . . <br> it: e. . . e. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etiam(= anque, tamben)</b> <br> en: also, likewise, too; even, even yet; yet <br> es: también, del mismo modo, igualmente, incluso <br> fr: aussi, même, <br> it: anche, lo stesso, allo stesso modo, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> en: and yet <br> es: e incluso <br> fr: et même <br> it: e ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> en: even if <br> es: incluso si <br> fr: même si <br> it: anche se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> en: though, although <br> es: quoique, bien que <br> fr: benché <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ex</b> <br> en: out of; from <br> es: fuera de; desde, de <br> fr: hors de <br> it: ex, fuori da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ex tempore</b> <br> en: extempore <br> es: impromptu, improvisé <br> fr: ex tempore, imrpovvisato <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>exactamente(= justo)</b> <br> en: exactly, just <br> es: exactamente, justo <br> fr: exactement, juste, justement <br> it: giusto, esatto, esattamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>excepto</b> <br> en: except, excepting <br> es: excepto, exceptuando <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>excessivamente(= in excesso, troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: excessivement <br> fr: eccessivamente, troppo, in eccesso <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>expresso</b> <br> en: purposely <br> es: intencionadamente <br> fr: exprès <br> it: espresso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extero</b> <br> en: foreign countries <br> es: países extranjeros <br> fr: pays étrangers(à l'étranger) <br> it: estero, paese straniero <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: besides, in addition to <br> es: además de, en adición a <br> fr: en plus de, <br> it: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: besides, in addition, extra <br> es: además, en adición, extra <br> fr: de plus, en plus, d'autre part, par ailleurs <br> it: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: excepting, except <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: outside of, without, beyond <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: hors de, en dehors de, au délà de <br> it: fuori di, al di fuori di, oltre a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: without, on the outside <br> es: fuera, en la parte de afuera <br> fr: à l'extérieur <br> it: all'esterno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>f(littera): fe /f/</b> <br> en: <br> es: f(lettre): èfe /f/ <br> fr: f, effe <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>facie a(= ob, in la via de)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: cara a, hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: face à, en face de, devant, considérant, en raison de <br> it: davanti a, in ragione di, di fronte a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>facie a facie</b> <br> en: face to face <br> es: cara cara <br> fr: face à face <br> it: faccia a faccia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>facile a(+ inf), facile de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: fácil de(+ inf) <br> fr: facile à(+inf), facile de(+inf) <br> it: facile da, facile a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au délà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: except <br> es: fuera de, excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto, fuori da/che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: from without <br> es: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> fr: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: out of doors, outside, out <br> es: à l'extérieur <br> fr: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for de</b> <br> en: outside of, without <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: hors de, à l'extérieur de <br> it: fuori da, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for de se(= foras de se, foris de se)</b> <br> en: beside oneself <br> es: fuera de sí <br> fr: hors de soi <br> it: fuori di sé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au délà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: except <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: from without <br> es: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> fr: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: out of doors, outside, out <br> es: fuera, afuera <br> fr: dehors <br> it: fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de</b> <br> en: outside of, without <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: au dehors de <br> it: senza, al di fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de dubita, foris de dubita</b> <br> en: beyond doubt <br> es: fuera de duda <br> fr: hors de tout doute <br> it: senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de lo commun(= foris de lo commun)</b> <br> en: out of the ordinary <br> es: fuera de lo común <br> fr: hors de l'ordinaire <br> it: fuori dall'ordinario <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de proposito</b> <br> en: ill-timed, irrelevant, beside the mark <br> es: fuera de propósito, irrelevante <br> fr: hors de propos <br> it: irrilevante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de se</b> <br> en: beside oneself <br> es: fuera de sí <br> fr: hors de soi <br> it: fuori di sé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> en: perhaps, maybe <br> es: posiblemente, quizás, tal vez, es posible que. . . <br> fr: peut-être, possiblement <br> it: può essere, forse <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> en: perhaps, maybe <br> es: probablemente, quizás, tal vez <br> fr: peut-être, probablement <br> it: può essere, probabilmente, forse <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>frequentemente</b> <br> en: frequently, often <br> es: frecuentemente, a menudo <br> fr: souvent, fréquemment <br> it: frequentemente, sovente, spesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>frustra</b> <br> en: in vain <br> es: en vano <br> fr: en vain <br> it: invano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>g(littera): ge /g/ aut /j/</b> <br> en: <br> es: g(lettre): jé /gh/ ou /j/ <br> fr: g/gi(pron. : come j di John) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>grande(= magne, magna, magno)</b> <br> en: <br> es: grande; magno, magna <br> fr: grand, grande <br> it: grande, gran <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>grandemente</b> <br> en: <br> es: grandemente <br> fr: grandement <br> it: grandemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>gratias a</b> <br> en: thanks to, due or owing to <br> es: gracias a, debido a <br> fr: grâce à <br> it: grazie a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>gratias!</b> <br> en: thank you! thanks! <br> es: gracias! <br> fr: grâce! <br> it: grazie <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>gratis</b> <br> en: gratis, free(of charge) <br> es: gratis <br> fr: gratis, gratuit <br> it: gratis, gratuito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>guai</b> <br> en: woe <br> es: pena <br> fr: ennui, malheur, chagrin, peine <br> it: guai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>h(littera): hache /h/</b> <br> en: <br> es: h(lettre): ache /muet/ <br> fr: h, acca(muta, ma dopo C e G cambia la pronuncia da dolce a dura(chi=ki; ghi=g di girl inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>haber satis</b> <br> en: to have enough <br> es: tener suficiente, tener bastante <br> fr: avoir assez <br> it: avere abbastanza, avere a sufficienza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hac</b> <br> en: here, this way, on this side <br> es: aquí, en este lado <br> fr: ici, par là, de ce côté <br> it: qui, di qui, di qua, da questa parte, in questo luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hallo!</b> <br> en: hello! <br> es: hola! <br> fr: allo! <br> it: ciao <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>halto</b> <br> en: halt, stop <br> es: alto <br> fr: halte, arrêt, stop <br> it: stop, alt, fermo! basta! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>halto!</b> <br> en: halt! <br> es: alto! <br> fr: halte! <br> it: fermo!, ferma! stop! alt! altolà! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>heri</b> <br> en: yesterday <br> es: ayer <br> fr: hier <br> it: ieri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>heri vespera</b> <br> en: last night <br> es: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> fr: la nuit dernière <br> it: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>heri vespere</b> <br> en: last night <br> es: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> fr: la nuit dernière <br> it: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hic</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hic(= iste)</b> <br> en: <br> es: -ci <br> fr: qui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hic juncto</b> <br> en: herewith, hereto(attached) <br> es: ci-joint <br> fr: qui accanto, qui con <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this place <br> es: de aquí en adelante, desde este sitio en adelante <br> fr: d'ici <br> it: da qui(da qui in poi, da qui in avanti) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this reason) <br> es: de aquí en adelante, por esta razón <br> fr: de là, par conséquent <br> it: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this time <br> es: de aquí en adelante, desde este tiempo en adelante <br> fr: dorénavant, désormais <br> it: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> en: it <br> es: ce, cela <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> en: this(thing, idea) <br> es: ce, ceci, cela <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc est</b> <br> en: that is(to say) <br> es: es decir <br> fr: c'est-à-dire <br> it: come a dire, cioé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc pluve</b> <br> en: it is raining <br> es: llueve, está lloviendo <br> fr: il pleut <br> it: piove, sta piovendo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hodie</b> <br> en: today <br> es: hoy <br> fr: aujourd'hui <br> it: oggi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hodie ipse</b> <br> en: this very say <br> es: hoy mismo <br> fr: aujourd'hui même <br> it: oggi stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hodie mesmo</b> <br> en: this very day <br> es: hoy mismo <br> fr: aujourd'hui même <br> it: anche oggi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>holla!</b> <br> en: holla! <br> es: hola! <br> fr: allo! <br> it: ciao! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>homo(=on, uno)</b> <br> en: <br> es: on <br> fr: un, uno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>i(littera): i /i/</b> <br> en: <br> es: i(lettre): i /i/ <br> fr: i <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibi</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibid. , ib. </b><br> ibid. , ib. <br> es: ibid. , ib. <br> fr: ibid. , ib. <br> it: ibid. , ib. <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> en: ibidem <br> es: ibidem, en el mismo lugar <br> fr: ibidem <br> it: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> en: in the same place, in that very place <br> es: en el mismo lugar <br> fr: au même endroit <br> it: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>id</b> <br> en: 1. it; 2. that <br> es: esto <br> fr: ce <br> it: questo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>id est, i. e. </b><br> that is(to say), i. e. <br> es: esto es, es decir <br> fr: c'est-à-dire, i. e. <br> it: cioé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>idem</b> <br> en: idem <br> es: idem <br> fr: idem <br> it: idem, lo stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>idem</b> <br> en: the same(thing) <br> es: la misma cosa; lo mismo <br> fr: la même chose, le même <br> it: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, idem <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>igitur</b> <br> en: <br> es: entonces, por consiguiente <br> fr: donc, par conséquent <br> it: quindi, di conseguenza, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il</b> <br> en: it <br> es: ce, c', il <br> fr: egli <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il(= ille)</b> <br> en: <br> es: il <br> fr: egli <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il conveni de(facer lo)</b> <br> en: it is fitting, advisable, to(do it) <br> es: conviene(hacerlo) <br> fr: il convient de(le faire) <br> it: conviene(farlo) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est a dicer</b> <br> en: <br> es: es decir, o sea <br> fr: c'est-à-dire <br> it: cioè <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est bon que, il est bono que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es bueno que <br> fr: il est bon que, c'est bon que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est bon, il est bono</b> <br> en: <br> es: es bueno <br> fr: il est bon, c'est bon <br> it: va bene <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est necessari que, il est necessario que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario que <br> fr: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> it: è necessario che, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est necessari, il est necessario</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario <br> fr: il est nécessaire, c'est nécessaire <br> it: è necessario, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est necesse que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario que <br> fr: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> it: è necessario, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est vero, nonne?</b> <br> en: it is true, isn't it?, isn't that so? <br> es: es verdad, no es así? <br> fr: c'est vrai, non? n'est-ce pas vrai? n'est-il pas vrai? <br> it: è vero ? non è vero ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il face</b> <br> en: ago <br> es: hace <br> fr: il y a(deux ans) <br> it: fa(due anni fa) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il face(un) grande calor</b> <br> en: it is very hot <br> es: hace mucho calor <br> fr: il fait une grande chaleur <br> it: fa un gran caldo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il face frigido</b> <br> en: it is cold(weather) <br> es: hace frío <br> fr: il fait froid <br> it: fa freddo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il ha</b> <br> en: <br> es: hay <br> fr: il y a <br> it: c'è <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il habe</b> <br> en: there is, there aree <br> es: hay <br> fr: il y a <br> it: c'è <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il importa que. . . </b><br> it is essential that. . . <br> es: importa que, es importante que, es esencial que <br> fr: il faut que <br> it: è che, bisogna, è necessario che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il pare que</b> <br> en: <br> es: parece que <br> fr: il paraît que <br> it: sembra che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il se tracta de</b> <br> en: <br> es: se trata de <br> fr: il s'agit de <br> it: si tratta di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il va sin dicer</b> <br> en: <br> es: il va sans dire <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illa</b> <br> en: her(as in "of her, " "with her") <br> es: ella <br> fr: elle <br> it: ella, essa, lei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illa</b> <br> en: she <br> es: ella <br> fr: elle <br> it: ella, essa, lei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illac</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille habe 20 annos</b> <br> en: he is 20 years old <br> es: il a vingt(20) ans <br> fr: venti anni fa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: he; she; it <br> es: él, ella, ello <br> fr: il, elle <br> it: egli, ella, lui, lei, esso, essa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: him; her; it(as in "with him, " "with it"; "for him, " "for it") <br> es: él, ella, ello <br> fr: lui, elle(comme dans "avec lui, " "avec elle"; "pour lui" "pour elle") <br> it: lui, lei(con lei, per lei, a lui, con lui, per lei, per lui) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: that(one) <br> es: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, pron. dém. : celui-là. celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: that, those <br> es: aquel, aquella <br> fr: <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: the former <br> es: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello là, quella là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: the former(= first of two) <br> es: aquel, aquella <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> en: them(as in "with them, " "for them") <br> es: ellos, ellas <br> fr: eux, elles(comme dans "avec eux" ou "avec elles", "pour eux" ou "pour elles") <br> it: essi, esse, loro(con essi, con loro, a loro, per loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> en: they <br> es: ellos, ellas <br> fr: ils, elles <br> it: essi, esse, loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illes, illas, illos(= aquelles, aquellas, aquellos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: aquellos, aquellas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-là, pron. dém. : ceux-là <br> it: quelli là, quelle là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illi(= illes)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ??????? <br> fr: essi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illic(= illac)</b> <br> en: <br> es: là <br> fr: là <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illo</b> <br> en: it [used as subject, and as object of a prep.] <br> es: ello <br> fr: ça <br> it: ciò, quello <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in</b> <br> en: in, into <br> es: en, dentro <br> fr: dans <br> it: in, nel, nello, nella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: = gerundio <br> fr: en(part. prés. ) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alicun modo</b> <br> en: <br> es: de algún modo, de alguna manera <br> fr: de quelque façon <br> it: in qualche modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alicuna forma</b> <br> en: <br> es: de alguna forma <br> fr: de quelque forme <br> it: in qualche forma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alicuna maniera</b> <br> en: <br> es: de alguna manera <br> fr: de quelque manière <br> it: in qualche maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alta voce</b> <br> en: aloud, loudly, not in a whisper <br> es: en alta voz <br> fr: à haute voix <br> it: ad alta voce <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alteras parolas</b> <br> en: <br> es: en otras palabras <br> fr: dans d'autres mots <br> it: in altre parole, in altri termini <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> en: (up) on top; also: upstairs <br> es: arriba, hacia arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, su <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> en: upward(s), up; also: upstairs <br> es: arriba, hacia arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, su <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alto(= super)</b> <br> en: above, on top <br> es: arriba, sobre <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> en: down, below; also: downstairs <br> es: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> fr: en bas, en dessous <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> en: down, downward; also: downstairs <br> es: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> fr: en bas <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in caso de</b> <br> en: in case of <br> es: en caso de <br> fr: en cas de <br> it: in caso di, nel caso che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in caso de necessitate</b> <br> en: in case of need, of necessity <br> es: en caso de necesidad <br> fr: en cas de nécessité <br> it: in caso di necessità, all'occorrenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in caso que</b> <br> en: in case(that) <br> es: en caso de que <br> fr: au cas où <br> it: nel caso che, in caso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in certos casos</b> <br> en: <br> es: en ciertos casos <br> fr: dans certains cas <br> it: in certi casi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in commemoration de</b> <br> en: in commemoration of <br> es: en conmemoración de <br> fr: en commémoration de <br> it: in commemorazione di, in ricordo di, in memoria di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in commun</b> <br> en: in common <br> es: en común <br> fr: en commun <br> it: in comune <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in conclusion, in fin</b> <br> en: in conclusion <br> es: en conclusión <br> fr: en conclusion <br> it: in conclusione <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in consequentia</b> <br> en: in consequence, accordingly <br> es: en consecuencia <br> fr: en conséquence <br> it: in conseguenza, conseguentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in consequentia de</b> <br> en: in consequence of <br> es: en consecuencia de <br> fr: en conséquence de <br> it: in conseguenza di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in consideration de</b> <br> en: in consideration of, on account of <br> es: en consideración de <br> fr: en considération de <br> it: in considerazione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in despecto de</b> <br> en: in spite of, despite <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado, a dispetto di, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in domo de</b> <br> en: at the house of <br> es: en la casa de <br> fr: à la résidence de <br> it: in casa di, presso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in effecto</b> <br> en: in fact, indeed <br> es: en efecto <br> fr: en fait, effectivement <br> it: infatti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in evidentia</b> <br> en: evident <br> es: en evidencia <br> fr: en évidence <br> it: in evidenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in excesso(= excessivamente, troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: en exceso, excesivamente, demasiado <br> fr: en excès(=excessivement, trop) <br> it: in eccesso, troppo, eccessivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in favor de</b> <br> en: on behalf of, in favor of <br> es: a favor de <br> fr: en faveur de <br> it: in favore di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in fin</b> <br> en: in short, to sum up <br> es: en conclusión, en fin <br> fr: enfin, en conclusion, finalement <br> it: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in fin, in conclusion</b> <br> en: in conclusion <br> es: en fin, en conclusión <br> fr: enfin, en conclusion <br> it: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in general</b> <br> en: in general <br> es: en general <br> fr: en général <br> it: in generale, in genere, di norma, usualmente, normalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in honor de</b> <br> en: in honor of <br> es: en honor de <br> fr: en honneur de <br> it: in onore di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in la proximitate de</b> <br> en: in the proximity or vicinity of <br> es: en la proximidad o vecindad de <br> fr: à proximité de <br> it: in prossimità di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in la via de(= facie a, ob)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> it: prima di, davanti a, in ragione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le curso de. . . </b><br> in the course of. . . <br> es: en el curso de <br> fr: au cours de <br> it: in corso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le exterior</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el exterior <br> fr: à l'extérieur <br> it: all'esterno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le exterior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el exterior de <br> fr: à l'extérieur de <br> it: all'esterno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le fundo</b> <br> en: fundamentally, at bottom <br> es: en el fondo, fundamentalmente <br> fr: au fond, fondamentalement <br> it: in fondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le gusto de. . . </b><br> in the manner of. . . <br> es: al gusto de, a la manera de <br> fr: au goût de <br> it: al gusto di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le interim</b> <br> en: in the interim <br> es: en el interim <br> fr: dans l'intérim <br> it: nel frattempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le interior</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el interior <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le interior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el interior de <br> fr: à l'intérieur de <br> it: all'interno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le passato</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el pasado <br> fr: dans le passé <br> it: nel passato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le principio</b> <br> en: in the beginning <br> es: al principio <br> fr: au début <br> it: all'inizio, inizialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in loco de</b> <br> en: in lieu of, instead of <br> es: en lugar de <br> fr: au lieu de <br> it: in luogo di, al posto di, invece di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in medio de</b> <br> en: in the middle of <br> es: en medio de <br> fr: au milieu de <br> it: in mezzo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in memoria de</b> <br> en: in memory of <br> es: en memoria de <br> fr: en mémoire de <br> it: in memoria di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in modo special, specialmente</b> <br> en: especially <br> es: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> fr: en particulier, spécialement <br> it: in particolare, specialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in modo. . . (= -mente)</b> <br> en:ly <br> es: -mente <br> fr: -ment <br> it: -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in nomine de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en nombre de <br> fr: au nom de <br> it: in nome di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in nulla parte</b> <br> en: nowhere <br> es: en ninguna parte <br> fr: nulle part <br> it: in nessun luogo, da nessuna parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in nulle caso</b> <br> en: in no case <br> es: en ningún caso <br> fr: en aucun cas <br> it: in alcun caso, in nessun caso, mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in omne caso</b> <br> en: in any case <br> es: en todo caso <br> fr: en tout cas <br> it: in ogni caso, in utti i casi, sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in parte</b> <br> en: in part, partially <br> es: en parte, parcialmente <br> fr: en partie <br> it: in parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in particular</b> <br> en: in particular, particularly <br> es: en particular, particularmente <br> fr: en particulier <br> it: in particolare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in pauco</b> <br> en: shortly, before long <br> es: en poco tiempo, dentro de poco, en breve <br> fr: d'ici peu <br> it: in poco tempo, da qui a un poco, in un attimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in plus</b> <br> en: furthermore, in addition, also <br> es: además, adicionalmente <br> fr: de plus, en plus, en outre <br> it: di più, in più, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in primo loco</b> <br> en: first, in the first place <br> es: en primer lugar <br> fr: en premier lieu <br> it: in primo luogo, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in principio</b> <br> en: in principle, as a rule <br> es: en principio <br> fr: en principe <br> it: in principio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in su loco</b> <br> en: <br> es: en su lugar <br> fr: à sa place <br> it: al suo posto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in summa</b> <br> en: <br> es: en suma <br> fr: en somme <br> it: insomma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in tanto que</b> <br> en: inasmuch as, in so far as <br> es: en tanto que <br> fr: en tant que <br> it: in tanto che, fin tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in toto</b> <br> en: entirely, wholly, in toto <br> es: en todo <br> fr: en tout <br> it: in tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in toto et per toto</b> <br> en: entirely, wholly <br> es: en todo y por todo <br> fr: en tout et pour tout <br> it: in tutto e per tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in vano</b> <br> en: <br> es: en vano <br> fr: en vain <br> it: invano, inutilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in vice de</b> <br> en: instead of <br> es: en vez de, en lugar de <br> fr: au lieu de <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in vista de</b> <br> en: in view of <br> es: en vista de <br> fr: en vue de <br> it: in vista di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inde</b> <br> en: from that cause, therefore <br> es: por esa causa, por consiguiente <br> fr: de ce fait, de là <br> it: per questo, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inde</b> <br> en: from that place, from there, thence <br> es: desde aquí, desde este sitio <br> fr: d'ici <br> it: da qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inde</b> <br> en: from that time, after that, thereupon, thenceforward <br> es: desde este momento, después de eso <br> fr: désormais, dorénavant <br> it: da questo momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inferior</b> <br> en: <br> es: inferior <br> fr: inférieur(e) <br> it: inferiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>infime, infima, infimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: ínfimo, ínfima <br> fr: infime <br> it: infimo, infima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>1</b> <br> en: below, under, beneath <br> es: debajo de <br> fr: sous, dessous <br> it: sotto, in basso, in profondità <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>infra</b> <br> en: below, underneath, beneath <br> es: debajo <br> fr: sous, dessous, en dessous <br> it: dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>insimul(= junctamente)</b> <br> en: together <br> es: juntos, juntas <br> fr: ensemble <br> it: insieme <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inter</b> <br> en: among <br> es: entre <br> fr: parmi <br> it: tra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inter</b> <br> en: between <br> es: entre <br> fr: entre <br> it: tra, fra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inter alia</b> <br> en: inter alia, among other things <br> es: entre otras cosas <br> fr: entre autres choses, parmi tant d'autres <br> it: tra l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>interdum</b> <br> en: sometimes, occasionally; for some time; meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: a veces, de vez en cuando; durante algún tiempo; entretanto <br> fr: parfois, à l'occasion, pour quelque temps, entre-temps <br> it: qualchevolta, talvolta, durante, nel frattempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>interea</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto <br> fr: entre-temps <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>interim(= intertanto)</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto, mientras tanto <br> fr: entre-temps <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intertanto(= interim)</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto <br> fr: en attendant <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intra</b> <br> en: within <br> es: dentro <br> fr: entre, dans <br> it: in, nel, nella, dentro il <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intra</b> <br> en: within <br> es: dentro de <br> fr: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> it: all'interno di, nel, in <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intro</b> <br> en: inwardly <br> es: hacia dentro <br> fr: vers l'intérieur <br> it: verso l'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intro</b> <br> en: inwardly, internally, on the inside, in <br> es: internamente, interiormente, enm el interior <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intus</b> <br> en: inside, into, to the inside <br> es: al interior <br> fr: vers l'intérieur <br> it: verso l'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intus</b> <br> en: inside, on the inside, within <br> es: en el interior, dentro de <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>io(=ego)</b> <br> en: I <br> es: yo <br> fr: je(=moi) <br> it: io <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>io mesme, io mesma, io mesmo, io ipse</b> <br> en: myself <br> es: yo mismo, yo mismo <br> fr: moi même <br> it: io stesso, me stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ipse</b> <br> en:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> es: mismo, misma(yo mismo, tú mismo, él mismo, etc. <br> fr: -même <br> it: stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>is</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: ce <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isse(= esse)</b> <br> en: this, that, these, those <br> es: ese <br> fr: ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-là, ceux-ci <br> it: questo, questa, questo qui, questa qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isse, issa, isso(= aquesse, aquessa, aquesso)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: ese, esa, eso <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isses, issas, issos(= aquesses, aquessas, aquessos)</b> <br> en: these <br> es: esos, esas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> it: questi, queste <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isso</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: eso <br> fr: ce. ceci, cela <br> it: questo, quello <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ista nocte</b> <br> en: tonight <br> es: esta noche <br> fr: cette nuit <br> it: questa notte, stanotte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ista vespera</b> <br> en: this evening, tonight <br> es: esta tarde, esta noche <br> fr: ce soir <br> it: questa sera, stasera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste vespere</b> <br> en: this evening, tonight <br> es: esta tarde, esta noche <br> fr: ce soir <br> it: questa sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: the latter <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo/a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: the latter(= second of two) <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo/a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: this(one) <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto(= aqueste, aquesta, aquesto)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>istes, istas, istos(= aquestes, aquestas, aquestos)</b> <br> en: these <br> es: estos, estas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> it: questo qui, questa qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isto</b> <br> en: <br> es: esto <br> fr: ce, ceci, cela <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: accordingly, under the circumstances <br> es: de acuerdo con, bako las circunstancias <br> fr: en conséquence, dans les circonstances <br> it: così, di conseguenza, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: and so, consequently <br> es: así, consecuentemente, por consiguiente <br> fr: et ainsi, conséquemment <br> it: e così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: just so, yes <br> es: justamente, sí <br> fr: justement, oui <br> it: sì, giusto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>itaque</b> <br> en: and so, therefore <br> es: y así, por consiguiente <br> fr: et ainsi, donc <br> it: e così, dunque <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>itero</b> <br> en: again, anew <br> es: de nuevo, nuevamente <br> fr: encore <br> it: ancora, di nuovo, nuovamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>itero et itero</b> <br> en: again and again, repeatedly <br> es: una y otra vez, repetidamente <br> fr: encore et encore <br> it: ancora ed ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>j(littera): jota /j/</b> <br> en: <br> es: j(lettre): ji /j/(et non /dj/) <br> fr: j(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo; si usa nelle parole antiche o straniere) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> en: already; at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely <br> es: ya, ahora mismo <br> fr: déjà, tout de suite, il y a un moment, en effet, sûrement <br> it: già, al momento, proprio adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> en: indeed, certainly, of course <br> es: ya, ciertamente <br> fr: en effet, bien sûr <br> it: in effetti, già, sicuramente, certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jammais</b> <br> en: ever, at any time <br> es: siempre <br> fr: jamais <br> it: mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jammais!</b> <br> en: never! <br> es: jamás!, nunca! <br> fr: jamais! <br> it: mai giammai ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jo(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: yo <br> fr: je <br> it: io <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>junctamente(=insimul)</b> <br> en: together <br> es: juntos, juntas <br> fr: ensemble <br> it: insieme, con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>justo(= exactamente)</b> <br> en: just, exactly <br> es: justo, exactamente <br> fr: juste, exactement <br> it: giusto, esattamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>justo nunc(= justo ora)</b> <br> en: just now, right now <br> es: justo ahora <br> fr: juste maintenant <br> it: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>justo ora(= justo nunc)</b> <br> en: just now, right now <br> es: justo ahora <br> fr: juste maintenant <br> it: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> en: near, near by <br> es: cerca, al lado <br> fr: près <br> it: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> en: near, near to, next to, etc. <br> es: cerca de, al lado de <br> fr: près de <br> it: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>k(littera): ka /k/</b> <br> en: <br> es: k(lettre): ka /k/ <br> fr: k(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo), kappa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>l(littera): le /l/</b> <br> en: <br> es: l(lettre): èle /l/ <br> fr: l, elle <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>l'(= le, la, lo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: l'(= le, la) <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la</b> <br> en: her(as in "I see her", "I write her a letter") <br> es: la, le <br> fr: la, lui(comme dans "je la vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> it: la, lei(io la vedo, io le ho scritto una lettera) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la(= illac)</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allá, allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la medietate del mundo</b> <br> en: half the world <br> es: la mitad del mundo, medio mundo <br> fr: la moitié du monde <br> it: mezzo mondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la mesma cosa</b> <br> en: <br> es: la misma cosa, lo mismo <br> fr: la même chose <br> it: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, la medesima cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la vespera</b> <br> en: in the evening, evenings <br> es: por la tarde <br> fr: le soir <br> it: la sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la:(un dollar) la(libra)</b> <br> en: (one dollar) a(pound) <br> es: (un dolar) la(libra) <br> fr: la:(un dollar) la(livre) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el(+ inf) <br> fr: le(+ inf) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le de, la de, lo de</b> <br> en: <br> es: el de, la de, lo de <br> fr: celui de, celle de <br> it: quello di, quella di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le die sequente</b> <br> en: the next day, the following day <br> es: el día siguiente <br> fr: le jour suivant <br> it: il giorno dopo, il giorno seguente, il giorno successivo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le lore, la lore, lo lore</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: le leur, la leur <br> it: il loro, la loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le melior, la melior, lo melior(= le optime, la optima, lo optimo; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> en: the best <br> es: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le mie et le tue, la mia et la tua, lo mio et lo tuo</b> <br> en: mine and thine <br> es: el mío y el tuyo, la mía y la tuya, lo mío y lo tuyo <br> fr: le mien et le tien. la mienne et la tienne <br> it: il mio e il tuo, la mia e la tua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le mie, la mia, lo mio</b> <br> en: mine <br> es: el mío, la mía, lo mío <br> fr: le mien, la mienne <br> it: il mio, la mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minime, la minima, lo minino(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minor, la minor, lo minor(= le minime, la minima, lo minimo; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il minore, la minore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minus</b> <br> en: the least(as in "what pleases me(the) least") <br> es: el menor <br> fr: le moins <br> it: il meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minus belle, la minus bella, lo minus bello</b> <br> en: the least beautiful <br> es: el menos bello, la menos bella, lo menos bello <br> fr: le moins beau, la moins belle <br> it: il meno bello, lameno bella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le nostre, la nostra, lo nostro</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro <br> fr: le nôtre, la nôtre <br> it: il nostro, la nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le optime, la optima, lo optimo(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el mejor, la mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el pésimo, la pésima, lo pésimo <br> fr: le pire la pire <br> it: il pessimo, la pessima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus belle, la plus bella, lo plus bello</b> <br> en: the most beautiful <br> es: el más bonito, la más bonita, lo más bonito <br> fr: le plus beau, la plus belle <br> it: il più bello, la più bella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le optime, la optima, lo optimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande(= le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> fr: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> it: il più grande, la più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno(= le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> fr: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> it: il più grande, la più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le minime, la minima, lo minimo)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus. . . -mente(= lo plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: lo más. . . -mente <br> fr: le plus... -ment <br> it: il più. . . -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus. . . , la plus. . . , lo plus. . . </b><br> the most. . . <br> es: el más. . . , la más. . . , lo más. . . <br> fr: le plus..., la plus... <br> it: il più. . . la più. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le qual, la qual, lo qual</b> <br> en: which; that; who <br> es: el cual, la cual, lo cual <br> fr: lequel, laquelle <br> it: il quale, la quale <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le que, la que, lo que</b> <br> en: <br> es: el que, la que, lo que <br> fr: celui qui, celle qui <br> it: quello che, quella che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le sue, la sua, lo suo</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: le sien, la sienne(de lui, d'elle) <br> it: il suo, la sua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le toto</b> <br> en: the whole <br> es: el todo <br> fr: le tout <br> it: il tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le tue, la tua, lo tuo</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo <br> fr: le tien, la tienne <br> it: il tuo, la tua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le un le altere, la una la altera, lo uno lo altero(= unaltre)</b> <br> en: one another, each other, each(one). . . the other(one) <br> es: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> fr: l'un l'autre, l'une l'autre <br> it: l'un l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vespere</b> <br> en: in the evenong, evenings <br> es: la tarde <br> fr: le soir <br> it: la sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il vostro, la vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de usted) <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il Suo, la Sua(di Lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ustedes) <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il loro, la loro(di Loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> en: him(as in "I see him", "I write him a letter") <br> es: le, la, lo <br> fr: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je le vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> en: it(as in "I like it", "I'll give it another thought") <br> es: le, la, lo <br> fr: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> en: the <br> es: el, la, lo <br> fr: le, la, l' <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les de, las de, los de</b> <br> en: <br> es: los de, las de <br> fr: ceux de, celles de <br> it: quelli di, quelle di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les duo, las duas, los duos</b> <br> en: the two <br> es: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> fr: les deux <br> it: i due, ambo, ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les lores, las lores, los lores</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: i loro, le loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les mies, las mias, los mios</b> <br> en: <br> es: los míos, las mías <br> fr: les miens, les miennes <br> it: i miei, le mie <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les nostres, las nostras, los nostros</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: los nuestros, las nuestras <br> fr: les nôtres <br> it: i nostri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les que, las que, los que</b> <br> en: <br> es: los que, las que <br> fr: ceux que, ceux qui, celles que. celles qui <br> it: quelli che, quelle che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les sues, las suas, los suos</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: les siens, les siennes(de lui ou d'elle) <br> it: i loro, le loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les tues, las tuas, los tuos</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: los tuyos, las tuyas <br> fr: les tiens, les tiennes <br> it: i tuoi, le tue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les unes les alteres</b> <br> en: one another, each other, each(of them). . . the others, other ones <br> es: unos los otros, unos a los otros <br> fr: les uns les autres <br> it: gli uni gli altri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les unes les alteres, las unas las alteras, los unos los alteros</b> <br> en: one another, each other <br> es: unos los otros, unos a los otros, unas a las otras <br> fr: les uns les autres, <br> it: gli uni gli altri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: los vuestros, las vuestras <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i vostri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de usted) <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i Suoi(di Lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de ustedes) <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i Loro(di Loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> en: the <br> es: los, las <br> fr: les <br> it: i, le <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> en: them(as in "I see them", "I write them a letter") <br> es: les, los, las <br> fr: les, leur(comme dans "je les vois", "je leur écris une lettre") <br> it: li, le <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> en: on the left hand <br> es: a la izquierda <br> fr: à gauche <br> it: a sinistra, sinistrorso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> en: to the left <br> es: a la izquierda <br> fr: à gauche <br> it: a sinistra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>li(= le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ?????? <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lo</b> <br> en: it(as in "I like it, " "I'll give it another thought") <br> es: lo <br> fr: le, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> it: lo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lo plus. . . -mente(= le plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: lo más. . . -mente <br> fr: le plus... -ment <br> it: il più. . . -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lo que</b> <br> en: that which <br> es: lo que <br> fr: ce que <br> it: quello che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>loco</b> <br> en: place <br> es: lugar <br> fr: lieu <br> it: luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>longamente</b> <br> en: long, for a long time <br> es: durante mucho tiempo <br> fr: longtemps <br> it: a lungo, lungamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>longe(= longo)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos(= no cerca) <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>longo(= longe)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos(= no cerca) <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lontan(= lontano)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos; distante, lejano <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano, distante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lontano(= lontan)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos; distante, lejano <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano, distante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lor</b> <br> en: their <br> es: su(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lore</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: suyo, suya(de ellos, o ellas) <br> fr: le leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lores</b> <br> en: their <br> es: sus(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lores</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: suyos, suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>los altos et(los) bassos</b> <br> en: th ups and downs <br> es: los altos y(los) bajos <br> fr: les hauts et les bas <br> it: gli alti e bassi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>los mios</b> <br> en: my people, my family <br> es: los míos <br> fr: les miens <br> it: i miei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>m(littera): me /m/</b> <br> en: <br> es: m(lettre): ème /m/ <br> fr: m, emme <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ma(= mais)</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero, mas <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>magis</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>magis</b> <br> en: rather <br> es: más bien <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>magne, magna, magno(= grande)</b> <br> en: <br> es: grand, grande <br> fr: grande <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mais(= ma)</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero, mas <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>major</b> <br> en: <br> es: majeur(e), principal(e) <br> fr: maggiore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mal, mala, malo</b> <br> en: <br> es: mal, mauvais, mauvaise <br> fr: male, malvagio <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>malgrado(= malgre)</b> <br> en: in spite of <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>malgre(= malgrado)</b> <br> en: <br> es: malgré <br> fr: malgrado <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane</b> <br> en: early in the morning <br> es: temprano por la mañana <br> fr: <br> it: stamane, stamattina presto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane</b> <br> en: morning <br> es: mañana <br> fr: matin <br> it: mattino <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane vespera</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane vespere</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: certainly <br> es: ciertamente <br> fr: certainement <br> it: certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: especially, principally <br> es: especialmentre, principalmente <br> fr: spécialement, principalement <br> it: specialmente. principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: exceedingly, very <br> es: excesivamente, muy <br> fr: excessivement, très <br> it: eccessivamente, molto, troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: most <br> es: le plus <br> fr: il più <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime, maxima, maximo</b> <br> en: <br> es: le plus, la plus <br> fr: il più, la più <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>me</b> <br> en: me <br> es: me <br> fr: me, moi <br> it: me, mi(dallo a me, mi piace) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>me</b> <br> en: myself(as in "I hurt myself", "I said to myself") <br> es: me <br> fr: moi-même <br> it: io stesso, me stesso(io stesso ho scritto quel libro; l'ho scritto io stesso; l'ho fatto per me stesso) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>media hora</b> <br> en: half an hour <br> es: media hora <br> fr: demi-heure <br> it: mezz'ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: average, mean <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: moyen, moyenne <br> it: medio, media <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: half <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: demi <br> it: mezzo, mezza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: middle <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: milieu <br> it: mezzo, mezza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medietate</b> <br> en: half <br> es: mitad <br> fr: moitié, demi <br> it: metà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: half <br> es: medio <br> fr: moitié, demi <br> it: metà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: mean, medium <br> es: medio <br> fr: moyenne <br> it: medio, media <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: means(= agent or instrument by which an end is attained) <br> es: medios(=agente o instrumento mediante el cual se obtiene un fin) <br> fr: moyen <br> it: mediante, con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: middle, also: midst <br> es: medio, también: entre <br> fr: milieu <br> it: medio, in mezzo, in <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>melio</b> <br> en: better <br> es: mejor <br> fr: meilleur, mieux <br> it: migliore, meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>melior</b> <br> en: better <br> es: mejor <br> fr: meilleur, mieux <br> it: migliore, meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>meno(= minus)</b> <br> en: <br> es: menos <br> fr: moins <br> it: meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>-mente(= in modo. . . )</b> <br> en:ly <br> es: -mente <br> fr: -ment <br> it: -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> en: same <br> es: mismo, misma <br> fr: même <br> it: stesso, medesimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> en:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> es: mismo, misma <br> fr: même <br> it: stesso, medesimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> en: even <br> es: incluso <br> fr: même <br> it: incluso, stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> en: likewise <br> es: igualmente <br> fr: même, semblable <br> it: stesso, medesimo, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesmo quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: incluso cuando <br> fr: même quand <br> it: anche quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mi</b> <br> en: my <br> es: mi <br> fr: mon, ma <br> it: mio, mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mi(= me)</b> <br> en: <br> es: me <br> fr: me, moi <br> it: mio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mie, mia, mio</b> <br> en: mine <br> es: mío, mía <br> fr: le mien, la mienne <br> it: il mio, la mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mies, mias, mios</b> <br> en: <br> es: míos, mías <br> fr: les miens, les miennes <br> it: i miei, le mie <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minimamente</b> <br> en: <br> es: mínimamente <br> fr: minimalement <br> it: minimamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime</b> <br> en: by no means, not in the least, no! <br> es: de ninguna manera, en lo más mínimo, no! <br> fr: d'aucune façon, pas du tout, non! <br> it: in alcun modo, in nessun modo, no, assolutamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime</b> <br> en: least <br> es: le moins <br> fr: almeno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime</b> <br> en: very little <br> es: muy pequeño <br> fr: très peu <br> it: molto poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> en: least, smallest, minimal <br> es: mínimo, mínima <br> fr: le moins, la moins, le plus petit, la plus petite, minimal <br> it: minimo, la minima. . . la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> en: very small, tiny <br> es: muy pequeño, diminuto <br> fr: très petit <br> it: molto piccolo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minor</b> <br> en: <br> es: mineur(e) <br> fr: minore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus</b> <br> en: less <br> es: menos <br> fr: moins <br> it: meno, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> en: less(money, etc. ) <br> es: menos(dinero, etc. ) <br> fr: moins de(moins d'argent) <br> it: meno di, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus de</b> <br> en: less <br> es: menos de <br> fr: moins de <br> it: meno di, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus de(dece annos)</b> <br> en: less than(ten years) <br> es: menos de(diez años) <br> fr: moins de(dix ans) <br> it: meno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus. . . (que)</b> <br> en: less. . . (than) <br> es: menos. . . (que) <br> fr: moins...(que) <br> it: meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus:(quatro) minus(tres)</b> <br> en: (four) minus(three) <br> es: menos:(cuatro) menos(tres) <br> fr: moins:(quatre) moins(trois) <br> it: meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus:(totos) minus(ille)</b> <br> en: (all) except, but(him) <br> es: menos:(todos) menos él <br> fr: (tous) sauf(lui) <br> it: (tutti) meno(lui) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mis</b> <br> en: my <br> es: mis <br> fr: mon, ma <br> it: mio, mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mox</b> <br> en: soon, at once, directly <br> es: pronto, en seguida <br> fr: bientôt, tout-de-suite <br> it: presto, tosto, subito, prima possibile <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multas gratias</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchas gracias <br> fr: merci beaucoup <br> it: grazie molte, molte grazie, grazie infinite, grazie mille, grazie tante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multas vices</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchas veces <br> fr: plusieurs fois <br> it: più volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multe de, multa de, multo de</b> <br> en: much, many <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup de <br> it: molto di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> en: many <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto, molta, molti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto, molta, molti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multes, multas, multos</b> <br> en: many <br> es: muchos, muchas <br> fr: plusieurs, de nombreux, de nombreuses <br> it: molte, molti, numerosi, numerose <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multissime, multissima, multissimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchísimo, muchísima <br> fr: une grande quantité de <br> it: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multissimes, multissimas, multissimos</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchísimos, muchísimas <br> fr: un grand nombre de <br> it: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: mucho <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo</b> <br> en: very <br> es: muy <br> fr: très <br> it: molto, tanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo ben</b> <br> en: <br> es: muy bien <br> fr: très bien <br> it: molto bene <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo bon</b> <br> en: <br> es: muy bueno <br> fr: très bon <br> it: molto buono <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>n(littera): ne /n/</b> <br> en: <br> es: n(lettre): ène /n/ <br> fr: n, enne <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nam</b> <br> en: for <br> es: porque <br> fr: pour que <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, by nature <br> es: naturalmente, por naturaleza <br> fr: naturellement, par tempérament <br> it: naturalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, in a natural way <br> es: naturalmente, de una manera natural <br> fr: nuturellement, simplement <br> it: naturalmente, semplicemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, of course <br> es: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> fr: bien sûr, évidemment <br> it: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ne</b> <br> en: lest <br> es: para que non(+subj) <br> fr: de crainte que... ne(+subj. ) <br> it: perché no <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ne</b> <br> en: not <br> es: no <br> fr: ne... pas <br> it: no, non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nec(= ni)</b> <br> en: neither, nor, also not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nec. . . nec. . . (= ni. . . ni. . . )</b> <br> en: neither. . . nor. . . <br> es: ni. . . ni. . . <br> fr: ni. . . ni. . . <br> it: né. . . né. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>necun, necuna, necuno(= nulle, nulla, nullo)</b> <br> en: none, not any <br> es: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> fr: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> it: nessuno, nessuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>necuno(= nemo)</b> <br> en: nobody, no one, none <br> es: ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno, alcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nel(= in le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el <br> fr: dans le <br> it: nel <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nemine(= nemo)</b> <br> en: no one, nobody <br> es: nadie, ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nemo</b> <br> en: no one, nobody <br> es: nadie, ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>neque(= nec)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>neutro</b> <br> en: neither <br> es: ni uno ni otro <br> fr: ni un ni <br> it: né uno né l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni</b> <br> en: neither, nor, also not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni</b> <br> en: not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni</b> <br> en: that not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ?????? <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni uno ni le altero</b> <br> en: <br> es: ni uno ni otro <br> fr: ni l'un ni l'autre <br> it: né l'uno né l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni. . . ni. . . </b><br> neither. . . nor. . . <br> es: ni. . . ni. . . <br> fr: ni... ni... <br> it: né. . . né. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nihil(= nil)</b> <br> en: nothing <br> es: nada <br> fr: rien <br> it: nulla, niente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nihil de particular</b> <br> en: nothing particular <br> es: nada de particular <br> fr: rien de particulier <br> it: niente di particolare, nulla di particolare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nimie, nimia, nimio(= troppo)</b> <br> en: too much, too many <br> es: demasiado, demasiada <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nimis(=troppo)</b> <br> en: too, too much <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nisi</b> <br> en: if not, unless <br> es: si no, a menos que <br> fr: si non, à moins que <br> it: se non, a meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>no</b> <br> en: no <br> es: no <br> fr: non <br> it: no, non(no, non è vero; non fare) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>no!</b> <br> en: no! <br> es: no! <br> fr: non! <br> it: no! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nocte</b> <br> en: night <br> es: noche <br> fr: nuit <br> it: notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>noi(= nos)</b> <br> en: <br> es: nous <br> fr: noi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nolente</b> <br> en: unwillingly, against one's will <br> es: involuntariamente, sin querer <br> fr: involontairement <br> it: involontariamente, nolente, senza volere <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non</b> <br> en: no <br> es: no <br> fr: non <br> it: non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non</b> <br> en: not <br> es: non <br> fr: ne. . . pas <br> it: non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non est?(= nonne?)</b> <br> en: is it not? <br> es: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> fr: n'est-ce pas? <br> it: no? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non importa</b> <br> en: it doesn't matter, never mind <br> es: no importa <br> fr: c'est sans importance <br> it: non importa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non mesmo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pas même, même pas <br> fr: ugualmente no <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . sed etiam. . . </b><br> not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais même... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non!</b> <br> en: no! <br> es: no! <br> fr: non! <br> it: no ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . jam(= non. . . ja)</b> <br> en: no longer <br> es: no. . . ya <br> fr: ne... plus <br> it: non. . . più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . jammais(= nunquam)</b> <br> en: never <br> es: no. . . jamás <br> fr: ne... jamais <br> it: non. . . mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> en: no more, not any more, no longer <br> es: no más. . . <br> fr: ne... plus <br> it: non. . . più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> en: no more, not any more, nothing more <br> es: nada más <br> fr: ne... rien de plus <br> it: no, nulla più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nondum</b> <br> en: not yet <br> es: aún no, todavía no <br> fr: pas encore <br> it: non ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonne?(= non est?)</b> <br> en: is it not? <br> es: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> fr: n'est-ce pas? <br> it: no? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonnulle, nonnulla, nonnullo</b> <br> en: some, several <br> es: un poco de; plural: algunos, algunas <br> fr: un peu de <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonnullo</b> <br> en: some, several <br> es: un poco de <br> fr: un peu de <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> en: despite, in spite of <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> en: nevertheless <br> es: no obstante <br> fr: non-obstant <br> it: nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nos</b> <br> en: ourselves <br> es: nosotros mismos, nosotras mismas <br> fr: nous-mêmes <br> it: noi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nos</b> <br> en: us <br> es: nos <br> fr: nous <br> it: noi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nos</b> <br> en: we <br> es: nosotros, nosotras <br> fr: nous <br> it: noi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> en: our <br> es: nuestro, nuestra <br> fr: notre <br> it: nostro, nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: nuestro, nuestra <br> fr: le nôtre <br> it: nostro, nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> en: our <br> es: nuestros, nuestras <br> fr: notres <br> it: nostri, nostre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: nuestros, nuestras <br> fr: les nôtres <br> it: le nostre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nullamente</b> <br> en: in no way, not at all <br> es: de ninguna manera <br> fr: d'aucune façon <br> it: in alcun modo, in nessun modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: not any, no <br> es: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> fr: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> it: nessuno, nessuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: null, as in "null and void") <br> es: nulo, nula <br> fr: nul, nulle, (comme dans: "nul et sans effet") <br> it: nulla, niente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: null, worthless <br> es: nulo, nula, sin valor <br> fr: nul, nulle, sans valeur <br> it: nulla, nullo, senza valore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>num(= an, est-que)</b> <br> en: <br> es: es que. . . <br> fr: est-ce que <br> it: egli ha. . . ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>num ille habe le libro?</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre?, a-t-il le livre? <br> it: egli ha il libro ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nunc(= ora)</b> <br> en: now, at the present time <br> es: ahora <br> fr: maintenant <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nunc. . . nunc...(= ora. . . ora. . . )</b> <br> en: now. . . then. . . <br> es: ora. . . ora. . . <br> fr: parfois... parfois... <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nunquam</b> <br> en: never <br> es: nunca <br> fr: jamais <br> it: mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nuper</b> <br> en: newly, lately, recently <br> es: nuevamente, últimamente, recientemente <br> fr: nouvellement, dernièrement, récemment <br> it: nuovamente, ultimamente, recentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nusquam</b> <br> en: nowhere; not. . . anywhere <br> es: a ninguna parte <br> fr: nulle part <br> it: in alcun luogo, in nessun luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>o(= aut)</b> <br> en: <br> es: o, u <br> fr: ou <br> it: o <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>o(littera): o /o/</b> <br> en: <br> es: o(lettre): o /o/ <br> fr: o, o <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>o. . . o...(= aut. . . aut. . . )</b> <br> en: <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou... ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ob(= facie a, in la via de)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> it: prima di, davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>olim</b> <br> en: at a future time, sometime in the future <br> es: en un momento en el futuro, algún día en el futuro <br> fr: à un moment donné, une bonne fois <br> it: una volta, in un dato momento, una buona volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>olim(= aliquando, unquam</b> <br> en: once, formerly <br> es: una vez, antiguamente <br> fr: une fois, anciennement <br> it: una volta, anticamente, un tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne</b> <br> en: all, as in "all the books" <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne</b> <br> en: all, as in "all the cheese" <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutte, tutti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne</b> <br> en: every, each <br> es: todo, cada <br> fr: tout, chaque, chacun des, cahcune des <br> it: tutto, ogni, ciascuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne cosa</b> <br> en: everything <br> es: toda cosa, todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omnes</b> <br> en: all <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>on(= uno, homo)</b> <br> en: one <br> es: uno, se <br> fr: on <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>optimamente(= optimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimamente, lo mejor posible <br> fr: le mieux possible <br> it: ottimamente, il meglio possibile <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>optime, optima, optimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimo, óptima <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> it: il migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>optimo(= optimamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimamente <br> fr: le mieux <br> it: il migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ora(= nunc)</b> <br> en: now, at the present time <br> es: ahora, en la actualidad <br> fr: maintenant <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ora mesmo</b> <br> en: right now <br> es: ahora mismo <br> fr: tout de suite <br> it: adesso, giusto adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ora. . . ora...</b> <br> en: now. . . then. . . <br> es: ora. . . ora. . . <br> fr: parfois... parfois... <br> it: adesso, ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>out!</b> <br> en: out! <br> es: fuera! <br> fr: dehors! <br> it: fuori ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>p(littera): pe /p/</b> <br> en: <br> es: p(lettre): pé /p/ <br> fr: p, pi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>partir pro(Paris)</b> <br> en: to leave or set out for(Paris) <br> es: partir para(Paris) <br> fr: partir pour(Paris) <br> it: partire per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>parve, parva, parvo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pequeño, pequeña <br> fr: petit, petite <br> it: piccolo, piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passato</b> <br> en: <br> es: pasado <br> fr: passé <br> it: passato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passato</b> <br> en: ago <br> es: hace <br> fr: il y a, ça fait <br> it: fa, passato, trascorso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passato(= pridem)</b> <br> en: long ago <br> es: hace mucho tiempo <br> fr: il y a bien longtemps, ça fait bien longtemps <br> it: tempo fa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passim</b> <br> en: here and there, scattered, at random, in different places, passim <br> es: aquí y allí, esparcido, al azar, en diferentes lugares <br> fr: ici et là, éparpillé, aléatoire <br> it: qui e là, qui e lì, qua e là, in luoghi diversi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauc de, pauca de, pauco de</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu de <br> it: poco di, un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> en: few, not many <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> en: little, not much <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauchissime, pauchissima, pauchissimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: poquísimo, poquísima <br> fr: très peu <br> it: molto poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauco</b> <br> en: little, to a small degree <br> es: poco <br> fr: à un moindre degré <br> it: poco, in minima parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauco a pauco</b> <br> en: little by little <br> es: poco a poco <br> fr: petit à petit, peu à peu <br> it: poco a poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>paulatim</b> <br> en: gradually, by degrees, little by little, a little at a time <br> es: gradualmente, por grados, poco a poco, un poco cada vez <br> fr: graduellement, petit à petit, peu à peu, un peu à la fois <br> it: poco a poco, gradualmente, un po' alla volta, un po' per volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pejo</b> <br> en: worse <br> es: peor <br> fr: pis, pire <br> it: peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pejor</b> <br> en: worse <br> es: peor <br> fr: pire <br> it: peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per</b> <br> en: by, by the agency of; through; by means of; also: per <br> es: por, ; a través de; por medio de; también: por <br> fr: par <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per</b> <br> en: through, from one side to the other of; also: during, throughout <br> es: a través de <br> fr: par, à travers, au travers de; aussi: pendant <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: per <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: por(+ inf) <br> fr: pour(+ inf) <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per aventura</b> <br> en: by chance <br> es: por ventura, por casualidad <br> fr: par aventure <br> it: per caso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per avion</b> <br> en: <br> es: por avión <br> fr: par avion <br> it: via aerea <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per capite</b> <br> en: <br> es: por cabeza, per capita <br> fr: par tête, per capita <br> it: a testa, ad ognuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per consequente</b> <br> en: consequently <br> es: por consiguiente <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per excellentia</b> <br> en: par excellence <br> es: por excelencia <br> fr: par excellence <br> it: per eccellenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per exemplo</b> <br> en: for example, for instance <br> es: por exemplo <br> fr: par exemple <br> it: per esempio, ad esempio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per favor</b> <br> en: <br> es: por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per favore, per piacere <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per isso(= pro isso)</b> <br> en: for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> es: por eso, por esas razón, por consiguiente <br> fr: c'est pourquoi, voilà pourquoi <br> it: per questo, perciò, per questa ragione, per questo motivo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per medio de</b> <br> en: by means of <br> es: por medio de <br> fr: au moyen de <br> it: mer mezzo di, con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per ubi</b> <br> en: <br> es: por dónde <br> fr: par où <br> it: per dove, attraverso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per virtute de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en virtúd de <br> fr: en vertue de <br> it: in virtù di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>permulte, permulta, permulto</b> <br> en: very much, very many <br> es: muchos, muchas <br> fr: beaucoup de, <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>permulto</b> <br> en: very much <br> es: mucho <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>perque</b> <br> en: because <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>perque</b> <br> en: why, for what reason <br> es: porque <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pessimamente(= pessimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimamente, de la peor manera <br> fr: de la pire façon <br> it: pessimamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pessime, pessima, pessimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimo, pésima <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: pessimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pessimo(= pessimamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimamente <br> fr: de la pire façon <br> it: pessimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ph(digrapho): pe hache /f/</b> <br> en: <br> es: ph(digraphe): pé ache /f/ <br> fr: ph pi acca <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>piano</b> <br> en: piano <br> es: piano <br> fr: piano <br> it: piano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plu(= plus)</b> <br> en: <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures</b> <br> en: several <br> es: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> fr: quelques <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures</b> <br> en: several <br> es: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> fr: quelques <br> it: qualche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures veces(= plures vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: varias veces, repetidamente <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, a volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures vices</b> <br> en: several times; repeatedly <br> es: varias veces <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, a volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> en: many <br> es: plusieurs <br> fr: molti, molte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: beaucoup <br> fr: molti, molte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurimo</b> <br> en: much, exceedingly <br> es: mucho, extremadamente, excesivamente <br> fr: beaucoup, très, extrêmenent, excessivement <br> it: molto, estremamente, eccessivamente, troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurimo(= usualmente, communmente)</b> <br> en: for the most part, commonly, usually <br> es: muchas veces, normalmente, habitualmente <br> fr: d'habitude, en général <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, in generale, abitualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus</b> <br> en: plus <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus(a) illac de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> en: more(money, etc. ) <br> es: más(dinero, etc. ) <br> fr: plus de(plus d'argent) <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus a la de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> en: more or less <br> es: más o menos <br> fr: plus ou moins <br> it: più o meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> en: more or less <br> es: más o menos <br> fr: plus ou moins <br> it: più o meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus de</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más de <br> fr: plus de <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus de(vinti annos)</b> <br> en: more than, over, above(twenty years) <br> es: más de(veinte años) <br> fr: plus de(vingt ans) <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus grande(que)</b> <br> en: greater, bigger(than) <br> es: más grande(que) <br> fr: plus grand(e)(que) <br> it: più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> en: later on <br> es: más tarde, después <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> en: later, as in "later than expected" <br> es: depués <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> en: later, subsequently <br> es: después, seguidamente <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> en: rather, more truly or accurately <br> es: más bien <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> en: rather, sooner, preferably <br> es: más pronto, más bien, preferentemente <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus. . . (que)</b> <br> en: more. . . (than) <br> es: más. . . (que) <br> fr: plus...(que) <br> it: più. . . che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus:(le) plus</b> <br> en: (the) most(as in "what pleased me(the) most") <br> es: más:(el) más <br> fr: plus:(le) plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus:(tres) plus(quatro)</b> <br> en: (three) plus(four) <br> es: más:(tres) más(cuatro) <br> fr: plus:(trois) plus(quatre) <br> it: più(tre) più(quattro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>poc, poca, poco(= pauc, pauca, pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>poco(= pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>poco a poco(= pauco a pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco a poco <br> fr: peu à peu, petit à petit <br> it: poco a poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois</b> <br> en: afterwards, thereafter <br> es: después <br> fr: puis, alors, ensuite <br> it: poi, dopo, in seguito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois</b> <br> en: for <br> es: porque, dado que <br> fr: étant donné que <br> it: poiché, dato che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> en: <br> es: después que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> en: as, since, because <br> es: como, porque <br> fr: comme, puisque <br> it: poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>por(= pro, per)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pour <br> fr: per <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>porque(= proque, perque)</b> <br> en: because, why <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que, pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post</b> <br> en: afterwards, after <br> es: después de <br> fr: après <br> it: dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post</b> <br> en: behind, back, backwards <br> es: detrás, atrás, luego <br> fr: derrière <br> it: dietro, posteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post</b> <br> en: behind; after <br> es: después de <br> fr: après <br> it: dietro, posteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post que</b> <br> en: <br> es: después que <br> fr: après que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post que</b> <br> en: since, because <br> es: puesto que, porque <br> fr: puisque <br> it: perché, dato che, poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post todo</b> <br> en: <br> es: después de todo <br> fr: après tout <br> it: dopo tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post-deman</b> <br> en: <br> es: pasado mañana <br> fr: après-demain <br> it: dopodomani <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>postea</b> <br> en: afterwards, thereafter <br> es: después, posteriormente, luego <br> fr: ensuite <br> it: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>postere, postera, postero</b> <br> en: coming after, following <br> es: siguiente <br> fr: suivant(e) <br> it: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, back <br> es: posterior <br> fr: postérieur(e) <br> it: posteriore, dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, buttock <br> es: posterior <br> fr: le postérieur, le derrière <br> it: posteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, later <br> es: posterior <br> fr: postérieur(e), après, plus tard <br> it: posterioremente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posteriormente</b> <br> en: subsequently, later <br> es: posteriormente, más tarde <br> fr: postérieurement <br> it: posteriormente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>postquam</b> <br> en: after, as soon as <br> es: después de, en cuanto <br> fr: après que, aussitôt que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pot'esser(= pote esser)</b> <br> en: maybe <br> es: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> fr: peut-être <br> it: può essere, può darsi, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pote esser(= pot'esser)</b> <br> en: maybe <br> es: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> fr: peut-être <br> it: può essere, può darsi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>potius</b> <br> en: rather, more truly or accurately <br> es: más bien, en realidad <br> fr: plutôt, en réalité <br> it: piuttosto, in realtà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>potius</b> <br> en: rather, sooner, preferably <br> es: más bien, más pronto, preferentemente <br> fr: plutôt, plus tôt, de préférence <br> it: piuttosto, in raltà, preferenzialmente, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>precio minimo</b> <br> en: minimum price <br> es: precio mínimo <br> fr: prix minimum, prix minimal <br> it: prezzo minimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>presertim(= super toto)</b> <br> en: especially, particularly, chiefly <br> es: especialmente, particularmente, principalmente <br> fr: surtout, particulièrement <br> it: soprattutto, particolarmente, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>presso(= apud)</b> <br> en: near, close <br> es: cerca de, al lado de, cercano a <br> fr: près de <br> it: presso, presso di, appresso a, vicino a, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>presto</b> <br> en: presto, quickly, quick as a wink <br> es: presto, rápidamente, rápido <br> fr: vite, rapidement <br> it: presto, rapidamente, velocemente, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au delà, passé <br> it: passato, al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: except, excepting <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccettuato, escluso, al di fuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: in addition to <br> es: además de <br> fr: en plus de <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: past, along(side of), beyond <br> es: pasado, más allá de <br> fr: passé, le long, au delà <br> it: passato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> en: besides, moreover <br> es: además, es más <br> fr: en outre, de plus, d'ailleurs, du reste <br> it: inoltre, del resto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> en: henceforth, hereafter <br> es: de ahora en adelante, de aquí en adelante <br> fr: dorénavant, désormais <br> it: d'ora in poi, da questo momento, da adesso in avanti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pridem(= passato)</b> <br> en: long ago <br> es: hace mucho tiempo, hace tiempo <br> fr: il y a longtemps <br> it: da lungo tempo, da tempo, da molto tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> en: first, in the first place, first of all <br> es: primariamente, en primer lugar <br> fr: premièrement, en premier lieu, d'abord <br> it: principalmente, in primo luogoo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> en: primarily, chiefly <br> es: primariamente, principalmente <br> fr: principalement, avant tout, surtout <br> it: principalmenre, innanzitutto, soprattutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>prime, prima, primo</b> <br> en: first, prime <br> es: primero, primera <br> fr: premier, première <br> it: primo, prima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro</b> <br> en: for, in place of, in exchange or return for <br> es: para; por; en lugar de, a cambio de, en vez de <br> fr: pour <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro</b> <br> en: for, not against <br> es: pro, para, a favor de <br> fr: pour, en faveur <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro(+ inf)</b> <br> en: in order to <br> es: para, a fin de <br> fr: afin de, dans le but de <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro isso(= per isso)</b> <br> en: for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> es: por eso, por esa razón, por consiguiente <br> fr: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> it: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro isso(= pro esso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> fr: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro le presente</b> <br> en: for the present <br> es: por el momento, para el presente <br> fr: pour le moment <br> it: intanto, per il momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro nihil</b> <br> en: for nothing, without cost <br> es: para nada, gratuito, sin costo <br> fr: pour rien, gratuit <br> it: per niente, gratuito, gratis, gratuitamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro si dicer</b> <br> en: so to say <br> es: para así decir, por así decir <br> fr: pour ainsi dire <br> it: per così dire <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>procul</b> <br> en: far off, far away, at a distance <br> es: lejos, fuera, a una distancia <br> fr: au loin <br> it: lontanamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proprie a, propria a, proprio a</b> <br> en: proper or peculiar to <br> es: proprio para <br> fr: propre à <br> it: proprio per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> en: own <br> es: propio <br> fr: propre <br> it: proprio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> en: proper, appropriate <br> es: apropiado <br> fr: approprié(e) <br> it: appropriato, appropriata <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>propter</b> <br> en: near, at hand <br> es: cerca, a mano <br> fr: proche, à(la) portée <br> it: prossimo, vicino, vicino <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>propter</b> <br> en: near, close to <br> es: cerca de <br> fr: près, près de <br> it: presso, presso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>propter</b> <br> en: on account of, by reason of, because of <br> es: a causa de, por cauda de, debido a <br> fr: compte tenu de, à cause de, <br> it: per, a causa di, in ragione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> en: because <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> en: why <br> es: por qué <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proximamente</b> <br> en: shortly, soon <br> es: pronto, en breve <br> fr: bientôt <br> it: in breve, subito, quanto prima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> en: next(as in "next week") <br> es: próxima, siguiente <br> fr: suivant(e), prochain(e) <br> it: prossimo, seguente, successivo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> en: very near, close <br> es: muy cerca <br> fr: très près, tout près <br> it: molto vicino, prossimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proximo</b> <br> en: neighbor, fellow being <br> es: prójimo, vecino, camarada <br> fr: voisin, camarade <br> it: prossimo, vicino, compagno, camerata <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>q(littera): qu /k/</b> <br> en: <br> es: q(lettre): qü ou qy /k/ <br> fr: q, qu(pron ku) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qua</b> <br> en: as, in the capacity of, qua <br> es: en tanto que, en calidad de <br> fr: en tant que, en qualité de <br> it: come, in qualità di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qual</b> <br> en: which <br> es: cuál <br> fr: quel <br> it: quale <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qual</b> <br> en: which <br> es: cuál, qué <br> fr: quel(le) <br> it: quale <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcosa</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo, alguna cosa <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualche cosa, qualcosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcun, qualcuna, qualcuno</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna, alguno <br> fr: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> it: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcuno</b> <br> en: someone, anyone <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelqu'un <br> it: qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcunque</b> <br> en: any, whatever, of whatever kind <br> es: cualquiera <br> fr: quelconque <br> it: chiunque, qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualque(quálke)</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna <br> fr: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> it: qualcuno, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quam</b> <br> en: as, than <br> es: como, que <br> fr: comme, que <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quam</b> <br> en: in what manner, how <br> es: de qué manera, cómo <br> fr: comment <br> it: come, in che modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quamquam(quámquam)(= quanquam)</b> <br> en: <br> es: aunque <br> fr: bien que, quoique, cependant, néanmoins <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quando</b> <br> en: when <br> es: cuando <br> fr: quand <br> it: quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quando</b> <br> en: when <br> es: cuándo <br> fr: quand <br> it: quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quandocunque</b> <br> en: whenever <br> es: cuandoquiera <br> fr: toutes les fois que, peu importe quand <br> it: ogni volta che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> en: however, yet, nevertheless <br> es: sin embargo, no obstante <br> fr: cependant, néanmoins <br> it: nondimeno, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> en: though, although <br> es: aunque <br> fr: bien que, quoique <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quante, quanta, quanto</b> <br> en: how much, how many <br> es: cuánto, cuánta <br> fr: combien de <br> it: quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanto</b> <br> en: as much as; as far as <br> es: cuanto, tanto como <br> fr: autant que, pour autant que, en autant que <br> it: quanto, tanto quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanto a</b> <br> en: as for <br> es: en cuanto a <br> fr: quant à <br> it: quanto a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanto. . . tanto...</b> <br> en: the. . . the... <br> es: cuanto. . . tanto. . . <br> fr: autant... autant <br> it: tanto. . . quanto. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quare</b> <br> en: wherefore, why <br> es: porque <br> fr: pourquoi, pour quelle raison <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quasi</b> <br> en: almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way, etc. <br> es: casi; en un cierto sentido, en cierto modo <br> fr: quasi, prèsque, à peu prés, dans un certain sens <br> it: quasi, approssimativamente, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quasi que</b> <br> en: as if <br> es: como si <br> fr: comme si <br> it: quasi che, come se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: than <br> es: que <br> fr: que /k?/ <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: that <br> es: que <br> fr: que <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: what <br> es: que <br> fr: que, quoi /k?/ /koa/ <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: who, whom, which, that; what(= that which) <br> es: que <br> fr: qui /ki/ <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que etate habete vos?</b> <br> en: how old are you? <br> es: qué edad tiene usted?, cuántos años tiene usted? <br> fr: quel âge avez-vous? <br> it: quanti hanni hai(tu) ? quanti anni ha(lei)? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que hora</b> <br> en: what time <br> es: qué hora <br> fr: quelle heure <br> it: che ora. . . ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quecunque(kekúnkwe, kwekúnkwe)</b> <br> en: whatever <br> es: cualquier cosa <br> fr: quoi que /koa k?/ <br> it: qualsiasi cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quem</b> <br> en: what, which, whom <br> es: que, quien <br> fr: quel(le) <br> it: quel, quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qui(= hic, ci)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qui(ki, kwi)</b> <br> en: who, whom <br> es: quién <br> fr: qui /ki/ <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qui:(con, a, etc. ) qui</b> <br> en: (with, to, etc. ) whom <br> es: quien <br> fr: qui:(avec, à, etc. ) qui <br> it: con chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quia</b> <br> en: because <br> es: por qué <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quicunque(ki-, kwi-)</b> <br> en: whoever <br> es: quienquiera <br> fr: quiconque <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quid</b> <br> en: what <br> es: quoi <br> fr: che cosa, cosa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quid</b> <br> en: why, how, wherefore <br> es: por qué, cómo <br> fr: pourquoi, comment <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quidem</b> <br> en: certainly, truly; indeed, even <br> es: ciertamente, de verdad, verdaderamente; de hecho, incluso <br> fr: certainement, vraiment, en effet, effectivement <br> it: certamente, veramente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo</b> <br> en: so that, in order that <br> es: a fin que <br> fr: tel que, afin que <br> it: talché, cosi che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo</b> <br> en: wherefore <br> es: por qué <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo</b> <br> en: who, what <br> es: quien <br> fr: qui, quoi <br> it: chi, cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo(=a ubi)</b> <br> en: where, at what place, whither <br> es: a dónde, a qué lugar, adónde <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quod</b> <br> en: that, because, why <br> es: qué, por qué <br> fr: que, parce que, pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quod</b> <br> en: that, what <br> es: que <br> fr: que, quoi <br> it: che, che cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> en: how, in what manner <br> es: ómo, de qué manera <br> fr: comment, de quelle façon, de quelle manière <br> it: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> en: in the manner that, as <br> es: como, de la manera en que <br> fr: comme, tel que <br> it: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quot</b> <br> en: how many; as many; each, every <br> es: cuántos, tantos, cada, cada uno, cada una <br> fr: combien, autant, chaque, chacun(e) <br> it: quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> en: as often as <br> es: tan a menudo como <br> fr: aussi souvent que <br> it: così spesso che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> en: how often, how many times <br> es: tantas veces <br> fr: combien de fois <br> it: tante volte che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>r(littera): re /r/</b> <br> en: <br> es: r(lettre): ère /r/ <br> fr: r, erre <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>re</b> <br> en: regarding, about, of, on, concerning <br> es: acerca de, respecto a, con respecto a, concerniente a, sobre, de <br> fr: sur, au sujet de, à propos de, concernant <br> it: su, a proposito di, concernente, sopra, rispetto a, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>retro</b> <br> en: back, ago <br> es: atrás, hace <br> fr: en arrière <br> it: retro, dietro, addietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>retro</b> <br> en: back, as in "to give back") <br> es: atrás <br> fr: en retour(comme dans "donner en retour") <br> it: di ritorno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>retro</b> <br> en: back, backwards <br> es: atrás <br> fr: arrière, en arrière <br> it: retro, dietro, addietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>rh(digrapho): re hache /r/</b> <br> en: <br> es: rh(digraphe): ère ache /r/ <br> fr: rh(pron : erre acca) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>s(littera): se /s/</b> <br> en: <br> es: s(lettre): èsse /s/ ou /z/ <br> fr: s, esse(pronuncia 1 : s in rosa, cosa, dose, chiesa = come inglese rose; pronuncia 2 : s in signore, senior, selva, scuola come inglese ross, self) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>saepe(sái-)</b> <br> en: often, frequently <br> es: a menudo, frecuentemente <br> fr: souvent, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>salvo</b> <br> en: save, but; also: save or but for <br> es: salvo <br> fr: sauf <br> it: salvo, eccetto, ma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>salvo error et omission</b> <br> en: errors and omissions excepted <br> es: salvo error y omisión <br> fr: sauf erreur et omission <br> it: salvo errori od omissioni, salvo errori ed omissioni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>salvo que</b> <br> en: save or but that <br> es: salvo que <br> fr: sauf que <br> it: salvo che, eccetto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> en: enough <br> es: bastante <br> fr: assez <br> it: basta, abbastanza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> en: rather, somewhat <br> es: bastante, suficiente <br> fr: assez, plutôt <br> it: abbastanza, sufficientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>satis de(tempore, etc. )(= assatis de(tempore, etc. ))</b> <br> en: enough(time, etc. ), (time, etc. ) enough <br> es: bastante(tiempo, etc. ), suficiente(tiempo, etc. ) <br> fr: assez de(temps, etc. ) <br> it: sufficiente : tempo sufficiente) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>se</b> <br> en: himself; herself; itself; themselves <br> es: se <br> fr: se, s' <br> it: se(per se), -si(avvicinarsi) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>se(= on)</b> <br> en: <br> es: se <br> fr: on <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: (following) after <br> es: después de, siguiendo a <br> fr: d'après <br> it: secondo, , dopo, seguendo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: according to <br> es: según, de acuerdo a <br> fr: selon, en accord avec <br> it: d'accordo con, secondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: along, by <br> es: a lo largo de <br> fr: selon, le long de <br> it: lungo il <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo que</b> <br> en: according as <br> es: según que, conforme a <br> fr: selon que, selon qu' <br> it: secondo quanto, conforme a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sed</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma, però <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>semel</b> <br> en: firstly <br> es: primeramente <br> fr: premièrement <br> it: in primis, innanzitutto, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>semel</b> <br> en: once <br> es: una vez <br> fr: une fois <br> it: una volta(sola) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>semper(= sempre)</b> <br> en: always <br> es: siempre <br> fr: toujours <br> it: sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sempre(=semper)</b> <br> en: always <br> es: siempre <br> fr: toujours <br> it: sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sero</b> <br> en: late <br> es: tarde <br> fr: tard <br> it: tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si</b> <br> en: if, supposing that <br> es: si, suponiendo que <br> fr: si <br> it: se, supponendo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si</b> <br> en: if, whether <br> es: si <br> fr: si <br> it: se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: tan, tanto, tanta <br> fr: si <br> it: così, tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> en: yes <br> es: sí <br> fr: oui <br> it: sì <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si il te place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si te place, por favor <br> fr: s'il te plaît <br> it: per piacere, prego, per favore, per cortesia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si os place, por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si os place, por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si non</b> <br> en: except, unless it be <br> es: excepto, a menos que <br> fr: excepté, à moins que ce soit <br> it: se non, a meno che, eccetto che, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si non</b> <br> en: if not <br> es: si no <br> fr: si non <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si non</b> <br> en: if not <br> es: si no <br> fr: si non <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si tosto que</b> <br> en: as soon as <br> es: en cuanto, tan pronto como <br> fr: aussitôt que <br> it: così presto che, tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si. . . como. . . </b><br> as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que <br> it: tanto. . . che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sia</b> <br> en: be, may be, let there be <br> es: sea <br> fr: soit <br> it: sia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sia como sia</b> <br> en: <br> es: sea como sea <br> fr: qu'il en soit ainsi <br> it: sia come sia, sia quel che sia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sia. . . sia. . . </b><br> en: <br> es: sea. . . sea. . . <br> fr: soit... soit... <br> it: sia. . . sia. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sic(= si)</b> <br> en: yes <br> es: sí <br> fr: oui <br> it: sì <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sic(=si)</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sicut</b> <br> en: so as, just as, as <br> es: tal que, como <br> fr: tel(le) que, comme <br> it: come, talché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>simul</b> <br> en: at once, at the same time, together <br> es: en seguida, al mismo tiempo, juntos, juntas <br> fr: simultanément, tout de suite, ensemble <br> it: allo stesso tempo, nello stesso tempo, allo stesso istante, insieme. simultaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin</b> <br> en: without <br> es: sin <br> fr: sans <br> it: senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin dubita</b> <br> en: without doubt, doubtless <br> es: sin duda, indudablemente <br> fr: sans doute <br> it: senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin falta</b> <br> en: without fail <br> es: sin falta, sin error <br> fr: sans erreur, sans faute <br> it: senza meno, senza errore, senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin fundamento</b> <br> en: groundless, unfounded <br> es: sin fundamento, infundado <br> fr: sans fondement <br> it: senza fondamentp <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sinon(= si non)</b> <br> en: otherwise, else; except, save, if not, unless <br> es: sinon <br> fr: sinon <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sive</b> <br> en: or if, or <br> es: o si <br> fr: ou si, ou <br> it: o, oppure, o se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sive. . . sive</b> <br> en: . . . if. . . or if... <br> es: si. . . o si. . . <br> fr: si... ou si... <br> it: se. . . o se. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> en: only <br> es: solo, sola <br> fr: seul(e) <br> it: solo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> en: sole, without companions, alone <br> es: solo, sola <br> fr: seul(e) <br> it: solo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>solamente</b> <br> en: only, merely <br> es: solamente, meramente <br> fr: seulement <br> it: solo, solamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sovente(=subinde)</b> <br> en: repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> es: frecuentemente, repeoidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> fr: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>specialmente, in modo special</b> <br> en: especially <br> es: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> fr: en particulier, spécialement <br> it: specialmente, particolarmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sponte(= voluntarie, voluntariamente)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: spontaneamente, volontariamente, di buon grado <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>stop!</b> <br> en: stop! <br> es: stop! <br> fr: stop! <br> it: stop! fermo! ferma! alt! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>su</b> <br> en: his; her; its <br> es: su(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: son, sa <br> it: suo, sua(di ella, di lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sub</b> <br> en: under, below, beneath <br> es: debajo de, bajo <br> fr: sous <br> it: sotto, dabbasso, abbasso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sub los auspicios de</b> <br> en: under the auspices of <br> es: bajo los auspicios de <br> fr: sous les auspices de <br> it: con gli auspici di, sotto gli auspici di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subinde</b> <br> en: immediately after, just after, forthwith <br> es: inmediatamente después, justo después, inmediatamente <br> fr: tout de suite <br> it: immediatamente dopo, giusto dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subinde(= sovente)</b> <br> en: repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> es: frecuentemente, repetidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> fr: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, di tanto in tanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subito</b> <br> en: suddenly, unexpectedly <br> es: súbitamente, de repente, inesperadamente <br> fr: soudainement <br> it: repentinamente, immediatamente, subito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subtus</b> <br> en: below, beneath, underneath <br> es: abajo, debajo, debajo de <br> fr: en bas <br> it: in basso, dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>successivamente</b> <br> en: successively, in succession <br> es: sucesivamente, en sucesión <br> fr: successivement, tour à tour <br> it: successivamente, in successione, consecutivamente, di conseguenza, dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sue, sua, suo</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: suyo, suya(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: son, sa <br> it: suo, sua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sues, suas, suos</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: suyos, suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: ses <br> it: suoi, sue(di lui, di lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sufficiente(= bastante)</b> <br> en: sufficient, enough <br> es: suficiente, bastante <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e) <br> it: sufficiente, bastante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sufficientemente(= bastante)</b> <br> en: sufficiently, enough <br> es: suficientemente, bastante <br> fr: suffisamment, assez <br> it: suffientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sufficientes(= bastantes)</b> <br> en: sufficient, enough <br> es: suficientes, bastantes <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> it: suffientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sui(= su, sue)</b> <br> en: <br> es: son, sa <br> fr: suo, sua <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>summe, summa, summo(= supreme, suprema, supremo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: sumo, suma <br> fr: suprème <br> it: sommo/a, supremo/a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super</b> <br> en: about, concerning, on <br> es: sobre, concerniente a <br> fr: sur, au sujet de <br> it: supra, in fatto di, concernente, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super</b> <br> en: on, upon; on top of; above, over <br> es: sobre <br> fr: sur, au dessus de <br> it: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super(= in alto)</b> <br> en: above, on top <br> es: arriba, sobre <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super toto(= presertim)</b> <br> en: above all <br> es: sobre todo <br> fr: par dessus tout <br> it: soprattutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>superior</b> <br> en: <br> es: supérieur(e) <br> fr: superiore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>supra</b> <br> en: above, over <br> es: arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>supra</b> <br> en: on the top, above <br> es: arriba, en la parte de arriba <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>supreme, suprema, supremo(= summe, summa, summo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: supremo, suprema <br> fr: suprème <br> it: supremo, suprema, supremi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sur(= super)</b> <br> en: on, upon; on top of <br> es: sobre <br> fr: sur <br> it: su, sopra, in cima, in alto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sus</b> <br> en: his; her; its <br> es: sus(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: ses <br> it: suo, sua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>t(littera): te /t/</b> <br> en: <br> es: t(lettre): té /t/ <br> fr: t, ti <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tal</b> <br> en: such a, such <br> es: tal <br> fr: tel(le) <br> it: tale, tale a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tal et tal</b> <br> en: such and such(a) <br> es: tal y tal <br> fr: tel et tel <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>talmente</b> <br> en: so <br> es: talmente <br> fr: tellement <br> it: talmente, così, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>talmente:(un libro) talmente(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful) a(book), such a(beautiful book) <br> es: talmente:(un libro) talmente(bonito) <br> fr: tellement:(un livre) tellement(beau) <br> it: talmente(un libro talmente bello che. . . ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tam</b> <br> en: so, as, to such a degree <br> es: tan, tanto, tanta, talmente <br> fr: si, tellement <br> it: sì, così, tanto che, tanto, talmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tam. . . quam...</b> <br> en: as. . . as. . . <br> es: tan. . . como. . . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tam. . . quam...(= tanto. . . quam. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as. . . <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: si... que... <br> it: tanto che, tanto quanto, così che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tamben</b> <br> en: also <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tamen(= totavia)</b> <br> en: yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding <br> es: sin embargo, todavía, no obstante <br> fr: cependant, pourtant, néanmoins, <br> it: tuttavia, nonostante, nondimeno, nientemeno, pertanto, quindi, già <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tan</b> <br> en: so, as <br> es: tan <br> fr: si, tellement <br> it: sì, tanto che. . . , tanto che. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tan. . . como. . . (= tanto. . . como. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tante, tanta, tanto</b> <br> en: so much, so many <br> es: tanto, tanta <br> fr: tant de <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tante. . . como..., tanta. . . como. . . , tanto. . . como. . . </b><br> as much, as many. . . as... <br> es: tanto. . . como. . . , tanta. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto</b> <br> en: so, so much <br> es: tanto <br> fr: tant <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto(grande) como. . . </b><br> as(big) as. . . <br> es: tan(grande) como. . . <br> fr: aussi(grand(e)) que <br> it: tanto grande che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto melio</b> <br> en: so much the better <br> es: tanto mejor <br> fr: tant mieux <br> it: tanto meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto pejo</b> <br> en: so much the worse <br> es: tanto peor <br> fr: tant pis <br> it: tanto peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto per cento</b> <br> en: so much per hundred, percentage <br> es: tanto por ciento, porcentaje <br> fr: tant pour cent <br> it: tanto per cento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto plus. . . que...</b> <br> en: all the more. . . that... <br> es: tanto más. . . que. . . <br> fr: d'autant plus... que... <br> it: tanto più che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto. . . como...</b> <br> en: as much. . . as... <br> es: tanto. . . como. . . <br> fr: autant... que... <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tarde</b> <br> en: late <br> es: tarde <br> fr: tard <br> it: tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>te</b> <br> en: you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "I love you", "for you") <br> es: te <br> fr: te, toi <br> it: tu, te(tu sei, te lo dico, lo dico a te) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>te</b> <br> en: yourself [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "you hurt yourself", "to yourself") <br> es: te <br> fr: te, toi, toi-même <br> it: te, ti, te stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>th(digrapho): te hache /t/</b> <br> en: <br> es: th(digraphe): té ache /t/ <br> fr: t : ti acca <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ti(= te)</b> <br> en: <br> es: te, toi <br> fr: ti, te <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tosto</b> <br> en: presently, soon, promptly <br> es: pronto, presentemente, rápidamente <br> fr: tôt <br> it: pronto, subito, presto, rapidamente, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tot</b> <br> en: so many, such a great number <br> es: tellement beaucoup <br> fr: tanto che, talmente tanto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totalmente(= completamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: totalmente(=completamente= <br> fr: totalement(=complètement) <br> it: totalmente, completamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totavia</b> <br> en: yet, still, nevertheless <br> es: sin embargo <br> fr: toutefois <br> it: tuttavia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote le, tota la, toto lo</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo el, toda la, todo lo <br> fr: tout le, toute la <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo, tutta la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: all, "all the parts, members, etc. of a whole series or group") <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: all, the whole of <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: every, each <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute, chaque <br> it: tutto/a, ogni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totes(les) duo, totos(los) duos, totas(las) duas</b> <br> en: both <br> es: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> fr: tous les deux, toutes les deux <br> it: tutti e due, ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totes les, totas las, totos los</b> <br> en: <br> es: todos los, todas las <br> fr: tous les, toutes les <br> it: tutti i, tutti gli, tutte le <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totes, totas, totos</b> <br> en: all, everyone <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto</b> <br> en: all, everything <br> es: todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto, ogni cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto</b> <br> en: all, quite, wholly <br> es: todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto(ben) considerato</b> <br> en: all things considered <br> es: considerando(bien) totas las cosas <br> fr: tout(bien) considéré <br> it: tutto considerato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto le(= toto lo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo el <br> fr: tout le <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto le(caseo)</b> <br> en: all the(cheese), the entire(cheese) <br> es: todo el(queso) <br> fr: tout le(fromage) <br> it: tutto il(formaggio) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto lo(= toto le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo lo <br> fr: tout le, toute la <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totos los(homines)</b> <br> en: all(men) <br> es: todos los hombres <br> fr: tous les(hommes) <br> it: tutti gli(uomini) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totos minus ille</b> <br> en: all but him <br> es: todos menos él <br> fr: tous sauf lui <br> it: tutti meno lui, tutti salvo lui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tra(= trans)</b> <br> en: through <br> es: a través de <br> fr: à travers, au travers de <br> it: attraverso, tra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>trans</b> <br> en: across, over, beyond, on the farther side of <br> es: al otro lado de, más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de, de l'autre côté de <br> it: al di là di, dall'altra parte di, dall'altro lato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>traverso(= a / al transverso(de))</b> <br> en: through, from side to side <br> es: a través de, de parte a parte de <br> fr: au travers, de part en part <br> it: attraverso, da parte a parte, da lato a lato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tro(= troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>trop(=troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>troppo(= trop, tro)</b> <br> en: too, too much <br> es: demasiado, demasiada, demasiados, demasiadas <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo, troppi, troppa, troppe <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>troppo(de)(aqua, libros, etc. )(= de tro(de)(aqua, libros, etc. ))</b> <br> en: too much(water, etc. ), too many(books, etc. ) <br> es: demasiado(agua, etc. ), demasiados(libros) <br> fr: trop(d'eau, de livres, etc. ) <br> it: troppo(troppa acqua, troppi libri, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tu</b> <br> en: you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tú <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: tu, ti, te <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tu</b> <br> en: your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tu <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: tu, ti, te <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tu mesme, tu mesma, tu mesmo, tu ipse</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: tú mismo, tú misma <br> fr: toi-même <br> it: tu stesso, te stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tue, tua, tuo</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tuyo, tuya <br> fr: le tien, la tienne <br> it: tuo, tua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tues, tuas, tuos</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tuyos, tuyas <br> fr: les tiennes <br> it: tue, tuoi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tum</b> <br> en: then, afterwards <br> es: entonces, después <br> fr: alors, par la suite <br> it: allora, quindi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tum</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en ese momento <br> fr: alors, à ce moment <br> it: allora, quindi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tum</b> <br> en: then, next <br> es: entonces, en ese caso, por consiguiente <br> fr: alors, ensuite <br> it: quindi, in questo caso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> en: in that case, consequently <br> es: entonces, en ese caso, consiguientemente <br> fr: alors, dans ce cas, conséquemment <br> it: allora, in questo caso, di conseguenza, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en ese momento <br> fr: alors, à ce moment <br> it: allora, in quel momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tus</b> <br> en: your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tus <br> fr: tes <br> it: tuo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>u(littera): u /u/</b> <br> en: <br> es: u(lettre): u /ü/ <br> fr: u <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> en: where, in or at what place <br> es: dónde, en qué lugar <br> fr: où <br> it: dove, in che luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> en: where; when, as soon as; wherewith; in which <br> es: donde <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubicunque</b> <br> en: wherever <br> es: dondequiera <br> fr: partout où..., n'importe où... <br> it: dappertutto, ovunque <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubique</b> <br> en: everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever <br> es: donde sea, en cualquier lugar <br> fr: partout, peu importe où, n'importe où, <br> it: dappertutto, ovunque <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulle, ulla, ullo</b> <br> en: any, anyone <br> es: algún, alguno, alguna <br> fr: aucun, aucune, nul(le) <br> it: nessuno, nessuna, alcuno, alcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulles, ullas, ullos</b> <br> en: <br> es: algunos, algunas <br> fr: aucuns, aucunes, nul(le)s <br> it: alcuno, alcuna, alcuni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> en: subsequent, later <br> es: ulterior, subsecuente <br> fr: ultérieur(e) <br> it: ulteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> en: ulterior, situated beyond, thither <br> es: ulterior, situado más allá <br> fr: ultérieur(e) <br> it: ulteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulteriormente</b> <br> en: later(on), subsequently <br> es: después, seguidamente <br> fr: ultérieurement <br> it: ulteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> en: besides <br> es: además <br> fr: en outre <br> it: inoltre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> en: on the other side, beyond, farther <br> es: en el otro lado, más allá, más lejos <br> fr: au délà, de l'autre côté, plus loin <br> it: al di là, dall'altra parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra(= plus a la de, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra illo</b> <br> en: besides, moreover <br> es: más allá de aquello, además de ello <br> fr: au délà de ça <br> it: al di la di questo, oltre questo, oltre ad esso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra que</b> <br> en: aside from the fact that <br> es: aparte del hecho de que <br> fr: outre que <br> it: oltre che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultramar</b> <br> en: overseas <br> es: en ultra mar <br> fr: outre-mer <br> it: oltremare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultramar:(paises) de ultramar</b> <br> en: overseas(countries) <br> es: ultramar:(países) de ultramar <br> fr: outre-mer:(pays) d'outre-mer <br> it: oltremare, paese d'oltremare, d'oltre mare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un altere, una altera, uno altero</b> <br> en: another <br> es: otro, otra <br> fr: un autre <br> it: un altro, un'altra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un de, una de, uno de</b> <br> en: <br> es: uno de, una de <br> fr: un de, une de <br> it: uno di, una di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un die</b> <br> en: one day, sometime <br> es: un día, algún día <br> fr: un jour <br> it: un giorno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un pauco(de)</b> <br> en: a little <br> es: un poco(de) <br> fr: un peu(de) <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un poco(de)(= un pauco(de))</b> <br> en: <br> es: un poco(de) <br> fr: un peu(de) <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un que, una que, uno que</b> <br> en: <br> es: uno que, una que <br> fr: un que, une que <br> it: uno che, una che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> en: a, an <br> es: un, una <br> fr: un, une <br> it: un, una <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> en: one <br> es: un, uno, una <br> fr: un, une <br> it: un, una <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una hora</b> <br> en: one o'clock <br> es: la una(hora) <br> fr: une heure <br> it: un'ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una tal(persona)</b> <br> en: such a(person) <br> es: una tal(persona) <br> fr: une telle(personne) <br> it: una tale(persona) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una vece(= una vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: una vez <br> fr: une fois <br> it: una volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una vice</b> <br> en: once, formerly, at one time, on a single occasion <br> es: una vez <br> fr: un fois <br> it: una volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una vice que</b> <br> en: once, once that <br> es: una vez que <br> fr: une fois que <br> it: una volta che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unaltere, un altere(= le un le altere)</b> <br> en: each other, one another <br> es: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> fr: l'un l'autre <br> it: un altro, un'altra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unde</b> <br> en: whence, from which place <br> es: de donde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, da quale luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unde</b> <br> en: whence, wherefore, for which reason or cause <br> es: de donde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unde(= de ubi)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unes de, unas de, unos de</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos de, unas de <br> fr: quelques-un(e)s de <br> it: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unes que, unas que, unos que</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos que, unas que <br> fr: quelques-un(e)s que <br> it: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unes, unas, unos</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos, unas <br> fr: des <br> it: dei, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>uno(= on, homo)</b> <br> en: one <br> es: uno, se <br> fr: on <br> it: un, uno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unquam(= olim, aliquando)</b> <br> en: ever, at any time <br> es: en algún momento <br> fr: n'importe quand, un moment donné <br> it: una volta, in un momento, in un dato momento, ad un certo punto, quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usquam(= alicubi)</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: a alguna parte <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: qualche parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque(a)</b> <br> en: (all the way) to, up to(a point in space or time); also: till, until <br> es: hasta <br> fr: jusque, jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> en: to here <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'ici <br> it: fino a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> en: up to now, hitherto <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> en: to here <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'ici <br> it: fino a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> en: up to now, hitherto <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque a trans</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta el otro lado de <br> fr: à travers <br> it: attraverso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque al presente</b> <br> en: up to the present <br> es: hasta el presente <br> fr: jusqu'à présent <br> it: fino ad ora, fino a questo momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque nunc</b> <br> en: up to now <br> es: hasta ahora <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta cuándo <br> fr: jusqu'à quand <br> it: fino a quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque tosto</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta pronto <br> fr: à bientôt <br> it: a presto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usualmente, de costume, plurimo</b> <br> en: usually <br> es: usualmente <br> fr: d'habitude <br> it: usualmente, di solito, abitualmente, di norma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ut</b> <br> en: as, how, in order that, to the end that, just as <br> es: a fin que, para que <br> fr: afin que, pour que, juste comme <br> it: al fine di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ut. . . ita. . . </b><br> the. . . the. . . , as. . . so. . . <br> es: tanto. . . tanto. . . <br> fr: autant... autant... <br> it: tanto. . . quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>utroque</b> <br> en: either or both of two <br> es: cualquiera de los dos, los dos <br> fr: les deux <br> it: ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>utrum. . . an</b> <br> en: whether. . . or. . . <br> es: a ver si. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou...ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>v(littera): ve /v/</b> <br> en: <br> es: v(lettre): vé /v/ <br> fr: v, vi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>valde</b> <br> en: exceedingly, very much <br> es: excesivamente, muchísimo <br> fr: excessivement, beaucou <br> it: eccessivamente, molto, moltissimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>valde</b> <br> en: vehemently, strongly <br> es: vehementemente, energicamente, fuertemente <br> fr: énergiquement, fortement <br> it: fortemente, energicamente, con veemenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vale!</b> <br> en: vale!, farewell! <br> es: salve!, salud! <br> fr: salut, adieu <br> it: ciao, salve <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vece(=vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: vez <br> fr: fois <br> it: volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vel</b> <br> en: or, or rather <br> es: o, o más bien <br> fr: ou, ou plutôt <br> it: o, piuttosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vel. . . vel...</b> <br> en: either. . . or. . . <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou... ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vere(= vero)</b> <br> en: truly, really, indeed, even <br> es: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> fr: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> it: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vero(= vere)</b> <br> en: truly, really, indeed, even <br> es: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> fr: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> it: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>verso</b> <br> en: towards, toward; also: to, in the direction of, etc. <br> es: hacia, en dirección a <br> fr: vers <br> it: verso, nella direzione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>verso a basso</b> <br> en: <br> es: hacia abajo <br> fr: vers le bas <br> it: verso il basso, giù <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vespera</b> <br> en: evening <br> es: tarde <br> fr: soir <br> it: sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vespere</b> <br> en: evening <br> es: tarde <br> fr: soir <br> it: sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>via</b> <br> en: away <br> es: fuera, lejos <br> fr: loin, loin de là <br> it: via, fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>via</b> <br> en: via, by way of <br> es: vía, por vía de <br> fr: via, par <br> it: via, per via del, a causa di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>via!</b> <br> en: away! <br> es: fuera! <br> fr: plus loin! <br> it: via ! fuori ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vice</b> <br> en: time(as in "three times") <br> es: vez <br> fr: fois <br> it: volta(tre volte, una volta) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vice</b> <br> en: turn(as in "my turn"); also: stead <br> es: vez <br> fr: tour(comme dans "à mon tour") <br> it: volta(a mia volta) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vice versa</b> <br> en: vice versa <br> es: vice versa <br> fr: vice versa <br> it: viceversa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vis-à-vis</b> <br> en: opposite, face to face, vis-à-vis <br> es: vis-à-vis, cara a cara, en situación opuesta <br> fr: vis-à-vis <br> it: di fronte, davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>visto</b> <br> en: considering, in view of <br> es: visto, considerando <br> fr: vu <br> it: visto, considerato che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>visto que</b> <br> en: considering that <br> es: visto que, considerando que, en vista de que <br> fr: vu que <br> it: visto che, considerato che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vix</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely, barely <br> es: apenas, escasamente, difíilmente <br> fr: difficilement, à peine, <br> it: difficilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vix</b> <br> en: with difficulty <br> es: con dificultad <br> fr: avec difficulté <br> it: con difficoltà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>voi(= vos)</b> <br> en: <br> es: vous <br> fr: voi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>voluntariamente(= voluntarie, sponte)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>voluntarie(= voluntariamente, sponte)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: you, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons(as in "you are", "I love you", "for you") <br> es: tu, ustéd <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: voi(ma si usa il lei, per cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: you, in polite or formal use; addressing one person or several persons(as in "you are", "I love you" "for you") <br> es: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes <br> fr: vous <br> it: voi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: yourself [in polite or formal use(as in "you hurt yourself, " "to yourself")] <br> es: usted mismo, usted misma <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: yourselves [in all uses(as in "you hurt yourselves", "to yourselves")] <br> es: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos mesme, vos mesma, vos mesmo, vos ipse</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: usted mismo, usted misma <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos mesmes, vos mesmas, vos mesmos, vos ipses</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, ustedes mismos, ustedes mismas <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>Vostra Excellentia</b> <br> en: Your Excellency <br> es: Su Excelencia <br> fr: Votre Excellence <br> it: Sua Eccellenza(meno usato : Vostra Eccellenza) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> es: vuestro, vuestra <br> fr: votre <br> it: vostro, vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: su(de usted) <br> fr: votre <br> it: suo(di Lei, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: su(de ustedes) <br> fr: votre <br> it: loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: vuestro, vuestra <br> fr: votre <br> it: vostro, vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: suyo, suya(de usted) <br> fr: votre <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: suyo, suya(de ustedes) <br> fr: votre <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> es: vuestros, vuestras <br> fr: vos <br> it: vostro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: sus(de usted) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: su(de ustedes) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: vuestros, vuestras <br> fr: vos <br> it: vostri, vostre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: suyos, suyas(de usted) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: suyos, suyas(de ustedes) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(le/di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vulgo(= communmente)</b> <br> en: commonly, vulgo <br> es: comúnmente, vulgarmente <br> fr: communément, ordinairement, généralement <br> it: vilgo, generalmente, comunemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>w(littera): duple ve /u/ aut /v/</b> <br> en: <br> es: w(lettre): double vé /v/ ou /ou/ <br> fr: w(doppio vu; vu doppio; non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>x(littera): xe /ks/</b> <br> en: <br> es: x(lettre): iks /ks/ ou /gz/ ou /s/ ou /z/ <br> fr: x(ics, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>y(littera): i greco /y/ aut /i/</b> <br> en: <br> es: y(lettre): i grec /i/ <br> fr: y(i greca, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ya(= ja, jam)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ya <br> fr: déjà <br> it: già <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>yo(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: yo <br> fr: je, moi <br> it: io, me, mi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>z(littera): zeta /z/</b> <br> en: <br> es: z(lettre): zède /z/ <br></p> fr: z, zeta <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> 2113 2005-04-23T09:34:52Z Josu Lavin 2 IMPORTANTISSIME: [Tote le entratas debe esser corrigite secundo Interlingua de IALA] <b>a (+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: a (+ inf) <br> fr: à (+ inf. ) <br> it: a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a (littera): a /a/</b> <br> en: <br> es: a (lettre): a /a/ <br> fr: a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ambe lateres</b> <br> ra: <b>a ambos lateres</b><br> en: <br> es: a ambos lados <br> fr: des deux côtés <br> it: ad ambo i lati <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a basso</b> <br> en: down, downward <br> es: abajo <br> fr: en bas <br> it: abbasso, dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a basso (le traitores)!</b> <br> ra: <b>a basso (les/los traitores)!</b> <br> en: down with(the traitors)! <br> es: abajo los traidores! <br> fr: à bas(les traîtres) <br> it: abbasso(i traditori !) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a causa de</b> <br> en: because of <br> es: a causa de, por causa de, debido a <br> fr: à cause de <br> it: a causa di, per causa di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a condition que</b> <br> en: on condition that, provided that <br> es: a condición de que, con tal de que <br> fr: à(la) condition que <br> it: a condizione che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a conto</b> <br> en: on account <br> es: en cuenta <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: in acconto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a conto de</b> <br> en: to the account of <br> es: a cuenta de <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: in acconto a/di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a contratempore</b> <br> en: at the wrong moment <br> es: a contratiempo, en mal momento <br> fr: à contretemps <br> it: nel momento sbagliato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a derecta</b> <br> en: (to the) right <br> es: a derecha, a la derecha <br> fr: à droite <br> it: a destra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a distantia</b> <br> en: at a distance <br> es: a distancia <br> fr: à distance <br> it: a distanza di/da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fin de</b> <br> en: in order to <br> es: a fin de, para <br> fr: afin de, dans le but de, pour <br> it: in modo da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fin que</b> <br> en: in order that <br> es: a fin de que, para que <br> fr: afin que <br> it: in modo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a flor de</b> <br> en: flush with, on a level with <br> es: a flor de <br> fr: à fleur de <br> it: a livello di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fortia de</b> <br> en: by means of, by dint of <br> es: a fuerza de, por medio de <br> fr: à force de <br> it: a forza di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a fundo</b> <br> en: thoroughly <br> es: a fondo <br> fr: à fond <br> it: a fondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a grado</b> <br> en: at will <br> es: a voluntad <br> fr: à volonté, à discrétion <br> it: in grado di, a discrezione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a in</b> <br> en: <br> es: a, al interior de <br> fr: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> it: in, all'interno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a inter</b> <br> en: <br> es: (a) entre <br> fr: entre <br> it: tra, fra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a la (= a illac)</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allá, allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al aventura</b> <br> ra: <b>a la aventura</b> <br> en: at random <br> es: al azar <br> fr: aléatoirement, au hazard <br> it: all'avventura, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al derecta</b> <br> ra: <b>a la derecta</b> <br> en: (to the) right <br> es: a la derecha <br> fr: à la droite <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al entrata de (le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> ra: <b>a la entrata de (le hiberno, etc. )</b> <br> en: at the beginning of(winter, etc. ) <br> es: al principio de (invierno, etc. ) <br> fr: au début de, au commencement de(l'hiver, etc. ) <br> it: all'inizio di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al exclusion de</b> <br> ra: <b>a la exclusion de</b> <br> en: to the exclusion of <br> es: a la exclusión de <br> fr: à l'exclusion de <br> it: con l'esclusione di, ad esclusione di <br><br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al longo</b> <br> ra: <b>a lo longo, a la longa</b> <br> en: in the long run <br> es: a la larga <br> fr: avec le temps, à la longue <br> it: alla lunga, con il tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al plus</b> <br> ra: <b>al plus, a lo plus</b> <br> en: at(the) best <br> es: a lo más <br> fr: au plus <br> it: al più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al plus tarde</b> <br> ra: <b>al plus tarde, a lo plus tarde</b> <br> en: at the latest <br> es: a más tardar <br> fr: au plus tard <br> it: al più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a medietate</b> <br> en: half(= to half the full amount or degree) <br> es: a mitad <br> fr: à moitié <br> it: alla metà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a medietate del cammino</b> <br> en: halfway <br> es: a medio camino <br> fr: à mi-chemin <br> it: alla metà /nel mezzo del cammino <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a minus que</b> <br> en: unless <br> es: a menos que <br> fr: à moins que <br> it: a meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a omne costo(= a toto costo)</b> <br> en: at all costs, at any costs <br> es: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> fr: à tout prix <br> it: ad ogni costo, a qualsiasi costo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a omne proposito</b> <br> en: at every turn <br> es: a todo propósito <br> fr: à tout propos <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a parte</b> <br> en: apart, aside <br> es: aparte, separadamente <br> fr: à part <br> it: a parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a partir de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à partir de <br> fr: a partire da, partendo da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a pena(= apena)</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely <br> es: apenas, escasamente <br> fr: à peine <br> it: appena <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a presso de</b> <br> en: at the home(court, etc. ) of <br> es: a casa de(corte, etc. ) de <br> fr: ????????? <br> it: appresso a, presso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proba de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'épreuve de <br> fr: a prova di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proposito de</b> <br> en: with regard to, apropos of <br> es: con respecto a <br> fr: à propos de, au sujet de <br> it: a proposito di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proposito!</b> <br> en: by the way! incidentally <br> es: a propósito <br> fr: à propos! <br> it: a proposito! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a proposito:(dicer una cosa) a proposito</b> <br> en: (to say something) to the purpose, apropos, to the point <br> es: a propósito <br> fr: à propos <br> it: a proposito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a retro</b> <br> en: backwards <br> es: atrás, hacia atrás <br> fr: à reculons, en reculant <br> it: dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a tempore</b> <br> en: in(good) time <br> es: a tiempo <br> fr: à temps <br> it: a tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a toto costo(= a omne costo)</b> <br> en: at all costs, at any costs <br> es: a toda costa, a cualquier costo <br> fr: à tout prix <br> it: a ogni costo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a transverso</b> <br> en: through, from side to side <br> es: a través <br> fr: à travers, de bord en bord <br> it: di/a traverso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a transverso(de)</b> <br> en: through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> es: a través de <br> fr: à travers(de) <br> it: a traverso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> en: where, whither <br> es: où <br> fr: da dove, da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ubi</b> <br> en: where, whither <br> es: où <br> fr: a dove, a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a ubi(= quo)</b> <br> en: where, at what place <br> es: a dónde, a qué lugar <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a un alto grado</b> <br> en: to a high degree <br> es: a un alto grado <br> fr: à un haut degré <br> it: ad un alto grado <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a veces(= a vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: a veces <br> fr: parfois <br> it: a volte, qualche volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a vices</b> <br> en: at times <br> es: a veces <br> fr: parfois <br> it: a volte, alle volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>a, ad</b> <br> en: to, at <br> es: a, hacia; en <br> fr: à, vers, en, dans <br> it: a, ad, verso, nel <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ab(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de(+inf) <br> fr: da <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ab(= desde)</b> <br> en: since, from <br> es: desde <br> fr: depuis <br> it: da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> en: actually <br> es: actualmente <br> fr: actuellement <br> it: attualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>actualmente</b> <br> en: at present, (just) now <br> es: actualmente, en la actualidad <br> fr: à présent, maintenant <br> it: al momento, attualmente, adesso, ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>adeo</b> <br> en: farewell, good-by(e) <br> es: adiós <br> fr: adieu <br> it: addio, ciao, salve <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>adhuc</b> <br> en: to this place, thus far, hitherto, as yet, until now, so far, yet, still <br> es: a este lugar, hasta aquí, hasta ahora, todavía <br> fr: jusqu'ici, jusqu'à présent, <br> it: fino ad ora, fino adesso, fino a qui, fin qui, fino a qua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: al(+inf) <br> fr: sur le point de(+inf), près de(+inf) <br> it: al, sul punto di, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> en: to the <br> es: al <br> fr: au <br> it: al <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(= a le)</b> <br> en: to the <br> es: al <br> fr: au <br> it: al <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al(= alique)</b> <br> en: something <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose, <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al contrario</b> <br> en: on the contrary <br> es: al contrario <br> fr: au contraire <br> it: al contrario <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al currente(de)</b> <br> en: informed(about) <br> es: al corriente(de), informado(sobre) <br> fr: au courant de <br> it: al corrente di, informato su <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al detrimento de</b> <br> en: to the detriment of <br> es: en detrimento de <br> fr: au détriment de <br> it: a danno di, a scapito di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al estraniero</b> <br> en: abroad <br> es: en el extranjero <br> fr: à l'étranger <br> it: all'estero <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al exterior</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'extérieur <br> fr: all'esterno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al exterior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'extérieur de <br> fr: all'esterno di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al extero</b> <br> en: abroad(as in "to go abroad; to live abroad"), in foreign parts <br> es: al extranjero, en el extranjero <br> fr: à l'étranger <br> it: all'estero <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al extremo</b> <br> en: <br> es: al extremo <br> fr: à l'extrême <br> it: all'estremo, estremamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al fin</b> <br> en: in the end, at last <br> es: al fin <br> fr: enfin, à la fin <br> it: alla fine, infine <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al fundo de</b> <br> en: at the bottom of <br> es: al fondo de <br> fr: au fond de <br> it: al fondo di, in fondo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al fundo del corde</b> <br> en: at the bottom of one's heart <br> es: en el fondo del corazón <br> fr: au fond du cœur <br> it: nel fondo del cuore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al hasardo</b> <br> en: at random <br> es: al azar <br> fr: au hazard <br> it: al caso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al interior</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'intérieur <br> fr: all'interno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al interior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: à l'intérieur de <br> fr: all'interno di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al ir a(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ????????? <br> fr: andando a <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al latere</b> <br> en: aside <br> es: al lado <br> fr: à côté <br> it: al lato di, accanto a, lateralmente, a fianco di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al latere de</b> <br> en: beside <br> es: al lado de <br> fr: à côté de, au côté de <br> it: a fianco di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al minus</b> <br> en: at least <br> es: al menos, por lo menos <br> fr: au moins <br> it: al meno, alla fine, per lo meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al presente</b> <br> en: at present <br> es: en el presente, en la actualidad <br> fr: à présent <br> it: al presente, al momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>al transverso(de)</b> <br> en: through(as in "to shoot through the head", "to look through the window") <br> es: a través(de) <br> fr: à travers, au travers(de) <br> it: al traverso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alco(= alique)</b> <br> en: somewhat <br> es: un poco <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: un poco, un po', qualcosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alcun, alcuna, alcuno(= alicun, alicuna, alicuno)</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelque <br> it: qualche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alcunas veces(= alcunas vices, alicunas vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: quelques fois <br> fr: qualche volta, a volte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alcuno(= alicuno)</b> <br> en: someone, anyone <br> es: quelqu'un <br> fr: qualcuno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alias</b> <br> en: alias <br> es: alias <br> fr: alias <br> it: alias, altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alias</b> <br> en: at another time <br> es: en otro tiempo, en otro momento <br> fr: (à) un autre moment, un autre temps, un autre instant <br> it: in un altro momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alias(= alteramente)</b> <br> en: otherwise(= in another manner) <br> es: de otra manera <br> fr: autrement, d'une autre façon, d'une autre manière <br> it: in un altro modo, diversamente, in un'altra maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alibi</b> <br> en: elsewhere <br> es: en alguna otra parte <br> fr: ailleurs <br> it: alibi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicubi</b> <br> en: anywhere as in("did you see him anywhere?") <br> es: dondequiera <br> fr: quelque part comme dans("l'avez-vous vu quelque part?"), n'importe où comme dans("il va n'importe où") <br> it: da qualche parte, non importa dove, in qualche luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicubi(= usquam)</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: en cualquier lugar <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: da qualche parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicun, alicuna, alicuno</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna, alguno; un poco <br> fr: quelque, un peu <br> it: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicuna cosa(= alcuna cosa)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: alguna cosa <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualcosa, qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicunas vices(= alcunas vices)</b> <br> en: sometimes <br> es: algunas veces <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, qualvolta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicunes, alicunas, alicunos</b> <br> en: <br> es: algunos, algunas <br> fr: des, quelques, quelques-uns, quelques-unes <br> it: alcuno, alcune, alcuni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alicuno(= alcuno)</b> <br> en: someone, somebody; anyone, anybody <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelqu'un <br> it: alcuno, qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alie, alia, alio(= altere, altera, altero)</b> <br> en: other <br> es: otro, otra <br> fr: autre <br> it: altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> en: somehow <br> es: de una manera u otra <br> fr: d'une manière ou d'une autre <br> it: in un modo o in un altro, nell'uno o nell'altro modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliqua</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: en alguna parte <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: qualche parte, qualche luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliquando(= alquando)</b> <br> en: at some time or other; at any time; sometime; in future time <br> es: alguna vez, en algún que otro momento, en un momento dado <br> fr: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> it: in un dato momento, quando, allorché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliquanto(= alquanto)</b> <br> en: somewhat, to some degree <br> es: algo así, en algún grado <br> fr: quelque peu <br> it: in qualche modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: in qualche cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alique(= alque)</b> <br> en: somewhat <br> es: algo, un poco <br> fr: un peu <br> it: un po', un poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aliquot</b> <br> en: some, several, a few <br> es: quelque, un peu <br> fr: un po', un poco <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en aquel tiempo <br> fr: alors <br> it: allora, quindi, dunque, allorché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alora(= tunc)</b> <br> en: then, in that case, consequently) <br> es: entonces, en tal caso, consequentemente, en consecuencia, por consiguiente <br> fr: donc, dans ce cas, conséquemment, en conséquence <br> it: dunque, quindi, in questo caso, allora, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alquando(= aliquando)</b> <br> en: <br> es: une fois, une bonne fois, un moment donné <br> fr: una buona volta, un dato momento <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alquanto(= aliquanto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: quelque peu <br> fr: alquanto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> en: also, too <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alsi(= etiam)</b> <br> en: likewise, moreover, furthermore <br> es: igualmente, es más, además <br> fr: ainsi, de plus, par ailleurs <br> it: anche, ugualmente, allo stesso modo, comunque, in ogni modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alte, alta, alto</b> <br> en: high <br> es: alto, alta <br> fr: haut, haute <br> it: alto, alta, alti, alte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altera vece(= altera vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: otra vez, una vez más <br> fr: une autre fois <br> it: un'altra volta, in un altro momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> en: a second time, once again, once more <br> es: otra vez, una vez más <br> fr: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> it: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altera vice</b> <br> en: a second time, once more, once again <br> es: otra vez <br> fr: une autre fois, encore une fois <br> it: un'altra volta, ancora una volta, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alteramente(= alias)</b> <br> en: otherwise(= in another manner) <br> es: de otra manera <br> fr: autrement <br> it: altrimenti, diversamente, in un'altro modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> en: other, additional <br> es: otro, otra, adicional <br> fr: autre, additionnel(le) <br> it: altro, altra, altri, altre(in più, addizionale) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>altere, altera, altero(= altre, altra, altro)</b> <br> en: other, different <br> es: otro, otra, diferente <br> fr: autre, différent(e) <br> it: altro, altra, altri, altre(differente) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>alterubi</b> <br> en: elsewhere <br> es: en otra parte <br> fr: ailleurs <br> it: d'altra parte, altrimenti, diversamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ambes, ambas, ambos</b> <br> en: both <br> es: ambos, ambas <br> fr: les deux, tous deux, toutes deux <br> it: ambo, ambedue, tutti e due <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>an</b> <br> en: whether <br> es: si <br> fr: si <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>an(= est-que)</b> <br> en: <br> es: es que(particula interrogativa) <br> fr: est-ce que <br> it: - <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>an ille habe le libro?(= est-que ille habe le libro)</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> it: ha il libro ? egli ha il libro? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>analogo a</b> <br> en: analogous to <br> es: análogo a <br> fr: analogue à. semblable à <br> it: analogo a, simile a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> en: encore! <br> es: aún!, todavía! <br> fr: encore! <br> it: ancora! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ancora</b> <br> en: still, yet <br> es: aún, todavía <br> fr: encore <br> it: ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>annon</b> <br> en: or not <br> es: o no <br> fr: ou non, ou pas <br> it: o no <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>anque(io)(= etiam(io))</b> <br> en: (I) too, (me) too <br> es: también(yo), (yo) también <br> fr: (moi) aussi <br> it: anch'io, pure io, io pure <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>anque [anke](= etiam, tamben)</b> <br> en: also, too <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, above <br> es: antes, citado anteriormente <br> fr: avant, cité plus haut <br> it: prima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier <br> es: antes de <br> fr: avant <br> it: prima di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier <br> es: delante de, ante <br> fr: avant <br> it: davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, earlier than <br> es: antes, anterior <br> fr: plus tôt que, antérieurement à <br> it: prima(temp) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, in front of <br> es: antes, en frente de <br> fr: devant <br> it: davanti, di fronte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante</b> <br> en: before, in front, ahead; also: forward <br> es: antes; delante <br> fr: devant, en face de <br> it: innanzi, dinnanzi, di fronte, frontalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante le tempore</b> <br> en: ahead of time, too early <br> es: antes de tiempo, demasiado pronto <br> fr: trop tôt, avant le temps <br> it: prima del tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante que</b> <br> en: before <br> es: antes de que <br> fr: avant que <br> it: prima di, prima che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante toto</b> <br> en: after all <br> es: ante todo <br> fr: avant tout <br> it: prima di tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>antea(=potius, plus tosto)</b> <br> en: before, formerly, previously <br> es: antes, anteriormente, previamente <br> fr: plus tôt, précédemment, antérieurement <br> it: prima, precedentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ante-heri</b> <br> en: day before yesterday <br> es: anteayer <br> fr: avant-hier <br> it: l'altro ieri, ieri l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>anteriormente</b> <br> en: formerly, before <br> es: anteriormente <br> fr: antérieurement <br> it: anteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>apena(= a pena)</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely <br> es: a penas, escasamente <br> fr: à peine <br> it: a pena <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>apud(= presso)</b> <br> en: near, with, at, by <br> es: cerca de, junto a <br> fr: près de <br> it: presso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aquelle, aquella, aquello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: that <br> es: aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là(ex. ce garçon-là), cet ...-là(ex. cet homme-là), cette ...-là(ex. cette fille-là), [pron. dém. ]celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aquelles, aquellas, aquellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: aquellos, aquellas <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> it: quelli, quelle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aquesse, aquessa, aquesso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: ese, esa, eso <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aqueste, aquesta, aquesto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aqui(= hic)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> en: enough <br> es: bastante; suficiente <br> fr: assez <br> it: basta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assatis(= satis)</b> <br> en: rather(= fairly, quite) <br> es: bastante; suficiente <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: abbastanza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful bokk) <br> es: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> fr: così(così bello, tanto bello che) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi:(un libro) assi(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful a book), such(a beautiful book) <br> es: aussi:(un livre) aussi(beau) <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>assi... como...(= si. . . como. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as... <br> es: así. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que ... <br> it: così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>atque</b> <br> en: and, and also, and even <br> es: y, e, y también, e incluso <br> fr: et, et même <br> it: e <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aut(= o)</b> <br> en: or <br> es: o, u <br> fr: ou <br> it: o, altrimenti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>aut. . . aut...(= o. . . o. . . )</b> <br> en: either. . . or... <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou. . . ou. . . <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>avante</b> <br> en: before <br> es: antes de <br> fr: en avant de, au devant de <br> it: prima di, prima che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>avante</b> <br> en: before(= in front, ahead) <br> es: adelante, al frente, delante <br> fr: en avant, au devant <br> it: davanti a, di fronte a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>avante!</b> <br> en: before!(= in front, ahead) <br> es: adelante!, al frente! <br> fr: en avant! <br> it: avanti ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>b(littera): be /b/</b> <br> en: <br> es: b(lettre): bé /b/ <br> fr: b, bi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>basse, bassa, basso</b> <br> en: low <br> es: bajo <br> fr: bas, basse <br> it: basso, bassa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>basso</b> <br> en: bottom, lower part(of a thing) <br> es: base, parte de abajo(de una cosa), la parte más baja(de una cosa) <br> fr: bas <br> it: dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>basta</b> <br> en: enough! stop! <br> es: basta! <br> fr: assez! <br> it: basta! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bastante(= sufficiente)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficient <br> es: bastante, suficiente <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e) <br> it: sufficiente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bastante(= sufficientemente)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficiently <br> es: bastante, suficientemente <br> fr: assez, suffisamment <br> it: sufficientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bastantes(= sufficientes)</b> <br> en: enough, sufficient <br> es: bastantes, suficientes <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> it: sufficienti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben</b> <br> en: well <br> es: bien <br> fr: bien <br> it: bene <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> en: although <br> es: a pesar de que, aunque <br> fr: quoique, bien que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben que</b> <br> en: though <br> es: ben que <br> fr: bien que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> en: all right! <br> es: bien! <br> fr: très bien! <br> it: bene ! giusto ! benissimo ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ben!</b> <br> en: good! <br> es: bien!, bueno! <br> fr: bien! <br> it: bene ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bis</b> <br> en: encore <br> es: bis, de nuevo, otra vez, repetición <br> fr: bis, encore une fois, de nouveau <br> it: bis, ancora una volta, di nuovo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bis</b> <br> en: twice <br> es: dos veces <br> fr: deux fois <br> it: due volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bon!</b> <br> en: good!, fine!, all right! <br> es: bien! <br> fr: bon! <br> it: buono ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bon, bona, bono</b> <br> en: <br> es: bon, bonne <br> fr: buono, buona <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bona nocte!</b> <br> en: good night! <br> es: buenas noches! <br> fr: bonne nuit! <br> it: buona notte, buonanotte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>bravo!</b> <br> en: bravo! <br> es: bravo! <br> fr: bravo! <br> it: bravo! brava! bravi! brave! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>c(littera): ce /k/ aut /ts/</b> <br> en: <br> es: c(lettre): cé /k/ ou /s/ <br> fr: c, ci(pron. come ch inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cata</b> <br> en: each <br> es: cada <br> fr: chaque <br> it: ogni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cata un, cata una, cata uno</b> <br> en: <br> es: cada uno, cada una <br> fr: chacun, chacune <br> it: ognuno, agnuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ce</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: ce, c'... <br> it: ciò, questo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ce ci</b> <br> en: this(here) <br> es: ceci <br> fr: ciò, questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ce la</b> <br> en: that(there, yonder) <br> es: cela <br> fr: quello, quella <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: (the) former(first of two) <br> es: celui-là, celle-là <br> fr: quello là, quella là <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>celle, cella, cello(= ille, illa, illo)</b> <br> en: 1. that; those <br> es: [adj. dém. ] ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, [pron. dém. ] celui, celle, celui-là. celle-là <br> fr: quello, quella <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>celles, cellas, cellos(= illes, illas, illos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: [adj. dém. ] ces, ces ...-là, [pron. dém. ] ceux, ceux-là <br> fr: quei, quegli, quelle <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> en: that(one) <br> es: aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quello là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cello(= illo)</b> <br> en: the former <br> es: aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quello là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cento:(tres) per cento, (tres) pro cento</b> <br> en: (three) per cent <br> es: (trois) pour cent <br> fr: cento(ce, come in ch inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>certe, certa, certo</b> <br> en: a certain. . . <br> es: cierto, cierta <br> fr: un certain, une certaine <br> it: certo, un certo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>certo</b> <br> en: <br> es: ciertamente, cierto <br> fr: certainement <br> it: certo, certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> en: other <br> es: autre <br> fr: altro <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetere, cetera, cetero</b> <br> en: remaining <br> es: restant <br> fr: restante, rimanente, resto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> en: besides, for the rest <br> es: d'autre part, quant au reste <br> fr: d'altra parte, quanto al resto, peraltro <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cetero</b> <br> en: otherwise, in other respects <br> es: autrement, par ailleurs <br> fr: diversamente <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ch(digrapho): ce hache /k/ aut /sh/</b> <br> en: <br> es: ch(digraphe ou digramme): cé-ache /k/ ou /sh/ <br> fr: ch(pron come k) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ci(=hic)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ci juncto(= hic juncto)</b> <br> en: herewith, hereto(joined) <br> es: junto con esto <br> fr: ci-joint(e) <br> it: qui con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>circa</b> <br> en: around <br> es: alrededor de <br> fr: autour de <br> it: circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>circa</b> <br> en: around <br> es: cerca, alrededor, aproximadamente <br> fr: autour, aux alentours, environ, approximativement <br> it: circa, approssimativamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>circum</b> <br> en: around, around about <br> es: alrededor, aproximadamente <br> fr: autour, aux alentours <br> it: circa, approssimativamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cis</b> <br> en: on this side(of) <br> es: a este lado(de) <br> fr: de ce côté(de) <br> it: da questa parte, da questo lato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cito</b> <br> en: quickly, speedily <br> es: rápidamente <br> fr: vite <br> it: rapidamente, velocemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cito</b> <br> en: soon <br> es: pronto <br> fr: tôt <br> it: presto, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>clam</b> <br> en: secretly <br> es: secretamente, en secreto <br> fr: secrètement <br> it: segretamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>clam</b> <br> en: without the knowledge of, unknown to <br> es: sin el conocimiento de, desconocido a <br> fr: sans la connaissance de, inconnu(e) à <br> it: senza sapere che, senza conoscenza di, senza cognizione <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>communmente(= vulgo)</b> <br> en: commonly, vulgo <br> es: comúnmente, vulgarmente, normalmente <br> fr: vulgairement, communément <br> it: comunemente, volgarmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como</b> <br> en: as; also: like, similarly to <br> es: como <br> fr: comme <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como</b> <br> en: how <br> es: como <br> fr: comment <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como illa est bella!</b> <br> en: how beautiful she is! <br> es: qué bonita es ella! <br> fr: Comme elle est belle! <br> it: come è bella lei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como si</b> <br> en: as though, as if <br> es: como si <br> fr: comme si <br> it: come se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>como:(facete) como(vos volate)</b> <br> en: (do) as(you wish) <br> es: (haced) como(vosotros queráis) <br> fr: comme:(faites) comme(vous voulez) <br> it: come(fate) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>comocunque</b> <br> en: however, in whatever manner <br> es: sin embargo, de cualquier forma, como sea <br> fr: cependant, de toute façon <br> it: comunque, in ogni modo, ad ogni modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>comparabile a</b> <br> en: comparable to <br> es: comparable a <br> fr: comparable à <br> it: comparabile a/con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>comparabile con</b> <br> en: comparable with <br> es: comparable con <br> fr: comparable avec <br> it: comparabile con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>completamente(= totalmente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: completamente(= totalmente) <br> fr: complètement <br> it: completamente, totalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>con</b> <br> en: with, by means of <br> es: con, por medio de <br> fr: avec, au moyen de <br> it: con, per mezzo di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>con</b> <br> en: with, having, carrying, characterized by) <br> es: con, que tiene. . . , caracterizado por. . . <br> fr: avec, ayant, caractérisé(e) par <br> it: con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>con</b> <br> en: with, together with <br> es: con <br> fr: avec, (ensemble) avec <br> it: con, insieme a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>concernente</b> <br> en: concerning <br> es: concerniente <br> fr: concernant <br> it: concernente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conforme</b> <br> en: conformable, in conformity <br> es: conforme, en conformidad <br> fr: conforme, en conformité <br> it: conforme <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conforme a</b> <br> en: in conformity with, according to <br> es: conforme a <br> fr: selon, conforme à, en conformité avec <br> it: conforme a, in conformità a/di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conjunctamente</b> <br> en: conjointly, conjunctly, jointly, together <br> es: conjuntamente <br> fr: conjointement, ensemble <br> it: congiuntamente, con, insieme <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>conjunctamente con</b> <br> en: in with, together with, in conjunction with <br> es: conjuntamente con <br> fr: conjointement avec <br> it: congiuntamente a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>contra</b> <br> en: against <br> es: contra <br> fr: contre <br> it: contro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>contra</b> <br> en: on the contrary <br> es: al contrario <br> fr: au contraire <br> it: al contrario, diversamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>contra</b> <br> en: opposite, facing <br> es: en situación opuesta, enfrentado <br> fr: contre, faisant face à <br> it: contrariamente, al contrario <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>coram</b> <br> en: in one's presence, openly, publicly <br> es: en la presencia de, abiertamente, públicamente <br> fr: en présence de quelqu'un, publiquement <br> it: in presenza di, davanti a, pubblicamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>coram</b> <br> en: in the presence of <br> es: en presencia de <br> fr: en présence de <br> it: in presenza di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cras(= deman)</b> <br> en: tomorrow <br> es: mañana <br> fr: demain <br> it: domani <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cuje, cuja, cujo</b> <br> en: whose <br> es: cuyo, cuya <br> fr: dont <br> it: di cui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>cum(=con)</b> <br> en: <br> es: avec <br> fr: con <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>d(littera): de /d/</b> <br> en: <br> es: d(lettre): dé /d/ <br> fr: di/d <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: from; also: since <br> es: de, desde <br> fr: de, depuis <br> it: da, dal, dallo, dalla, dagli, dalle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of <br> es: de <br> fr: de <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of, belonging or pertaining to <br> es: de <br> fr: de, de la, du, à la, au, aux, (appartenant à la, au, aux) <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of, made of <br> es: de, hecho de <br> fr: de(fait de) <br> it: di(fatto di) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de</b> <br> en: of, with, by means of <br> es: de, con <br> fr: de, de la, du, des, par, avec, au moyen de(de la, du, des) <br> it: di, del, dello, della, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: to; for <br> es: de(+ inf) <br> fr: de(+inf) <br> it: di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de accordo</b> <br> en: in accord <br> es: de acuerdo <br> fr: d'accord <br> it: d'accordo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> en: from the top to the bottom <br> es: de arriba abajo <br> fr: de haut en bas <br> it: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de alto a basso</b> <br> en: from top to bottom, from top to toe <br> es: de arriba abajo <br> fr: de haut en bas, de la tête aux pieds <br> it: da cima a fondo, dall'alto al basso, dalla testa ai piedi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bon corde</b> <br> en: gladly, willingly <br> es: de buena gana, alegremente <br> fr: de bon coeur <br> it: di buon cuore, generoso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bon grado</b> <br> en: willingly, with pleasure <br> es: de buen grado, con placer, de buena gana <br> fr: avec plaisir <br> it: di buon grado, volentieri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bon gusto</b> <br> en: in good taste <br> es: de buen gusto <br> fr: de bon goût <br> it: di buon gusto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de bona hora</b> <br> en: early <br> es: de buena hora <br> fr: de bonne heure <br> it: di buono'ora, presto, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de ci a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> en: (an hour, etc. ) from now <br> es: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> fr: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> it: da qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de commun accordo</b> <br> en: by common consent <br> es: de común acuerdo <br> fr: d'un commun accord <br> it: di comune accordo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de concerto</b> <br> en: in concert, in unison <br> es: de concierto, al unísono <br> fr: de concert <br> it: di concerto, d'accordo con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de costume, usualmente</b> <br> en: usually <br> es: como de costumbre, habitualmente, usualmente <br> fr: d'habitude <br> it: usualmente, d'abitudine, di norma, solitamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de derecto</b> <br> en: by right(s) <br> es: de derecho <br> fr: de droit <br> it: di diritto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de die in die</b> <br> en: from day to day <br> es: de día en día <br> fr: de jour en jour <br> it: di giorno in giorno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> en: de facto <br> es: de facto, de hecho <br> fr: de facto <br> it: di fatto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de facto</b> <br> en: in fact, de facto <br> es: de hecho, de facto <br> fr: en fait, de fait, par le fait <br> it: infatti, difatti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de hic a(una hora, etc. )</b> <br> en: (an hour etc. ) from now <br> es: de aquí a(una hora, etc. ) <br> fr: d'ici(à)(une heure, etc. ) <br> it: di qui a(un'ora, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de la parte de</b> <br> en: on the part of <br> es: de(la) parte de <br> fr: de la part de <br> it: da parte di, dalla parte di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de longe(= de longo)</b> <br> en: afar, from a distance <br> es: de lejos <br> fr: de loin <br> it: dalla distanza di, da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de mal grado</b> <br> en: unwillingly, in spite of oneself <br> es: de mala gana <br> fr: de mauvais gré <br> it: malgrado, malvolentieri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de mal gusto</b> <br> en: in bad taste <br> es: de mal gusto <br> fr: de mauvais goût <br> it: di cattivo gusto, inopportuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de mal in pejo</b> <br> en: from bad to worse <br> es: de mal en peor <br> fr: de mal en pis <br> it: di male in peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de maniera que</b> <br> en: so that <br> es: de manera que <br> fr: de manière que <br> it: in modo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de memoria</b> <br> en: from memory, by heart <br> es: de memoria <br> fr: de mémoire, par coeur <br> it: a memoria, a mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de nocte</b> <br> en: by night <br> es: de noche <br> fr: de nuit <br> it: di notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de novo</b> <br> en: again, anew, afresh <br> es: de nuevo <br> fr: de nouveau <br> it: di nuovo, ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de omne latere</b> <br> en: from every side <br> es: de todo lado <br> fr: de tout côté <br> it: da ogni alto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de parte a parte</b> <br> en: through and through <br> es: de parte a parte <br> fr: de part en part <br> it: da parte a parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de parte de</b> <br> en: on the part of <br> es: de parte de <br> fr: de la part de <br> it: da parte di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de plus</b> <br> en: furthermore, besides <br> es: además <br> fr: de plus <br> it: di più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de plus in plus</b> <br> en: more and more <br> es: de más en más <br> fr: de plus en plus <br> it: più e più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de qui</b> <br> en: whose <br> es: de quien <br> fr: de qui, dont <br> it: di cui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de tempore ??</b> <br> en: from time to time <br> es: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> fr: de temps en temps <br> it: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de tempore in tempore</b> <br> en: from time to time <br> es: de tiempo en tiempo, de vez en cuando <br> fr: de temps en temps <br> it: di tempo in tempo, di tanto in tanto, di volta in volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de toto(le) corde</b> <br> en: wholeheartedly <br> es: de todo corazón <br> fr: de tout coeur <br> it: di tutto cuore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de totos lateres</b> <br> en: on all sides <br> es: de todos lados <br> fr: de tous les côtés <br> it: da ogni lato, da ogni parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de transverso</b> <br> en: askew, awry <br> es: de tavés <br> fr: de travers <br> it: di traverso, trasversalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de troppo(= de tro)</b> <br> en: superfluous, in the way <br> es: superfluo <br> fr: de trop <br> it: di troppo, superfluo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, donde <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de ubi(= unde)</b> <br> en: from where, whence <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, donde <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>de un extremo al altero</b> <br> en: from one extreme to the other <br> es: de un extremo al otro <br> fr: d'un extrême à l'autre <br> it: da un estremo all'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>debitamente</b> <br> en: duly, properly <br> es: debidamente, propiamente <br> fr: dûment, justement, convenablement <br> it: debitamente, giustamente, propriamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> en: afterwards, then, following in time <br> es: después, entonces, <br> fr: ensuite, alors, par la suite <br> it: di seguito, dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> en: afterwards, then, next in order <br> es: ensuite, suivant dans l'ordre <br> fr: di seguito, dopo, poi, secondo l'ordine, seguendo l'ordine <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deinde</b> <br> en: thereafter, next <br> es: suivant(e) <br> fr: successivo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del(= de le)</b> <br> en: of the <br> es: del <br> fr: du <br> it: del, dello <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del altere latere</b> <br> en: <br> es: del otro lado <br> fr: de l'autre côté <br> it: dall'altro lato, d'altro canto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del principio</b> <br> en: from the outset or start <br> es: del principio <br> fr: du début <br> it: da principio, dall'inizio, inizialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>del toto</b> <br> en: <br> es: del todo <br> fr: du tout <br> it: di tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deman(= cras)</b> <br> en: tomorrow <br> es: mañana <br> fr: demain <br> it: domani <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deman matino</b> <br> en: tomorrow morning <br> es: mañana a la mañana, mañana por la mañana <br> fr: demain matin <br> it: domani mattina, domattina <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>deman vespere</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la tarde, mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depois(= depost)</b> <br> en: afterwards, later <br> es: después <br> fr: puis, ensuite, plus tard <br> it: poi, dopo, più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depois que(= depost que)</b> <br> en: since(from the time that) <br> es: después de que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: dopo che, dopo di che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost</b> <br> en: after, since <br> es: después de <br> fr: depuis, après <br> it: dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost</b> <br> en: afterwards, later <br> es: después, luego <br> fr: puis, ensuite <br> it: poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: desde cuando <br> fr: depuis quand <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: desde cuándo <br> fr: depuis quand <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>depost que</b> <br> en: since(= from the time that) <br> es: después(de) que, desde que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>desde</b> <br> en: since, from <br> es: desde <br> fr: depuis, de <br> it: dopo di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>detra</b> <br> en: behind, back, backwards <br> es: detrás <br> fr: derrière, en arrière <br> it: dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dextra</b> <br> en: on the right of <br> es: a la derecha de <br> fr: à la droite de <br> it: alla destra di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>difficile a(+ inf), difficile de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: difícil de(+ inf) <br> fr: difficile à(+inf), difficile de(+inf) <br> it: difficile a/da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>directo:(ir, ambular, etc. ) directo</b> <br> en: (to go, walk, etc. ) straight <br> es: directamente <br> fr: droit, tout droit:(aller, se diriger, etc. ) tout droit <br> it: diritto, sempre diritto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>donec</b> <br> en: until, up to the time that <br> es: hasta <br> fr: jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>donec</b> <br> en: while, as long as <br> es: mientras <br> fr: pendant que <br> it: fino a, fino a che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>duas horas</b> <br> en: two o'clock <br> es: las dos(horas) <br> fr: deux heures <br> it: due ore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dum</b> <br> en: provided that, if only <br> es: contal de que <br> fr: pourvu que, si seulement <br> it: solo se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dum</b> <br> en: until <br> es: hasta que <br> fr: jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dum</b> <br> en: while, as long as <br> es: mientras <br> fr: pendant que, tant que <br> it: fintanto che, fino a che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>dunque</b> <br> en: therefore <br> es: por consiguiente <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: dunque, quindi, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>durante</b> <br> en: during <br> es: durante <br> fr: durant, pendant <br> it: durante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>durante que</b> <br> en: while, whilst <br> es: mientras, mientras que <br> fr: pendant que <br> it: durante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>e(= et)</b> <br> en: <br> es: et <br> fr: e <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>e(littera): e /e/</b> <br> en: <br> es: e(lettre): e /?/ <br> fr: e <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>e. . . e...(= et. . . et. . . )</b> <br> en: <br> es: et... et... <br> fr: e. . . e. . . <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ecce</b> <br> en: lo!, see!, behold!, here is <br> es: he aquí, helo aquí <br> fr: voici <br> it: ecco, ecco qui, ecco qua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ego(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: moi(= je) <br> fr: io <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>el(= ille)</b> <br> en: <br> es: il <br> fr: egli, lui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ella(= illa)</b> <br> en: <br> es: elle <br> fr: ella, lei <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> en: equally <br> es: également <br> fr: egualmente, ugualmente <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>equalmente</b> <br> en: likewise, also <br> es: igualmente, también <br> fr: également <br> it: egualmente, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>erga</b> <br> en: against <br> es: contra <br> fr: contre <br> it: contro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>erga</b> <br> en: in respect to <br> es: con respecto a <br> fr: par rapport à <br> it: in rapporto a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>erga</b> <br> en: towards <br> es: vis-à-vis <br> fr: di fronte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ergo</b> <br> en: consequently, accordingly, therefore, then <br> es: por consiguiente, ergo, por eso <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esse, essa, esso(= isse, issa, isso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> fr: questo, questa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esser in dubita</b> <br> en: to be in doubt <br> es: estar en duda, dudar <br> fr: être dans le doute, douter <br> it: essere in dubbio/nel dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esser satis</b> <br> en: to be enough <br> es: ser suficiente, ser bastante <br> fr: être assez, être suffisant <br> it: essere sufficiente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esso(=isso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ceci <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>este, esta, esto(= iste, ista, isto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: [adj. dém. ]ce, cet, cette, ce. . . -ci, cet ...-ci, cette ...-ci, [pron. dém] celui-ci. celle-ci <br> fr: questo, questa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>esto(= isto)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ceci <br> fr: questo, questo qui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>est-que [ést-ke](= an)</b> <br> en: <br> es: est-ce que <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>est-que ille habe le libro?(= an ille habe le libro)</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre? a-t-il le livre? <br> it: (egli) ha il libro ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> en: also <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: e, anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et(= e)</b> <br> en: and <br> es: y, e <br> fr: et <br> it: e <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et cetera, etc. </b><br> and so on, and so forth, etc. <br> es: etcetera, etc. <br> fr: et ainsi de suite, et cetera, etc. <br> it: eccetera, così di seguito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>et. . . et. . . (= e. . . e. . . )</b> <br> en: as well. . . as..., both. . . and... <br> es: sea. . . sea. . . <br> fr: et. . . et. . . <br> it: e. . . e. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etiam(= anque, tamben)</b> <br> en: also, likewise, too; even, even yet; yet <br> es: también, del mismo modo, igualmente, incluso <br> fr: aussi, même, <br> it: anche, lo stesso, allo stesso modo, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> en: and yet <br> es: e incluso <br> fr: et même <br> it: e ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> en: even if <br> es: incluso si <br> fr: même si <br> it: anche se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>etsi</b> <br> en: though, although <br> es: quoique, bien que <br> fr: benché <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ex</b> <br> en: out of; from <br> es: fuera de; desde, de <br> fr: hors de <br> it: ex, fuori da <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ex tempore</b> <br> en: extempore <br> es: impromptu, improvisé <br> fr: ex tempore, imrpovvisato <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>exactamente(= justo)</b> <br> en: exactly, just <br> es: exactamente, justo <br> fr: exactement, juste, justement <br> it: giusto, esatto, esattamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>excepto</b> <br> en: except, excepting <br> es: excepto, exceptuando <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>excessivamente(= in excesso, troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: excessivement <br> fr: eccessivamente, troppo, in eccesso <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>expresso</b> <br> en: purposely <br> es: intencionadamente <br> fr: exprès <br> it: espresso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extero</b> <br> en: foreign countries <br> es: países extranjeros <br> fr: pays étrangers(à l'étranger) <br> it: estero, paese straniero <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: besides, in addition to <br> es: además de, en adición a <br> fr: en plus de, <br> it: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: besides, in addition, extra <br> es: además, en adición, extra <br> fr: de plus, en plus, d'autre part, par ailleurs <br> it: extra, di più, in più, oltre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: excepting, except <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: outside of, without, beyond <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: hors de, en dehors de, au délà de <br> it: fuori di, al di fuori di, oltre a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>extra</b> <br> en: without, on the outside <br> es: fuera, en la parte de afuera <br> fr: à l'extérieur <br> it: all'esterno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>f(littera): fe /f/</b> <br> en: <br> es: f(lettre): èfe /f/ <br> fr: f, effe <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>facie a(= ob, in la via de)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: cara a, hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: face à, en face de, devant, considérant, en raison de <br> it: davanti a, in ragione di, di fronte a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>facie a facie</b> <br> en: face to face <br> es: cara cara <br> fr: face à face <br> it: faccia a faccia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>facile a(+ inf), facile de(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: fácil de(+ inf) <br> fr: facile à(+inf), facile de(+inf) <br> it: facile da, facile a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au délà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: except <br> es: fuera de, excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto, fuori da/che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: from without <br> es: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> fr: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for</b> <br> en: out of doors, outside, out <br> es: à l'extérieur <br> fr: all'infuori di, eccetto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for de</b> <br> en: outside of, without <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: hors de, à l'extérieur de <br> it: fuori da, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>for de se(= foras de se, foris de se)</b> <br> en: beside oneself <br> es: fuera de sí <br> fr: hors de soi <br> it: fuori di sé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au délà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: except <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: from without <br> es: de l'extérieur, du dehors <br> fr: eccetto, all'infuori di <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras(= foris)</b> <br> en: out of doors, outside, out <br> es: fuera, afuera <br> fr: dehors <br> it: fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de</b> <br> en: outside of, without <br> es: fuera de <br> fr: au dehors de <br> it: senza, al di fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de dubita, foris de dubita</b> <br> en: beyond doubt <br> es: fuera de duda <br> fr: hors de tout doute <br> it: senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de lo commun(= foris de lo commun)</b> <br> en: out of the ordinary <br> es: fuera de lo común <br> fr: hors de l'ordinaire <br> it: fuori dall'ordinario <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de proposito</b> <br> en: ill-timed, irrelevant, beside the mark <br> es: fuera de propósito, irrelevante <br> fr: hors de propos <br> it: irrilevante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>foras de se</b> <br> en: beside oneself <br> es: fuera de sí <br> fr: hors de soi <br> it: fuori di sé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> en: perhaps, maybe <br> es: posiblemente, quizás, tal vez, es posible que. . . <br> fr: peut-être, possiblement <br> it: può essere, forse <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>forsan</b> <br> en: perhaps, maybe <br> es: probablemente, quizás, tal vez <br> fr: peut-être, probablement <br> it: può essere, probabilmente, forse <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>frequentemente</b> <br> en: frequently, often <br> es: frecuentemente, a menudo <br> fr: souvent, fréquemment <br> it: frequentemente, sovente, spesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>frustra</b> <br> en: in vain <br> es: en vano <br> fr: en vain <br> it: invano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>g(littera): ge /g/ aut /j/</b> <br> en: <br> es: g(lettre): jé /gh/ ou /j/ <br> fr: g/gi(pron. : come j di John) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>grande(= magne, magna, magno)</b> <br> en: <br> es: grande; magno, magna <br> fr: grand, grande <br> it: grande, gran <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>grandemente</b> <br> en: <br> es: grandemente <br> fr: grandement <br> it: grandemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>gratias a</b> <br> en: thanks to, due or owing to <br> es: gracias a, debido a <br> fr: grâce à <br> it: grazie a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>gratias!</b> <br> en: thank you! thanks! <br> es: gracias! <br> fr: grâce! <br> it: grazie <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>gratis</b> <br> en: gratis, free(of charge) <br> es: gratis <br> fr: gratis, gratuit <br> it: gratis, gratuito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>guai</b> <br> en: woe <br> es: pena <br> fr: ennui, malheur, chagrin, peine <br> it: guai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>h(littera): hache /h/</b> <br> en: <br> es: h(lettre): ache /muet/ <br> fr: h, acca(muta, ma dopo C e G cambia la pronuncia da dolce a dura(chi=ki; ghi=g di girl inglese) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>haber satis</b> <br> en: to have enough <br> es: tener suficiente, tener bastante <br> fr: avoir assez <br> it: avere abbastanza, avere a sufficienza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hac</b> <br> en: here, this way, on this side <br> es: aquí, en este lado <br> fr: ici, par là, de ce côté <br> it: qui, di qui, di qua, da questa parte, in questo luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hallo!</b> <br> en: hello! <br> es: hola! <br> fr: allo! <br> it: ciao <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>halto</b> <br> en: halt, stop <br> es: alto <br> fr: halte, arrêt, stop <br> it: stop, alt, fermo! basta! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>halto!</b> <br> en: halt! <br> es: alto! <br> fr: halte! <br> it: fermo!, ferma! stop! alt! altolà! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>heri</b> <br> en: yesterday <br> es: ayer <br> fr: hier <br> it: ieri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>heri vespera</b> <br> en: last night <br> es: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> fr: la nuit dernière <br> it: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>heri vespere</b> <br> en: last night <br> es: anoche, ayer por la noche <br> fr: la nuit dernière <br> it: la notte scorsa, l'altra notte, ieri notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hic</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hic(= iste)</b> <br> en: <br> es: -ci <br> fr: qui <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hic juncto</b> <br> en: herewith, hereto(attached) <br> es: ci-joint <br> fr: qui accanto, qui con <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this place <br> es: de aquí en adelante, desde este sitio en adelante <br> fr: d'ici <br> it: da qui(da qui in poi, da qui in avanti) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this reason) <br> es: de aquí en adelante, por esta razón <br> fr: de là, par conséquent <br> it: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hinc</b> <br> en: hence, henceforth, from this time <br> es: de aquí en adelante, desde este tiempo en adelante <br> fr: dorénavant, désormais <br> it: da qui, da ciò, per questo motivo, di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> en: it <br> es: ce, cela <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc</b> <br> en: this(thing, idea) <br> es: ce, ceci, cela <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc est</b> <br> en: that is(to say) <br> es: es decir <br> fr: c'est-à-dire <br> it: come a dire, cioé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hoc pluve</b> <br> en: it is raining <br> es: llueve, está lloviendo <br> fr: il pleut <br> it: piove, sta piovendo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hodie</b> <br> en: today <br> es: hoy <br> fr: aujourd'hui <br> it: oggi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hodie ipse</b> <br> en: this very say <br> es: hoy mismo <br> fr: aujourd'hui même <br> it: oggi stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>hodie mesmo</b> <br> en: this very day <br> es: hoy mismo <br> fr: aujourd'hui même <br> it: anche oggi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>holla!</b> <br> en: holla! <br> es: hola! <br> fr: allo! <br> it: ciao! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>homo(=on, uno)</b> <br> en: <br> es: on <br> fr: un, uno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>i(littera): i /i/</b> <br> en: <br> es: i(lettre): i /i/ <br> fr: i <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibi</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibid. , ib. </b><br> ibid. , ib. <br> es: ibid. , ib. <br> fr: ibid. , ib. <br> it: ibid. , ib. <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> en: ibidem <br> es: ibidem, en el mismo lugar <br> fr: ibidem <br> it: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ibidem</b> <br> en: in the same place, in that very place <br> es: en el mismo lugar <br> fr: au même endroit <br> it: nello stesso luogo, ibidem <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>id</b> <br> en: 1. it; 2. that <br> es: esto <br> fr: ce <br> it: questo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>id est, i. e. </b><br> that is(to say), i. e. <br> es: esto es, es decir <br> fr: c'est-à-dire, i. e. <br> it: cioé <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>idem</b> <br> en: idem <br> es: idem <br> fr: idem <br> it: idem, lo stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>idem</b> <br> en: the same(thing) <br> es: la misma cosa; lo mismo <br> fr: la même chose, le même <br> it: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, idem <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>igitur</b> <br> en: <br> es: entonces, por consiguiente <br> fr: donc, par conséquent <br> it: quindi, di conseguenza, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il</b> <br> en: it <br> es: ce, c', il <br> fr: egli <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il(= ille)</b> <br> en: <br> es: il <br> fr: egli <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il conveni de(facer lo)</b> <br> en: it is fitting, advisable, to(do it) <br> es: conviene(hacerlo) <br> fr: il convient de(le faire) <br> it: conviene(farlo) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est a dicer</b> <br> en: <br> es: es decir, o sea <br> fr: c'est-à-dire <br> it: cioè <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est bon que, il est bono que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es bueno que <br> fr: il est bon que, c'est bon que <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est bon, il est bono</b> <br> en: <br> es: es bueno <br> fr: il est bon, c'est bon <br> it: va bene <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est necessari que, il est necessario que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario que <br> fr: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> it: è necessario che, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est necessari, il est necessario</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario <br> fr: il est nécessaire, c'est nécessaire <br> it: è necessario, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est necesse que</b> <br> en: <br> es: es necesario que <br> fr: il est nécessaire que, c'est nécessaire que <br> it: è necessario, bisogna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il est vero, nonne?</b> <br> en: it is true, isn't it?, isn't that so? <br> es: es verdad, no es así? <br> fr: c'est vrai, non? n'est-ce pas vrai? n'est-il pas vrai? <br> it: è vero ? non è vero ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il face</b> <br> en: ago <br> es: hace <br> fr: il y a(deux ans) <br> it: fa(due anni fa) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il face(un) grande calor</b> <br> en: it is very hot <br> es: hace mucho calor <br> fr: il fait une grande chaleur <br> it: fa un gran caldo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il face frigido</b> <br> en: it is cold(weather) <br> es: hace frío <br> fr: il fait froid <br> it: fa freddo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il ha</b> <br> en: <br> es: hay <br> fr: il y a <br> it: c'è <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il habe</b> <br> en: there is, there aree <br> es: hay <br> fr: il y a <br> it: c'è <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il importa que. . . </b><br> it is essential that. . . <br> es: importa que, es importante que, es esencial que <br> fr: il faut que <br> it: è che, bisogna, è necessario che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il pare que</b> <br> en: <br> es: parece que <br> fr: il paraît que <br> it: sembra che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il se tracta de</b> <br> en: <br> es: se trata de <br> fr: il s'agit de <br> it: si tratta di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>il va sin dicer</b> <br> en: <br> es: il va sans dire <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illa</b> <br> en: her(as in "of her, " "with her") <br> es: ella <br> fr: elle <br> it: ella, essa, lei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illa</b> <br> en: she <br> es: ella <br> fr: elle <br> it: ella, essa, lei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illac</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille habe 20 annos</b> <br> en: he is 20 years old <br> es: il a vingt(20) ans <br> fr: venti anni fa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: he; she; it <br> es: él, ella, ello <br> fr: il, elle <br> it: egli, ella, lui, lei, esso, essa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: him; her; it(as in "with him, " "with it"; "for him, " "for it") <br> es: él, ella, ello <br> fr: lui, elle(comme dans "avec lui, " "avec elle"; "pour lui" "pour elle") <br> it: lui, lei(con lei, per lei, a lui, con lui, per lei, per lui) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: that(one) <br> es: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -là, cet ...-là, cette ...-là, pron. dém. : celui-là. celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: that, those <br> es: aquel, aquella <br> fr: <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: the former <br> es: él, ella, ello; aquel, aquella, aquello <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello là, quella là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ille, illa, illo</b> <br> en: the former(= first of two) <br> es: aquel, aquella <br> fr: celui-là, celle-là <br> it: quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> en: them(as in "with them, " "for them") <br> es: ellos, ellas <br> fr: eux, elles(comme dans "avec eux" ou "avec elles", "pour eux" ou "pour elles") <br> it: essi, esse, loro(con essi, con loro, a loro, per loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illes, illas, illos</b> <br> en: they <br> es: ellos, ellas <br> fr: ils, elles <br> it: essi, esse, loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illes, illas, illos(= aquelles, aquellas, aquellos)</b> <br> en: those <br> es: aquellos, aquellas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-là, pron. dém. : ceux-là <br> it: quelli là, quelle là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illi(= illes)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ??????? <br> fr: essi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illic(= illac)</b> <br> en: <br> es: là <br> fr: là <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>illo</b> <br> en: it [used as subject, and as object of a prep.] <br> es: ello <br> fr: ça <br> it: ciò, quello <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in</b> <br> en: in, into <br> es: en, dentro <br> fr: dans <br> it: in, nel, nello, nella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: = gerundio <br> fr: en(part. prés. ) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alicun modo</b> <br> en: <br> es: de algún modo, de alguna manera <br> fr: de quelque façon <br> it: in qualche modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alicuna forma</b> <br> en: <br> es: de alguna forma <br> fr: de quelque forme <br> it: in qualche forma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alicuna maniera</b> <br> en: <br> es: de alguna manera <br> fr: de quelque manière <br> it: in qualche maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alta voce</b> <br> en: aloud, loudly, not in a whisper <br> es: en alta voz <br> fr: à haute voix <br> it: ad alta voce <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alteras parolas</b> <br> en: <br> es: en otras palabras <br> fr: dans d'autres mots <br> it: in altre parole, in altri termini <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> en: (up) on top; also: upstairs <br> es: arriba, hacia arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, su <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alto</b> <br> en: upward(s), up; also: upstairs <br> es: arriba, hacia arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, su <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in alto(= super)</b> <br> en: above, on top <br> es: arriba, sobre <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> en: down, below; also: downstairs <br> es: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> fr: en bas, en dessous <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in basso</b> <br> en: down, downward; also: downstairs <br> es: debajo, abajo, hacia abajo <br> fr: en bas <br> it: in basso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in caso de</b> <br> en: in case of <br> es: en caso de <br> fr: en cas de <br> it: in caso di, nel caso che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in caso de necessitate</b> <br> en: in case of need, of necessity <br> es: en caso de necesidad <br> fr: en cas de nécessité <br> it: in caso di necessità, all'occorrenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in caso que</b> <br> en: in case(that) <br> es: en caso de que <br> fr: au cas où <br> it: nel caso che, in caso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in certos casos</b> <br> en: <br> es: en ciertos casos <br> fr: dans certains cas <br> it: in certi casi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in commemoration de</b> <br> en: in commemoration of <br> es: en conmemoración de <br> fr: en commémoration de <br> it: in commemorazione di, in ricordo di, in memoria di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in commun</b> <br> en: in common <br> es: en común <br> fr: en commun <br> it: in comune <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in conclusion, in fin</b> <br> en: in conclusion <br> es: en conclusión <br> fr: en conclusion <br> it: in conclusione <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in consequentia</b> <br> en: in consequence, accordingly <br> es: en consecuencia <br> fr: en conséquence <br> it: in conseguenza, conseguentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in consequentia de</b> <br> en: in consequence of <br> es: en consecuencia de <br> fr: en conséquence de <br> it: in conseguenza di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in consideration de</b> <br> en: in consideration of, on account of <br> es: en consideración de <br> fr: en considération de <br> it: in considerazione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in despecto de</b> <br> en: in spite of, despite <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado, a dispetto di, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in domo de</b> <br> en: at the house of <br> es: en la casa de <br> fr: à la résidence de <br> it: in casa di, presso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in effecto</b> <br> en: in fact, indeed <br> es: en efecto <br> fr: en fait, effectivement <br> it: infatti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in evidentia</b> <br> en: evident <br> es: en evidencia <br> fr: en évidence <br> it: in evidenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in excesso(= excessivamente, troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: en exceso, excesivamente, demasiado <br> fr: en excès(=excessivement, trop) <br> it: in eccesso, troppo, eccessivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in favor de</b> <br> en: on behalf of, in favor of <br> es: a favor de <br> fr: en faveur de <br> it: in favore di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in fin</b> <br> en: in short, to sum up <br> es: en conclusión, en fin <br> fr: enfin, en conclusion, finalement <br> it: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in fin, in conclusion</b> <br> en: in conclusion <br> es: en fin, en conclusión <br> fr: enfin, en conclusion <br> it: infine, in conclusione, finalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in general</b> <br> en: in general <br> es: en general <br> fr: en général <br> it: in generale, in genere, di norma, usualmente, normalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in honor de</b> <br> en: in honor of <br> es: en honor de <br> fr: en honneur de <br> it: in onore di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in la proximitate de</b> <br> en: in the proximity or vicinity of <br> es: en la proximidad o vecindad de <br> fr: à proximité de <br> it: in prossimità di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in la via de(= facie a, ob)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> it: prima di, davanti a, in ragione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le curso de. . . </b><br> in the course of. . . <br> es: en el curso de <br> fr: au cours de <br> it: in corso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le exterior</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el exterior <br> fr: à l'extérieur <br> it: all'esterno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le exterior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el exterior de <br> fr: à l'extérieur de <br> it: all'esterno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le fundo</b> <br> en: fundamentally, at bottom <br> es: en el fondo, fundamentalmente <br> fr: au fond, fondamentalement <br> it: in fondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le gusto de. . . </b><br> in the manner of. . . <br> es: al gusto de, a la manera de <br> fr: au goût de <br> it: al gusto di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le interim</b> <br> en: in the interim <br> es: en el interim <br> fr: dans l'intérim <br> it: nel frattempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le interior</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el interior <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le interior de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el interior de <br> fr: à l'intérieur de <br> it: all'interno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le passato</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el pasado <br> fr: dans le passé <br> it: nel passato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in le principio</b> <br> en: in the beginning <br> es: al principio <br> fr: au début <br> it: all'inizio, inizialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in loco de</b> <br> en: in lieu of, instead of <br> es: en lugar de <br> fr: au lieu de <br> it: in luogo di, al posto di, invece di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in medio de</b> <br> en: in the middle of <br> es: en medio de <br> fr: au milieu de <br> it: in mezzo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in memoria de</b> <br> en: in memory of <br> es: en memoria de <br> fr: en mémoire de <br> it: in memoria di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in modo special, specialmente</b> <br> en: especially <br> es: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> fr: en particulier, spécialement <br> it: in particolare, specialmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in modo. . . (= -mente)</b> <br> en:ly <br> es: -mente <br> fr: -ment <br> it: -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in nomine de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en nombre de <br> fr: au nom de <br> it: in nome di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in nulla parte</b> <br> en: nowhere <br> es: en ninguna parte <br> fr: nulle part <br> it: in nessun luogo, da nessuna parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in nulle caso</b> <br> en: in no case <br> es: en ningún caso <br> fr: en aucun cas <br> it: in alcun caso, in nessun caso, mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in omne caso</b> <br> en: in any case <br> es: en todo caso <br> fr: en tout cas <br> it: in ogni caso, in utti i casi, sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in parte</b> <br> en: in part, partially <br> es: en parte, parcialmente <br> fr: en partie <br> it: in parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in particular</b> <br> en: in particular, particularly <br> es: en particular, particularmente <br> fr: en particulier <br> it: in particolare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in pauco</b> <br> en: shortly, before long <br> es: en poco tiempo, dentro de poco, en breve <br> fr: d'ici peu <br> it: in poco tempo, da qui a un poco, in un attimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in plus</b> <br> en: furthermore, in addition, also <br> es: además, adicionalmente <br> fr: de plus, en plus, en outre <br> it: di più, in più, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in primo loco</b> <br> en: first, in the first place <br> es: en primer lugar <br> fr: en premier lieu <br> it: in primo luogo, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in principio</b> <br> en: in principle, as a rule <br> es: en principio <br> fr: en principe <br> it: in principio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in su loco</b> <br> en: <br> es: en su lugar <br> fr: à sa place <br> it: al suo posto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in summa</b> <br> en: <br> es: en suma <br> fr: en somme <br> it: insomma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in tanto que</b> <br> en: inasmuch as, in so far as <br> es: en tanto que <br> fr: en tant que <br> it: in tanto che, fin tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in toto</b> <br> en: entirely, wholly, in toto <br> es: en todo <br> fr: en tout <br> it: in tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in toto et per toto</b> <br> en: entirely, wholly <br> es: en todo y por todo <br> fr: en tout et pour tout <br> it: in tutto e per tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in vano</b> <br> en: <br> es: en vano <br> fr: en vain <br> it: invano, inutilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in vice de</b> <br> en: instead of <br> es: en vez de, en lugar de <br> fr: au lieu de <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>in vista de</b> <br> en: in view of <br> es: en vista de <br> fr: en vue de <br> it: in vista di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inde</b> <br> en: from that cause, therefore <br> es: por esa causa, por consiguiente <br> fr: de ce fait, de là <br> it: per questo, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inde</b> <br> en: from that place, from there, thence <br> es: desde aquí, desde este sitio <br> fr: d'ici <br> it: da qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inde</b> <br> en: from that time, after that, thereupon, thenceforward <br> es: desde este momento, después de eso <br> fr: désormais, dorénavant <br> it: da questo momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inferior</b> <br> en: <br> es: inferior <br> fr: inférieur(e) <br> it: inferiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>infime, infima, infimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: ínfimo, ínfima <br> fr: infime <br> it: infimo, infima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>1</b> <br> en: below, under, beneath <br> es: debajo de <br> fr: sous, dessous <br> it: sotto, in basso, in profondità <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>infra</b> <br> en: below, underneath, beneath <br> es: debajo <br> fr: sous, dessous, en dessous <br> it: dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>insimul(= junctamente)</b> <br> en: together <br> es: juntos, juntas <br> fr: ensemble <br> it: insieme <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inter</b> <br> en: among <br> es: entre <br> fr: parmi <br> it: tra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inter</b> <br> en: between <br> es: entre <br> fr: entre <br> it: tra, fra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>inter alia</b> <br> en: inter alia, among other things <br> es: entre otras cosas <br> fr: entre autres choses, parmi tant d'autres <br> it: tra l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>interdum</b> <br> en: sometimes, occasionally; for some time; meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: a veces, de vez en cuando; durante algún tiempo; entretanto <br> fr: parfois, à l'occasion, pour quelque temps, entre-temps <br> it: qualchevolta, talvolta, durante, nel frattempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>interea</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto <br> fr: entre-temps <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>interim(= intertanto)</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto, mientras tanto <br> fr: entre-temps <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intertanto(= interim)</b> <br> en: meanwhile, in the meantime <br> es: entretanto <br> fr: en attendant <br> it: frattanto, nel frattempo, mentre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intra</b> <br> en: within <br> es: dentro <br> fr: entre, dans <br> it: in, nel, nella, dentro il <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intra</b> <br> en: within <br> es: dentro de <br> fr: dans, à l'intérieur de <br> it: all'interno di, nel, in <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intro</b> <br> en: inwardly <br> es: hacia dentro <br> fr: vers l'intérieur <br> it: verso l'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intro</b> <br> en: inwardly, internally, on the inside, in <br> es: internamente, interiormente, enm el interior <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intus</b> <br> en: inside, into, to the inside <br> es: al interior <br> fr: vers l'intérieur <br> it: verso l'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>intus</b> <br> en: inside, on the inside, within <br> es: en el interior, dentro de <br> fr: à l'intérieur <br> it: all'interno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>io(=ego)</b> <br> en: I <br> es: yo <br> fr: je(=moi) <br> it: io <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>io mesme, io mesma, io mesmo, io ipse</b> <br> en: myself <br> es: yo mismo, yo mismo <br> fr: moi même <br> it: io stesso, me stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ipse</b> <br> en:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> es: mismo, misma(yo mismo, tú mismo, él mismo, etc. <br> fr: -même <br> it: stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>is</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: ce <br> fr: questo <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isse(= esse)</b> <br> en: this, that, these, those <br> es: ese <br> fr: ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-là, ceux-ci <br> it: questo, questa, questo qui, questa qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isse, issa, isso(= aquesse, aquessa, aquesso)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: ese, esa, eso <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isses, issas, issos(= aquesses, aquessas, aquessos)</b> <br> en: these <br> es: esos, esas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> it: questi, queste <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isso</b> <br> en: this, that <br> es: eso <br> fr: ce. ceci, cela <br> it: questo, quello <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ista nocte</b> <br> en: tonight <br> es: esta noche <br> fr: cette nuit <br> it: questa notte, stanotte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ista vespera</b> <br> en: this evening, tonight <br> es: esta tarde, esta noche <br> fr: ce soir <br> it: questa sera, stasera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste vespere</b> <br> en: this evening, tonight <br> es: esta tarde, esta noche <br> fr: ce soir <br> it: questa sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: the latter <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo/a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: the latter(= second of two) <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui-ci, celle-ci <br> it: questo/a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto</b> <br> en: this(one) <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>iste, ista, isto(= aqueste, aquesta, aquesto)</b> <br> en: this <br> es: este, esta, esto <br> fr: adj. dém. : ce. . . -ci, cet ...- ci, cette ...- ci, pron. dém. : celui- ci. celle- ci <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>istes, istas, istos(= aquestes, aquestas, aquestos)</b> <br> en: these <br> es: estos, estas <br> fr: adj. dém. : ces ...-ci, pron. dém. : ceux-ci <br> it: questo qui, questa qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>isto</b> <br> en: <br> es: esto <br> fr: ce, ceci, cela <br> it: questo, questa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: accordingly, under the circumstances <br> es: de acuerdo con, bako las circunstancias <br> fr: en conséquence, dans les circonstances <br> it: così, di conseguenza, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: and so, consequently <br> es: así, consecuentemente, por consiguiente <br> fr: et ainsi, conséquemment <br> it: e così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: just so, yes <br> es: justamente, sí <br> fr: justement, oui <br> it: sì, giusto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ita</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>itaque</b> <br> en: and so, therefore <br> es: y así, por consiguiente <br> fr: et ainsi, donc <br> it: e così, dunque <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>itero</b> <br> en: again, anew <br> es: de nuevo, nuevamente <br> fr: encore <br> it: ancora, di nuovo, nuovamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>itero et itero</b> <br> en: again and again, repeatedly <br> es: una y otra vez, repetidamente <br> fr: encore et encore <br> it: ancora ed ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>j(littera): jota /j/</b> <br> en: <br> es: j(lettre): ji /j/(et non /dj/) <br> fr: j(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo; si usa nelle parole antiche o straniere) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> en: already; at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely <br> es: ya, ahora mismo <br> fr: déjà, tout de suite, il y a un moment, en effet, sûrement <br> it: già, al momento, proprio adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jam(= ja)</b> <br> en: indeed, certainly, of course <br> es: ya, ciertamente <br> fr: en effet, bien sûr <br> it: in effetti, già, sicuramente, certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jammais</b> <br> en: ever, at any time <br> es: siempre <br> fr: jamais <br> it: mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jammais!</b> <br> en: never! <br> es: jamás!, nunca! <br> fr: jamais! <br> it: mai giammai ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>jo(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: yo <br> fr: je <br> it: io <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>junctamente(=insimul)</b> <br> en: together <br> es: juntos, juntas <br> fr: ensemble <br> it: insieme, con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>justo(= exactamente)</b> <br> en: just, exactly <br> es: justo, exactamente <br> fr: juste, exactement <br> it: giusto, esattamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>justo nunc(= justo ora)</b> <br> en: just now, right now <br> es: justo ahora <br> fr: juste maintenant <br> it: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>justo ora(= justo nunc)</b> <br> en: just now, right now <br> es: justo ahora <br> fr: juste maintenant <br> it: proprio adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> en: near, near by <br> es: cerca, al lado <br> fr: près <br> it: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>juxta</b> <br> en: near, near to, next to, etc. <br> es: cerca de, al lado de <br> fr: près de <br> it: vicino a, presso, appresso a, presso di, accanto a, prossimo, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>k(littera): ka /k/</b> <br> en: <br> es: k(lettre): ka /k/ <br> fr: k(non fa parte dell'alfabeto Italianoo), kappa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>l(littera): le /l/</b> <br> en: <br> es: l(lettre): èle /l/ <br> fr: l, elle <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>l'(= le, la, lo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: l'(= le, la) <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la</b> <br> en: her(as in "I see her", "I write her a letter") <br> es: la, le <br> fr: la, lui(comme dans "je la vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> it: la, lei(io la vedo, io le ho scritto una lettera) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la(= illac)</b> <br> en: there <br> es: allá, allí <br> fr: là <br> it: là <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la medietate del mundo</b> <br> en: half the world <br> es: la mitad del mundo, medio mundo <br> fr: la moitié du monde <br> it: mezzo mondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la mesma cosa</b> <br> en: <br> es: la misma cosa, lo mismo <br> fr: la même chose <br> it: la stessa cosa, lo stesso, la medesima cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la vespera</b> <br> en: in the evening, evenings <br> es: por la tarde <br> fr: le soir <br> it: la sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>la:(un dollar) la(libra)</b> <br> en: (one dollar) a(pound) <br> es: (un dolar) la(libra) <br> fr: la:(un dollar) la(livre) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el(+ inf) <br> fr: le(+ inf) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le de, la de, lo de</b> <br> en: <br> es: el de, la de, lo de <br> fr: celui de, celle de <br> it: quello di, quella di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le die sequente</b> <br> en: the next day, the following day <br> es: el día siguiente <br> fr: le jour suivant <br> it: il giorno dopo, il giorno seguente, il giorno successivo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le lore, la lore, lo lore</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: le leur, la leur <br> it: il loro, la loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le melior, la melior, lo melior(= le optime, la optima, lo optimo; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> en: the best <br> es: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le mie et le tue, la mia et la tua, lo mio et lo tuo</b> <br> en: mine and thine <br> es: el mío y el tuyo, la mía y la tuya, lo mío y lo tuyo <br> fr: le mien et le tien. la mienne et la tienne <br> it: il mio e il tuo, la mia e la tua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le mie, la mia, lo mio</b> <br> en: mine <br> es: el mío, la mía, lo mío <br> fr: le mien, la mienne <br> it: il mio, la mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minime, la minima, lo minino(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minor, la minor, lo minor(= le minime, la minima, lo minimo; le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il minore, la minore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minus</b> <br> en: the least(as in "what pleases me(the) least") <br> es: el menor <br> fr: le moins <br> it: il meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le minus belle, la minus bella, lo minus bello</b> <br> en: the least beautiful <br> es: el menos bello, la menos bella, lo menos bello <br> fr: le moins beau, la moins belle <br> it: il meno bello, lameno bella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le nostre, la nostra, lo nostro</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro <br> fr: le nôtre, la nôtre <br> it: il nostro, la nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le optime, la optima, lo optimo(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el mejor, la mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleure <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor; le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el pésimo, la pésima, lo pésimo <br> fr: le pire la pire <br> it: il pessimo, la pessima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus belle, la plus bella, lo plus bello</b> <br> en: the most beautiful <br> es: el más bonito, la más bonita, lo más bonito <br> fr: le plus beau, la plus belle <br> it: il più bello, la più bella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus bon, la plus bona, lo plus bono(= le melior, la melior, lo melior; le optime, la optima, lo optimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: el mejor, la mejor, lo mejor <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> it: il migliore, la migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande(= le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> fr: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> it: il più grande, la più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus magne, la plus magna, lo plus magno(= le plus grande, la plus grande, lo plus grande)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más grande, la más grande, lo más grande <br> fr: le plus grand, la plus grande <br> it: il più grande, la più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus mal, la plus mala, lo plus malo(= le pejor, la pejor, lo pejor(= le pessime, la pessima, lo pessimo)</b> <br> en: the worst <br> es: el peor, la peor, lo peor <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: il peggiore, la peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus parve, la plus parva, lo plus parvo(= le minor, la minor, lo minor; le minime, la minima, lo minimo)</b> <br> en: the greatest, biggest <br> es: el más pequeño, la más pequeña, lo más pequeño <br> fr: le plus petit, la plus petite <br> it: il più piccolo, la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus. . . -mente(= lo plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: lo más. . . -mente <br> fr: le plus... -ment <br> it: il più. . . -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le plus. . . , la plus. . . , lo plus. . . </b><br> the most. . . <br> es: el más. . . , la más. . . , lo más. . . <br> fr: le plus..., la plus... <br> it: il più. . . la più. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le qual, la qual, lo qual</b> <br> en: which; that; who <br> es: el cual, la cual, lo cual <br> fr: lequel, laquelle <br> it: il quale, la quale <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le que, la que, lo que</b> <br> en: <br> es: el que, la que, lo que <br> fr: celui qui, celle qui <br> it: quello che, quella che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le sue, la sua, lo suo</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: le sien, la sienne(de lui, d'elle) <br> it: il suo, la sua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le toto</b> <br> en: the whole <br> es: el todo <br> fr: le tout <br> it: il tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le tue, la tua, lo tuo</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo <br> fr: le tien, la tienne <br> it: il tuo, la tua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le un le altere, la una la altera, lo uno lo altero(= unaltre)</b> <br> en: one another, each other, each(one). . . the other(one) <br> es: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> fr: l'un l'autre, l'une l'autre <br> it: l'un l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vespere</b> <br> en: in the evenong, evenings <br> es: la tarde <br> fr: le soir <br> it: la sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il vostro, la vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de usted) <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il Suo, la Sua(di Lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le vostre, la vostra, lo vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: el suyo, la suya, lo suyo(de ustedes) <br> fr: le vôtre, la vôtre <br> it: il loro, la loro(di Loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> en: him(as in "I see him", "I write him a letter") <br> es: le, la, lo <br> fr: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je le vois", "je lui écris une lettre") <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> en: it(as in "I like it", "I'll give it another thought") <br> es: le, la, lo <br> fr: l', le, la, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>le, la, lo</b> <br> en: the <br> es: el, la, lo <br> fr: le, la, l' <br> it: il, lo, la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les de, las de, los de</b> <br> en: <br> es: los de, las de <br> fr: ceux de, celles de <br> it: quelli di, quelle di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les duo, las duas, los duos</b> <br> en: the two <br> es: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> fr: les deux <br> it: i due, ambo, ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les lores, las lores, los lores</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: i loro, le loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les mies, las mias, los mios</b> <br> en: <br> es: los míos, las mías <br> fr: les miens, les miennes <br> it: i miei, le mie <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les nostres, las nostras, los nostros</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: los nuestros, las nuestras <br> fr: les nôtres <br> it: i nostri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les que, las que, los que</b> <br> en: <br> es: los que, las que <br> fr: ceux que, ceux qui, celles que. celles qui <br> it: quelli che, quelle che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les sues, las suas, los suos</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: les siens, les siennes(de lui ou d'elle) <br> it: i loro, le loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les tues, las tuas, los tuos</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: los tuyos, las tuyas <br> fr: les tiens, les tiennes <br> it: i tuoi, le tue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les unes les alteres</b> <br> en: one another, each other, each(of them). . . the others, other ones <br> es: unos los otros, unos a los otros <br> fr: les uns les autres <br> it: gli uni gli altri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les unes les alteres, las unas las alteras, los unos los alteros</b> <br> en: one another, each other <br> es: unos los otros, unos a los otros, unas a las otras <br> fr: les uns les autres, <br> it: gli uni gli altri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: los vuestros, las vuestras <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i vostri <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de usted) <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i Suoi(di Lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les vostres, las vostras, los vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: los suyos, las suyas(de ustedes) <br> fr: les vôtres <br> it: i Loro(di Loro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> en: the <br> es: los, las <br> fr: les <br> it: i, le <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>les, las, los</b> <br> en: them(as in "I see them", "I write them a letter") <br> es: les, los, las <br> fr: les, leur(comme dans "je les vois", "je leur écris une lettre") <br> it: li, le <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> en: on the left hand <br> es: a la izquierda <br> fr: à gauche <br> it: a sinistra, sinistrorso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>levorso</b> <br> en: to the left <br> es: a la izquierda <br> fr: à gauche <br> it: a sinistra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>li(= le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ?????? <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lo</b> <br> en: it(as in "I like it, " "I'll give it another thought") <br> es: lo <br> fr: le, lui(comme dans "je l'aime", "je lui donnerai ...") <br> it: lo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lo plus. . . -mente(= le plus. . . -mente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: lo más. . . -mente <br> fr: le plus... -ment <br> it: il più. . . -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lo que</b> <br> en: that which <br> es: lo que <br> fr: ce que <br> it: quello che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>loco</b> <br> en: place <br> es: lugar <br> fr: lieu <br> it: luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>longamente</b> <br> en: long, for a long time <br> es: durante mucho tiempo <br> fr: longtemps <br> it: a lungo, lungamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>longe(= longo)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos(= no cerca) <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>longo(= longe)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos(= no cerca) <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lontan(= lontano)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos; distante, lejano <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano, distante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lontano(= lontan)</b> <br> en: far(= not near); away, far away <br> es: lejos; distante, lejano <br> fr: loin <br> it: lontano, distante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lor</b> <br> en: their <br> es: su(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lore</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: suyo, suya(de ellos, o ellas) <br> fr: le leur(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lores</b> <br> en: their <br> es: sus(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>lores</b> <br> en: theirs <br> es: suyos, suyas(de ellos o ellas) <br> fr: les leurs(d'eux ou d'elles) <br> it: loro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>los altos et(los) bassos</b> <br> en: th ups and downs <br> es: los altos y(los) bajos <br> fr: les hauts et les bas <br> it: gli alti e bassi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>los mios</b> <br> en: my people, my family <br> es: los míos <br> fr: les miens <br> it: i miei <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>m(littera): me /m/</b> <br> en: <br> es: m(lettre): ème /m/ <br> fr: m, emme <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ma(= mais)</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero, mas <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>magis</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>magis</b> <br> en: rather <br> es: más bien <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>magne, magna, magno(= grande)</b> <br> en: <br> es: grand, grande <br> fr: grande <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mais(= ma)</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero, mas <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>major</b> <br> en: <br> es: majeur(e), principal(e) <br> fr: maggiore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mal, mala, malo</b> <br> en: <br> es: mal, mauvais, mauvaise <br> fr: male, malvagio <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>malgrado(= malgre)</b> <br> en: in spite of <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>malgre(= malgrado)</b> <br> en: <br> es: malgré <br> fr: malgrado <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane</b> <br> en: early in the morning <br> es: temprano por la mañana <br> fr: <br> it: stamane, stamattina presto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane</b> <br> en: morning <br> es: mañana <br> fr: matin <br> it: mattino <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane vespera</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mane vespere</b> <br> en: tomorrow night <br> es: mañana por la noche <br> fr: demain soir <br> it: domani sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: certainly <br> es: ciertamente <br> fr: certainement <br> it: certamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: especially, principally <br> es: especialmentre, principalmente <br> fr: spécialement, principalement <br> it: specialmente. principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: exceedingly, very <br> es: excesivamente, muy <br> fr: excessivement, très <br> it: eccessivamente, molto, troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime</b> <br> en: most <br> es: le plus <br> fr: il più <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>maxime, maxima, maximo</b> <br> en: <br> es: le plus, la plus <br> fr: il più, la più <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>me</b> <br> en: me <br> es: me <br> fr: me, moi <br> it: me, mi(dallo a me, mi piace) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>me</b> <br> en: myself(as in "I hurt myself", "I said to myself") <br> es: me <br> fr: moi-même <br> it: io stesso, me stesso(io stesso ho scritto quel libro; l'ho scritto io stesso; l'ho fatto per me stesso) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>media hora</b> <br> en: half an hour <br> es: media hora <br> fr: demi-heure <br> it: mezz'ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: average, mean <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: moyen, moyenne <br> it: medio, media <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: half <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: demi <br> it: mezzo, mezza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medie, media, medio</b> <br> en: middle <br> es: medio, media <br> fr: milieu <br> it: mezzo, mezza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medietate</b> <br> en: half <br> es: mitad <br> fr: moitié, demi <br> it: metà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: half <br> es: medio <br> fr: moitié, demi <br> it: metà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: mean, medium <br> es: medio <br> fr: moyenne <br> it: medio, media <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: means(= agent or instrument by which an end is attained) <br> es: medios(=agente o instrumento mediante el cual se obtiene un fin) <br> fr: moyen <br> it: mediante, con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>medio</b> <br> en: middle, also: midst <br> es: medio, también: entre <br> fr: milieu <br> it: medio, in mezzo, in <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>melio</b> <br> en: better <br> es: mejor <br> fr: meilleur, mieux <br> it: migliore, meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>melior</b> <br> en: better <br> es: mejor <br> fr: meilleur, mieux <br> it: migliore, meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>meno(= minus)</b> <br> en: <br> es: menos <br> fr: moins <br> it: meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>-mente(= in modo. . . )</b> <br> en:ly <br> es: -mente <br> fr: -ment <br> it: -mente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> en: same <br> es: mismo, misma <br> fr: même <br> it: stesso, medesimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesme, mesma, mesmo</b> <br> en:self(myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself")) <br> es: mismo, misma <br> fr: même <br> it: stesso, medesimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> en: even <br> es: incluso <br> fr: même <br> it: incluso, stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesmo</b> <br> en: likewise <br> es: igualmente <br> fr: même, semblable <br> it: stesso, medesimo, ugualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mesmo quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: incluso cuando <br> fr: même quand <br> it: anche quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mi</b> <br> en: my <br> es: mi <br> fr: mon, ma <br> it: mio, mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mi(= me)</b> <br> en: <br> es: me <br> fr: me, moi <br> it: mio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mie, mia, mio</b> <br> en: mine <br> es: mío, mía <br> fr: le mien, la mienne <br> it: il mio, la mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mies, mias, mios</b> <br> en: <br> es: míos, mías <br> fr: les miens, les miennes <br> it: i miei, le mie <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minimamente</b> <br> en: <br> es: mínimamente <br> fr: minimalement <br> it: minimamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime</b> <br> en: by no means, not in the least, no! <br> es: de ninguna manera, en lo más mínimo, no! <br> fr: d'aucune façon, pas du tout, non! <br> it: in alcun modo, in nessun modo, no, assolutamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime</b> <br> en: least <br> es: le moins <br> fr: almeno <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime</b> <br> en: very little <br> es: muy pequeño <br> fr: très peu <br> it: molto poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> en: least, smallest, minimal <br> es: mínimo, mínima <br> fr: le moins, la moins, le plus petit, la plus petite, minimal <br> it: minimo, la minima. . . la più piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minime, minima, minimo</b> <br> en: very small, tiny <br> es: muy pequeño, diminuto <br> fr: très petit <br> it: molto piccolo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minor</b> <br> en: <br> es: mineur(e) <br> fr: minore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus</b> <br> en: less <br> es: menos <br> fr: moins <br> it: meno, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> en: less(money, etc. ) <br> es: menos(dinero, etc. ) <br> fr: moins de(moins d'argent) <br> it: meno di, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus de</b> <br> en: less <br> es: menos de <br> fr: moins de <br> it: meno di, senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus de(dece annos)</b> <br> en: less than(ten years) <br> es: menos de(diez años) <br> fr: moins de(dix ans) <br> it: meno di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus. . . (que)</b> <br> en: less. . . (than) <br> es: menos. . . (que) <br> fr: moins...(que) <br> it: meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus:(quatro) minus(tres)</b> <br> en: (four) minus(three) <br> es: menos:(cuatro) menos(tres) <br> fr: moins:(quatre) moins(trois) <br> it: meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>minus:(totos) minus(ille)</b> <br> en: (all) except, but(him) <br> es: menos:(todos) menos él <br> fr: (tous) sauf(lui) <br> it: (tutti) meno(lui) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mis</b> <br> en: my <br> es: mis <br> fr: mon, ma <br> it: mio, mia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>mox</b> <br> en: soon, at once, directly <br> es: pronto, en seguida <br> fr: bientôt, tout-de-suite <br> it: presto, tosto, subito, prima possibile <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multas gratias</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchas gracias <br> fr: merci beaucoup <br> it: grazie molte, molte grazie, grazie infinite, grazie mille, grazie tante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multas vices</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchas veces <br> fr: plusieurs fois <br> it: più volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multe de, multa de, multo de</b> <br> en: much, many <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup de <br> it: molto di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> en: many <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto, molta, molti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multe, multa, multo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: mucho, mucha <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto, molta, molti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multes, multas, multos</b> <br> en: many <br> es: muchos, muchas <br> fr: plusieurs, de nombreux, de nombreuses <br> it: molte, molti, numerosi, numerose <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multissime, multissima, multissimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchísimo, muchísima <br> fr: une grande quantité de <br> it: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multissimes, multissimas, multissimos</b> <br> en: <br> es: muchísimos, muchísimas <br> fr: un grand nombre de <br> it: moltissimo, moltissima, moltissime <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: mucho <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo</b> <br> en: very <br> es: muy <br> fr: très <br> it: molto, tanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo ben</b> <br> en: <br> es: muy bien <br> fr: très bien <br> it: molto bene <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>multo bon</b> <br> en: <br> es: muy bueno <br> fr: très bon <br> it: molto buono <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>n(littera): ne /n/</b> <br> en: <br> es: n(lettre): ène /n/ <br> fr: n, enne <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nam</b> <br> en: for <br> es: porque <br> fr: pour que <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, by nature <br> es: naturalmente, por naturaleza <br> fr: naturellement, par tempérament <br> it: naturalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, in a natural way <br> es: naturalmente, de una manera natural <br> fr: nuturellement, simplement <br> it: naturalmente, semplicemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>naturalmente</b> <br> en: naturally, of course <br> es: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> fr: bien sûr, évidemment <br> it: naturalmente, evidentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ne</b> <br> en: lest <br> es: para que non(+subj) <br> fr: de crainte que... ne(+subj. ) <br> it: perché no <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ne</b> <br> en: not <br> es: no <br> fr: ne... pas <br> it: no, non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nec(= ni)</b> <br> en: neither, nor, also not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nec. . . nec. . . (= ni. . . ni. . . )</b> <br> en: neither. . . nor. . . <br> es: ni. . . ni. . . <br> fr: ni. . . ni. . . <br> it: né. . . né. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>necun, necuna, necuno(= nulle, nulla, nullo)</b> <br> en: none, not any <br> es: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> fr: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> it: nessuno, nessuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>necuno(= nemo)</b> <br> en: nobody, no one, none <br> es: ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno, alcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nel(= in le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: en el <br> fr: dans le <br> it: nel <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nemine(= nemo)</b> <br> en: no one, nobody <br> es: nadie, ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nemo</b> <br> en: no one, nobody <br> es: nadie, ninguno <br> fr: personne <br> it: nessuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>neque(= nec)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>neutro</b> <br> en: neither <br> es: ni uno ni otro <br> fr: ni un ni <br> it: né uno né l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni</b> <br> en: neither, nor, also not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni</b> <br> en: not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ni <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni</b> <br> en: that not <br> es: ni <br> fr: ?????? <br> it: né <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni uno ni le altero</b> <br> en: <br> es: ni uno ni otro <br> fr: ni l'un ni l'autre <br> it: né l'uno né l'altro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ni. . . ni. . . </b><br> neither. . . nor. . . <br> es: ni. . . ni. . . <br> fr: ni... ni... <br> it: né. . . né. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nihil(= nil)</b> <br> en: nothing <br> es: nada <br> fr: rien <br> it: nulla, niente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nihil de particular</b> <br> en: nothing particular <br> es: nada de particular <br> fr: rien de particulier <br> it: niente di particolare, nulla di particolare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nimie, nimia, nimio(= troppo)</b> <br> en: too much, too many <br> es: demasiado, demasiada <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nimis(=troppo)</b> <br> en: too, too much <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nisi</b> <br> en: if not, unless <br> es: si no, a menos que <br> fr: si non, à moins que <br> it: se non, a meno che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>no</b> <br> en: no <br> es: no <br> fr: non <br> it: no, non(no, non è vero; non fare) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>no!</b> <br> en: no! <br> es: no! <br> fr: non! <br> it: no! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nocte</b> <br> en: night <br> es: noche <br> fr: nuit <br> it: notte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>noi(= nos)</b> <br> en: <br> es: nous <br> fr: noi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nolente</b> <br> en: unwillingly, against one's will <br> es: involuntariamente, sin querer <br> fr: involontairement <br> it: involontariamente, nolente, senza volere <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non</b> <br> en: no <br> es: no <br> fr: non <br> it: non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non</b> <br> en: not <br> es: non <br> fr: ne. . . pas <br> it: non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non est?(= nonne?)</b> <br> en: is it not? <br> es: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> fr: n'est-ce pas? <br> it: no? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non importa</b> <br> en: it doesn't matter, never mind <br> es: no importa <br> fr: c'est sans importance <br> it: non importa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non mesmo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pas même, même pas <br> fr: ugualmente no <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même... <br> it: non solamente, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solamente. . . sed etiam. . . </b><br> not only. . . but also. . . <br> es: no solamente. . . sino tambieén. . . <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais même... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . ma tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais alsi...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais anque...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais etiam...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais même ... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non solo. . . mais tamben...</b> <br> en: not only. . . but also... <br> es: no solo. . . sino también <br> fr: non seulement... mais aussi... <br> it: non solamente, non solo, ma anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non!</b> <br> en: no! <br> es: no! <br> fr: non! <br> it: no ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . jam(= non. . . ja)</b> <br> en: no longer <br> es: no. . . ya <br> fr: ne... plus <br> it: non. . . più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . jammais(= nunquam)</b> <br> en: never <br> es: no. . . jamás <br> fr: ne... jamais <br> it: non. . . mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> en: no more, not any more, no longer <br> es: no más. . . <br> fr: ne... plus <br> it: non. . . più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>non. . . plus</b> <br> en: no more, not any more, nothing more <br> es: nada más <br> fr: ne... rien de plus <br> it: no, nulla più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nondum</b> <br> en: not yet <br> es: aún no, todavía no <br> fr: pas encore <br> it: non ancora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonne?(= non est?)</b> <br> en: is it not? <br> es: no es verdad?, no es así? <br> fr: n'est-ce pas? <br> it: no? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonnulle, nonnulla, nonnullo</b> <br> en: some, several <br> es: un poco de; plural: algunos, algunas <br> fr: un peu de <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonnullo</b> <br> en: some, several <br> es: un poco de <br> fr: un peu de <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> en: despite, in spite of <br> es: a pesar de <br> fr: malgré <br> it: malgrado, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nonobstante</b> <br> en: nevertheless <br> es: no obstante <br> fr: non-obstant <br> it: nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nos</b> <br> en: ourselves <br> es: nosotros mismos, nosotras mismas <br> fr: nous-mêmes <br> it: noi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nos</b> <br> en: us <br> es: nos <br> fr: nous <br> it: noi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nos</b> <br> en: we <br> es: nosotros, nosotras <br> fr: nous <br> it: noi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> en: our <br> es: nuestro, nuestra <br> fr: notre <br> it: nostro, nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostre, nostra, nostro</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: nuestro, nuestra <br> fr: le nôtre <br> it: nostro, nostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> en: our <br> es: nuestros, nuestras <br> fr: notres <br> it: nostri, nostre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nostres, nostras, nostros</b> <br> en: ours <br> es: nuestros, nuestras <br> fr: les nôtres <br> it: le nostre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nullamente</b> <br> en: in no way, not at all <br> es: de ninguna manera <br> fr: d'aucune façon <br> it: in alcun modo, in nessun modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: not any, no <br> es: ningún, ninguna, ninguno <br> fr: nul, nulle, aucun, aucune <br> it: nessuno, nessuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: null, as in "null and void") <br> es: nulo, nula <br> fr: nul, nulle, (comme dans: "nul et sans effet") <br> it: nulla, niente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nulle, nulla, nullo</b> <br> en: null, worthless <br> es: nulo, nula, sin valor <br> fr: nul, nulle, sans valeur <br> it: nulla, nullo, senza valore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>num(= an, est-que)</b> <br> en: <br> es: es que. . . <br> fr: est-ce que <br> it: egli ha. . . ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>num ille habe le libro?</b> <br> en: has he the book? <br> es: es que él tiene el libro? <br> fr: est-ce qu'il a le livre?, a-t-il le livre? <br> it: egli ha il libro ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nunc(= ora)</b> <br> en: now, at the present time <br> es: ahora <br> fr: maintenant <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nunc. . . nunc...(= ora. . . ora. . . )</b> <br> en: now. . . then. . . <br> es: ora. . . ora. . . <br> fr: parfois... parfois... <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nunquam</b> <br> en: never <br> es: nunca <br> fr: jamais <br> it: mai <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nuper</b> <br> en: newly, lately, recently <br> es: nuevamente, últimamente, recientemente <br> fr: nouvellement, dernièrement, récemment <br> it: nuovamente, ultimamente, recentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>nusquam</b> <br> en: nowhere; not. . . anywhere <br> es: a ninguna parte <br> fr: nulle part <br> it: in alcun luogo, in nessun luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>o(= aut)</b> <br> en: <br> es: o, u <br> fr: ou <br> it: o <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>o(littera): o /o/</b> <br> en: <br> es: o(lettre): o /o/ <br> fr: o, o <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>o. . . o...(= aut. . . aut. . . )</b> <br> en: <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou... ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ob(= facie a, in la via de)</b> <br> en: towards; before, in front of; on account of, because of <br> es: hacia; antes de, delante de; a causa de, debido a <br> fr: dans la voie de, faisant obstruction à, faisant obstacle à, devant, face à, en face de, en raison de <br> it: prima di, davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>olim</b> <br> en: at a future time, sometime in the future <br> es: en un momento en el futuro, algún día en el futuro <br> fr: à un moment donné, une bonne fois <br> it: una volta, in un dato momento, una buona volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>olim(= aliquando, unquam</b> <br> en: once, formerly <br> es: una vez, antiguamente <br> fr: une fois, anciennement <br> it: una volta, anticamente, un tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne</b> <br> en: all, as in "all the books" <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne</b> <br> en: all, as in "all the cheese" <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutte, tutti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne</b> <br> en: every, each <br> es: todo, cada <br> fr: tout, chaque, chacun des, cahcune des <br> it: tutto, ogni, ciascuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omne cosa</b> <br> en: everything <br> es: toda cosa, todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>omnes</b> <br> en: all <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>on(= uno, homo)</b> <br> en: one <br> es: uno, se <br> fr: on <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>optimamente(= optimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimamente, lo mejor posible <br> fr: le mieux possible <br> it: ottimamente, il meglio possibile <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>optime, optima, optimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimo, óptima <br> fr: le meilleur, la meilleur <br> it: il migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>optimo(= optimamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: óptimamente <br> fr: le mieux <br> it: il migliore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ora(= nunc)</b> <br> en: now, at the present time <br> es: ahora, en la actualidad <br> fr: maintenant <br> it: ora, adesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ora mesmo</b> <br> en: right now <br> es: ahora mismo <br> fr: tout de suite <br> it: adesso, giusto adesso, proprio ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ora. . . ora...</b> <br> en: now. . . then. . . <br> es: ora. . . ora. . . <br> fr: parfois... parfois... <br> it: adesso, ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>out!</b> <br> en: out! <br> es: fuera! <br> fr: dehors! <br> it: fuori ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>p(littera): pe /p/</b> <br> en: <br> es: p(lettre): pé /p/ <br> fr: p, pi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>partir pro(Paris)</b> <br> en: to leave or set out for(Paris) <br> es: partir para(Paris) <br> fr: partir pour(Paris) <br> it: partire per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>parve, parva, parvo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pequeño, pequeña <br> fr: petit, petite <br> it: piccolo, piccola <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passato</b> <br> en: <br> es: pasado <br> fr: passé <br> it: passato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passato</b> <br> en: ago <br> es: hace <br> fr: il y a, ça fait <br> it: fa, passato, trascorso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passato(= pridem)</b> <br> en: long ago <br> es: hace mucho tiempo <br> fr: il y a bien longtemps, ça fait bien longtemps <br> it: tempo fa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>passim</b> <br> en: here and there, scattered, at random, in different places, passim <br> es: aquí y allí, esparcido, al azar, en diferentes lugares <br> fr: ici et là, éparpillé, aléatoire <br> it: qui e là, qui e lì, qua e là, in luoghi diversi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauc de, pauca de, pauco de</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu de <br> it: poco di, un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> en: few, not many <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauc, pauca, pauco</b> <br> en: little, not much <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauchissime, pauchissima, pauchissimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: poquísimo, poquísima <br> fr: très peu <br> it: molto poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauco</b> <br> en: little, to a small degree <br> es: poco <br> fr: à un moindre degré <br> it: poco, in minima parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pauco a pauco</b> <br> en: little by little <br> es: poco a poco <br> fr: petit à petit, peu à peu <br> it: poco a poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>paulatim</b> <br> en: gradually, by degrees, little by little, a little at a time <br> es: gradualmente, por grados, poco a poco, un poco cada vez <br> fr: graduellement, petit à petit, peu à peu, un peu à la fois <br> it: poco a poco, gradualmente, un po' alla volta, un po' per volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pejo</b> <br> en: worse <br> es: peor <br> fr: pis, pire <br> it: peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pejor</b> <br> en: worse <br> es: peor <br> fr: pire <br> it: peggiore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per</b> <br> en: by, by the agency of; through; by means of; also: per <br> es: por, ; a través de; por medio de; también: por <br> fr: par <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per</b> <br> en: through, from one side to the other of; also: during, throughout <br> es: a través de <br> fr: par, à travers, au travers de; aussi: pendant <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: per <br> fr: <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per(+ inf)</b> <br> en: <br> es: por(+ inf) <br> fr: pour(+ inf) <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per aventura</b> <br> en: by chance <br> es: por ventura, por casualidad <br> fr: par aventure <br> it: per caso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per avion</b> <br> en: <br> es: por avión <br> fr: par avion <br> it: via aerea <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per capite</b> <br> en: <br> es: por cabeza, per capita <br> fr: par tête, per capita <br> it: a testa, ad ognuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per consequente</b> <br> en: consequently <br> es: por consiguiente <br> fr: par conséquent <br> it: di conseguenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per excellentia</b> <br> en: par excellence <br> es: por excelencia <br> fr: par excellence <br> it: per eccellenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per exemplo</b> <br> en: for example, for instance <br> es: por exemplo <br> fr: par exemple <br> it: per esempio, ad esempio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per favor</b> <br> en: <br> es: por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per favore, per piacere <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per isso(= pro isso)</b> <br> en: for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> es: por eso, por esas razón, por consiguiente <br> fr: c'est pourquoi, voilà pourquoi <br> it: per questo, perciò, per questa ragione, per questo motivo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per medio de</b> <br> en: by means of <br> es: por medio de <br> fr: au moyen de <br> it: mer mezzo di, con <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per ubi</b> <br> en: <br> es: por dónde <br> fr: par où <br> it: per dove, attraverso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>per virtute de</b> <br> en: <br> es: en virtúd de <br> fr: en vertue de <br> it: in virtù di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>permulte, permulta, permulto</b> <br> en: very much, very many <br> es: muchos, muchas <br> fr: beaucoup de, <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>permulto</b> <br> en: very much <br> es: mucho <br> fr: beaucoup <br> it: molto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>perque</b> <br> en: because <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>perque</b> <br> en: why, for what reason <br> es: porque <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pessimamente(= pessimo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimamente, de la peor manera <br> fr: de la pire façon <br> it: pessimamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pessime, pessima, pessimo</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimo, pésima <br> fr: le pire, la pire <br> it: pessimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pessimo(= pessimamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pésimamente <br> fr: de la pire façon <br> it: pessimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ph(digrapho): pe hache /f/</b> <br> en: <br> es: ph(digraphe): pé ache /f/ <br> fr: ph pi acca <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>piano</b> <br> en: piano <br> es: piano <br> fr: piano <br> it: piano <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plu(= plus)</b> <br> en: <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures</b> <br> en: several <br> es: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> fr: quelques <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures</b> <br> en: several <br> es: varios, varias, unos, unas <br> fr: quelques <br> it: qualche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures veces(= plures vices)</b> <br> en: <br> es: varias veces, repetidamente <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, a volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plures vices</b> <br> en: several times; repeatedly <br> es: varias veces <br> fr: quelques fois <br> it: qualche volta, a volte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> en: many <br> es: plusieurs <br> fr: molti, molte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurime, plurima, plurimo</b> <br> en: much <br> es: beaucoup <br> fr: molti, molte <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurimo</b> <br> en: much, exceedingly <br> es: mucho, extremadamente, excesivamente <br> fr: beaucoup, très, extrêmenent, excessivement <br> it: molto, estremamente, eccessivamente, troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plurimo(= usualmente, communmente)</b> <br> en: for the most part, commonly, usually <br> es: muchas veces, normalmente, habitualmente <br> fr: d'habitude, en général <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, in generale, abitualmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus</b> <br> en: plus <br> es: más <br> fr: plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus(a) illac de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus(de)(moneta, etc. )</b> <br> en: more(money, etc. ) <br> es: más(dinero, etc. ) <br> fr: plus de(plus d'argent) <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus a la de(= ultra, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> en: more or less <br> es: más o menos <br> fr: plus ou moins <br> it: più o meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus aut minus</b> <br> en: more or less <br> es: más o menos <br> fr: plus ou moins <br> it: più o meno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus de</b> <br> en: more <br> es: más de <br> fr: plus de <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus de(vinti annos)</b> <br> en: more than, over, above(twenty years) <br> es: más de(veinte años) <br> fr: plus de(vingt ans) <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus grande(que)</b> <br> en: greater, bigger(than) <br> es: más grande(que) <br> fr: plus grand(e)(que) <br> it: più grande <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> en: later on <br> es: más tarde, después <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: più tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> en: later, as in "later than expected" <br> es: depués <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tarde</b> <br> en: later, subsequently <br> es: después, seguidamente <br> fr: plus tard <br> it: dopo, più tardi, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> en: rather, more truly or accurately <br> es: más bien <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus tosto</b> <br> en: rather, sooner, preferably <br> es: más pronto, más bien, preferentemente <br> fr: plutôt <br> it: piuttosto, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus. . . (que)</b> <br> en: more. . . (than) <br> es: más. . . (que) <br> fr: plus...(que) <br> it: più. . . che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus:(le) plus</b> <br> en: (the) most(as in "what pleased me(the) most") <br> es: más:(el) más <br> fr: plus:(le) plus <br> it: più <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>plus:(tres) plus(quatro)</b> <br> en: (three) plus(four) <br> es: más:(tres) más(cuatro) <br> fr: plus:(trois) plus(quatre) <br> it: più(tre) più(quattro) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>poc, poca, poco(= pauc, pauca, pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco, poca <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>poco(= pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco <br> fr: peu <br> it: poco, po' <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>poco a poco(= pauco a pauco)</b> <br> en: <br> es: poco a poco <br> fr: peu à peu, petit à petit <br> it: poco a poco <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois</b> <br> en: afterwards, thereafter <br> es: después <br> fr: puis, alors, ensuite <br> it: poi, dopo, in seguito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois</b> <br> en: for <br> es: porque, dado que <br> fr: étant donné que <br> it: poiché, dato che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> en: <br> es: después que <br> fr: depuis que <br> it: poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pois que</b> <br> en: as, since, because <br> es: como, porque <br> fr: comme, puisque <br> it: poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>por(= pro, per)</b> <br> en: <br> es: pour <br> fr: per <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>porque(= proque, perque)</b> <br> en: because, why <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que, pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post</b> <br> en: afterwards, after <br> es: después de <br> fr: après <br> it: dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post</b> <br> en: behind, back, backwards <br> es: detrás, atrás, luego <br> fr: derrière <br> it: dietro, posteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post</b> <br> en: behind; after <br> es: después de <br> fr: après <br> it: dietro, posteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post que</b> <br> en: <br> es: después que <br> fr: après que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post que</b> <br> en: since, because <br> es: puesto que, porque <br> fr: puisque <br> it: perché, dato che, poiché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post todo</b> <br> en: <br> es: después de todo <br> fr: après tout <br> it: dopo tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>post-deman</b> <br> en: <br> es: pasado mañana <br> fr: après-demain <br> it: dopodomani <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>postea</b> <br> en: afterwards, thereafter <br> es: después, posteriormente, luego <br> fr: ensuite <br> it: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>postere, postera, postero</b> <br> en: coming after, following <br> es: siguiente <br> fr: suivant(e) <br> it: poi, in seguito, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, back <br> es: posterior <br> fr: postérieur(e) <br> it: posteriore, dietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, buttock <br> es: posterior <br> fr: le postérieur, le derrière <br> it: posteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posterior</b> <br> en: posterior, later <br> es: posterior <br> fr: postérieur(e), après, plus tard <br> it: posterioremente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>posteriormente</b> <br> en: subsequently, later <br> es: posteriormente, más tarde <br> fr: postérieurement <br> it: posteriormente, più tardi, poi, dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>postquam</b> <br> en: after, as soon as <br> es: después de, en cuanto <br> fr: après que, aussitôt que <br> it: dopo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pot'esser(= pote esser)</b> <br> en: maybe <br> es: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> fr: peut-être <br> it: può essere, può darsi, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pote esser(= pot'esser)</b> <br> en: maybe <br> es: puede ser, tal vez, quizá, quizás <br> fr: peut-être <br> it: può essere, può darsi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>potius</b> <br> en: rather, more truly or accurately <br> es: más bien, en realidad <br> fr: plutôt, en réalité <br> it: piuttosto, in realtà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>potius</b> <br> en: rather, sooner, preferably <br> es: más bien, más pronto, preferentemente <br> fr: plutôt, plus tôt, de préférence <br> it: piuttosto, in raltà, preferenzialmente, preferibilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>precio minimo</b> <br> en: minimum price <br> es: precio mínimo <br> fr: prix minimum, prix minimal <br> it: prezzo minimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>presertim(= super toto)</b> <br> en: especially, particularly, chiefly <br> es: especialmente, particularmente, principalmente <br> fr: surtout, particulièrement <br> it: soprattutto, particolarmente, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>presso(= apud)</b> <br> en: near, close <br> es: cerca de, al lado de, cercano a <br> fr: près de <br> it: presso, presso di, appresso a, vicino a, prossimo a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>presto</b> <br> en: presto, quickly, quick as a wink <br> es: presto, rápidamente, rápido <br> fr: vite, rapidement <br> it: presto, rapidamente, velocemente, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: beyond <br> es: más allá de <br> fr: au delà, passé <br> it: passato, al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: except, excepting <br> es: excepto <br> fr: excepté <br> it: eccettuato, escluso, al di fuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: in addition to <br> es: además de <br> fr: en plus de <br> it: più di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preter</b> <br> en: past, along(side of), beyond <br> es: pasado, más allá de <br> fr: passé, le long, au delà <br> it: passato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> en: besides, moreover <br> es: además, es más <br> fr: en outre, de plus, d'ailleurs, du reste <br> it: inoltre, del resto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>preterea</b> <br> en: henceforth, hereafter <br> es: de ahora en adelante, de aquí en adelante <br> fr: dorénavant, désormais <br> it: d'ora in poi, da questo momento, da adesso in avanti <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pridem(= passato)</b> <br> en: long ago <br> es: hace mucho tiempo, hace tiempo <br> fr: il y a longtemps <br> it: da lungo tempo, da tempo, da molto tempo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> en: first, in the first place, first of all <br> es: primariamente, en primer lugar <br> fr: premièrement, en premier lieu, d'abord <br> it: principalmente, in primo luogoo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>primariamente</b> <br> en: primarily, chiefly <br> es: primariamente, principalmente <br> fr: principalement, avant tout, surtout <br> it: principalmenre, innanzitutto, soprattutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>prime, prima, primo</b> <br> en: first, prime <br> es: primero, primera <br> fr: premier, première <br> it: primo, prima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro</b> <br> en: for, in place of, in exchange or return for <br> es: para; por; en lugar de, a cambio de, en vez de <br> fr: pour <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro</b> <br> en: for, not against <br> es: pro, para, a favor de <br> fr: pour, en faveur <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro(+ inf)</b> <br> en: in order to <br> es: para, a fin de <br> fr: afin de, dans le but de <br> it: per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro isso(= per isso)</b> <br> en: for this reason, for that reason, therefore <br> es: por eso, por esa razón, por consiguiente <br> fr: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> it: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro isso(= pro esso)</b> <br> en: <br> es: c'est pourquoi, donc, pour cette raison <br> fr: perciò, per questo, per questo motivo, per questa ragione <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro le presente</b> <br> en: for the present <br> es: por el momento, para el presente <br> fr: pour le moment <br> it: intanto, per il momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro nihil</b> <br> en: for nothing, without cost <br> es: para nada, gratuito, sin costo <br> fr: pour rien, gratuit <br> it: per niente, gratuito, gratis, gratuitamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>pro si dicer</b> <br> en: so to say <br> es: para así decir, por así decir <br> fr: pour ainsi dire <br> it: per così dire <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>procul</b> <br> en: far off, far away, at a distance <br> es: lejos, fuera, a una distancia <br> fr: au loin <br> it: lontanamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proprie a, propria a, proprio a</b> <br> en: proper or peculiar to <br> es: proprio para <br> fr: propre à <br> it: proprio per <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> en: own <br> es: propio <br> fr: propre <br> it: proprio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proprie, propria, proprio</b> <br> en: proper, appropriate <br> es: apropiado <br> fr: approprié(e) <br> it: appropriato, appropriata <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>propter</b> <br> en: near, at hand <br> es: cerca, a mano <br> fr: proche, à(la) portée <br> it: prossimo, vicino, vicino <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>propter</b> <br> en: near, close to <br> es: cerca de <br> fr: près, près de <br> it: presso, presso di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>propter</b> <br> en: on account of, by reason of, because of <br> es: a causa de, por cauda de, debido a <br> fr: compte tenu de, à cause de, <br> it: per, a causa di, in ragione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> en: because <br> es: porque <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proque(= perque)</b> <br> en: why <br> es: por qué <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proximamente</b> <br> en: shortly, soon <br> es: pronto, en breve <br> fr: bientôt <br> it: in breve, subito, quanto prima <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> en: next(as in "next week") <br> es: próxima, siguiente <br> fr: suivant(e), prochain(e) <br> it: prossimo, seguente, successivo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proxime, proxima, proximo</b> <br> en: very near, close <br> es: muy cerca <br> fr: très près, tout près <br> it: molto vicino, prossimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>proximo</b> <br> en: neighbor, fellow being <br> es: prójimo, vecino, camarada <br> fr: voisin, camarade <br> it: prossimo, vicino, compagno, camerata <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>q(littera): qu /k/</b> <br> en: <br> es: q(lettre): qü ou qy /k/ <br> fr: q, qu(pron ku) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qua</b> <br> en: as, in the capacity of, qua <br> es: en tanto que, en calidad de <br> fr: en tant que, en qualité de <br> it: come, in qualità di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qual</b> <br> en: which <br> es: cuál <br> fr: quel <br> it: quale <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qual</b> <br> en: which <br> es: cuál, qué <br> fr: quel(le) <br> it: quale <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcosa</b> <br> en: something, anything <br> es: algo, alguna cosa <br> fr: quelque chose <br> it: qualche cosa, qualcosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcun, qualcuna, qualcuno</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna, alguno <br> fr: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> it: qualcuno, qualcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcuno</b> <br> en: someone, anyone <br> es: alguno <br> fr: quelqu'un <br> it: qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualcunque</b> <br> en: any, whatever, of whatever kind <br> es: cualquiera <br> fr: quelconque <br> it: chiunque, qualcuno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qualque(quálke)</b> <br> en: some, any; also: a few <br> es: algún, alguna <br> fr: certain, quelque, un peu de <br> it: qualcuno, <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quam</b> <br> en: as, than <br> es: como, que <br> fr: comme, que <br> it: come <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quam</b> <br> en: in what manner, how <br> es: de qué manera, cómo <br> fr: comment <br> it: come, in che modo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quamquam(quámquam)(= quanquam)</b> <br> en: <br> es: aunque <br> fr: bien que, quoique, cependant, néanmoins <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quando</b> <br> en: when <br> es: cuando <br> fr: quand <br> it: quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quando</b> <br> en: when <br> es: cuándo <br> fr: quand <br> it: quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quandocunque</b> <br> en: whenever <br> es: cuandoquiera <br> fr: toutes les fois que, peu importe quand <br> it: ogni volta che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> en: however, yet, nevertheless <br> es: sin embargo, no obstante <br> fr: cependant, néanmoins <br> it: nondimeno, nonostante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanquam(quánquam)(= quamquam)</b> <br> en: though, although <br> es: aunque <br> fr: bien que, quoique <br> it: benché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quante, quanta, quanto</b> <br> en: how much, how many <br> es: cuánto, cuánta <br> fr: combien de <br> it: quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanto</b> <br> en: as much as; as far as <br> es: cuanto, tanto como <br> fr: autant que, pour autant que, en autant que <br> it: quanto, tanto quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanto a</b> <br> en: as for <br> es: en cuanto a <br> fr: quant à <br> it: quanto a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quanto. . . tanto...</b> <br> en: the. . . the... <br> es: cuanto. . . tanto. . . <br> fr: autant... autant <br> it: tanto. . . quanto. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quare</b> <br> en: wherefore, why <br> es: porque <br> fr: pourquoi, pour quelle raison <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quasi</b> <br> en: almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way, etc. <br> es: casi; en un cierto sentido, en cierto modo <br> fr: quasi, prèsque, à peu prés, dans un certain sens <br> it: quasi, approssimativamente, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quasi que</b> <br> en: as if <br> es: como si <br> fr: comme si <br> it: quasi che, come se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: than <br> es: que <br> fr: que /k?/ <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: that <br> es: que <br> fr: que <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: what <br> es: que <br> fr: que, quoi /k?/ /koa/ <br> it: che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que(ke, kwe)</b> <br> en: who, whom, which, that; what(= that which) <br> es: que <br> fr: qui /ki/ <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que etate habete vos?</b> <br> en: how old are you? <br> es: qué edad tiene usted?, cuántos años tiene usted? <br> fr: quel âge avez-vous? <br> it: quanti hanni hai(tu) ? quanti anni ha(lei)? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>que hora</b> <br> en: what time <br> es: qué hora <br> fr: quelle heure <br> it: che ora. . . ? <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quecunque(kekúnkwe, kwekúnkwe)</b> <br> en: whatever <br> es: cualquier cosa <br> fr: quoi que /koa k?/ <br> it: qualsiasi cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quem</b> <br> en: what, which, whom <br> es: que, quien <br> fr: quel(le) <br> it: quel, quello, quella <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qui(= hic, ci)</b> <br> en: here <br> es: aquí <br> fr: ici <br> it: qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qui(ki, kwi)</b> <br> en: who, whom <br> es: quién <br> fr: qui /ki/ <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>qui:(con, a, etc. ) qui</b> <br> en: (with, to, etc. ) whom <br> es: quien <br> fr: qui:(avec, à, etc. ) qui <br> it: con chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quia</b> <br> en: because <br> es: por qué <br> fr: parce que <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quicunque(ki-, kwi-)</b> <br> en: whoever <br> es: quienquiera <br> fr: quiconque <br> it: chi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quid</b> <br> en: what <br> es: quoi <br> fr: che cosa, cosa <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quid</b> <br> en: why, how, wherefore <br> es: por qué, cómo <br> fr: pourquoi, comment <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quidem</b> <br> en: certainly, truly; indeed, even <br> es: ciertamente, de verdad, verdaderamente; de hecho, incluso <br> fr: certainement, vraiment, en effet, effectivement <br> it: certamente, veramente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo</b> <br> en: so that, in order that <br> es: a fin que <br> fr: tel que, afin que <br> it: talché, cosi che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo</b> <br> en: wherefore <br> es: por qué <br> fr: pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo</b> <br> en: who, what <br> es: quien <br> fr: qui, quoi <br> it: chi, cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quo(=a ubi)</b> <br> en: where, at what place, whither <br> es: a dónde, a qué lugar, adónde <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quod</b> <br> en: that, because, why <br> es: qué, por qué <br> fr: que, parce que, pourquoi <br> it: perché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quod</b> <br> en: that, what <br> es: que <br> fr: que, quoi <br> it: che, che cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> en: how, in what manner <br> es: ómo, de qué manera <br> fr: comment, de quelle façon, de quelle manière <br> it: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quomodo(= como)</b> <br> en: in the manner that, as <br> es: como, de la manera en que <br> fr: comme, tel que <br> it: come, in che modo, in quale maniera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quot</b> <br> en: how many; as many; each, every <br> es: cuántos, tantos, cada, cada uno, cada una <br> fr: combien, autant, chaque, chacun(e) <br> it: quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> en: as often as <br> es: tan a menudo como <br> fr: aussi souvent que <br> it: così spesso che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>quotiens</b> <br> en: how often, how many times <br> es: tantas veces <br> fr: combien de fois <br> it: tante volte che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>r(littera): re /r/</b> <br> en: <br> es: r(lettre): ère /r/ <br> fr: r, erre <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>re</b> <br> en: regarding, about, of, on, concerning <br> es: acerca de, respecto a, con respecto a, concerniente a, sobre, de <br> fr: sur, au sujet de, à propos de, concernant <br> it: su, a proposito di, concernente, sopra, rispetto a, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>retro</b> <br> en: back, ago <br> es: atrás, hace <br> fr: en arrière <br> it: retro, dietro, addietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>retro</b> <br> en: back, as in "to give back") <br> es: atrás <br> fr: en retour(comme dans "donner en retour") <br> it: di ritorno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>retro</b> <br> en: back, backwards <br> es: atrás <br> fr: arrière, en arrière <br> it: retro, dietro, addietro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>rh(digrapho): re hache /r/</b> <br> en: <br> es: rh(digraphe): ère ache /r/ <br> fr: rh(pron : erre acca) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>s(littera): se /s/</b> <br> en: <br> es: s(lettre): èsse /s/ ou /z/ <br> fr: s, esse(pronuncia 1 : s in rosa, cosa, dose, chiesa = come inglese rose; pronuncia 2 : s in signore, senior, selva, scuola come inglese ross, self) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>saepe(sái-)</b> <br> en: often, frequently <br> es: a menudo, frecuentemente <br> fr: souvent, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>salvo</b> <br> en: save, but; also: save or but for <br> es: salvo <br> fr: sauf <br> it: salvo, eccetto, ma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>salvo error et omission</b> <br> en: errors and omissions excepted <br> es: salvo error y omisión <br> fr: sauf erreur et omission <br> it: salvo errori od omissioni, salvo errori ed omissioni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>salvo que</b> <br> en: save or but that <br> es: salvo que <br> fr: sauf que <br> it: salvo che, eccetto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> en: enough <br> es: bastante <br> fr: assez <br> it: basta, abbastanza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>satis(= assatis)</b> <br> en: rather, somewhat <br> es: bastante, suficiente <br> fr: assez, plutôt <br> it: abbastanza, sufficientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>satis de(tempore, etc. )(= assatis de(tempore, etc. ))</b> <br> en: enough(time, etc. ), (time, etc. ) enough <br> es: bastante(tiempo, etc. ), suficiente(tiempo, etc. ) <br> fr: assez de(temps, etc. ) <br> it: sufficiente : tempo sufficiente) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>se</b> <br> en: himself; herself; itself; themselves <br> es: se <br> fr: se, s' <br> it: se(per se), -si(avvicinarsi) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>se(= on)</b> <br> en: <br> es: se <br> fr: on <br> it: si <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: (following) after <br> es: después de, siguiendo a <br> fr: d'après <br> it: secondo, , dopo, seguendo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: according to <br> es: según, de acuerdo a <br> fr: selon, en accord avec <br> it: d'accordo con, secondo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo(= secun)</b> <br> en: along, by <br> es: a lo largo de <br> fr: selon, le long de <br> it: lungo il <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>secundo que</b> <br> en: according as <br> es: según que, conforme a <br> fr: selon que, selon qu' <br> it: secondo quanto, conforme a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sed</b> <br> en: but <br> es: pero <br> fr: mais <br> it: ma, però <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>semel</b> <br> en: firstly <br> es: primeramente <br> fr: premièrement <br> it: in primis, innanzitutto, principalmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>semel</b> <br> en: once <br> es: una vez <br> fr: une fois <br> it: una volta(sola) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>semper(= sempre)</b> <br> en: always <br> es: siempre <br> fr: toujours <br> it: sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sempre(=semper)</b> <br> en: always <br> es: siempre <br> fr: toujours <br> it: sempre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sero</b> <br> en: late <br> es: tarde <br> fr: tard <br> it: tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si</b> <br> en: if, supposing that <br> es: si, suponiendo que <br> fr: si <br> it: se, supponendo che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si</b> <br> en: if, whether <br> es: si <br> fr: si <br> it: se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: tan, tanto, tanta <br> fr: si <br> it: così, tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si(= sic)</b> <br> en: yes <br> es: sí <br> fr: oui <br> it: sì <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si il te place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si te place, por favor <br> fr: s'il te plaît <br> it: per piacere, prego, per favore, per cortesia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si os place, por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si il vos place</b> <br> en: <br> es: si os place, por favor <br> fr: s'il vous plaît <br> it: per piacere, per favore, per cortesia, prego <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si non</b> <br> en: except, unless it be <br> es: excepto, a menos que <br> fr: excepté, à moins que ce soit <br> it: se non, a meno che, eccetto che, all'infuori di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si non</b> <br> en: if not <br> es: si no <br> fr: si non <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si non</b> <br> en: if not <br> es: si no <br> fr: si non <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si tosto que</b> <br> en: as soon as <br> es: en cuanto, tan pronto como <br> fr: aussitôt que <br> it: così presto che, tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>si. . . como. . . </b><br> as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que <br> it: tanto. . . che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sia</b> <br> en: be, may be, let there be <br> es: sea <br> fr: soit <br> it: sia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sia como sia</b> <br> en: <br> es: sea como sea <br> fr: qu'il en soit ainsi <br> it: sia come sia, sia quel che sia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sia. . . sia. . . </b><br> en: <br> es: sea. . . sea. . . <br> fr: soit... soit... <br> it: sia. . . sia. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sic(= si)</b> <br> en: yes <br> es: sí <br> fr: oui <br> it: sì <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sic(=si)</b> <br> en: thus, so <br> es: así <br> fr: ainsi <br> it: così <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sicut</b> <br> en: so as, just as, as <br> es: tal que, como <br> fr: tel(le) que, comme <br> it: come, talché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>simul</b> <br> en: at once, at the same time, together <br> es: en seguida, al mismo tiempo, juntos, juntas <br> fr: simultanément, tout de suite, ensemble <br> it: allo stesso tempo, nello stesso tempo, allo stesso istante, insieme. simultaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin</b> <br> en: without <br> es: sin <br> fr: sans <br> it: senza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin dubita</b> <br> en: without doubt, doubtless <br> es: sin duda, indudablemente <br> fr: sans doute <br> it: senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin falta</b> <br> en: without fail <br> es: sin falta, sin error <br> fr: sans erreur, sans faute <br> it: senza meno, senza errore, senza dubbio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sin fundamento</b> <br> en: groundless, unfounded <br> es: sin fundamento, infundado <br> fr: sans fondement <br> it: senza fondamentp <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sinon(= si non)</b> <br> en: otherwise, else; except, save, if not, unless <br> es: sinon <br> fr: sinon <br> it: se non <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sive</b> <br> en: or if, or <br> es: o si <br> fr: ou si, ou <br> it: o, oppure, o se <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sive. . . sive</b> <br> en: . . . if. . . or if... <br> es: si. . . o si. . . <br> fr: si... ou si... <br> it: se. . . o se. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> en: only <br> es: solo, sola <br> fr: seul(e) <br> it: solo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sol, sola, solo</b> <br> en: sole, without companions, alone <br> es: solo, sola <br> fr: seul(e) <br> it: solo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>solamente</b> <br> en: only, merely <br> es: solamente, meramente <br> fr: seulement <br> it: solo, solamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sovente(=subinde)</b> <br> en: repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> es: frecuentemente, repeoidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> fr: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>specialmente, in modo special</b> <br> en: especially <br> es: especialmente, de una manera especial <br> fr: en particulier, spécialement <br> it: specialmente, particolarmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sponte(= voluntarie, voluntariamente)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: spontaneamente, volontariamente, di buon grado <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>stop!</b> <br> en: stop! <br> es: stop! <br> fr: stop! <br> it: stop! fermo! ferma! alt! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>su</b> <br> en: his; her; its <br> es: su(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: son, sa <br> it: suo, sua(di ella, di lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sub</b> <br> en: under, below, beneath <br> es: debajo de, bajo <br> fr: sous <br> it: sotto, dabbasso, abbasso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sub los auspicios de</b> <br> en: under the auspices of <br> es: bajo los auspicios de <br> fr: sous les auspices de <br> it: con gli auspici di, sotto gli auspici di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subinde</b> <br> en: immediately after, just after, forthwith <br> es: inmediatamente después, justo después, inmediatamente <br> fr: tout de suite <br> it: immediatamente dopo, giusto dopo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subinde(= sovente)</b> <br> en: repeatedly, frequently, often; from time to time <br> es: frecuentemente, repetidamente, a menudo; de vez en cuando <br> fr: souvent, de temps en temps, fréquemment <br> it: spesso, sovente, frequentemente, di tanto in tanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subito</b> <br> en: suddenly, unexpectedly <br> es: súbitamente, de repente, inesperadamente <br> fr: soudainement <br> it: repentinamente, immediatamente, subito <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>subtus</b> <br> en: below, beneath, underneath <br> es: abajo, debajo, debajo de <br> fr: en bas <br> it: in basso, dabbasso, sotto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>successivamente</b> <br> en: successively, in succession <br> es: sucesivamente, en sucesión <br> fr: successivement, tour à tour <br> it: successivamente, in successione, consecutivamente, di conseguenza, dopo, poi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sue, sua, suo</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: suyo, suya(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: son, sa <br> it: suo, sua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sues, suas, suos</b> <br> en: his; hers; its <br> es: suyos, suyas(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: ses <br> it: suoi, sue(di lui, di lei) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sufficiente(= bastante)</b> <br> en: sufficient, enough <br> es: suficiente, bastante <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e) <br> it: sufficiente, bastante <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sufficientemente(= bastante)</b> <br> en: sufficiently, enough <br> es: suficientemente, bastante <br> fr: suffisamment, assez <br> it: suffientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sufficientes(= bastantes)</b> <br> en: sufficient, enough <br> es: suficientes, bastantes <br> fr: assez, suffisant(e)s <br> it: suffientemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sui(= su, sue)</b> <br> en: <br> es: son, sa <br> fr: suo, sua <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>summe, summa, summo(= supreme, suprema, supremo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: sumo, suma <br> fr: suprème <br> it: sommo/a, supremo/a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super</b> <br> en: about, concerning, on <br> es: sobre, concerniente a <br> fr: sur, au sujet de <br> it: supra, in fatto di, concernente, circa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super</b> <br> en: on, upon; on top of; above, over <br> es: sobre <br> fr: sur, au dessus de <br> it: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super(= in alto)</b> <br> en: above, on top <br> es: arriba, sobre <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: sopra, su, al di sopra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>super toto(= presertim)</b> <br> en: above all <br> es: sobre todo <br> fr: par dessus tout <br> it: soprattutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>superior</b> <br> en: <br> es: supérieur(e) <br> fr: superiore <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>supra</b> <br> en: above, over <br> es: arriba <br> fr: en haut <br> it: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>supra</b> <br> en: on the top, above <br> es: arriba, en la parte de arriba <br> fr: au dessus <br> it: in alto, sopra, su, al di sopra, sulla sommità <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>supreme, suprema, supremo(= summe, summa, summo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: supremo, suprema <br> fr: suprème <br> it: supremo, suprema, supremi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sur(= super)</b> <br> en: on, upon; on top of <br> es: sobre <br> fr: sur <br> it: su, sopra, in cima, in alto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>sus</b> <br> en: his; her; its <br> es: sus(de él, de ella, de ello) <br> fr: ses <br> it: suo, sua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>t(littera): te /t/</b> <br> en: <br> es: t(lettre): té /t/ <br> fr: t, ti <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tal</b> <br> en: such a, such <br> es: tal <br> fr: tel(le) <br> it: tale, tale a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tal et tal</b> <br> en: such and such(a) <br> es: tal y tal <br> fr: tel et tel <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>talmente</b> <br> en: so <br> es: talmente <br> fr: tellement <br> it: talmente, così, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>talmente:(un libro) talmente(bello)</b> <br> en: so(beautiful) a(book), such a(beautiful book) <br> es: talmente:(un libro) talmente(bonito) <br> fr: tellement:(un livre) tellement(beau) <br> it: talmente(un libro talmente bello che. . . ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tam</b> <br> en: so, as, to such a degree <br> es: tan, tanto, tanta, talmente <br> fr: si, tellement <br> it: sì, così, tanto che, tanto, talmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tam. . . quam...</b> <br> en: as. . . as. . . <br> es: tan. . . como. . . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tam. . . quam...(= tanto. . . quam. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as. . . <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: si... que... <br> it: tanto che, tanto quanto, così che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tamben</b> <br> en: also <br> es: también <br> fr: aussi <br> it: anche <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tamen(= totavia)</b> <br> en: yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding <br> es: sin embargo, todavía, no obstante <br> fr: cependant, pourtant, néanmoins, <br> it: tuttavia, nonostante, nondimeno, nientemeno, pertanto, quindi, già <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tan</b> <br> en: so, as <br> es: tan <br> fr: si, tellement <br> it: sì, tanto che. . . , tanto che. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tan. . . como. . . (= tanto. . . como. . . )</b> <br> en: as. . . as..., (not) so. . . as... <br> es: tan. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto che, così che, cosicché <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tante, tanta, tanto</b> <br> en: so much, so many <br> es: tanto, tanta <br> fr: tant de <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tante. . . como..., tanta. . . como. . . , tanto. . . como. . . </b><br> as much, as many. . . as... <br> es: tanto. . . como. . . , tanta. . . como. . . <br> fr: aussi... que... <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto</b> <br> en: so, so much <br> es: tanto <br> fr: tant <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto(grande) como. . . </b><br> as(big) as. . . <br> es: tan(grande) como. . . <br> fr: aussi(grand(e)) que <br> it: tanto grande che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto melio</b> <br> en: so much the better <br> es: tanto mejor <br> fr: tant mieux <br> it: tanto meglio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto pejo</b> <br> en: so much the worse <br> es: tanto peor <br> fr: tant pis <br> it: tanto peggio <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto per cento</b> <br> en: so much per hundred, percentage <br> es: tanto por ciento, porcentaje <br> fr: tant pour cent <br> it: tanto per cento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto plus. . . que...</b> <br> en: all the more. . . that... <br> es: tanto más. . . que. . . <br> fr: d'autant plus... que... <br> it: tanto più che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tanto. . . como...</b> <br> en: as much. . . as... <br> es: tanto. . . como. . . <br> fr: autant... que... <br> it: tanto che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tarde</b> <br> en: late <br> es: tarde <br> fr: tard <br> it: tardi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>te</b> <br> en: you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "I love you", "for you") <br> es: te <br> fr: te, toi <br> it: tu, te(tu sei, te lo dico, lo dico a te) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>te</b> <br> en: yourself [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person](as in "you hurt yourself", "to yourself") <br> es: te <br> fr: te, toi, toi-même <br> it: te, ti, te stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>th(digrapho): te hache /t/</b> <br> en: <br> es: th(digraphe): té ache /t/ <br> fr: t : ti acca <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ti(= te)</b> <br> en: <br> es: te, toi <br> fr: ti, te <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tosto</b> <br> en: presently, soon, promptly <br> es: pronto, presentemente, rápidamente <br> fr: tôt <br> it: pronto, subito, presto, rapidamente, tosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tot</b> <br> en: so many, such a great number <br> es: tellement beaucoup <br> fr: tanto che, talmente tanto <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totalmente(= completamente)</b> <br> en: <br> es: totalmente(=completamente= <br> fr: totalement(=complètement) <br> it: totalmente, completamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totavia</b> <br> en: yet, still, nevertheless <br> es: sin embargo <br> fr: toutefois <br> it: tuttavia <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote le, tota la, toto lo</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo el, toda la, todo lo <br> fr: tout le, toute la <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo, tutta la <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: all, "all the parts, members, etc. of a whole series or group") <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: all, the whole of <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute <br> it: tutto, tutta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tote, tota, toto</b> <br> en: every, each <br> es: todo, toda <br> fr: tout, toute, chaque <br> it: tutto/a, ogni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totes(les) duo, totos(los) duos, totas(las) duas</b> <br> en: both <br> es: los dos, las dos, ambos, ambas <br> fr: tous les deux, toutes les deux <br> it: tutti e due, ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totes les, totas las, totos los</b> <br> en: <br> es: todos los, todas las <br> fr: tous les, toutes les <br> it: tutti i, tutti gli, tutte le <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totes, totas, totos</b> <br> en: all, everyone <br> es: todos, todas <br> fr: tous, toutes <br> it: tutti, tutte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto</b> <br> en: all, everything <br> es: todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto, ogni cosa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto</b> <br> en: all, quite, wholly <br> es: todo <br> fr: tout <br> it: tutto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto(ben) considerato</b> <br> en: all things considered <br> es: considerando(bien) totas las cosas <br> fr: tout(bien) considéré <br> it: tutto considerato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto le(= toto lo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo el <br> fr: tout le <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto le(caseo)</b> <br> en: all the(cheese), the entire(cheese) <br> es: todo el(queso) <br> fr: tout le(fromage) <br> it: tutto il(formaggio) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>toto lo(= toto le)</b> <br> en: <br> es: todo lo <br> fr: tout le, toute la <br> it: tutto il, tutto lo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totos los(homines)</b> <br> en: all(men) <br> es: todos los hombres <br> fr: tous les(hommes) <br> it: tutti gli(uomini) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>totos minus ille</b> <br> en: all but him <br> es: todos menos él <br> fr: tous sauf lui <br> it: tutti meno lui, tutti salvo lui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tra(= trans)</b> <br> en: through <br> es: a través de <br> fr: à travers, au travers de <br> it: attraverso, tra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>trans</b> <br> en: across, over, beyond, on the farther side of <br> es: al otro lado de, más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de, de l'autre côté de <br> it: al di là di, dall'altra parte di, dall'altro lato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>traverso(= a / al transverso(de))</b> <br> en: through, from side to side <br> es: a través de, de parte a parte de <br> fr: au travers, de part en part <br> it: attraverso, da parte a parte, da lato a lato <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tro(= troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>trop(=troppo)</b> <br> en: <br> es: demasiado <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>troppo(= trop, tro)</b> <br> en: too, too much <br> es: demasiado, demasiada, demasiados, demasiadas <br> fr: trop <br> it: troppo, troppi, troppa, troppe <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>troppo(de)(aqua, libros, etc. )(= de tro(de)(aqua, libros, etc. ))</b> <br> en: too much(water, etc. ), too many(books, etc. ) <br> es: demasiado(agua, etc. ), demasiados(libros) <br> fr: trop(d'eau, de livres, etc. ) <br> it: troppo(troppa acqua, troppi libri, ecc. ) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tu</b> <br> en: you [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tú <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: tu, ti, te <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tu</b> <br> en: your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tu <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: tu, ti, te <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tu mesme, tu mesma, tu mesmo, tu ipse</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: tú mismo, tú misma <br> fr: toi-même <br> it: tu stesso, te stesso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tue, tua, tuo</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tuyo, tuya <br> fr: le tien, la tienne <br> it: tuo, tua <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tues, tuas, tuos</b> <br> en: yours [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tuyos, tuyas <br> fr: les tiennes <br> it: tue, tuoi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tum</b> <br> en: then, afterwards <br> es: entonces, después <br> fr: alors, par la suite <br> it: allora, quindi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tum</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en ese momento <br> fr: alors, à ce moment <br> it: allora, quindi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tum</b> <br> en: then, next <br> es: entonces, en ese caso, por consiguiente <br> fr: alors, ensuite <br> it: quindi, in questo caso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> en: in that case, consequently <br> es: entonces, en ese caso, consiguientemente <br> fr: alors, dans ce cas, conséquemment <br> it: allora, in questo caso, di conseguenza, perciò <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tunc(= alora)</b> <br> en: then, at that time <br> es: entonces, en ese momento <br> fr: alors, à ce moment <br> it: allora, in quel momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>tus</b> <br> en: your [in familiar or informal use; addressing one person] <br> es: tus <br> fr: tes <br> it: tuo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>u(littera): u /u/</b> <br> en: <br> es: u(lettre): u /ü/ <br> fr: u <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> en: where, in or at what place <br> es: dónde, en qué lugar <br> fr: où <br> it: dove, in che luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubi</b> <br> en: where; when, as soon as; wherewith; in which <br> es: donde <br> fr: où <br> it: dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubicunque</b> <br> en: wherever <br> es: dondequiera <br> fr: partout où..., n'importe où... <br> it: dappertutto, ovunque <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ubique</b> <br> en: everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever <br> es: donde sea, en cualquier lugar <br> fr: partout, peu importe où, n'importe où, <br> it: dappertutto, ovunque <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulle, ulla, ullo</b> <br> en: any, anyone <br> es: algún, alguno, alguna <br> fr: aucun, aucune, nul(le) <br> it: nessuno, nessuna, alcuno, alcuna <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulles, ullas, ullos</b> <br> en: <br> es: algunos, algunas <br> fr: aucuns, aucunes, nul(le)s <br> it: alcuno, alcuna, alcuni <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> en: subsequent, later <br> es: ulterior, subsecuente <br> fr: ultérieur(e) <br> it: ulteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulterior</b> <br> en: ulterior, situated beyond, thither <br> es: ulterior, situado más allá <br> fr: ultérieur(e) <br> it: ulteriore <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ulteriormente</b> <br> en: later(on), subsequently <br> es: después, seguidamente <br> fr: ultérieurement <br> it: ulteriormente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> en: besides <br> es: además <br> fr: en outre <br> it: inoltre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra</b> <br> en: on the other side, beyond, farther <br> es: en el otro lado, más allá, más lejos <br> fr: au délà, de l'autre côté, plus loin <br> it: al di là, dall'altra parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra(= plus a la de, plus(a) illac de)</b> <br> en: on the farther side of; beyond, past <br> es: más allá de, en el lado más lejano de <br> fr: au delà de <br> it: al di là di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra illo</b> <br> en: besides, moreover <br> es: más allá de aquello, además de ello <br> fr: au délà de ça <br> it: al di la di questo, oltre questo, oltre ad esso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultra que</b> <br> en: aside from the fact that <br> es: aparte del hecho de que <br> fr: outre que <br> it: oltre che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultramar</b> <br> en: overseas <br> es: en ultra mar <br> fr: outre-mer <br> it: oltremare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ultramar:(paises) de ultramar</b> <br> en: overseas(countries) <br> es: ultramar:(países) de ultramar <br> fr: outre-mer:(pays) d'outre-mer <br> it: oltremare, paese d'oltremare, d'oltre mare <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un altere, una altera, uno altero</b> <br> en: another <br> es: otro, otra <br> fr: un autre <br> it: un altro, un'altra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un de, una de, uno de</b> <br> en: <br> es: uno de, una de <br> fr: un de, une de <br> it: uno di, una di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un die</b> <br> en: one day, sometime <br> es: un día, algún día <br> fr: un jour <br> it: un giorno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un pauco(de)</b> <br> en: a little <br> es: un poco(de) <br> fr: un peu(de) <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un poco(de)(= un pauco(de))</b> <br> en: <br> es: un poco(de) <br> fr: un peu(de) <br> it: un po' di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un que, una que, uno que</b> <br> en: <br> es: uno que, una que <br> fr: un que, une que <br> it: uno che, una che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> en: a, an <br> es: un, una <br> fr: un, une <br> it: un, una <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>un, una, uno</b> <br> en: one <br> es: un, uno, una <br> fr: un, une <br> it: un, una <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una hora</b> <br> en: one o'clock <br> es: la una(hora) <br> fr: une heure <br> it: un'ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una tal(persona)</b> <br> en: such a(person) <br> es: una tal(persona) <br> fr: une telle(personne) <br> it: una tale(persona) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una vece(= una vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: una vez <br> fr: une fois <br> it: una volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una vice</b> <br> en: once, formerly, at one time, on a single occasion <br> es: una vez <br> fr: un fois <br> it: una volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>una vice que</b> <br> en: once, once that <br> es: una vez que <br> fr: une fois que <br> it: una volta che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unaltere, un altere(= le un le altere)</b> <br> en: each other, one another <br> es: uno el otro, uno al otro <br> fr: l'un l'autre <br> it: un altro, un'altra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unde</b> <br> en: whence, from which place <br> es: de donde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove, da quale luogo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unde</b> <br> en: whence, wherefore, for which reason or cause <br> es: de donde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unde(= de ubi)</b> <br> en: <br> es: de dónde <br> fr: d'où <br> it: da dove <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unes de, unas de, unos de</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos de, unas de <br> fr: quelques-un(e)s de <br> it: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unes que, unas que, unos que</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos que, unas que <br> fr: quelques-un(e)s que <br> it: qualcuno di, qualcuna di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unes, unas, unos</b> <br> en: <br> es: unos, unas <br> fr: des <br> it: dei, degli, delle <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>uno(= on, homo)</b> <br> en: one <br> es: uno, se <br> fr: on <br> it: un, uno <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>unquam(= olim, aliquando)</b> <br> en: ever, at any time <br> es: en algún momento <br> fr: n'importe quand, un moment donné <br> it: una volta, in un momento, in un dato momento, ad un certo punto, quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usquam(= alicubi)</b> <br> en: somewhere <br> es: a alguna parte <br> fr: quelque part <br> it: qualche parte <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque(a)</b> <br> en: (all the way) to, up to(a point in space or time); also: till, until <br> es: hasta <br> fr: jusque, jusqu'à <br> it: fino a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> en: to here <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'ici <br> it: fino a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque(a) hic</b> <br> en: up to now, hitherto <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> en: to here <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'ici <br> it: fino a qui <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque a ci</b> <br> en: up to now, hitherto <br> es: hasta aquí <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque a trans</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta el otro lado de <br> fr: à travers <br> it: attraverso <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque al presente</b> <br> en: up to the present <br> es: hasta el presente <br> fr: jusqu'à présent <br> it: fino ad ora, fino a questo momento <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque nunc</b> <br> en: up to now <br> es: hasta ahora <br> fr: jusqu'à maintenant <br> it: fino ad ora <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque quando</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta cuándo <br> fr: jusqu'à quand <br> it: fino a quando <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usque tosto</b> <br> en: <br> es: hasta pronto <br> fr: à bientôt <br> it: a presto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>usualmente, de costume, plurimo</b> <br> en: usually <br> es: usualmente <br> fr: d'habitude <br> it: usualmente, di solito, abitualmente, di norma <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ut</b> <br> en: as, how, in order that, to the end that, just as <br> es: a fin que, para que <br> fr: afin que, pour que, juste comme <br> it: al fine di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ut. . . ita. . . </b><br> the. . . the. . . , as. . . so. . . <br> es: tanto. . . tanto. . . <br> fr: autant... autant... <br> it: tanto. . . quanto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>utroque</b> <br> en: either or both of two <br> es: cualquiera de los dos, los dos <br> fr: les deux <br> it: ambedue <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>utrum. . . an</b> <br> en: whether. . . or. . . <br> es: a ver si. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou...ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>v(littera): ve /v/</b> <br> en: <br> es: v(lettre): vé /v/ <br> fr: v, vi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>valde</b> <br> en: exceedingly, very much <br> es: excesivamente, muchísimo <br> fr: excessivement, beaucou <br> it: eccessivamente, molto, moltissimo <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>valde</b> <br> en: vehemently, strongly <br> es: vehementemente, energicamente, fuertemente <br> fr: énergiquement, fortement <br> it: fortemente, energicamente, con veemenza <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vale!</b> <br> en: vale!, farewell! <br> es: salve!, salud! <br> fr: salut, adieu <br> it: ciao, salve <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vece(=vice)</b> <br> en: <br> es: vez <br> fr: fois <br> it: volta <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vel</b> <br> en: or, or rather <br> es: o, o más bien <br> fr: ou, ou plutôt <br> it: o, piuttosto <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vel. . . vel...</b> <br> en: either. . . or. . . <br> es: o. . . o. . . <br> fr: ou... ou... <br> it: o. . . o. . . <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vere(= vero)</b> <br> en: truly, really, indeed, even <br> es: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> fr: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> it: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vero(= vere)</b> <br> en: truly, really, indeed, even <br> es: de verdad, realmente, de hecho, incluso <br> fr: vraiment, réellement, en effet, même, effectivement <br> it: veramente, realmente, in effetti, effettivamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>verso</b> <br> en: towards, toward; also: to, in the direction of, etc. <br> es: hacia, en dirección a <br> fr: vers <br> it: verso, nella direzione di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>verso a basso</b> <br> en: <br> es: hacia abajo <br> fr: vers le bas <br> it: verso il basso, giù <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vespera</b> <br> en: evening <br> es: tarde <br> fr: soir <br> it: sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vespere</b> <br> en: evening <br> es: tarde <br> fr: soir <br> it: sera <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>via</b> <br> en: away <br> es: fuera, lejos <br> fr: loin, loin de là <br> it: via, fuori <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>via</b> <br> en: via, by way of <br> es: vía, por vía de <br> fr: via, par <br> it: via, per via del, a causa di <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>via!</b> <br> en: away! <br> es: fuera! <br> fr: plus loin! <br> it: via ! fuori ! <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vice</b> <br> en: time(as in "three times") <br> es: vez <br> fr: fois <br> it: volta(tre volte, una volta) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vice</b> <br> en: turn(as in "my turn"); also: stead <br> es: vez <br> fr: tour(comme dans "à mon tour") <br> it: volta(a mia volta) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vice versa</b> <br> en: vice versa <br> es: vice versa <br> fr: vice versa <br> it: viceversa <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vis-à-vis</b> <br> en: opposite, face to face, vis-à-vis <br> es: vis-à-vis, cara a cara, en situación opuesta <br> fr: vis-à-vis <br> it: di fronte, davanti a <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>visto</b> <br> en: considering, in view of <br> es: visto, considerando <br> fr: vu <br> it: visto, considerato che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>visto que</b> <br> en: considering that <br> es: visto que, considerando que, en vista de que <br> fr: vu que <br> it: visto che, considerato che <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vix</b> <br> en: hardly, scarcely, barely <br> es: apenas, escasamente, difíilmente <br> fr: difficilement, à peine, <br> it: difficilmente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vix</b> <br> en: with difficulty <br> es: con dificultad <br> fr: avec difficulté <br> it: con difficoltà <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>voi(= vos)</b> <br> en: <br> es: vous <br> fr: voi <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>voluntariamente(= voluntarie, sponte)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>voluntarie(= voluntariamente, sponte)</b> <br> en: voluntarily, willingly, readily, gladly, with pleausure <br> es: voluntariamente, de buena gana, prontamente, alegremente, con placer <br> fr: volontairement <br> it: volontariamente, di buon grado, spontaneamente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: you, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons(as in "you are", "I love you", "for you") <br> es: tu, ustéd <br> fr: tu, toi <br> it: voi(ma si usa il lei, per cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: you, in polite or formal use; addressing one person or several persons(as in "you are", "I love you" "for you") <br> es: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes <br> fr: vous <br> it: voi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: yourself [in polite or formal use(as in "you hurt yourself, " "to yourself")] <br> es: usted mismo, usted misma <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos</b> <br> en: yourselves [in all uses(as in "you hurt yourselves", "to yourselves")] <br> es: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos mesme, vos mesma, vos mesmo, vos ipse</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: usted mismo, usted misma <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vos mesmes, vos mesmas, vos mesmos, vos ipses</b> <br> en: yourself <br> es: vosotros mismos, vosotras mismas, ustedes mismos, ustedes mismas <br> fr: vous-même <br> it: voi stessi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>Vostra Excellentia</b> <br> en: Your Excellency <br> es: Su Excelencia <br> fr: Votre Excellence <br> it: Sua Eccellenza(meno usato : Vostra Eccellenza) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> es: vuestro, vuestra <br> fr: votre <br> it: vostro, vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: su(de usted) <br> fr: votre <br> it: suo(di Lei, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: su(de ustedes) <br> fr: votre <br> it: loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: vuestro, vuestra <br> fr: votre <br> it: vostro, vostra <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: suyo, suya(de usted) <br> fr: votre <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostre, vostra, vostro</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: suyo, suya(de ustedes) <br> fr: votre <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in familiar or informal use, addressing several persons <br> es: vuestros, vuestras <br> fr: vos <br> it: vostro <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: sus(de usted) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: your, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: su(de ustedes) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in familiar or informal use; addressing several persons <br> es: vuestros, vuestras <br> fr: vos <br> it: vostri, vostre <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing one person <br> es: suyos, suyas(de usted) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vostres, vostras, vostros</b> <br> en: yours, in polite or formal use; addressing several persons <br> es: suyos, suyas(de ustedes) <br> fr: vos <br> it: Loro(le/di Loro, forma di cortesia) <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>vulgo(= communmente)</b> <br> en: commonly, vulgo <br> es: comúnmente, vulgarmente <br> fr: communément, ordinairement, généralement <br> it: vilgo, generalmente, comunemente <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>w(littera): duple ve /u/ aut /v/</b> <br> en: <br> es: w(lettre): double vé /v/ ou /ou/ <br> fr: w(doppio vu; vu doppio; non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>x(littera): xe /ks/</b> <br> en: <br> es: x(lettre): iks /ks/ ou /gz/ ou /s/ ou /z/ <br> fr: x(ics, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>y(littera): i greco /y/ aut /i/</b> <br> en: <br> es: y(lettre): i grec /i/ <br> fr: y(i greca, non esiste in Italianoo) <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>ya(= ja, jam)</b> <br> en: <br> es: ya <br> fr: déjà <br> it: già <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>yo(= io)</b> <br> en: <br> es: yo <br> fr: je, moi <br> it: io, me, mi <br> pt: <br> <br> <b>z(littera): zeta /z/</b> <br> en: <br> es: z(lettre): zède /z/ <br></p> fr: z, zeta <br> it: <br> pt: <br> <br> 1038 151 2005-04-21T23:18:09Z Josu Lavin 2 <td colspan="3"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nic cade quasi sempre super le vocal ante le <u>u</u>ltime consonante. Pro facilitar vostre lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>a</u> le vocal t<u>o</u>nic.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>Le gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illos de <u>a</u>ltere "linguas international", es tamben basate s<u>u</u>per un evalutation objective de illo que es de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que le the<u>o</u>ricos pensa que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode e Blair diceva: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que es incontrate in tote le linguas-fontes esser<u>a</u> retenite in le grammatica de... [Interlingua]; o negativemente, necun character<u>i</u>stica grammatical esser<u>a</u> retenite si illo es absente in al minus un del linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractive e felice de isto es que, durante que le grande internationalitate del parolas europ<u>e</u>e ha date a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, le internationalitate defective del finales grammatical lo ha fornite un gramm<u>a</u>tica de extreme simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definite es <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite es <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post cononante, <strong>-es</strong>. Un parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere o n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante o post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo es absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per le addition de <strong>-mente</strong> o, post un final <strong>-c</strong>, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviemente, il ha varie adverbios "primari" que non es derivate de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personal</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessive</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculin</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminin</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutre</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminate</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas o animales cuje sexo es inc<u>o</u>gnite:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> es usate pro <em>persona indeterminate</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duo formas de possessivo. Le forma plus curte es usate ante le substantivo e sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In altere casos, on usa le forma plus longe:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In le conjugation del verbos il non ha terminationes personal. Le verbo assume solmente 7 formas differente, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passate</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </table> <p>Alcun rar verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forma participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usate como substantivo; le participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> habe formas alternative in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>ltere formas alternative:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> es le imperativo e subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfecte con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar le voce passive con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Iste duo verbos pote esser miscite in formationes plus complexe:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le pronunciation de Interlingua es multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano o espaniol. <p>Casos que merita nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> e derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirate; optionalmente mute.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in le parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> o <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine del parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> </tr> 154 2005-04-22T08:08:57Z Josu Lavin 2 <td colspan="3"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nic cade quasi sempre super le vocal ante le <u>u</u>ltime consonante. Pro facilitar vostre lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>a</u> le vocal t<u>o</u>nic.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>Le gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illos de <u>a</u>ltere "linguas international", es tamben basate s<u>u</u>per un evalutation objective de illo que es de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que le the<u>o</u>ricos pensa que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode e Blair diceva: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que es incontrate in tote le linguas-fontes esser<u>a</u> retenite in le grammatica de... [Interlingua]; o negativemente, necun character<u>i</u>stica grammatical esser<u>a</u> retenite si illo es absente in al minus un del linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractive e felice de isto es que, durante que le grande internationalitate del parolas europ<u>e</u>e ha date a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, le internationalitate defective del finales grammatical lo ha fornite un gramm<u>a</u>tica de extreme simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definite es <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite es <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post cononante, <strong>-es</strong>. Un parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere o n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante o post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo es absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per le addition de <strong>-mente</strong> o, post un final <strong>-c</strong>, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviemente, il ha varie adverbios "primari" que non es derivate de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personal</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessive</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculin</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminin</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutre</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminate</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas o animales cuje sexo es inc<u>o</u>gnite:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> es usate pro <em>persona indeterminate</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duo formas de possessivo. Le forma plus curte es usate ante le substantivo e sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In altere casos, on usa le forma plus longe:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In le conjugation del verbos il non ha terminationes personal. Le verbo assume solmente 7 formas differente, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passate</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </table> <p>Alcun rar verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forma participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usate como substantivo; le participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> habe formas alternative in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>ltere formas alternative:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> es le imperativo e subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfecte con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar le voce passive con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Iste duo verbos pote esser miscite in formationes plus complexe:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le pronunciation de Interlingua es multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano o espaniol. <p>Casos que merita nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> e derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirate; optionalmente mute.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in le parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> o <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine del parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> </tr> 155 2005-04-22T08:45:46Z Josu Lavin 2 <td colspan="3"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nic cade quasi sempre super le vocal ante le <u>u</u>ltime consonante. Pro facilitar vostre lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>a</u> le vocal t<u>o</u>nic.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>Le gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illos de <u>a</u>ltere "linguas international", es tamben basate s<u>u</u>per un evalutation objective de illo que es de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que le the<u>o</u>ricos pensa que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode e Blair diceva: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que es incontrate in tote le linguas-fontes esser<u>a</u> retenite in le grammatica de... [Interlingua]; o negativemente, necun character<u>i</u>stica grammatical esser<u>a</u> retenite si illo es absente in al minus un del linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractive e felice de isto es que, durante que le grande internationalitate del parolas europ<u>e</u>e ha date a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, le internationalitate defective del finales grammatical lo ha fornite un gramm<u>a</u>tica de extreme simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definite es <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite es <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post cononante, <strong>-es</strong>. Un parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere o n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante o post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo es absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per le addition de <strong>-mente</strong> o, post un final <strong>-c</strong>, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviemente, il ha varie adverbios "primari" que non es derivate de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personal</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessive</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculin</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminin</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutre</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminate</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas o animales cuje sexo es inc<u>o</u>gnite:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> es usate pro <em>persona indeterminate</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duo formas de possessivo. Le forma plus curte es usate ante le substantivo e sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In altere casos, on usa le forma plus longe:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In le conjugation del verbos il non ha terminationes personal. Le verbo assume solmente 7 formas differente, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passate</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </table> <p>Alcun rar verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forma participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usate como substantivo; le participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> habe formas alternative in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>ltere formas alternative:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> es le imperativo e subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfecte con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar le voce passive con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Iste duo verbos pote esser miscite in formationes plus complexe:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le pronunciation de Interlingua es multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano o espaniol. <p>Casos que merita nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> e derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirate; optionalmente mute.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in le parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> o <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine del parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> </tr> 2114 2005-04-22T08:48:38Z Josu Lavin 2 <td colspan="3"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nic cade quasi sempre super le vocal ante le <u>u</u>ltime consonante. Pro facilitar vostre lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>a</u> le vocal t<u>o</u>nic.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>Le gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illos de <u>a</u>ltere "linguas international", es tamben basate s<u>u</u>per un evalutation objective de illo que es de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que le the<u>o</u>ricos pensa que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode e Blair diceva: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que es incontrate in tote le linguas-fontes esser<u>a</u> retenite in le grammatica de... [Interlingua]; o negativemente, necun character<u>i</u>stica grammatical esser<u>a</u> retenite si illo es absente in al minus un del linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractive e felice de isto es que, durante que le grande internationalitate del parolas europ<u>e</u>e ha date a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, le internationalitate defective del finales grammatical lo ha fornite un gramm<u>a</u>tica de extreme simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definite es <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite es <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post cononante, <strong>-es</strong>. Un parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere o n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante o post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo es absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per le addition de <strong>-mente</strong> o, post un final <strong>-c</strong>, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviemente, il ha varie adverbios "primari" que non es derivate de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personal</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objective</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessive</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculin</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminin</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutre</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminate</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas o animales cuje sexo es inc<u>o</u>gnite:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> es usate pro <em>persona indeterminate</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duo formas de possessivo. Le forma plus curte es usate ante le substantivo e sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In altere casos, on usa le forma plus longe:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In le conjugation del verbos il non ha terminationes personal. Le verbo assume solmente 7 formas differente, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passate</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </table> <p>Alcun rar verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forma participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usate como substantivo; le participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> habe formas alternative in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>ltere formas alternative:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> es le imperativo e subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfecte con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar le voce passive con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> e un participio passate:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Iste duo verbos pote esser miscite in formationes plus complexe:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le pronunciation de Interlingua es multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano o espaniol. <p>Casos que merita nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> e derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirate; optionalmente mute.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in le parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> o <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine del parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> </tr> 1039 2115 2005-04-22T00:06:03Z Josu Lavin 2 <p><b>O ALFABETO<br> </b>Consta o alfabeto de interlingua de todas as 26 letras do alfabeto tradicional romano, a saber:<br> a (a), b (be), c (se, tse), d (de), e (é), f (éf), g (ge), h (hacha), i (i), j (jóta), k (ka), l (él), m (ém), n (én), o (ó), p (pe), q (ku), r (er), s (és), t (te), u (u), v&nbsp;(ve), w (duple v), x (iks), y (i grec, ípsilon), z (zéta, zed)<br> </p> <p><b>PRONÚNCIA</b><br> </p> <p><b>c<br> </b>como [k], antes de *a, o, u*: *occasion* (ocasião), *caffe* (café), *corbe* (cesto), *cultura*.<br> Soa [s] ou [ts] antes de *e, i, y*: *concerto, cidra, cyclo*; *cc* antes de *e, i, y* soa como [ks] ou [kts]: *accento, accessibile* (acessível), *occidente*.<br> É mudo antes de *qu*: *acquesto* (aquisição), *acquirer* (adquirir).<br> <b>ch<br> </b>como [k], geralmente, mas também [ch], [tch], conforme a origem da palavra: *architecto, chaos, psyche, schola, Christo, chloro, t<u>e</u>chnica; charmante* (encantador) [ch], *China* [ch], *checo* (tcheco) [tch].<br> <b>d<br> </b>[d]: *danese* (dinamarquês), *detalio* (detalhe, minúcia), *dozena* (dúzia), *duo* (dois).<br> <b>e<br> </b>é geralmente aberto quando acentuado, exceto quando final seguido de *r: h<u>e</u>pate* (fígado), *p<u>e</u>rgola, maestro* (professor; mestre).<br> Mas: *dicer* (dizer), *haber* (ter, haver).<br> É fechado quando não acentuado: *ind<u>i</u>gena, n<u>u</u>mero, declarar*.<br> <b>g<br> </b>[g]: *gallo, grande, signo*. Mas geralmente soa [j] antes de *e, i, y* e nos sufixos *-age, -agiar, -agiose*, *agente, coll<u>e</u>gio, gyro; passage* (passagem), *viagiar* (viajar), *avantagiose* (vantajoso).<br> Em algumas palavras o *gi* pronuncia-se [j]: *forgia* (forja), *mangiar* (comer, manjar), *legier* (leve).<br> <b>gu<br> </b>geralmente soa [gw]: *guerra, guida* (guia), *guanto* (luva), *guarita, reguardar* (olhar para; considerar). Mas: *guitarra *[gi-].<br> <b>h<br> </b>é aspirado: *h<u>o</u>mine* (homem), *hymno* (hino), *hangar, heraldo* (arauto).<br> <b>j<br> </b>como *j* português: *julio* (julho), *jaco* (paletó), *major* (maior; major).<br> <b>qu<br> </b>soa [kw], geralmente: *question* (pergunta), *sequer* (seguir), *quinte* (quinto), <u>a</u>quila* (águia), *cinque* (cinco), *aqueducto*. Mas soa [k] em *que, qui*.<br> <b>l<br> </b>como [l] português: *n<u>i</u>hil* (nada), *cereal, sol, ulmo* (olmo, olmeiro).<br> <b>m, n<br> </b>não nasalizam a vogal precedente: *hymno, gemma* (gema), *button* (botão), *plan* (plano; simples).<br> <b>o<br> </b>é geralmente aberto quando acentuado, exceto quando final seguido de *r: aurora, petr<u>o</u>leo, <u>o</u>ptime* (ótimo). Mas: *honor* (honra), *color* (cor), *scriptor* (escritor).<br> É fechado quando não acentuado: <u>i</u>dolo, not<u>a</u>rio, snobismo*.<br> <b>ph<br> </b>como [f]: *phase* (fase), *ph<u>y</u>sica* (física), *phoca* (foca).<br> <b>r<br> </b>como [r] na palavra &quot;para&quot;: *rosa, rana* (rã), *area, verbo*.<br> <b>rr<br> </b>como [rr] em português ou francês: *marron *(marrom),* terra, carretta, arrivar* (arribar; chegar).<br> <b>rh<br> </b>como [r]: *rhythmo* (ritmo), *rhapsod<u>i</u>a* (rapsódia), *Rheno* (Reno).<br> <b>s<br> </b>entre vogais, como [z]; nos outros casos como [ss]: *poes<u>i</u>a, casa, naso* (nariz), *mesura* (medida). Mas: *sex* (seis), *summa* (soma), *dense* (denso).<br> <b>ss<br> </b>como [ss] português: *massa, dissipar, presso* (junto de).<br> <b>t<br> </b>como [t]: *actor, preter* (ao longe), *cata* (cada).<br> <b>ti<br> </b>nas terminações *-tion, -tia, -tio* como [ci]: *action* (ação), *reverentia* (reverência), *exercitio* (exercício).<br> <b>th<br> </b>como [t]: *mentha* (menta, hortelã), *throno* (trono), *theatro* (teatro).<br> <b>w<br> </b>como [v] nas palavras de origem germânica; como [u] (pronunciado ràpidamente) nas palavras de origem inglesa: *wagon* (carro; vagão) [u], *west* (oeste) [u].<br> <b>x<br> </b>como [ks]: *nexo, <u>e</u>xito*.<br> <b>y<br> </b>soa como [i], ou [i] semi-vogal quando preceder outra vogal: *myrto* (mirto, murta), *Egypto* (Egito); *essayo* (ensaio).<br> </p> <p><a name="ortografia"></a><b>ORTOGRAFIA<br> </b>Pode usar-se a ortografia simplificada, a saber:<br> Consoantes dobradas podem ser eliminadas, exceto *cc* antes de *e* ou *i*, e&nbsp;*rr*&nbsp;e&nbsp;*ss*: *buca* (*bucca* = boca), *comercio* (*commercio*), *agreder* (*aggreder* = agredir), *rato* (*ratto*), *antena* (*antenna*), *argila* (*argilla*), *s<u>a</u>bato* (*s<u>a</u>bbato* = sábado), *aportar* (*apportar* = trazer), *cofro* (*coffro* = baú).<br> Mas: *acceptar* (aceitar), *occidente; carro, passo.*<br> Mantém-se o *c* antes de *-tion*, derivados e antes de *t*: *fiction* (ficção), *section*&nbsp;(secção), *action* (ação), *instructor* (instrutor), *lecto* (leito).<br> O grupo *ch* pode substituir-se por *c*, *ph* por *f*, *rh* por *r*, *th* por *t*, *xh* por *x*: *cloro* (*chloro*), *Cristo* (*Christo*), *faro* (*pharo* = farol), *frase* (*phrase*), *retorica* (*rhetorica*), *tesauro* (*thesauro* = tesouro), *exeredar* (*exheredar* = deserdar).<br> Mas o *ch* antes de *e* e *i* quando soa [k] mantém-se: *cherubim* (querubim), *chimera* (quimera), *chim<u>i</u>a* (química).<br> O *y* pode substituir-se por *i*: *Abissinia* (*Abyssinia*), *cigno* (*cygno* = cisne).<br> Mas conserva-se nas palavras de origem inglesa: *yard* (jarda), *York, yacht* (iate).<br> </p> <p><b>ACENTO<br> </b>1. Recai, na maioria dos casos, na vogal que precede a última consoante; o *s* do plural não altera a regra:<br> *action, doctor* (doutor; médico), *general* (geral; general), *generator* (gerador), *cont<u>i</u>nue* (contínuo), *indiv<u>i</u>duo, individual, individualitate* (individualidade), *generatores*.<br> 2. As palavras terminadas em *m* e *s* fogem à regra geral:<br> <u>a</u>lbum, <u>e</u>tiam* (também), *idem, memor<u>a</u>ndum* (memorando), *n<u>u</u>nquam* (nunca), *r<u>a</u>dius* (rádio), *bronch<u>i</u>tis* (bronquite), *m<u>i</u>nus* (menos), *p<u>a</u>thos* (doença), *progn<u>o</u>sis* (prognose), *s<u>a</u>tis* (bastante). Mas: *autob<u>u</u>s* (auto-ônibus), *matr<u>a</u>s* (colchão).<br> 3. As palavras terminadas em *-le, -ne, -re* têm a tônica na antepenúltima sílaba:<br> *vol<u>a</u>tile* (volátil), *l<u>u</u>mine* (luz; claridade), *c<u>o</u>rpore* (corpo).<br> 4. Nas palavras formadas com os sufixos *-ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, -ulo* a tônica recai na sílaba que precede tais sufixos:<br> *harm<u>o</u>nic, ph<u>y</u>sica, mech<u>a</u>nico, l<u>u</u>cide* (lúcido; claro; luminoso), *fr<u>i</u>gido* (frio), *rad<u>i</u>cula, p<u>e</u>ndulo*.<br> 5. Os sufixos *-<u>i</u>ssime, -<u>e</u>sime, -<u>i</u>fere, -<u>o</u>logo* têm a acentuação em sua primeira sílaba:<br> *clar<u>i</u>ssime, cent<u>e</u>sime, prol<u>i</u>fere, soci<u>o</u>logo*.<br> </p> <p><b>USO DAS LETRAS MAIÚSCULAS<br> </b>Empregam-se:<br> 1. Nos nomes de pessoas: *Josephina, Adriana, Eduardo*.<br> 2. Nos nomes de dias e períodos especiais: *Natal, Pascha* (Páscoa), *le Die del Mortos, Renascentia, le Olympiada*. Mas não nos nomes dos dias da semana e nos dos meses: *dom<u>i</u>nica* (domingo), *luned<u>i</u>* (segunda-feira), etc., *januario* (janeiro), *februario* (fevereiro), etc.<br> 3. Nos nomes geográficos: *Portugal, Am<u>e</u>rica del Nord, Colosso de Rh<u>o</u>dos*. Mas não nos derivados: *le lingua portugese, un portugese, le nordamericano*.<br> 4. Nos nomes de estados, com os adjetivos destes: *Le Statos Unite* (Os Estados&nbsp;Unidos), *le Republica Federative Brasilian, le Citate* (cidade) *Vatican, le Vaticano*.<br> 5. Nos nomes de sociedades e instituições: *Le Consilio National, le Academ<u>i</u>a de L<u>i</u>tteras* (Letras), *le Societate Svedese pro Interlingua* (A Sociedade Sueca para a Interlingua).<br> 6. Nos nomes de reis, imperadores, etc.: *Don Petro II, Tsar Petro le Grande, Prince de Galles* (Príncipe de Gales).<br> <br> </p> <hr> <p><a name="uno"></a><b>1. Formação dos Substantivos<br> </b>1. Os substantivos que indiquem &quot;estado&quot; ou &quot;ação&quot; formam-se ajuntando-se suffixos, como *-ata (-ita), -ation (-ition), -antia (-entia), -age, -mento*: <br> a) *volar* (voar) *volata* (vôo)<br> b) *formar formation*<br> c) *ignorar ignorantia*<br> d) *barrar barrage* (barragem)<br> e) *accompaniar* *accompaniamento*<br> <br> 2. Os substantivos que indiquem o &quot;agente&quot;, formam-se, na maioria dos casos, ajuntando-se *-or*:<br> *leger* (ler) *lector* (leitor)<br> *ager* (agir, representar) *actor*<br> <br> 3. O sufixo *-or* também se usa para formar substantivos que indiquem o &quot;instrumento&quot;<br> *apprehender* (prender) *apprehenditor* (prendedor)<br> *appunctar* (apontar) *appunctator* (apontador)<br> *ventilar* *ventilator*<br> <br> 4. Os substantivos abstratos formam-se ajuntando-se ao adjetivo sufixos, como *-essa, -itate, -itude*; algumas vezes *-or*:<br> *pur* * puressa* (pureza)<br> *human* (humano) *humanitate* (humanidade)<br> *recte* (reto) *rectitude*<br> *large* (largo) *largor* (largura)<br> <br> 5. O aumentativo forma-se com *grande*, e o diminutivo com *parve, micre*; outras&nbsp;vezes, com os sufixos *-etta, -etto*, algumas vezes *-ula*:<br> *fenestra* * fenestra grande*<br> *paniero* (cesto, a) *paniero micre*<br> *nave* (barco) *navetta* (barquinho)<br> *libro* (livro) *libretto* (livreto)<br> *gutta* (gota) *gutt<u>i</u>cula* (gotícula)<br> <br> Exercitios<br> 1. Forma substantivos (n<u>o</u>mines) que indica le *stato* o *action* (1):<br> a) *venir* (vir), *cader* (cair), *sortir* (sair).<br> b) *fixar, acceptar, opponer* (*oppos-*).<br> c) *assecurar, assister, persister*.<br> d) *dosar, foliar, passar*.<br> e) *incoragiar, developpar* (desenvolver), *avantiar* (adiantar). </p> <p>2. Forma substantivos que indica le *agente* (2):<br> *professar, scriber* (*script-*) (escrever), *travaliar* (trabalhar), *diriger* (*direct-*) (dirigir).<br> 3. Forma substantivos que indica le *instrumento* (3):<br> *aperir, essugar* (apagar), *dispulverar* (limpar), *conducer* (*conduct-*) (conduzir).<br> 4. Forma substantivos abstracte (4):<br> a) *acute* (agudo), *stricte* (estreito), *basse* (baixo), *alte* (alto), *car* (caro), *large*&nbsp;(grande).<br> b) *nove* (novo), *rar* (raro), *breve*, *equal* (igual), *vacue* (vácuo), *scholar* (escolar).<br> c) *alte*, *recte*, *longe*, *plen* (pleno).<br> d) *spisse* (espesso), *lente* (lento), *longe* (comprido).<br> <br> 5. Forma le diminutivo con *-etto, -etta* e *-ula* (5):<br> *stella* (estrela), *flor, libro, gutta, rad<u>i</u>ce* (raiz).<br> </p> <hr> <p><a name="due"></a><b>2. Plural dos Substantivos<br> </b>1. Forma-se o plural dos substantivos, regra geral, ajuntando-se *-s* ao singular:<br> *alumno alumnos<br> *tabula tabulas<br> *heroe heroes*<br> <br> 2. Os substantivos terminados em consoante ajuntam *-es* para formar o plural:<br> *autobus* *autobuses*<br> *flor* *flores*<br> *lection* *lectiones*<br> *chal* (xale) *chales*<br> <br> 3. Se o substantivo terminar em *-c*, acrescenta-se *-h-* (para conservar a pronúncia do *c* no plural):<br> *roc* (roque) *roches*<br> *albricoc* (abricô) *albricoches*<br> <br> 4. Os plurais irregulares ocorrem em palavras estrangeiras:<br> *drug* (inglês, droga) *drugs*<br> *handicap* (inglês, obstáculo) *handicaps*<br> *portrait* (francês, retrato) *portraits*<br> *rail* (inglês, carril) *rails*<br> *champignon* (francês, cogumelo) *champignons*<br> *reservoir* (francês, reservatório) *reservoirs*<br> *tank* (inglês) *tanks*<br> *tunnel* (inglês) *tunnels*<br> *add<u>e</u>ndum* (adendo) *addenda* (neo-latim)<br> <br> 5. Palavras cienfíficas terminadas em *-is* formam o plural mudando-se o *-is* em *-es*:<br> *g<u>e</u>nesis* (ou *g<u>e</u>nese*) *g<u>e</u>neses*<br> *hepat<u>i</u>tis* *hepat<u>i</u>tes*<br> *neur<u>o</u>sis* *neur<u>o</u>ses*<br> *syn<u>o</u>psis* *syn<u>o</u>pses*<br> *o<u>a</u>sis* *o<u>a</u>ses*<br> <br> 6. As palavras compostas com o segundo elemento terminado em *-es*, não mudam no plural:<br> *un guardacostas duo guardacostas<br> *un paracolpos *(pára-choque) *duo paracolpos*<br> *un rumpenuces* (quebra-nozes) *duo rumpenuces*<br> <br> <b>Exercitios<br> </b>1. Pone in le plural le substantivos (1, 2, 3):<br> *l<u>i</u>ttera, stil<u>o</u>grapho, papilion* (borboleta), *corbe* (cesto), *taxa* (imposto), *pluma*&nbsp;(pena), *jardin, fenestra, pisce* (peixe), *l<u>a</u>tere* (lado), *vitro* (vidro), *baston, compasso, tomate, libro* (livro), *rector* (reitor), *avion, pincel, color* (cor), *bamb<u>u</u>, ostio* (porta), <u>a</u>rbore* (árvore), *stilo* (lápis), *barril, uxor* (esposa), *turre* (torre), *cassa* (caixa).<br> 2. Pone in le plural le substantivos (4, 5, 6)<br> *reservoir, oasis, tunnel, rumpenuces, portrait, synopsis, addendum, rail, chef*. </p> <hr> <p><a name="tre"></a><b>3. Gênero dos Substantivos<br> <br> </b>Não há gênero gramatical em interlingua.<br> 1. Todavia, nos substantivos de seres animados a final *-o* designa o masculino: *p<u>u</u>ero* (menino), *alumno* (aluno), *catto* (gatto).<br> 2. Nos substantivos de seres animados a final *-a* designa o feminino: *p<u>u</u>era, alumna*.<br> 3. Há substantivos de seres animados que tanto se empregam paro o masculino como para o feminino; são comuns de dois: *monarcha, patres* (pais), *parente* (parente, -a), *sportista, serviente* (servente).<br> <br> Distinguem-se o masculino, feminino ou os substantivos comuns de dois:<br> a. Por meio de uma palavra diferente para o masculino:<br> *patre* (pai) *matre* (mãe)<br> *fratre* (irmão) *soror* (irmã)<br> *oncle* (tio) <u>a</u>mita*<br> <br> b. Por meio do sufixo *-or* que geralmente indica o masculino:<br> *director, factor* (feitor), *operator* (operador).<br> c. Por meio do sufixo *-essa* ou *-ice* do feminino:<br> *h<u>e</u>rede* (herdeiro) *heredessa*<br> *actor* * actrice* (atriz)<br> <br> d. Por meio dos sufixos *-ista, -ante, -ente* para os substantivos comuns de&nbsp;dois:<br> *artista, vigilante, scribente* (escrevente).<br> <br> <b>Exercitios<br> </b>1. Dona le feminino del substantivos: *oncle, tigre, fratre, gallo, filio* (filho), *cavallo, sposo* (esposo), *vulpe* (raposo), *actor, h<u>o</u>mine, senior* (senhor), *bove* (boi), *nepto* (sobrinho), *patre, laborator, granpatre* (avô)*, Sr., granfilio.*<br> 2. Dona le masculino: *matre, tigressa, <u>a</u>mita, filia, cavalla* (égua), *seniora, vacca, laboratrice, gallina* (galinha), *nepta* (sobrinha), *f<u>e</u>mina* (mulher), *Sra., sposa, actrice, granmatre* (avó), *vulpessa, soror, granfilia.*<br> 3. Determina le g<u>e</u>neres con le l<u>i</u>tteras <b>m</b> (masculino), <b>f</b> (feminino), <b>c</b> (commun)): *p<u>u</u>ero ....., artista ....., soldato* (soldado) *....., infante* (criança) *....., <u>o</u>rphano* (órfão) *....., chef* (chef, -a) *....., alumno ....., presidente ....., soror ....., monarcha ....., granparentes* (avós) *....., initiante* (iniciante) *....., v<u>i</u>duo* (viúvo) *....., oncle ....., contessa* (condessa) *....., modista ....., imperatrice ....., tutor ....., cliente&nbsp;.....* </p> <hr> <p><a name="quatro"></a><b>4. O Adjetivo<br> </b>1. Os adjetivos terminam numa vogal ou consoante. O primeiro grupo termina quase sem exceção em *-e*, o segundo em uma das consoantes *-c, -l, -n, -r*. Desde que outras palavras podem ter as mesmas terminações, estas não identificam adjetivos, as quais podem ser sòmente notadas pela função que representam na sentença ou, à vezes, por um sufixo: *attente, claudite, blau* (azul), *num<u>e</u>ric* (numérico), *personal, gallecian* (galego), *obscur* (escuro).<br> 2. Não há inflecção ou concordância do adjetivo:<br> *le p<u>u</u>ero es quiete le p<u>u</u>eros son quiete*<br> *le p<u>u</u>era es attente le p<u>u</u>eras son attente*<br> *le cassa esseva oval le cassas esseva oval*<br> <br> 3. Os adjetivos qualificativos podem preceder ou seguir o substantivo. Esta posição é mais frequente e, por isso, normal. O adjetivo precedendo o substantivo tende a indicar uma propriedade ocasional do substantivo e o adjetivo que seque o substantivo apresenta uma propriedade do substantivo a distinguir de outros:<br> *Le immediate reaction del governator impediva le dis<u>o</u>rdine* (desordem).<br> *Le lingua international e le linguas national.*<br> 4. Os adjetivos polissilábicos raramente podem ficar antes dum substantivo; adjetivos curtos como *bon, belle, breve, multe* (muito), *grande, parve, longe*, etc. usualmente vêm antes do substantivo. As duas possíveis posições do substantivo nunca exprimem dois significados distintos:<br> *un p<u>u</u>era attente<br> *un ronde t<u>a</u>bula<br> *le stricte cammino* (caminho)<br> <br> 5. Os adjetivos numerais (cardinais e ordinais) precedem o substantivo que qualificam:*<br> *ecce* (eis aqui) *duo libros<br> *interlingua in le *s<u>e</u>ptime e octave grado* (grau)<br> <br> <b>Exercitio<br> </b>Pone in le plural le phrases (1):<br> 1) *le ceresia* (cereja) *esseva rubie.*<br> 2) *Vos ha un manuscripto regular*.<br> 3)* Io ha un gumma el<u>a</u>stic* (borracha) *de tinta.*<br> 4) *Ille scribe s<u>u</u>per* (sobre) *un quaderno.*<br> 5) *Le folio del <u>a</u>rbore es verde*.<br> 6) *Ibi* (ali) *es un obscur papilion.*<br> 7) *Claudia ha un pincel v<u>e</u>tule* (velho).<br> 8) *Guillermo lege un libro <u>u</u>tile.*<br> 9) *Il esseva un bon option* (opção).<br> </p> <hr> <p><a name="cinque"></a><b>5. Formação dos Adjetivos</b><br> 1. Podem-se usar adjetivos como substantivos e, como tal, tomam a forma de plural:<br> <br> *Qual oranges* (laranjas) *te gusta? Le dulces* (doces).<br> *Multe riccos son infelice.*<br> 2. Em muitos casos adjetivos convertem-se em verdadeiros substantivos, com o final *-o* (masculino) e o final *-a* (feminino). Entre estes encontram-se todos os adjetivos que terminam em *-an, -ari, -ate, -c (-esc, -ic), -ide, -ime, -in, -ite, -ive, -ori, -ose*:<br> <br> *parve un parvo<br> *african africanos<br> *hypothecari hypothecario<br> *passate* (passado) in le passato<br> *ric* (rico) le riccos<br> *character<u>i</u>stic un character<u>i</u>stica<br> *vint<u>e</u>sime un vint<u>e</u>simo<br> *explosive un explosivo<br> <br> 3. Há adjetivos que têm a mesma forma quando usados como substantivos: *brave, leve, grande, verde, folle* (louco), *molle, forte, triste, j<u>u</u>vene* (jóvem), *omne* (todo), *plure* (diversos), *ancian* (velho), *central, qual, tal, cruel, fidel* (fiel), *commun, major, minor* (menor), etc.:<br> <br> *un folle le tristes un juvene e un ancian*<br> 4. Podem formar-se adjetivos por meio de sufixos, tais como *-al* (característica de, pertinente a), *-an, -ian* (pertinente a, nativo de, originário de), *-ar, -ari* (pertinente a), *-ese* (pertinente a, nativo de), *-ic, -tic* (pertinente a, caracterizado por), *-<u>i</u>ssime* (grau extremo de qualidade), *-ose* (conteúdo, rico de, caracterizado por), *-ive* (tendo a tendência a ou a função de), *-ori* (relativo a, servindo para):<br> <br> *septimana septimanal*<br> *<u>A</u>frica african*<br> *Brasil brasilian*<br> *p<u>o</u>pulo popular*<br> *ferrovia ferroviari*<br> *China chinese*<br> *burgo burgese*<br> *hygiene hygienic*<br> *problema problematic*<br> *fidel fidel<u>i</u>ssime*<br> *pluma plumose*<br> *affirmar affirmative*<br> *preparar preparatori*<br> <br> 5. O antônimo forma-se juntando-se o prefixo *in-, im*, às vezes *dis-*:<br> *equal inequal<br> *proprie improprie<br> *attentive disattentive* (desatento)<br> <br> <br> <b>Exercitio<br> </b>1. Forma adjectivos derivate ab le substantivos o verbos:<br> 1) *horizonte, l<u>a</u>tere, mense*<br> 2) *Corea, Arabia, Christo*<br> 3) *luna* (lua), *familia, legenda* (lenda)<br> 4) *Japon, Francia, burgo*<br> 5) *geograph<u>i</u>a, anatom<u>i</u>a, ellipse*<br> 6) longe, belle, folle<br> 7) *per<u>i</u>culo, invidia* (inveja), *fama*<br> 8) *definir, excluder* (excluir), *attender*<br> 9) *obligar, probar* (provar), *demarcar*<br> <br> 2. Dona le ant<u>o</u>nymo del adjectivos:<br> 1) *h<u>a</u>bile, par, felice, matur*<br> 2) *attentive, agrad<u>a</u>bile, f<u>a</u>cile, necessari*<br> 3) *active, vari<u>a</u>bile, animate, juste*<br> 4) *perfecte, personal, m<u>o</u>bile, mortal* </p> <hr> <p><a name="sex"></a><b>6. O Artigo Definido<br> </b>1. O artigo definido é *le* (o, a, os, as). É invariável em gênero e número:<br> *le p<u>u</u>ero le p<u>u</u>eros<br> *le p<u>u</u>era le p<u>u</u>eras<br> *le classe le classes<br> <br> 2. Quando as preposições *a* e *de* precedem o artigo definido, elas se contraem em *al* e *del*:<br> *del preceptor al alumnos<br> *le ludo *(brinquedo)* del p<u>u</u>eros*<br> <br> 3. Emprega-se antes de substantivo no singular para indicar uma classe ou espécie:<br> *le elephante es un animal grande<br> *le musca *(mosca)* es un insecto commun*<br> <br> 4. Antes dos nomes dos dias da semana e estações de ano:<br> *illa veniva in le s<u>a</u>bbato<br> *ille lassara le burgo in le hiberno *(inverno)*<br> 5. Não se usa o artigo definido antes dos nomes de pessoas (a menos que un adjetivo o preceda), países e continentes, ilhas e cidades:<br> *Louisa esseva absente* (ausente) *iste septimana<br> *Europa es un continente<br> Mas: *Le v<u>e</u>tule Silva laborava ancora* (ainda).<br> 6. Antes de substantivos comuns no plural usados em sentido geral:<br> *Alumnos ha assistite a schola regularmente<br> *Lilios son generalmente blanc*<br> <br> <b>Exercitio<br> </b>Plena le spatios con le art<u>i</u>culo definite o omitte lo, si isto es le correcte:<br> 1) *..... blau penna stilogr<u>a</u>phic esseva de Blanca* (Branca), *non de Rosa.<br> 2) *..... limones torna flave* (amarelos) *quando matur.*<br> 3) *..... illa vade a ..... mercato in ..... dom<u>i</u>nicas.*<br> 4) *..... creta ha essite in ..... cassas de carta.*<br> 5) *..... Laurence non apportara su infantes a ..... schola.*<br> 6) *..... dom<u>i</u>nica es un die de reposo* (descanso).<br> 7) *..... Espania non es un pais tropical; ..... Brasil es.<br> 8) *Illa ha venite a ..... ecclesia in le matino* (manhã).<br> 9) *..... folios cade ab ..... <u>a</u>rbores in ..... autumno.*<br> 10) *Nos habera ..... vacantias longe in ..... mense de ..... decembre e januario.*<br> 11) *..... infantes gusta ludos.*<br> 12) *..... lilio, ..... rosa e ..... dahlia son flores.*<br> 13) *..... Anglaterra e ..... Francia son in ..... Europa.*<br> 14) *..... catto es un animal.*<br> </p> <hr> <p><a name="septe"></a><b>7. O Artigo Indefinido<br> </b>1. O artigo indefinido é *un* (um, a). É invariável em genêro sòmente, porque só se emprega antes de substantivo no singular:<br> *un h<u>o</u>mine, un f<u>e</u>mina, un vitro*<br> 2. Emprega-se antes de substantivos que indiquem profissão, nacionalidade, estado, creança, classe:<br> *ille es un pianista<br> *illa es un brasiliano, non un <u>a</u>rabe*<br> *ille deveniva *(tornou-se) *un <u>o</u>rphano a septe annos*<br> <br> 3. Em lugar de *qualcunque* (qualquer):<br> *le chaise es leve; un p<u>u</u>ero lo apportar<u>a<br> </u>*aperi un fenestra in le c<u>a</u>mera*<br> <br> 4. Depois de *con* e *sin* (sem) seguidos de substantivo concreto:<br> *le p<u>u</u>era scribe con un creta<br> *ille h<u>o</u>mine veniva sin un parapluvia*<br> <br> <b>Exercitio<br> </b>Plena le spatios con le art<u>i</u>culo indefinite:<br> 1) *Illa ha ..... stilo blau pro scriber.*<br> 2) *Omne* (todo) *alumno apporta ..... stilo (de graphite)* (lápis) *e ..... gumma.*<br> 3) *Ille ha designate con ..... creta flave e ..... esquadra* (esquadro).<br> 4) *Nulle* (nem) ..... *corbe es in le <u>a</u>ngulo*.<br> 5) *Il es ..... honor pro le schola.*<br> 6) *Essente ..... methodista ille es ..... alumno ordinate.*<br> 7) *Margarita, non Claudia, es ..... persona eccentric.*<br> 8) *Le f<u>e</u>mina esseva ..... herede.*<br> 9) *Il ha ..... vacca blanc in le clausura* (cercado).<br> 10) *Le t<u>a</u>bula non es pesante* (pesada);* ..... infante lo tirara* (arrasta-la-á). <br> 11) *Iste p<u>u</u>eros veniva sin ..... libro.*<br> 12) *Ille essera ..... vitrero* (vidraceiro), *non ..... actor.*<br> 13) *Le p<u>u</u>era nasceva* (nasceu) *in Italia e esseva ..... italiana.*<br> 14) *Le granmatre deveniva ..... v<u>e</u>tule* (anciã) *felice*. </p> <hr> <p><a name="octo"></a><b>8. Adjetivos Demonstrativos<br> <br> </b>Os adjetivos demonstrativos são:<br> *Iste* (este, -a, estes, -as)<br> *Ille* (aquele, -a, aqueles, -as)<br> *Le mesme ... que* (o mesmo ... que)<br> <br> 1. *Iste* usa-se para indicar uma pessoa ou coisa, ou algumas pessoas ou coisas que estejam perto:<br> *iste schola non es pro infantes<br> *iste ludos hic son de Thomas<br> <br> 2. *Ille* usa-se para indicar uma pessoa ou coisa, ou algumas pessoas ou coisas que estejam longe:<br> *ille p<u>u</u>era ibi es Emilia<br> *ille cometas (de papiro) son distante in le celo<br> 3. *Iste* significa &quot;o primeiro, o mais próximo&quot;:<br> *io apportava iste libro, non le dictionario<br> *io prendera iste vitro, non le flave<br> 4. *Ille* significa &quot;o último de dois, o mais afastado&quot;:<br> *ille claudeva le porta, non ille fenestra<br> *ille inseniara le infante, non ille p<u>u</u>ero<br> <br> 5. *Le mesme* emprega-se para identificar uma pessoa ou coisa:<br> *ille veniva ab le mesme classe que Julia<br> *le exercitio de Maria ha le mesme errores que illo de Helena<br> <b>Exercitio</b><br> Plena le spatios con le adjectivo demonstrative conven<u>i</u>bile:<br> 1) *..... p<u>u</u>era hic es Alice, non Brigitte* (Brígida).<br> 2) *..... p<u>u</u>eros ibi son Louis e Mauritio.*<br> 3) *..... bureau frontal non ha essite vacante* (vagas).<br> 4) *Ille committeva ..... errores ..... antea.*<br> 5) *..... t<u>a</u>bula e chaise al l<u>a</u>tere* (a un lado) *son pro le preceptor; le bureau pro&nbsp;le alumnos.*<br> 6) *..... cassa gris trans* (do outro lado de) *ibi es guttante.*<br> 7) *..... can brun-rubie plus distante* (acolá) * pertine al n<u>e</u>pote del director.* <br> 8) *In ..... v<u>e</u>spere le aere esseva suave.*<br> 9) *..... pluma in le cavia* (gaiola) *es del av<u>i</u>cula*.<br> 10) *..... sportistas in le agro* (campo) *son reveniente*.<br> 11) *..... par de folios simila* (parece-se com) *un papilion.*<br> 12) *..... autumno del anno ha essite fructuose.*<br> 13) *Le p<u>u</u>eros volava* (soltavam) *cometas (de papiro); ..... infante esseva rolante* (rodando) *un rota.*<br> 14) *Illes esseva ..... questiones ..... ille demandava.* </p> <hr> <p><a name="novem"></a><b>9. Adjetivos Numerais (Números Cardinais)</b><br> <br> Os adjetivos numerais cardinais são:<br> 0 zero 3 tres 6 sex 9 n<u>o</u>vem<br> 1 un 4 quatro 7 septe 10 dece<br> 2 duo 5 cinque 8 octo<br> <br> 1. De 11 até 19 inclusive, não se usa a conjunção *e*:<br> 11 dece-un o: undece 16 dece-sex s<u>e</u>dece<br> 12 dece-duo du<u>o</u>dece 17 dece-septe septendece<br> 13 dece-tres tredece 18 dece-octo octodece<br> 14 dece-quatro quattu<u>o</u>rdece 19 dece-n<u>o</u>vem nov<u>e</u>ndece<br> 15 dece-cinque qu<u>i</u>ndece<br> <br> 2. De vinte em diante é facultativo o uso da conjunção *e*:<br> 21 vinti-un o: vinti e un 22 vinti-duo vinti e duo<br> 23 vinti-tres vinti e tres<br> <br> 3. De 30 até 90 inclusive, ajunta-se *-anta (-nta)* à unidade:<br> 30 trenta 70 septanta<br> 40 quaranta 80 octanta<br> 50 cinquanta 90 novanta<br> 60 sexanta<br> 4. Também depois de 100, não se usa a conjunção *e* e nem o hífem:<br> 100 cento 1.000 mille<br> 101 cento un 2.000 duo milles<br> 200 duo centos 1.000.000 un million<br> É de recomendar-se não usar nem pontos nem vírgulas em tripletos de cifras em números grandes:<br> 1.358.241 un million tres centos cinquanta-octo milles duo centos quaranta-un<br> 5. Nas datas o dia do mês indica-se pelo ordinal, mas permite-se o cardinal para o primeiro dia:<br> *le 1 de maio (le un de maio) *o:* le prime de maio<br> *le 25 de decembre (le vinti e cinque de decembre)*<br> </p> <p>Exercitios<br> 1. Scribe con litteras:<br> 1) *7 plus 4 es 11.*<br> 2) *15 minus 2 es 13.*<br> 3) *5 vices 6 es 30.*<br> 4) *Le medietate de 18 es 9.*<br> 5) *Un tertio de 21 es 7.*<br> 6) *Un quarto de 12 es 3.*<br> 7) *Io ha obtenite 16 monetas* (moedas) *differente.*<br> 8) *Illa ha recoltate* (apanhou) *3 oranges matur*.<br> 9) *Io plantava 20 pend<u>i</u>culos de dianthos in le v<u>e</u>spere.*<br> 10) *Nos esseva in ille casa v<u>e</u>tule 10 annos.*<br> 11) *Henrico es solmente* (apenas) *8 annos de etate.*<br> 2. E le sequente:<br> 1) *Un par es componite de 2 cosas, personas o partes.*<br> 2) *Un vintena es un gruppo de 20.*<br> 3) *Un die ha 24 horas.*<br> 4) *Un mense ha 30 o 31 dies.*<br> 5) *Un semestre ha 6 menses.*<br> 6) *Un anno ha 12 menses.*<br> 7) *Un seculo es un gruppo de 100 annos.*<br> 8) *Un millennio ha 1.000 annos.*<br> 9) *Ille urbe* (cidade) *ha 1.344 habitantes.*<br> 10) *Illo esseva fundate in le anno 1910.*<br> 11) *Il era 16.10 per le horologio de pariete.*<br> <br> 3. Scribe le datas sequente:<br> 1) 1920 2) 1844 3) 1552 4) 1701 5) 1938 6) 1972 7) 1988 8) 1500 9) 1212. </p> <hr> <p><a name="dece"></a><b>10. Adjetivos Numerais (Números Ordinais)</b><br> Os adjetivos numerais ordinais são:<br> 1-me prime 6-te sexte<br> 2-nde secunde 7-me s<u>e</u>ptime<br> 3-tie tertie 8-ve octave<br> 4-te quarte 9-ne none<br> 5-te quinte 10-me d<u>e</u>cime<br> 11-me d<u>e</u>cimo-prime o: dece-prime<br> 12-nde d<u>e</u>cimo-secunde dece-secunde<br> 13-te d<u>e</u>cimo-tertie dece-tertie<br> 14-te d<u>e</u>cimo-quarte dece-quarte<br> 15-te d<u>e</u>cimo-quinte dece-quinte<br> 16-te d<u>e</u>cimo-sexte dece-sexte<br> 17-me d<u>e</u>cimo-s<u>e</u>ptime dece-s<u>e</u>ptime<br> 18-ve d<u>e</u>cimo-octave dece-octave<br> 19-ne d<u>e</u>cimo-none dece-none<br> <br> 1. Os demais ordinais simples formam-se dos cardinais correspondentes juntando-se *-<u>e</u>sime*: <br> 20-me vint<u>e</u>sime 90-me novant<u>e</u>sime<br> 21-me vinti-prime 100-me cent<u>e</u>sime<br> 22-nde vinti-secunde 101-me cento-prime<br> 30-me trent<u>e</u>sime 200-me duo-cent<u>e</u>sime<br> 40-me quarant<u>e</u>sime 300-me tres-cent<u>e</u>sime<br> 50-me cinquant<u>e</u>sime 1.000-me mill<u>e</u>sime<br> 60-me sexant<u>e</u>sime 2.000-me duo-mill<u>e</u>sime<br> 70-me septant<u>e</u>sime 1.000.000-me million<u>e</u>sime<br> 80-me octant<u>e</u>sime<br> <br> 2. O uso dos ordinais não está preso a regras estritas. Assim, pode dizer-se:<br> *Le tertie cap<u>i</u>tulo* o: *cap<u>i</u>tulo tres<br> *Carolo quinte Carolo cinque*<br> <br> Mas: com os nomes de imperadores, reis, etc., sempre se usa o ordinal para indicar o primeiro:<br> *Elisabeth prime de Anglaterra*<br> 3. Também nas datas, referindo-se ao primeiro dia do mês, emprega-se o ordinal:<br> *deman sera le 1 (prime) de maio<br> le prime de februario esseva un s<u>a</u>bbato*<br> <br> Exercitios<br> 1. Plena le spatios con le adjectivo ordinal conven<u>i</u>bile:<br> 1) *Frederico ..... (1-me) esseva le rege de Danmark.*<br> 2) *Napoleon ..... (3-tie), imperator de Francia.*<br> 3) *Le ..... (1-me) de januario es le die del Fraternitate Universal.*<br> 4) *Le ..... (1-me) de augusto, le die del timbro brasilian.*<br> 5) *Illo esseva le ..... (8-ve) cap<u>i</u>tulo.*<br> 6) *Iste, le ..... (9-ne).*<br> <br> 2. Scribe con litteras:<br> 1) 1-me, 2-nde, 3-tie, 4-te, 5-te, 6-te, 7-me, 8-ve, 9-ne.<br> 2) 10-me, 11-me, 20-me, 21-me, 30-me, 31-me, 40-me, 102-nde.<br> 3) 200-me, 303-tie, 405-te, 1.000-me, 2.001-me, 1.000.000-me. </p> 1040 2116 2005-04-22T08:29:14Z Josu Lavin 2 <h1 align="center">Gramática de Interlingua em 30 lições </h1> <h2 align="center">Com exercícios e vocabulário útil </h2> <h3 align="center">por Rui Rabelo Mariano, União Brasileira de Interlingua 1991 (UBI)</h3> <hr> <h4>Prefácio</h4> <p>A presente &quot;Gramática de Interlingua&quot; eu a elaborei já prevendo um dia o seu uso em nossas Escolas Estaduais, adequando-a, por tal motivo, à 7ª e 8ª séries do primeiro grau.</p> <p>Embora o ensino de qualquer língua moderna seja barreira difícil para o estudante de língua estrangeira, isto não ocorre com interlingua, a qual faz jus ao nome &quot;língua auxiliar internacional&quot;, desde que é fácil tanto o seu vocabulário como a sua gramática, de modo especial para os que falam língua do ramo latino. A pronúncia dos vocábulos de interlingua não apresenta dificuldade, não exigindo, em consequência, a transcrição fonética, e é, para os povos de língua portuguesa, deveras simples, pois foi habilmente elaborada visando à simplificação, conservando, entretanto, a beleza da fonte principal &#151; o latim.</p> <p>Com o constante progresso dos meios de transporte, carece o mundo, urgentemente, de um sistema de língua auxiliar internacional como interlingua. Especialmente em alguns países europeus &#151; Dinamarca, Holanda, Bélgica, Inglaterra, França, Espanha, Suíça, Suécia, e, nas Américas, Estados Unidos, já é notório o interesse crescente por parte de grande número de pessoas no aprendizado de interlingua. É que muitos já compreenderam a grande utilidade no uso de interlingua no intercâmbio comercial e cultural com países cujo idioma oficial não é o mesmo de seu país natal. Já foi demonstrada a viabilidade de interlingua na tradução de obras literárias notáveis, científicas ou de religião, proporcionando grande vantagem econômica às casas editoras. Enfim, serve interlingua como ponte* para a elaboração de manuais de &quot;ensino sem mestre&quot; de idiomas estrangeiros, com a vantagem de que referidos manuais podem ser utilizados em qualquer país, seja qual for o seu idioma.</p> <p>Em suma, interlingua já é, para os que não se escravizam a preconceitos, um instrumento deveras útil, solucionando o problema da barreira das línguas.</p> <p>Rui R. Mariano</p> <hr> <h4>Indice</h4> <p><b>Apêndice</a></b>: O Alfabeto, Pronúncia, Ortografia</a>, Acento, Uso das Maiúsculas<br> 01. Formação dos Substantivos</a><br> 02. Plural dos Substantivos<br> 03. Gênero dos Substantivos<br> 04. O Adjetivo<br> 05. Formação dos Adjetivos</a><br> 06. O Artigo Definido<br> 07. O Artigo Indefinido<br> 08. Adjetivos Demonstrativos<br> 09. Adjetivos Numerais (Números Cardinais)</a><br> 10. Adjetivos Numerais (Números Ordinais)</a><br> 11. Adjetivos Indefinidos<br> 12. Adjetivos Possessivos<br> 13. Graus dos Adjetivos<br> 14. Pronomes Pessoais (Caso Reto)</a><br> 15. Pronomes Pessoais (Caso Oblíquo)</a><br> 16. Pronomes Demonstrativos<br> 17. Pronomes Possessivos<br> 18. Pronomes Relativos<br> 19. Pronomes Interrogativos<br> 20. Verbos - Tempos Simples<br> 21. Verbos - Tempos Compostos<br> 22. Verbos - Particípio Passado, Particípio Presente</a><br> 23. Formação da Interrogativa, Negativa e Interrogativa Negativa</a><br> 24. Advérbios<br> 25. Advérbios (Cont.)<br> 26. Advérbios Interrogativos</a><br> 27. Preposições<br> 28. Preposições (Cont.)</a><br> 29. Conjunções<br> 30. Conjunções (Cont.)</a></p> <hr> <p>Vocabulário útil (Por assuntos)<br> 01. Le Schola (I)</a> (1 - 10)<br> 02. Le Schola (II)<br> 03. Le Schola (III)<br> 04. Le Schola (IV)<br> 05. Le Schola (V)<br> 06. Formas e Dimensiones<br> 07. Le Colores<br> 08. Le Numeros<br> 09. Le Die e le Nocte<br> 10. Le Tempore<br> 11. Le Dies del Septimana</a> (11 - 20)<br> 12. Le Menses<br> 13. Le Saisones -Le Primavera<br> 14. Le Estate<br> 15. Le Autumno<br> 16. Le Hiberno<br> 17. Pesos e Mesuras<br> 18. Le Pecunia<br> 19. Le Casa (I)<br> 20. Le Casa (II)<br> 21. Le Familia</a> (21 - 30)<br> 22. Le Corpore Human e le Sensos (I)<br> 23. Le Corpore Human e le Sensos (II)<br> 24. Le Roba<br> 25. Le Repastos<br> 26. Le Citate (I)<br> 27. Le Citate (II)<br> 28. Le Ferma (I)<br> 29. Le Ferma (II)<br> 30. Le Occupationes</p> 1041 2117 2005-04-23T14:03:23Z Josu Lavin 2 <td colspan="3"><b><font color="#004080" size="5">Breve Gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua</font></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="120"> <p><font size="1">Interlingua non usa marcas de accento. Le accento t<u>o</u>nico cade quasi sempre super la vocal ante la <u>u</u>ltima consonante. Pro facilitar vostra lectura, in casos exceptional nos sublinear<u>e</u>mos la vocal t<u>o</u>nica.</font></p> </td> <td valign="top" width="337"><small>La gramm<u>a</u>tica de Interlingua, in contrasto con illas de <u>a</u>lteras "linguas internationales", est tamben basata s<u>u</u>per una evalutation objectiva de illo que est de facto international, non s<u>u</u>per illo que los the<u>o</u>ricos pensan que deber<u>e</u>a esser international. Como Gode et Blair dicevan: <em>"...cata character<u>i</u>stica grammatical que est incontrata in totas las linguas-fontes ser<u>a</u> retenita in la grammatica de... [Interlingua]; aut negativamente, necuna character<u>i</u>stica grammatical ser<u>a</u> retenita si illa est absente in al minus una de las linguas-fontes."</em> Un resultato attractivo et felice de isto est que, durante que la grande internationalitate de las parolas europ<u>e</u>as ha dato a Interlingua un vocabulario que non exige apprension, la internationalitate defectiva de los finales grammaticales lo ha fornito una gramm<u>a</u>tica de extrema simplicitate.</small> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Art<u>i</u>culo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le art<u>i</u>culo definito est <strong>le</strong>: <ul> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libro</em></li> <li><em><strong>le </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>a</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>al<br> de</strong> + <strong>le</strong> = <strong>del</strong></p> <p>Le art<u>i</u>culo indefinito est <strong>un</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>un </strong>casa</em></li> <li><em><strong>un </strong>libro</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Substantivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le plural termina in <strong>-s</strong>. Post consonante, <strong>-es</strong>. Una parola con singular in <strong>-c</strong> face le plural con <strong>-ches</strong>. <ul> <li><em>un catto, duo catto<strong>s</strong></em></li> <li><em>le vision, le vision<strong>es</strong></em></li> <li><em>le zin<strong>c</strong>, zin<strong>ches</strong></em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adjectivo</strong></td> <td valign="top">Le adjectivo non concorda in g<u>e</u>nere aut n<u>u</u>mero con le substantivo que illo qualifica. <ul> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>matre</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>filio</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon</strong> casas</em></li> <li><em><strong>bon </strong>libros</em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote apparer ante aut post le substantivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong> notitias</em></li> <li><em>notitias <strong>incred<u>i</u>bile</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le adjectivo pote reciper le <strong>-s</strong> del plural si le substantivo est absente:</p> <ul> <li><em>Io apprecia camisas azur; mi sposa prefere le verde<strong>s</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Adverbio</strong></td> <td>On deriva adverbios a partir de adjectivos per la addition de <strong>-mente</strong> aut, post una <strong>-c</strong> final, <strong>-amente</strong>: <ul> <li><em>grande, grande<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>felice, felice<strong>mente</strong></em></li> <li><em>ph<u>y</u>sic, physic<strong>amente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Obviamente, il ha varios adverbios "primarios" que non son derivatos de un adjectivo:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>troppo</strong> fatigate</em></li> <li><em><strong>sempre</strong> de mal humor</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Pron<u>o</u>mines personales</strong></td> <td valign="top"> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Subjectivo</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Objectivo</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Post preposition</strong></font></td> <td valign="top" width="25%"><font size="1"><strong>Possessivo</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">io</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">me</td> <td valign="top">mi(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">tu</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">te</td> <td valign="top">tu(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">ille <font size="1">masculino</font></td> <td valign="top">le</td> <td valign="top">ille</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illa <font size="1">feminino</font></td> <td valign="top">la</td> <td valign="top">illa</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illo* <font size="1">neutro</font></td> <td valign="top">lo</td> <td valign="top">illo</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">il* <font size="1">impersonal</font></td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> <td valign="top">—</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">on* <font size="1">indeterminato</font></td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">uno</td> <td valign="top">su(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nos</td> <td valign="top">nostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vos</td> <td valign="top">vostre</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">les</td> <td valign="top">illes</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">las</td> <td valign="top">illas</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top">illos*</td> <td valign="top">los</td> <td valign="top">illos</td> <td valign="top">lor(e)</td> </tr> </table> <p><strong>Illo(s)</strong> se refere a cosas aut animales cujo sexo est inc<u>o</u>gnito:</p> <ul> <li><em>Mi casa? <strong>Illo </strong>es belle.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>Il</strong> es usate in constructiones <em>impersonal</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>Il</strong> pluve.</em></li> <li><em><strong>Il </strong>ha un problema.<br> = Un problema existe.</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>On</strong> est usato pro <em>persona indeterminata</em>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>On </strong>parla francese in B<u>e</u>lgica.<br> = Francese es parlate in B<u>e</u>lgica.</em></li> </ul> <p>Il ha duas formas de possessivo. La forma plus curta est usata ante le substantivo et sin art<u>i</u>culo.</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>mi </strong>casa, <strong>mi </strong>grande casa</em></li> </ul> <p>In alteros casos, on usa la forma plus longa:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>mie</strong> casa</em></li> <li><em>D<u>e</u>o <strong>mie</strong>!</em></li> <li><em>Tu casa es major que le <strong>mie</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Verbo</strong></td> <td valign="top" width="33%"> <p align="left">In la conjugation de los verbos il non ha terminationes personales. Le verbo assume solamente 7 formas differentes, de accordo con su termination (<strong>-ar, -er, -ir</strong>):</p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" width="100%"> <tr> <td width="25%"><font size="2"><strong>Infinitivo</strong></font></td> <td width="25%">cantar</td> <td width="25%">creder</td> <td width="25%">partir</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Presente &amp; Imperativo</strong></font></td> <td>canta</td> <td>crede</td> <td>parti</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantava</td> <td>credeva</td> <td>partiva</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Futuro</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>a</u></td> <td>creder<u>a</u></td> <td>partir<u>a</u></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Conditional</strong></font></td> <td>cantar<u>e</u>a</td> <td>creder<u>e</u>a</td> <td>partir<u>e</u>a</td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Presente</strong></font></td> <td>cantante</td> <td>credente</td> <td>part<strong>ie</strong>nte<br> <font size="1">(non <em>partinte</em>)</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td><font size="2"><strong>Participio Passato</strong></font></td> <td>cantate</td> <td>cred<strong>i</strong>te<br> <font size="1">(non <em>credete</em>)</font></td> <td>partite</td> </tr> </table> <p>Alicunos raros verbos in <strong>-er</strong> forman le participio presente con <strong>-iente</strong>.</p> <ul> <li><em>recip<strong>er</strong> — recip<strong>iente</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Le infinitivo pote esser usato como substantivo; los participios como adjectivos:</p> <ul> <li><em>le <strong>volar </strong>del aves<br> = le volo del aves</em></li> <li><em>un influentia <strong>predominante</strong></em></li> <li><em>le anno <strong>passate</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>Los verbos <strong>esser, haber</strong> e <strong>vader</strong> haben formas alternativas in le presente:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><em><strong>ha</strong> = habe</em></li> <li><em><strong>va</strong> = vade</em></li> </ul> <p>Le verbo <strong>esser </strong>habe <u>a</u>lteras formas alternativas:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>es</strong> = esse</em></li> <li><strong><em>son</em> </strong>= <em>esse </em>(plural)</li> <li><em><strong>era</strong> = esseva</em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>a</u></strong> = esser<u>a</u></em></li> <li><em><strong>ser<u>e</u>a</strong> = esser<u>e</u>a</em></li> </ul> <p><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> est le imperativo et subjunctivo de <strong>esser</strong>:</p> <ul> <li><em><strong>S<u>i</u>a</strong> felice!</em></li> <li><em>Io non crede que ille <strong>s<u>i</u>a</strong> folle.</em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar t<u>e</u>mpores perfectos con le verbo <strong>haber</strong> et un participio passato:</p> <ul> <li><em>io <strong>ha </strong>parla<strong>te</strong></em></li> <li><em>ille <strong>habeva</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong></em></li> </ul> <p>On pote formar la voce passiva con le verbo <strong>esser</strong> et un participio passato:</p> <ul> <li><em>Le joco <strong>es</strong> vidi<strong>te</strong> per milles de personas.</em></li> <li><em>Isto <strong>esser<u>a</u> </strong>faci<strong>te</strong> per me.</em></li> </ul> <p>Istos duos verbos poten esser miscitos in formationes plus complexas:</p> <ul> <li><em>Quando ille arrivar<u>a</u>, su vestes ja <strong>haber<u>a</u> essite </strong>lava<strong>te</strong>.</em></li> </ul> <hr noshade="noshade" size="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top"><strong>Como leger Interlingua</strong></td> <td valign="top">La pronunciation de Interlingua est multo s<u>i</u>milar a italiano aut espaniol. <p>Casos que meritan nota:</p> <ul> <li><strong>ca, co, cu</strong> como <strong>ka, ko, ku.</strong></li> <li><strong>ce, ci, cy </strong>como <strong>tse, tsi, tsi.</strong></li> <li><strong>ch</strong> como <strong>k </strong>(<em>m<u>a</u>china</em>); eventualmente como <strong>(t)sh</strong>.</li> <li><strong>g </strong>gutural, mesmo ante <strong>e, i, y</strong> (<em>portugese</em>); eventualmente como <strong>j</strong> ante <strong>e, i, y</strong>, specialmente in le suffixo <strong>-age</strong> et derivatos (<em>mangiar, viage, viagiar</em>).</li> <li><strong>h</strong> aspirata; optionalmente muta.</li> <li><strong>ph</strong> como <strong>f</strong>.</li> <li><strong>qu</strong> como <strong>ku</strong>; como <strong>k</strong> in las parolas <strong>que, qui</strong>.</li> <li><strong>rh</strong> como <strong>r</strong>.</li> <li><strong>s</strong> inter vocales como <strong>z</strong> (<em>casa</em>).</li> <li><strong>th</strong> como <strong>t</strong>.</li> <li><strong>ti</strong> eventualmente como <strong>tsi</strong> (<em>national, scientia, spatio</em>).</li> <li><strong>w</strong> como <strong>u</strong> aut <strong>v</strong>, de accordo con le or<u>i</u>gine de la parola.</li> <li><strong>y</strong> como <strong>i</strong>.</li> </ul> </tr> 1042 160 2005-04-29T10:49:19Z Josu Lavin 2 TOSTO VENETIA NON ESSERA LE SOL CITATE CON PROBLEMAS DE INUNDATIONES <i>SOON VENICE WILL NOT BE THE ONLY CITY WITH FLOODING PROBLEMS</i> Venetia in Italia tosto non essera le sol citate in le mundo con multe aqua in su stratas. Un cambio del climate que nos expecta in solmente cento annos a causa del accumulation de bioxido de carbono e altere gases que reflecte le calor del sol continuemente al terra assecura que le nivello general del oceano mundial augmentara e inundara multe citates costal in diverse partes del terra. Etiam nunc paises sur insulas parve comencia a disapparer, e paises como Hollanda essera in grande periculo. <i>Venice in Italy soon will not be the only city in the world with a lot of water in its streets. A climate change that we expect in only one hundred years because of the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other gases that continually reflect the heat of the sun back onto the earth assures that average sea level will increase and flood many costal cities around the world. Even now countries on small islands are starting/beginning to disappear, and countries like Holland will be in great danger.</i< Le pollution es le ver causa de iste problema. Le terra vermente jam es un pauco plus calide que antea. Le temperatura medie es expectate a crescer con 1,5-4,5 grados, ma in regiones nord illo cresce 8-10 grados, e pauco a pauco le glacie polar comencia disgelar. Isto significa que le nivello del mar assatis tosto essera un medie metro--forsan usque un metro e medie--plus alte in le proxime cento annos. Scientistas seriose parla de un bomba climatic. <i>Pollution is the true cause of this problem. The earth really is a little hotter than it used to be. The average temperature is expected to grow by 1.5-4.5 (one point five to four point five) degrees, but in northern regions it is growing by eight to ten degrees, and little by little the polar glacier is starting to melt. This means that sea level will be a half a meter--maybe/perhaps even a meter and a half--higher in the next one hundred years. Thoughtful scientists are (speaking of)/(talking about) a climatic bomb.</i> In Stockholm, un coferentia de recercatores del futuro ha producite un reporto importante "Surprising Futures" (Futuros surprendente), le qual specula sur le possibilitate de construer enorme dicas pro stoppar le mares. Le hollandeses es specialmente preoccupate proque grande partes del pais es situate sub le nivello del mar. Un inundation grande occurreva illac in 1953. Le costos de recoperation de iste tragedia esseva dece-duo milliardos de florinos. <i>In Stockholm, a conference of researchers into the future has produced an important report, "Surprising Futures," which speculates on/about the possibility of building/contructing huge dikes to stop the sea. The Dutch are especially worried because large parts of their country are lower than sea level. A great flood took place there in 1953. The recovery costs for this tragedy were twelve billion (12,000,000,000) florins.</i> Cata vice que le mar cresce per un metro, le costa se move retro 150 metros, e le climate del Mediterraneo va diffunder se verso le nord, portante con se problemas de siccitate chronic. Il anque habera problemas con insectos african que va destruer recoltas, menacias contra le sanitate, e enorme migrationes de gente verso le nord como resultato del calor crescente. E in le nord multe typos de plantas e arbores va morir a causa del mesme calor. <i>Each time that sea level (is raised)/(goes up) by a meter, the coast (moves back)/(recedes) by 150 (one hundred fifty) meters, and the climate of the Mediterranean area will start moving toward the north bringing problems of chronic drought. There will also be difficulties with Afircan insects that will destroy crops, (public-health threats)/(threats against public health), and enormous migrations of people toward the north because of the growing heat. And in the north many types/kinds of plants and trees will die because of this (same) heat.</i> Un signo concrete del catastrophe menaciante es le cavo in le strato de ozono supra Antarctica, disciperite al fin del decada inter 1980 e 1990. Su causa principal es le discarga a in le atmosphera de freon, oxydo nitric, e altere gases nocive. <i>A concrete sign of this looming catastrophe is the ozone hole over Antarctica, discovered at the end of the 1980s. Its principal cause is the discharge into the atmosphere of freon, nitric oxide, and other harmful gases.</i> Le Statos Unite e altere paises del Occidente ha prohibite le uso de freon in lattas aerosol. Ma malgrado iste prohibition le discarga de freon a in le atmosphera ha crescite a octo cento mille (800.000) tonnas per anno, un taxa multo plus grande que le capacitate del atmosphera pro neutralisar lo. <i>The United States and other Occidental countries have prohibited the use of freon in aerosol cans. But (despite)/(in spite of) this prohibition the discharge of freon into the atmosphere has increased by eight hundred thousand (800,000) tons per year, a rate much larger than the capacity of the atmosphere to neutralize it.</i> Le effecto de estufa se realisa per le aqua e le bioxido de carbono in nostre atmosphera. Iste gases functiona como le vitro de un estufa. Le radios del sol pote passar, ma su radiation de calor non pote escappar. Omne nostre planeta comencia a esser como un simile vitro de estufa que causa le augmentation del temperatura medie sur omne le superficie de nostre planeta e cambios radical in su ecologia. <i>The greenhouse effect is caused by the water vapor and carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. These gases work like the glass on the roof of a greenhouse. The rays of the son can go through, but its heat radiation cannot escape. All our planet is starting to become a similar greenhouse that is causing an increase in average temperature on the surface of our planet and radical changes in the nature of its ecology.</i> 2118 2005-04-29T10:51:02Z Josu Lavin 2 TOSTO VENETIA NON ESSERA LE SOL CITATE CON PROBLEMAS DE INUNDATIONES <i>SOON VENICE WILL NOT BE THE ONLY CITY WITH FLOODING PROBLEMS</i> Venetia in Italia tosto non essera le sol citate in le mundo con multe aqua in su stratas. Un cambio del climate que nos expecta in solmente cento annos a causa del accumulation de bioxido de carbono e altere gases que reflecte le calor del sol continuemente al terra assecura que le nivello general del oceano mundial augmentara e inundara multe citates costal in diverse partes del terra. Etiam nunc paises sur insulas parve comencia a disapparer, e paises como Hollanda essera in grande periculo. <i>Venice in Italy soon will not be the only city in the world with a lot of water in its streets. A climate change that we expect in only one hundred years because of the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other gases that continually reflect the heat of the sun back onto the earth assures that average sea level will increase and flood many costal cities around the world. Even now countries on small islands are starting/beginning to disappear, and countries like Holland will be in great danger.</i> Le pollution es le ver causa de iste problema. Le terra vermente jam es un pauco plus calide que antea. Le temperatura medie es expectate a crescer con 1,5-4,5 grados, ma in regiones nord illo cresce 8-10 grados, e pauco a pauco le glacie polar comencia disgelar. Isto significa que le nivello del mar assatis tosto essera un medie metro--forsan usque un metro e medie--plus alte in le proxime cento annos. Scientistas seriose parla de un bomba climatic. <i>Pollution is the true cause of this problem. The earth really is a little hotter than it used to be. The average temperature is expected to grow by 1.5-4.5 (one point five to four point five) degrees, but in northern regions it is growing by eight to ten degrees, and little by little the polar glacier is starting to melt. This means that sea level will be a half a meter--maybe/perhaps even a meter and a half--higher in the next one hundred years. Thoughtful scientists are (speaking of)/(talking about) a climatic bomb.</i> In Stockholm, un coferentia de recercatores del futuro ha producite un reporto importante "Surprising Futures" (Futuros surprendente), le qual specula sur le possibilitate de construer enorme dicas pro stoppar le mares. Le hollandeses es specialmente preoccupate proque grande partes del pais es situate sub le nivello del mar. Un inundation grande occurreva illac in 1953. Le costos de recoperation de iste tragedia esseva dece-duo milliardos de florinos. <i>In Stockholm, a conference of researchers into the future has produced an important report, "Surprising Futures," which speculates on/about the possibility of building/contructing huge dikes to stop the sea. The Dutch are especially worried because large parts of their country are lower than sea level. A great flood took place there in 1953. The recovery costs for this tragedy were twelve billion (12,000,000,000) florins.</i> Cata vice que le mar cresce per un metro, le costa se move retro 150 metros, e le climate del Mediterraneo va diffunder se verso le nord, portante con se problemas de siccitate chronic. Il anque habera problemas con insectos african que va destruer recoltas, menacias contra le sanitate, e enorme migrationes de gente verso le nord como resultato del calor crescente. E in le nord multe typos de plantas e arbores va morir a causa del mesme calor. <i>Each time that sea level (is raised)/(goes up) by a meter, the coast (moves back)/(recedes) by 150 (one hundred fifty) meters, and the climate of the Mediterranean area will start moving toward the north bringing problems of chronic drought. There will also be difficulties with Afircan insects that will destroy crops, (public-health threats)/(threats against public health), and enormous migrations of people toward the north because of the growing heat. And in the north many types/kinds of plants and trees will die because of this (same) heat.</i> Un signo concrete del catastrophe menaciante es le cavo in le strato de ozono supra Antarctica, disciperite al fin del decada inter 1980 e 1990. Su causa principal es le discarga a in le atmosphera de freon, oxydo nitric, e altere gases nocive. <i>A concrete sign of this looming catastrophe is the ozone hole over Antarctica, discovered at the end of the 1980s. Its principal cause is the discharge into the atmosphere of freon, nitric oxide, and other harmful gases.</i> Le Statos Unite e altere paises del Occidente ha prohibite le uso de freon in lattas aerosol. Ma malgrado iste prohibition le discarga de freon a in le atmosphera ha crescite a octo cento mille (800.000) tonnas per anno, un taxa multo plus grande que le capacitate del atmosphera pro neutralisar lo. <i>The United States and other Occidental countries have prohibited the use of freon in aerosol cans. But (despite)/(in spite of) this prohibition the discharge of freon into the atmosphere has increased by eight hundred thousand (800,000) tons per year, a rate much larger than the capacity of the atmosphere to neutralize it.</i> Le effecto de estufa se realisa per le aqua e le bioxido de carbono in nostre atmosphera. Iste gases functiona como le vitro de un estufa. Le radios del sol pote passar, ma su radiation de calor non pote escappar. Omne nostre planeta comencia a esser como un simile vitro de estufa que causa le augmentation del temperatura medie sur omne le superficie de nostre planeta e cambios radical in su ecologia. <i>The greenhouse effect is caused by the water vapor and carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. These gases work like the glass on the roof of a greenhouse. The rays of the son can go through, but its heat radiation cannot escape. All our planet is starting to become a similar greenhouse that is causing an increase in average temperature on the surface of our planet and radical changes in the nature of its ecology.</i> 1043 2119 2005-05-08T23:12:07Z Josu Lavin 2 <b>Anque si Interlingua non pote esser considerate un lingua phonetic como le espaniol e le italiano (perque il ha plure sonos pro le mesme phonema), a causa del facto que illo es un extraction del vocabulario international, ergo nos trova in illo parolas proveniente de linguas con regulas de pronunciation multo differente (espaniol, anglese, francese, italiano, germano, etc. mais anque latino e greco), totevia nos pote stabilir le regulas general del pronunciation. Iste documento contine le exceptiones al regulas de pronunciation, on pote trovar iste vocabulos con le indication del pronunciation in le IED (Interlingua-English Dictionary). </b> ---- CH: Le digrapho CH generalmente on pronuncia K in tote le vocabulos de origine grec, altere vocabulos pote haber le pronuciation /sh/ o /tch/ (omne exception es signalate in le dictionario IED). Ecce alicun exceptiones: <table border=1> <th bgcolor="CYAN">VOCABULO</th><th bgcolor="CYAN">PRONUNCIATION</th><th bgcolor="CYAN">SYNONYMOS</th><tr> <td>approchar</td> <td>approshar</td> <td>avicinar, advenir, abordar, approximar se, acceder</td><tr> <td>artichoc</td> <td>artishok</td> <td>(cynara) [L]</td><tr> <td>attaché [F]</td> <td>attashé</td> <td>attaccate, allegate</td><tr> <td>avalanche [F]</td> <td>avalansh</td> <td>(labina) [L]</td><tr> <td>bolchevismo</td> <td>bolshevismo</td> <td>(bolshevism) [A]</td><tr> <td>brecha[H]</td> <td>bresha</td> <td>apertura, trappa,intervallo,interstitio, vacantia</td><tr> <td>broche [F]</td> <td>broshe</td> <td>crampa</td><tr> <td>brochure [F]</td> <td>broshur</td> <td>opuscolo</td><tr> <td>Cachmir [F]</td> <td>kashmir</td> <td>(kashmir) [A]</td><tr> <td>cartucha [H]</td> <td>kartusha</td> <td>.</td><tr> <td>cauchu [P]</td> <td>kaushu</td> <td>gumma, gumma elastica</td><tr> <td>chacal [H]</td> <td>shacal</td> <td>(jackal) [A]</td><tr> <td>chaco</td> <td>shako</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>chaise [F]</td> <td>shaise</td> <td>sede, sedia</td><tr> <td>chal [H]</td> <td>shal</td> <td>(shawl) [A]</td><tr> <td>chalet [F]</td> <td>shalè</td> <td>villetta</td><tr> <td>chalupa [H]</td> <td>shalupa</td> <td>nave,imbarcation,barca,vascello,navetta</td><tr> <td>Champagne [F]</td> <td>shampain</td> <td>vino spumante effervescente</td><tr> <td>champignon [F]</td> <td>shampinion</td> <td>fungo</td><tr> <td>chaperon [F]</td> <td>shaperon</td> <td>cavallero,galante,cortese,custode,vigilante,cappucio,accompaniator</td><tr> <td>chaperonar [F]</td> <td>shaperonar</td> <td>accompaniar,harmonisar,vigilar</td><tr> <td>char à bancs[F</td> <td>shar-a-bancs</td> <td>carrossa, cochi</td><tr> <td>charade [F]</td> <td>sharade</td> <td>enigma, logogripho, joco enigmatic</td><tr> <td>charivari [F]</td> <td>sharivari</td> <td>serenada, strepito, clamor</td><tr> <td>charlatan [F]</td> <td>sharlatan</td> <td>fraudator, impostor</td><tr> <td>charme [F]</td> <td>sharme</td> <td>fascino, fascination, attraction</td><tr> <td>charpa</td> <td>sharpa</td> <td>(focale) [L]</td><tr> <td>chartreuse [F]</td> <td>shartrose</td> <td>Cartusia > cartesian, (chartreuse liquor)</td><tr> <td>chassa</td> <td>shassa</td> <td>veneria, (cacia)[NL]</td><tr> <td>chassis [F]</td> <td>shassis</td> <td>structura, telario</td><tr> <td>chauffeur [F]</td> <td>shoffer</td> <td>taxista, guidator, automobilista</td><tr> <td>chauvinismo</td> <td>shovinismo</td> <td>localismo,spirito de campanil,campanilismo,nationalismo ,fanatismo</td><tr> <td>chec</td> <td>tchek</td> <td>Tchec</td><tr> <td>Checoslovachia</td> <td>tchekoslovakia</td> <td>Tchecoslovachia</td><tr> <td>chef [F]</td> <td>shef</td> <td>conductor,director,coco,gerente,administrator, cocinero,patrono, principal</td><tr> <td>chenille [F]</td> <td>shenille</td> <td>eruca, (tractor a eruca)</td><tr> <td>cheque [A]</td> <td>sheke</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>chic [F]</td> <td>shik</td> <td>elegante, distincte</td><tr> <td>chiffonier [F]</td> <td>shiffoniè</td> <td>armario,credentia</td><tr> <td>Chile</td> <td>tchile</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>chimpanze [P]</td> <td>shimpanzé</td> <td>(cimpanze)[Rom], (scimpanzè)[I]</td><tr> <td>China</td> <td>shina</td> <td>(Sina) [L]</td><tr> <td>chinese</td> <td>shinese</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>choc [F]</td> <td>shok</td> <td>trauma, colpo, urto, scussa electric</td><tr> <td>choccar</td> <td>shokar</td> <td>traumatisar, colpar, batter, percuter</td><tr> <td>chocolate</td> <td>shokolate</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>cliché [F]</td> <td>klishé</td> <td>negativo, stereotypo</td><tr> <td>cornichon [F]</td> <td>kornishon</td> <td>cucumbretta</td><tr> <td>crochet [F]</td> <td>kroshé</td> <td>uncino, unco, hamo, croc, uncinetto</td><tr> <td>cochi</td> <td>koshi</td> <td>carrossa, diligentia</td><tr> <td>cochinilia</td> <td>koshinilia</td> <td>.</td><tr> <td>tsarevich [R]</td> <td>tsarevitch</td> <td>czarevitch</td><tr> <td>depeche [F]</td> <td>depeshe</td> <td>message, telegramma, missiva</td><tr> <td>dervich</td> <td>dervish</td> <td>(dervish) [A]</td><tr> <td>ducha</td> <td>dusha</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>echelon [F]</td> <td>eshelon</td> <td>nivello, grado</td><tr> <td>fetiche [F]</td> <td>fetishe</td> <td>(fetish) [A]</td><tr> <td>fichu [F]</td> <td>fishu</td> <td>(subs. cravata), (adj. condemnate, perverse)</td><tr> <td>flecha [H]</td> <td>flesha</td> <td>salice, sagitta</td><tr> <td>galocha [H]</td> <td>galosha</td> <td>(galosh) [A]</td><tr> <td>hacha [H]</td> <td>hasha</td> <td>(ascia) [L]</td><tr> <td>hachich [F]</td> <td>hashish</td> <td>(hashish) [A], (hasisum) [L]</td><tr> <td>Indochina</td> <td>indoshina</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>kirschwasser[G]</td> <td>kirshvasser</td> <td>brandy de ceresia</td><tr> <td>lancha [H]</td> <td>lansha</td> <td>nave, imbarcation, barca,vascello, navetta</td><tr> <td>lunch [A]</td> <td>lantch</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>lynchar <A></td> <td>lintchar</td> <td>Lege de Lynch, facer justitia summari</td><tr> <td>manchette [F]</td> <td>manshette</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>manchu</td> <td>mantchu</td> <td>habitante e lingua de Manchuria</td><tr> <td>Manchukuo</td> <td>mantchukuo</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>Manchuria</td> <td>mantchuria</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>marcha [H]</td> <td>marsha</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>marchar [H]</td> <td>marshar</td> <td>camminar, ambular, promenar se, ir a pedes</td><tr> <td>marechal [F]</td> <td>mareshal</td> <td>(marshal) [A]</td><tr> <td>match [A]</td> <td>match</td> <td>partita</td><tr> <td>menchevismo</td> <td>menshevismo</td> <td>(menshevism) [A]</td><tr> <td>niche[F]</td> <td>nishe</td> <td>.</td><tr> <td>nonchalance [F]</td> <td>nonshalanse</td> <td>indifferentia</td><tr> <td>nonchalant [F]</td> <td>nonshalan</td> <td>indifferente</td><tr> <td>percha</td> <td>persha</td> <td>.</td><tr> <td>pluche [F]</td> <td>plush</td> <td>(plush) [A]</td><tr> <td>poncho [H]</td> <td>pontcho</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>punch[A]</td> <td>ponsh</td> <td>biberage alcoholic</td><tr> <td>putsch [G]</td> <td>putsh</td> <td>colpo de stato, usurpation del poter</td><tr> <td>rancho [H]</td> <td>rantcho</td> <td>ferma, cabana, nutrimento militar</td><tr> <td>reproche [F]</td> <td>reproshe</td> <td>blasmo, critica, reprehension, reprobation</td><tr> <td>sandwich [A]</td> <td>sanduitsh</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>schooner [A]</td> <td>shuna</td> <td>(goleta)[H], bicario grande pro biber sherry</td><tr> <td>speech [A]</td> <td>spitsh</td> <td>discurso</td><tr> <td>schottisch [G]</td> <td>skotish</td> <td>. </td><tr> <td>steeplechase[A]</td> <td>stipeltsheis</td> <td>cursa de obstaculos</td><tr> <td>torcha [H]</td> <td>torsha</td> <td>(facula) [L]</td><tr> <td>trenchar [F]</td> <td>trenshar</td> <td>taliar</td><tr> <td>trencho [F]</td> <td>trensho</td> <td>talio</td><tr> <td>trenchea [F]</td> <td>trenshea</td> <td> .</td><tr> <td>yacht [A]</td> <td>iot</td> <td> .</td><tr> </table> TI: Le sequentias TIA, TIE, TIO generalmente on pronuncia TSIA, TSIE, TSIO, salvo quando illos es precedite per X o S, o quando le vocal que lo seque es accentuate (le accentuation de iste parolas es signalate in le IED), ecce le lista del parolas que face exception: <table border="1"> <th bgcolor="CYAN">VOCABULOS</th><tr> <td>admixtion, adustion, amnestia, amnestiar, angustia, angustiar angustiose, antiaeree, antiasthmatic, antichristian, aristocratia, arithmomantia, autocratia, avocatiero, bastion, bestia, bestial, bestialitate, bibliomantia, bureaucratia, caffetiera, cartiera, cartomantia, catoptromantia, celestial, ceromantia, chiromantia, chocolatiera, christian, christianismo, christianitate, christiano, combustion, commixtion, congestion, congestionar, democratia, digestion, diplomatia, dynastia, elephantiasis, eucharistia, exhaustion, frontiera, fructiero, galimatias, galvanoplastia, garantia, garrettiera, geomantia, gerontocratia, gestion, guttiera, gynecocratia, hieromantia, idiotia, immixtion, immodestia, indigestion, ingestion, judeochristian, lectiera, leontiase, mestiero, mixtion, modestia, molestia, mosquitiera, necromantia, nomocratia, ochlocratia, oneiromantia, ornithomantia, osteoplastia, ostiero, ostio, penitentieria, petiolo, physiocratia, plutocratia, pornocratia, portiera, prelatia, presbytia, primatia, prophetia, quartiero, question, questionabile, questionar, questionario, questionator, rattiera, rhinoplastia, sacristia, salatiera, sputiera, suggestion, suggestionar, suprematia, technocratia, testiera, theocratia, theomantia, tintiera, tomatiero, tortiera, ustion, vestiario</td> </table> GE/GI: Le sequentias GE e GI generalmente on pronuncia con sono dur GHE, GHI, sed il ha alicun exceptiones a iste regula signalate in le IED, ecce le parolas que non seque iste regula: <table border="1"> <th bgcolor="CYAN">VOCABULO</th> <th bgcolor="CYAN">PRONUNCIATION</th><tr> <td>abbordage</td><td>abbordaje</td><tr> <td>acierage</td> <td>acieraje</td><tr> <td>adjustage</td> <td>adjustaje</td><tr> <td>aerage</td> <td>aeraje</td><tr> <td>agiotage</td> <td>ajotaje</td><tr> <td>amarage</td> <td>amaraje</td><tr> <td>amperage</td> <td>amperaje</td><tr> <td>ancorage</td> <td>ancoraje</td><tr> <td>apprentissage</td> <td>apprentissaje</td><tr> <td>arbitrage</td> <td>arbitraje</td><tr> <td>arrangiamento</td> <td>arranjamento</td><tr> <td>arrangiar</td> <td>arranjar</td><tr> <td>atterrage</td> <td>atterraje</td><tr> <td>avantage</td> <td>avantaje</td><tr> <td>bagage</td> <td>bagaje</td><tr> <td>bandage</td> <td>bandaje</td><tr> <td>baronage</td> <td>baronaje</td><tr> <td>barrage</td> <td>barraje</td><tr> <td>biberage</td> <td>biberaje</td><tr> <td>bituminage</td> <td>bituminaje</td><tr> <td>bobinage</td> <td>bobinaje</td><tr> <td>boiage</td> <td>boiaje</td><tr> <td>boscage</td> <td>boscaje</td><tr> <td>boycottage</td> <td>boycottaje</td><tr> <td>brigantage</td> <td>brigantaje</td><tr> <td>bronzage</td> <td>bronzaje</td><tr> <td>budget [A]</td> <td>badjet</td><tr> <td>budgetar</td> <td>badjetar</td><tr> <td>calfatage</td> <td>calfataje</td><tr> <td>camouflage [F]</td> <td>camuflaje</td><tr> <td>cannage</td> <td>cannaje</td><tr> <td>canoage</td> <td>canoaje</td><tr> <td>capsulage</td> <td>capsulaje</td><tr> <td>carinage</td> <td>carinaje</td><tr> <td>carnage</td> <td>carnaje</td><tr> <td>cartonage</td> <td>cartonaje</td><tr> <td>chaperonage</td> <td>shaperonaje</td><tr> <td>commatrage</td> <td>commatraje</td><tr> <td>concubinage</td> <td>concubinaje</td><tr> <td>contraspionage</td> <td>contraspionaje</td><tr> <td>corage</td> <td>coraje</td><tr> <td>coragiose</td> <td>corajose</td><tr> <td>cordage</td> <td>cordaje</td><tr> <td>corsage [F]</td> <td>corsaje</td><tr> <td>creosotage</td> <td>creosotaje</td><tr> <td>cuneage</td> <td>cuneaje</td><tr> <td>curettage</td> <td>curettaje</td><tr> <td>cylindrage</td> <td>cilindraje</td><tr> <td>damascenage</td> <td>damascenaje</td><tr> <td>disavantage</td> <td>disavantaje</td><tr> <td>disavantagiose</td> <td>disavantajose</td><tr> <td>discassage</td> <td>discassaje</td><tr> <td>dismontage</td> <td>dismontaje</td><tr> <td>disrangiamento</td> <td>disranjamento</td><tr> <td>disrangiar</td> <td>disranjar</td><tr> <td>dosage</td> <td>dosaje</td><tr> <td>equipage</td> <td>equipaje</td><tr> <td>eremitage</td> <td>eremitaje</td><tr> <td>essamage</td> <td>essamaje</td><tr> <td>essayage</td> <td>essayaje</td><tr> <td>etage [F]</td> <td>etaje</td><tr> <td>focage</td> <td>focaje</td><tr> <td>foliage</td> <td>foliaje</td><tr> <td>forgiar</td> <td>forjar</td><tr> <td>forrage</td> <td>forraje</td><tr> <td>frangiar</td> <td>franjar</td><tr> <td>frangiate</td> <td>franjate</td><tr> <td>frangiatura</td> <td>franjatura</td><tr> <td>frangiero</td> <td>franjero</td><tr> <td>fuselage [F]</td> <td>fuselaje</td><tr> <td>gage [F]</td> <td>gaje</td><tr> <td>garage [F]</td> <td>garaje</td><tr> <td>garagista</td> <td>garajista</td><tr> <td>gingibre</td> <td>jinjìbre</td><tr> <td>ginseng</td> <td>jìnséng</td><tr> <td>girafa</td> <td>jirafa</td><tr> <td>grilliage</td> <td>grilliaje</td><tr> <td>harponage</td> <td>harponaje</td><tr> <td>herbage</td> <td>herbaje</td><tr> <td>hereditage</td> <td>hereditaje</td><tr> <td>homage</td> <td>homaje</td><tr> <td>hostage</td> <td>hostaje</td><tr> <td>immagazinage</td> <td>immagazinaje</td><tr> <td>impaleage</td> <td>impaleaje</td><tr> <td>incoragiamento</td> <td>incorajamento</td><tr> <td>incoragiar</td> <td>incorajar</td><tr> <td>ingagiamento</td> <td>ingajamento</td><tr> <td>ingagiar</td> <td>ingajar</td><tr> <td>ingagiator</td> <td>ingajator</td><tr> <td>ingranage</td> <td>ingranaje</td><tr> <td>inragiamento</td> <td>inrajamento</td><tr> <td>inragiar</td> <td>inrajar</td><tr> <td>jardinage</td> <td>jardinaje</td><tr> <td>lavage</td> <td>lavaje</td><tr> <td>legier</td> <td>lejier</td><tr> <td>legieressa</td> <td>lejieressa</td><tr> <td>libertinage</td> <td>libertinaje</td><tr> <td>lineage</td> <td>lineaje</td><tr> <td>linguage</td> <td>linguaje</td><tr> <td>lustrage</td> <td>lustraje</td><tr> <td>mangiabile</td> <td>manjabile</td><tr> <td>mangiar</td> <td>manjar</td><tr> <td>mangiator</td> <td>manjator</td><tr> <td>mangiatoria</td> <td>manjatoria</td><tr> <td>maritage</td> <td>maritaje</td><tr> <td>massage</td> <td>massaje</td><tr> <td>menage [F]</td> <td>menaje</td><tr> <td>menagerie [F]</td> <td>menajer∞</td><tr> <td>mercerisage</td> <td>mercerisaje</td><tr> <td>message</td> <td>messaje</td><tr> <td>messageria</td> <td>messajeria</td><tr> <td>messagero</td> <td>messajero</td><tr> <td>mesticiage</td> <td>mesticiaje</td><tr> <td>metrage</td> <td>metraje</td><tr> <td>mirage</td> <td>miraje</td><tr> <td>misusage</td> <td>misusaje</td><tr> <td>monetage</td> <td>monetaje</td><tr> <td>montage</td> <td>montaje</td><tr> <td>multivage</td> <td>multivaje</td><tr> <td>nickelage</td> <td>nickelaje</td><tr> <td>noctivage</td> <td>noctivaje</td><tr> <td>oleage</td> <td>oleaje</td><tr> <td>orangeria</td> <td>oranjeria</td><tr> <td>orangiada</td> <td>oranjada</td><tr> <td>orangiero</td> <td>oranjero</td><tr> <td>ostage</td> <td>ostaje</td><tr> <td>paisage</td> <td>paisaje</td><tr> <td>paisagista</td> <td>paisajista</td><tr> <td>passage</td> <td>passaje</td><tr> <td>passager</td> <td>passajer</td><tr> <td>passagero</td> <td>passajero</td><tr> <td>patinage</td> <td>patinaje</td><tr> <td>patronage</td> <td>patronaje</td><tr> <td>pavage</td> <td>pavaje</td><tr> <td>pedage</td> <td>pedaje</td><tr> <td>pedagero</td> <td>pedajero</td><tr> <td>pelegrinage</td> <td>pelegrinaje</td><tr> <td>percentage</td> <td>percentaje</td><tr> <td>personage</td> <td>personaje</td><tr> <td>photomontage</td> <td>fotomontaje</td><tr> <td>piliage</td> <td>piliaje</td><tr> <td>pilotage</td> <td>pilotaje</td><tr> <td>plumage</td> <td>plumaje</td><tr> <td>punctage</td> <td>punctaje</td><tr> <td>pupillage</td> <td>pupillaje</td><tr> <td>rage</td> <td>raje</td><tr> <td>ragiar</td> <td>rajar</td><tr> <td>ragiose</td> <td>rajose</td><tr> <td>ramage</td> <td>ramaje</td><tr> <td>rangiar</td> <td>ranjar</td><tr> <td>rastrellage</td> <td>rastrellaje</td><tr> <td>reportage</td> <td>reportaje</td><tr> <td>rivetage</td> <td>rivetaje</td><tr> <td>sabotage</td> <td>sabotaje</td><tr> <td>sage</td> <td>saje</td><tr> <td>sagessa</td> <td>sajessa</td><tr> <td>salvage</td> <td>salvaje</td><tr> <td>salvageria</td> <td>salvajeria</td><tr> <td>scaliage</td> <td>scaliaje</td><tr> <td>semisalvage</td> <td>semisalvaje</td><tr> <td>sergente</td> <td>serjente</td><tr> <td>servage</td> <td>servaje</td><tr> <td>solfeggiar</td> <td>solfejar</td><tr> <td>sondage</td> <td>sondaje</td><tr> <td>spionage</td> <td>spionaje</td><tr> <td>stampage</td> <td>stampaje</td><tr> <td>stivage</td> <td>stivaje</td><tr> <td>sucrage</td> <td>sucraje</td><tr> <td>suffragette [A]</td> <td>suffrajette</td><tr> <td>tannage</td> <td>tannaje</td><tr> <td>tatuage</td> <td>tatuaje</td><tr> <td>telepherage</td> <td>telepheraje</td><tr> <td>terrage</td> <td>terraje</td><tr> <td>tirage</td> <td>tiraje</td><tr> <td>tonnage</td> <td>tonnaje</td><tr> <td>tressage</td> <td>tressaje</td><tr> <td>tricotage</td> <td>tricotaje</td><tr> <td>ultrage</td> <td>ultraje</td><tr> <td>ultragiose</td> <td>ultrajose</td><tr> <td>usage</td> <td>usaje</td><tr> <td>vagabundage</td> <td>vagabundaje</td><tr> <td>vassallage</td> <td>vassallaje</td><tr> <td>vengiabile</td> <td>venjabile</td><tr> <td>vengiantia</td> <td>venjantia</td><tr> <td>vengiar</td> <td>venjar</td><tr> <td>vengiative</td> <td>venjative</td><tr> <td>vengiator</td> <td>venjator</td><tr> <td>viage</td> <td>viaje</td><tr> <td>viagiar</td> <td>viajar</td><tr> <td>viagiator</td> <td>viajator</td><tr> <td>viduage</td> <td>viduaje</td><tr> <td>village</td> <td>villaje</td><tr> <td>villanage</td> <td>villanaje</td><tr> <td>visage</td> <td>visaje</td><tr> <td>voltage</td> <td>voltaje</td><tr> <td>wattage</td> <td>uattaje</td><tr> <td>zincage</td> <td>zincaje</td><tr> </table> NOTA: generalmente le termination -age on pronuncia -aje exepte in le sequente parolas: (vage, lotophage, naufrage, necrophage, rhizophage, saxifrage, xylophage, ichthyophage, hippophage, creophage, anthropophage) GUE/GUI: Generalmente le littera U debe esser pronunciate in le sequentias GUE e GUI, excepte in le sequente parolas: <table border="1"> <th bgcolor="CYAN">VOCABULO</th> <th bgcolor="CYAN">PRONUNCIATION</th><tr> <td>inguirlandar</td> <td>inghirlandar</td><tr> <td>guillotina</td> <td>ghiliotina</td><tr> <td>guillotinada</td> <td>ghiliotinada</td><tr> <td>guillotinamento</td> <td>ghiliotinamento</td><tr> <td>guillotinar</td> <td>ghiliotinar</td><tr> <td>guirlanda</td> <td>ghirlanda</td><tr> <td>guirlandar</td> <td>ghirlandar</td><tr> <td>guitarra/gitarra</td> <td>ghitarra</td><tr> <td>guitarrista/gitarrista</td> <td>ghitarrista</td><tr> </table> QUE/QUI: Generalmente le littera U debe esser pronunciate in le sequentias QUA, QUE, QUI e QUO sed QUE e QUI pote exceptionalmente esser anque mute como in le sequente parolas: <table border="1"> <th bgcolor="CYAN">VOCABULO</th> <th bgcolor="CYAN">PRONUNCIATION</th><tr> <td>Dunkerque [F]</td> <td>Dunkerke</td><tr> <td>Marquesas [H]</td> <td>Markesas</td><tr> <td>Susquehanna</td> <td>Suskehanna</td><tr> <td>alique</td> <td>alike</td><tr> <td>arlequin</td> <td>arlekin</td><tr> <td>arlequinada</td> <td>arlekinada</td><tr> <td>atque</td> <td>atke</td><tr> <td>bouquet [F]</td> <td>boukè</td><tr> <td>briquette [F]</td> <td>brikette</td><tr> <td>cheque [A]</td> <td>sheke</td><tr> <td>claque [F]</td> <td>clake</td><tr> <td>clique [F]</td> <td>clike</td><tr> <td>coquetta</td> <td>coketta</td><tr> <td>coquettar</td> <td>cokettar</td><tr> <td>coquette</td> <td>cokette</td><tr> <td>coquetteria</td> <td>coketteria</td><tr> <td>croquet [A]</td> <td>croket</td><tr> <td>croquetar</td> <td>croketar</td><tr> <td>croquette [F]</td> <td>crokette</td><tr> <td>esque</td> <td>eske</td><tr> <td>etiquetta</td> <td>etiketta</td><tr> <td>etiquettar</td> <td>etikettar</td><tr> <td>itaque</td> <td>itake</td><tr> <td>kiosque [F]</td> <td>kioske</td><tr> <td>mannequin [F]</td> <td>mannekin</td><tr> <td>marquis [F]</td> <td>markis</td><tr> <td>marquise [F]</td> <td>markise</td><tr> <td>mosquitiera</td> <td>moskitiera</td><tr> <td>mosquito [H]</td> <td>moskito</td><tr> <td>parquet [F]</td> <td>parkè</td><tr> <td>perque</td> <td>perkè</td><tr> <td>porque</td> <td>porkè</td><tr> <td>proque</td> <td>prokè</td><tr> <td>qualque</td> <td>qualke</td><tr> <td>que</td> <td>ke</td><tr> <td>quem</td> <td>kem</td><tr> <td>qui</td> <td>ki</td><tr> <td>tourniquet [F]</td> <td>tourniké</td><tr> </table> W: Le littera W debe esser pronunciate como un V si le vocabulo es de provenientia germanic o como un U breve si illo proveni ex anglese: <table border="1"> <th bgcolor="CYAN">VOCABULO</th> <th bgcolor="CYAN">PRONUNCIATION</th><tr> <td>W.C. [A]</td> <td>dabliù-Si</td><tr> <td>wadi</td> <td>uadi</td><tr> <td>wafla</td> <td>uafla</td><tr> <td>wagon</td> <td>uegon</td><tr> <td>waldense</td> <td>valdense</td><tr> <td>Waldo, Peter</td> <td>Valdo, Peter</td><tr> <td>walzer [G]</td> <td>valtser</td><tr> <td>water-closet [A]</td> <td>uota-closet</td><tr> <td>water-polo [A]</td> <td>uota-polo</td><tr> <td>watt</td> <td>uot</td><tr> <td>watt-hora</td> <td>uot-hora</td><tr> <td>watta</td> <td>uota</td><tr> <td>wattage</td> <td>uotaje</td><tr> <td>wattar</td> <td>uotar</td><tr> <td>wattimetro</td> <td>uotimetro</td><tr> <td>week-end [A]</td> <td>uik-end</td><tr> <td>west</td> <td>uest</td><tr> <td>westfalic</td> <td>vestfalic</td><tr> <td>Westfalia</td> <td>Vestfalia</td><tr> <td>whig [A]</td> <td>uig</td><tr> <td>whisky [A]</td> <td>uiski</td><tr> <td>whist [A]</td> <td>uist</td><tr> <td>Wilno [PL]</td> <td>Vilno</td><tr> <td>wigwam [A]</td> <td>uiguam</td><tr> <td>wolfram [G]</td> <td>volfram</td><tr> <td>wolframite</td> <td>volframite</td><tr> <td>wombat</td> <td>uombat</td><tr> <td>Worms [G]</td> <td>Vorms</td><tr> </table> 1489 2646 2005-08-06T10:08:50Z 80.102.226.227 == ''' Spelling & Pronunciation''' == '''§1''' The LETTERS used are the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet. There are no extra signs and symbols to indicate stress and pronunciation. '''§2''' The NORM OF PRONUNCIATION is "continental." The sound values of the various letters are fluid within type limits. They may be naturally influenced by neighboring sounds as also by native habits of individual speakers. For instance, the sound of u - described in the phrase, "like u in 'plural' " - may well be pronounced like oo in 'good' or in 'loom' but not like u in 'stutter' or in French 'lune.' '''§3''' The tendency of English speakers to obscure unstressed vowels, making them all sound like a in 'China,' should be guarded against. This applies particularly to final e. No sound, final or otherwise, unstressed or stressed, should be unduly slurred over. '''§4''' The normal English pronunciation agrees with that used in the Interlingua for the letters b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, ph, qu, v, w, and z. The remaining letters are covered by the following rules and observations: a is always pronounced like a in English 'father'; c before e, i, y is pronounced like ts in 'hats' (or, optionally, like c in 'city'); otherwise like c in 'cats'; ch like ch in 'echo', 'chrome'; e always like e in 'met' or, better, like é in French 'risqué.' g like g in 'good'; h as in English (or, optionally, silent); after r and t, silent; i normally like i in 'machine'; when unstressed before a vowel, like i in 'onion' or in 'phobia'); e.g. bile, biliose, varie; j like z in 'azure' (or, optionally, like g in 'gem' or like y in 'yes'); o always like o in 'obey'; r like rr in 'merry' or, better, like r in Spanish 'caro'; s like s in 'stay'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like s in 'these'); e.g. sparse, abstruse, accusativo; t as in English; ti before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by s, like tsy in 'he gets you' (or, optionally, like sy in 'we pass you' or like ty in 'we let you'); e.g. actor, garantia, question, but action, reverentia; u normally like u in 'plural'; when unstressed before a vowel, like u in 'persuade' or in 'superfluous'; e.g. plural, persuader, superflue; x like x in 'fox'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like x in 'exact'); y unstressed before vowels, like y in 'yes'; otherwise like i in 'machine'; e.g. Yugoslavia, typo. '''§5''' In DIPHTHONGS the vowels retain their independent sound values. The diphthong ai is pronounced as in 'kaiser,' au as in 'kraut.' Stressed e and i are separated by a syllabic break from a following a, e, o; e.g. mie, io, spondeo, via, bastardia. Unstressed i and u turn into semiconsonants before a following vowel; e.g. Bulgaria, filatorio, persuader. '''§6''' DOUBLE CONSONANTS merge in pronunciation. The double consonant ss is always voiceless like ss in 'miss.' The sounds of g and k assimilate a preceding n as in English. Note that the double consonant cc is spelled c at the end of a word (siccar but sic). '''§7''' Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by a system of respelling in which the letters have the same sound values as in Interlingua. The digraph ch stands frequently for the sound of sh in 'English' and is respelled as sh; e.g. choc (sh-). The combination gi often represents the sound of z in 'azure' and is respelled as j; e.g. avantagiose (-ajo-). Simple g has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix -age; e.g. avantage (-aje). '''§8''' On orthographic changes in derivation, see §137. '''§9''' Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Interlingua-English Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. defaite for French défaite, but kümmel as in German. '''§10''' The main STRESS is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. The plural ending does not change the original stress of the word. Adjectives and nouns ending in -le, -ne, and -re preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. fragile, ordine, tempore. In words formed with the suffixes -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, and -ulo, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes -ific and -ifico are stressed on the first i. Deviations from this stress system are covered in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by respelling with stress marks. Most of these deviations might be covered by additional descriptive rules. For instance, the suffixes -issim-, -esim-, -ifer-, and -olog- are stressed on the first vowel. The suffixes -ia and -eria, in so far as they correspond to English -y and -ery, are stressed on the vowel i; etc. Note: Words without consonant or without a vowel before the last consonant are stressed of necessity on the first vowel; e.g. io, via, and certain present-tense forms, as strue, crea, etc. But construe, procrea, etc. and also diminue, substitue, etc. follow the standard rule and have the stress on the vowel before the last consonant. '''§11''' The importance of stress regularity should not be exaggerated. The effort involved in acquiring an unfamiliar stress for an otherwise familiar word seems often inordinate. This does not, of course, imply that Interlingua words may be stressed completely at random but merely that a word like kilometro remains the same international word whether native habits cause a speaker to stress it on the second or on the third syllable. '''§12''' Native habits may likewise be allowed to prevail in questions of INTONATION, SOUND DURATION, and the like. It is suggested, however, that the sequence of a final and an initial vowel, both unstressed and not separated by a pause in intonation, be pronounced as a combined glide; e.g. le alte Ural almost as though it had the four syllables le-ál-teu-rál. '''§13''' SYLLABIFICATION follows pronunciation. Single consonants, except x, belong with the following syllable. Consonant groups are divided but l and r must not be separated from preceding b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph, t, th, and v. The combinations qu, gu, su behave like single consonants. '''§14''' CAPITALIZATION differs from English usage in that within the sentence upper-case initials occur exclusively with proper names but not with derivatives from them. In Francia le franceses parla francese ab le initio de lor vita 'In France the French talk French from the start of their lives' Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate 'The fishermen on the Dead Sea catch salt herrings' Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova solmente in Shakespeare 'The true Shakespearean style is found only in Shakespeare' Since sacred terms, the names of religious and other holidays, designations of movements, eras, doctrines, etc. may be considered proper or common names, they are capitalized or not, depending on the meaning intended. Le romanticismo de Hollywood es subinde insipide 'The romanticism of Hollywood is often insipid' Le philosophia del Romanticismo cerca le reunion de scientia e religion 'The philosophy of Romanticism seeks the reunion of science and religion' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2647 2005-08-06T10:15:01Z 80.102.226.227 == ''' Spelling & Pronunciation''' == '''§1''' The LETTERS used are the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet. There are no extra signs and symbols to indicate stress and pronunciation. '''§2''' The NORM OF PRONUNCIATION is "continental." The sound values of the various letters are fluid within type limits. They may be naturally influenced by neighboring sounds as also by native habits of individual speakers. For instance, the sound of u - described in the phrase, "like ''u'' in 'plural' " - may well be pronounced like ''oo'' in 'good' or in 'loom' but not like ''u'' in 'stutter' or in French 'lune.' '''§3''' The tendency of English speakers to obscure unstressed vowels, making them all sound like a in 'China,' should be guarded against. This applies particularly to final e. No sound, final or otherwise, unstressed or stressed, should be unduly slurred over. '''§4''' The normal English pronunciation agrees with that used in the Interlingua for the letters ''b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, ph, qu, v, w'', and ''z''. The remaining letters are covered by the following rules and observations: a is always pronounced like a in English 'father'; c before e, i, y is pronounced like ts in 'hats' (or, optionally, like c in 'city'); otherwise like c in 'cats'; ch like ch in 'echo', 'chrome'; e always like e in 'met' or, better, like é in French 'risqué.' g like g in 'good'; h as in English (or, optionally, silent); after r and t, silent; i normally like i in 'machine'; when unstressed before a vowel, like i in 'onion' or in 'phobia'); e.g. bile, biliose, varie; j like z in 'azure' (or, optionally, like g in 'gem' or like y in 'yes'); o always like o in 'obey'; r like rr in 'merry' or, better, like r in Spanish 'caro'; s like s in 'stay'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like s in 'these'); e.g. sparse, abstruse, accusativo; t as in English; ti before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by s, like tsy in 'he gets you' (or, optionally, like sy in 'we pass you' or like ty in 'we let you'); e.g. actor, garantia, question, but action, reverentia; u normally like u in 'plural'; when unstressed before a vowel, like u in 'persuade' or in 'superfluous'; e.g. plural, persuader, superflue; x like x in 'fox'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like x in 'exact'); y unstressed before vowels, like y in 'yes'; otherwise like i in 'machine'; e.g. Yugoslavia, typo. '''§5''' In DIPHTHONGS the vowels retain their independent sound values. The diphthong ai is pronounced as in 'kaiser,' au as in 'kraut.' Stressed e and i are separated by a syllabic break from a following a, e, o; e.g. mie, io, spondeo, via, bastardia. Unstressed i and u turn into semiconsonants before a following vowel; e.g. Bulgaria, filatorio, persuader. '''§6''' DOUBLE CONSONANTS merge in pronunciation. The double consonant ss is always voiceless like ss in 'miss.' The sounds of g and k assimilate a preceding n as in English. Note that the double consonant cc is spelled c at the end of a word (siccar but sic). '''§7''' Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by a system of respelling in which the letters have the same sound values as in Interlingua. The digraph ch stands frequently for the sound of sh in 'English' and is respelled as sh; e.g. choc (sh-). The combination gi often represents the sound of z in 'azure' and is respelled as j; e.g. avantagiose (-ajo-). Simple g has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix -age; e.g. avantage (-aje). '''§8''' On orthographic changes in derivation, see §137. '''§9''' Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Interlingua-English Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. defaite for French défaite, but kümmel as in German. '''§10''' The main STRESS is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. The plural ending does not change the original stress of the word. Adjectives and nouns ending in -le, -ne, and -re preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. fragile, ordine, tempore. In words formed with the suffixes -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, and -ulo, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes -ific and -ifico are stressed on the first i. Deviations from this stress system are covered in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by respelling with stress marks. Most of these deviations might be covered by additional descriptive rules. For instance, the suffixes -issim-, -esim-, -ifer-, and -olog- are stressed on the first vowel. The suffixes -ia and -eria, in so far as they correspond to English -y and -ery, are stressed on the vowel i; etc. Note: Words without consonant or without a vowel before the last consonant are stressed of necessity on the first vowel; e.g. io, via, and certain present-tense forms, as strue, crea, etc. But construe, procrea, etc. and also diminue, substitue, etc. follow the standard rule and have the stress on the vowel before the last consonant. '''§11''' The importance of stress regularity should not be exaggerated. The effort involved in acquiring an unfamiliar stress for an otherwise familiar word seems often inordinate. This does not, of course, imply that Interlingua words may be stressed completely at random but merely that a word like kilometro remains the same international word whether native habits cause a speaker to stress it on the second or on the third syllable. '''§12''' Native habits may likewise be allowed to prevail in questions of INTONATION, SOUND DURATION, and the like. It is suggested, however, that the sequence of a final and an initial vowel, both unstressed and not separated by a pause in intonation, be pronounced as a combined glide; e.g. le alte Ural almost as though it had the four syllables le-ál-teu-rál. '''§13''' SYLLABIFICATION follows pronunciation. Single consonants, except x, belong with the following syllable. Consonant groups are divided but l and r must not be separated from preceding b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph, t, th, and v. The combinations qu, gu, su behave like single consonants. '''§14''' CAPITALIZATION differs from English usage in that within the sentence upper-case initials occur exclusively with proper names but not with derivatives from them. In Francia le franceses parla francese ab le initio de lor vita 'In France the French talk French from the start of their lives' Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate 'The fishermen on the Dead Sea catch salt herrings' Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova solmente in Shakespeare 'The true Shakespearean style is found only in Shakespeare' Since sacred terms, the names of religious and other holidays, designations of movements, eras, doctrines, etc. may be considered proper or common names, they are capitalized or not, depending on the meaning intended. Le romanticismo de Hollywood es subinde insipide 'The romanticism of Hollywood is often insipid' Le philosophia del Romanticismo cerca le reunion de scientia e religion 'The philosophy of Romanticism seeks the reunion of science and religion' '''§15''' COLLATERAL ORTHOGRAPHY. - The following rules, not observed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary, yield a simplified system of equal standing with that outlined in the preceding paragraphs. All points not specifically covered below are to be kept unchanged; so for instance the treatment of unassimilated guest words whose orthography remains that used in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. Double letters representing a single consonant are simplified with the exception of ss. Note that the group cc before e, i, and y does not represent a single consonant. e.g. eclesia, aliterar, aducer, interogar (for ecclesia, alliterar, adducer, interrogar) but massa, transsubstantiation, accidente. The vowel y is replaced by i; e.g. tirano (for tyranno). The semi-consonant y remains unchanged; e.g. yak. The digraph ph is replaced by f; e.g. fonetic, emfatic (for phonetic, emphatic). The digraph ch, representing the sound of k, is kept only before e and i. Elsewhere it is replaced by c. e.g. cloric, Cristo (for chloric, Christo) but chimeric. The silent h after r and t is omitted; e.g. retoric, patetic (for rhetoric, pathetic). The letter j replaces g and gi to represent the sound of 'z' in 'azure.' e.g. sajo (for sagio). The suffix -age (also the sound group -age at the end of a word where it is not a suffix) is replaced by the form -aje; e.g. saje, coraje (for sage, corage). The suffix -isar is replaced by the form -izar. Its derivatives are likewise spelled with z. e.g. civilizar, civilization (for civilisar, civilisation). Final e is dropped after t preceded by a vowel except in words which have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. animat, brevitat (for animate, brevitate) but composite. This rule applies likewise to final e after n, l, and r when these consonants are the collateral spelling for nn, ll, and rr; e.g. peren, bel, mel, il, bizar (for perenne, belle, melle, ille, bizarre). Note: Present-tense and imperative forms are not affected by this rule; pote, permite, etc. retain their final -e. '''§16''' PUNCTUATION reflects the rhythm of the spoken sentence and obeys no absolute rules. The signs of punctuation and their general values are the same as in English. Interpolated phrases and relative and conjunctional clauses are enclosed in commas unless the intended rhythm permits no break. In enumerations of more than two items, the use of e 'and' or o 'or' before the last item does not eliminate the comma. Le homine que vos vide es mi patre 'The man you see is my father' Le homine, que se considera como le corona del creation, pare plus tosto facite de metallo blanc que de auro 'Man, who considers himself the crown of creation, seems rather to be made of babbitt than of gold' Le asino, le can, e le catto formava un pedestallo pro le gallo 'The donkey, the dog, and the cat formed a pedestal for the rooster' Es isto le canto del asino, del can, del catto, o del gallo? 'Is this the song of the donkey, the dog, the cat, or the rooster?' Le Statos Unite, Anglaterra e su imperio, e Russia es tres del grande potentias 'The United States, England and its empire, and Russia are three of the great powers' Ille es, pro exprimer lo cortesemente, pauco intelligente 'He is, to put it politely, not very intelligent' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2648 2005-08-06T10:17:10Z 80.102.226.227 == ''' Spelling & Pronunciation''' == '''§1''' The LETTERS used are the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet. There are no extra signs and symbols to indicate stress and pronunciation. '''§2''' The NORM OF PRONUNCIATION is "continental." The sound values of the various letters are fluid within type limits. They may be naturally influenced by neighboring sounds as also by native habits of individual speakers. For instance, the sound of u - described in the phrase, "like ''u'' in 'plural' " - may well be pronounced like ''oo'' in 'good' or in 'loom' but not like ''u'' in 'stutter' or in French 'lune.' '''§3''' The tendency of English speakers to obscure unstressed vowels, making them all sound like a in 'China,' should be guarded against. This applies particularly to final e. No sound, final or otherwise, unstressed or stressed, should be unduly slurred over. '''§4''' The normal English pronunciation agrees with that used in the Interlingua for the letters ''b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, ph, qu, v, w'', and ''z''. The remaining letters are covered by the following rules and observations: a is always pronounced like ''a'' in English 'father'; c before ''e, i,'' y is pronounced like ''ts'' in 'hats' (or, optionally, like ''c'' in 'city'); otherwise like ''c'' in 'cats'; ''ch'' like ''ch'' in 'echo', 'chrome'; e always like ''e'' in 'met' or, better, like ''é'' in French 'risqué.' g like ''g'' in 'good'; h as in English (or, optionally, silent); after r and t, silent; i normally like i in 'machine'; when unstressed before a vowel, like i in 'onion' or in 'phobia'); e.g. bile, biliose, varie; j like z in 'azure' (or, optionally, like g in 'gem' or like y in 'yes'); o always like o in 'obey'; r like rr in 'merry' or, better, like r in Spanish 'caro'; s like s in 'stay'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like s in 'these'); e.g. sparse, abstruse, accusativo; t as in English; ti before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by s, like tsy in 'he gets you' (or, optionally, like sy in 'we pass you' or like ty in 'we let you'); e.g. actor, garantia, question, but action, reverentia; u normally like u in 'plural'; when unstressed before a vowel, like u in 'persuade' or in 'superfluous'; e.g. plural, persuader, superflue; x like x in 'fox'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like x in 'exact'); y unstressed before vowels, like y in 'yes'; otherwise like i in 'machine'; e.g. Yugoslavia, typo. '''§5''' In DIPHTHONGS the vowels retain their independent sound values. The diphthong ai is pronounced as in 'kaiser,' au as in 'kraut.' Stressed e and i are separated by a syllabic break from a following a, e, o; e.g. mie, io, spondeo, via, bastardia. Unstressed i and u turn into semiconsonants before a following vowel; e.g. Bulgaria, filatorio, persuader. '''§6''' DOUBLE CONSONANTS merge in pronunciation. The double consonant ss is always voiceless like ss in 'miss.' The sounds of g and k assimilate a preceding n as in English. Note that the double consonant cc is spelled c at the end of a word (siccar but sic). '''§7''' Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by a system of respelling in which the letters have the same sound values as in Interlingua. The digraph ch stands frequently for the sound of sh in 'English' and is respelled as sh; e.g. choc (sh-). The combination gi often represents the sound of z in 'azure' and is respelled as j; e.g. avantagiose (-ajo-). Simple g has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix -age; e.g. avantage (-aje). '''§8''' On orthographic changes in derivation, see §137. '''§9''' Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Interlingua-English Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. defaite for French défaite, but kümmel as in German. '''§10''' The main STRESS is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. The plural ending does not change the original stress of the word. Adjectives and nouns ending in -le, -ne, and -re preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. fragile, ordine, tempore. In words formed with the suffixes -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, and -ulo, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes -ific and -ifico are stressed on the first i. Deviations from this stress system are covered in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by respelling with stress marks. Most of these deviations might be covered by additional descriptive rules. For instance, the suffixes -issim-, -esim-, -ifer-, and -olog- are stressed on the first vowel. The suffixes -ia and -eria, in so far as they correspond to English -y and -ery, are stressed on the vowel i; etc. Note: Words without consonant or without a vowel before the last consonant are stressed of necessity on the first vowel; e.g. io, via, and certain present-tense forms, as strue, crea, etc. But construe, procrea, etc. and also diminue, substitue, etc. follow the standard rule and have the stress on the vowel before the last consonant. '''§11''' The importance of stress regularity should not be exaggerated. The effort involved in acquiring an unfamiliar stress for an otherwise familiar word seems often inordinate. This does not, of course, imply that Interlingua words may be stressed completely at random but merely that a word like kilometro remains the same international word whether native habits cause a speaker to stress it on the second or on the third syllable. '''§12''' Native habits may likewise be allowed to prevail in questions of INTONATION, SOUND DURATION, and the like. It is suggested, however, that the sequence of a final and an initial vowel, both unstressed and not separated by a pause in intonation, be pronounced as a combined glide; e.g. le alte Ural almost as though it had the four syllables le-ál-teu-rál. '''§13''' SYLLABIFICATION follows pronunciation. Single consonants, except x, belong with the following syllable. Consonant groups are divided but l and r must not be separated from preceding b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph, t, th, and v. The combinations qu, gu, su behave like single consonants. '''§14''' CAPITALIZATION differs from English usage in that within the sentence upper-case initials occur exclusively with proper names but not with derivatives from them. In Francia le franceses parla francese ab le initio de lor vita 'In France the French talk French from the start of their lives' Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate 'The fishermen on the Dead Sea catch salt herrings' Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova solmente in Shakespeare 'The true Shakespearean style is found only in Shakespeare' Since sacred terms, the names of religious and other holidays, designations of movements, eras, doctrines, etc. may be considered proper or common names, they are capitalized or not, depending on the meaning intended. Le romanticismo de Hollywood es subinde insipide 'The romanticism of Hollywood is often insipid' Le philosophia del Romanticismo cerca le reunion de scientia e religion 'The philosophy of Romanticism seeks the reunion of science and religion' '''§15''' COLLATERAL ORTHOGRAPHY. - The following rules, not observed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary, yield a simplified system of equal standing with that outlined in the preceding paragraphs. All points not specifically covered below are to be kept unchanged; so for instance the treatment of unassimilated guest words whose orthography remains that used in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. Double letters representing a single consonant are simplified with the exception of ss. Note that the group cc before e, i, and y does not represent a single consonant. e.g. eclesia, aliterar, aducer, interogar (for ecclesia, alliterar, adducer, interrogar) but massa, transsubstantiation, accidente. The vowel y is replaced by i; e.g. tirano (for tyranno). The semi-consonant y remains unchanged; e.g. yak. The digraph ph is replaced by f; e.g. fonetic, emfatic (for phonetic, emphatic). The digraph ch, representing the sound of k, is kept only before e and i. Elsewhere it is replaced by c. e.g. cloric, Cristo (for chloric, Christo) but chimeric. The silent h after r and t is omitted; e.g. retoric, patetic (for rhetoric, pathetic). The letter j replaces g and gi to represent the sound of 'z' in 'azure.' e.g. sajo (for sagio). The suffix -age (also the sound group -age at the end of a word where it is not a suffix) is replaced by the form -aje; e.g. saje, coraje (for sage, corage). The suffix -isar is replaced by the form -izar. Its derivatives are likewise spelled with z. e.g. civilizar, civilization (for civilisar, civilisation). Final e is dropped after t preceded by a vowel except in words which have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. animat, brevitat (for animate, brevitate) but composite. This rule applies likewise to final e after n, l, and r when these consonants are the collateral spelling for nn, ll, and rr; e.g. peren, bel, mel, il, bizar (for perenne, belle, melle, ille, bizarre). Note: Present-tense and imperative forms are not affected by this rule; pote, permite, etc. retain their final -e. '''§16''' PUNCTUATION reflects the rhythm of the spoken sentence and obeys no absolute rules. The signs of punctuation and their general values are the same as in English. Interpolated phrases and relative and conjunctional clauses are enclosed in commas unless the intended rhythm permits no break. In enumerations of more than two items, the use of e 'and' or o 'or' before the last item does not eliminate the comma. Le homine que vos vide es mi patre 'The man you see is my father' Le homine, que se considera como le corona del creation, pare plus tosto facite de metallo blanc que de auro 'Man, who considers himself the crown of creation, seems rather to be made of babbitt than of gold' Le asino, le can, e le catto formava un pedestallo pro le gallo 'The donkey, the dog, and the cat formed a pedestal for the rooster' Es isto le canto del asino, del can, del catto, o del gallo? 'Is this the song of the donkey, the dog, the cat, or the rooster?' Le Statos Unite, Anglaterra e su imperio, e Russia es tres del grande potentias 'The United States, England and its empire, and Russia are three of the great powers' Ille es, pro exprimer lo cortesemente, pauco intelligente 'He is, to put it politely, not very intelligent' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2649 2005-08-06T10:26:23Z 80.102.226.227 == ''' Spelling & Pronunciation''' == '''§1''' The LETTERS used are the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet. There are no extra signs and symbols to indicate stress and pronunciation. '''§2''' The NORM OF PRONUNCIATION is "continental." The sound values of the various letters are fluid within type limits. They may be naturally influenced by neighboring sounds as also by native habits of individual speakers. For instance, the sound of u - described in the phrase, "like ''u'' in 'plural' " - may well be pronounced like ''oo'' in 'good' or in 'loom' but not like ''u'' in 'stutter' or in French 'lune.' '''§3''' The tendency of English speakers to obscure unstressed vowels, making them all sound like a in 'China,' should be guarded against. This applies particularly to final e. No sound, final or otherwise, unstressed or stressed, should be unduly slurred over. '''§4''' The normal English pronunciation agrees with that used in the Interlingua for the letters ''b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, ph, qu, v, w'', and ''z''. The remaining letters are covered by the following rules and observations: '''a''' is always pronounced like ''a'' in English 'father'; '''c''' before ''e, i,'' y is pronounced like ''ts'' in 'hats' (or, optionally, like ''c'' in 'city'); otherwise like ''c'' in 'cats'; ''ch'' like ''ch'' in 'echo', 'chrome'; '''e''' always like ''e'' in 'met' or, better, like ''é'' in French 'risqué.' '''g''' like ''g'' in 'good'; '''h''' as in English (or, optionally, silent); after ''r'' and ''t'', silent; '''i''' normally like ''i'' in 'machine'; when unstressed before a vowel, like ''i'' in 'onion' or in 'phobia'); e.g. ''bile, biliose, varie;'' '''j''' like ''z'' in 'azure' (or, optionally, like ''g'' in 'gem' or like ''y'' in 'yes'); '''o''' always like ''o'' in 'obey'; '''r''' like ''rr'' in 'merry' or, better, like ''r'' in Spanish 'caro'; '''s''' like ''s'' in 'stay'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like ''s'' in 'these'); e.g. ''sparse, abstruse, accusativo;'' '''t''' as in English; ti before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by s, like tsy in 'he gets you' (or, optionally, like sy in 'we pass you' or like ty in 'we let you'); e.g. actor, garantia, question, but action, reverentia; '''u''' normally like u in 'plural'; when unstressed before a vowel, like u in 'persuade' or in 'superfluous'; e.g. plural, persuader, superflue; '''x''' like x in 'fox'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like x in 'exact'); '''y''' unstressed before vowels, like y in 'yes'; otherwise like i in 'machine'; e.g. Yugoslavia, typo. '''§5''' In DIPHTHONGS the vowels retain their independent sound values. The diphthong ai is pronounced as in 'kaiser,' au as in 'kraut.' Stressed e and i are separated by a syllabic break from a following a, e, o; e.g. mie, io, spondeo, via, bastardia. Unstressed i and u turn into semiconsonants before a following vowel; e.g. Bulgaria, filatorio, persuader. '''§6''' DOUBLE CONSONANTS merge in pronunciation. The double consonant ss is always voiceless like ss in 'miss.' The sounds of g and k assimilate a preceding n as in English. Note that the double consonant cc is spelled c at the end of a word (siccar but sic). '''§7''' Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by a system of respelling in which the letters have the same sound values as in Interlingua. The digraph ch stands frequently for the sound of sh in 'English' and is respelled as sh; e.g. choc (sh-). The combination gi often represents the sound of z in 'azure' and is respelled as j; e.g. avantagiose (-ajo-). Simple g has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix -age; e.g. avantage (-aje). '''§8''' On orthographic changes in derivation, see §137. '''§9''' Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Interlingua-English Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. defaite for French défaite, but kümmel as in German. '''§10''' The main STRESS is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. The plural ending does not change the original stress of the word. Adjectives and nouns ending in -le, -ne, and -re preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. fragile, ordine, tempore. In words formed with the suffixes -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, and -ulo, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes -ific and -ifico are stressed on the first i. Deviations from this stress system are covered in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by respelling with stress marks. Most of these deviations might be covered by additional descriptive rules. For instance, the suffixes -issim-, -esim-, -ifer-, and -olog- are stressed on the first vowel. The suffixes -ia and -eria, in so far as they correspond to English -y and -ery, are stressed on the vowel i; etc. Note: Words without consonant or without a vowel before the last consonant are stressed of necessity on the first vowel; e.g. io, via, and certain present-tense forms, as strue, crea, etc. But construe, procrea, etc. and also diminue, substitue, etc. follow the standard rule and have the stress on the vowel before the last consonant. '''§11''' The importance of stress regularity should not be exaggerated. The effort involved in acquiring an unfamiliar stress for an otherwise familiar word seems often inordinate. This does not, of course, imply that Interlingua words may be stressed completely at random but merely that a word like kilometro remains the same international word whether native habits cause a speaker to stress it on the second or on the third syllable. '''§12''' Native habits may likewise be allowed to prevail in questions of INTONATION, SOUND DURATION, and the like. It is suggested, however, that the sequence of a final and an initial vowel, both unstressed and not separated by a pause in intonation, be pronounced as a combined glide; e.g. le alte Ural almost as though it had the four syllables le-ál-teu-rál. '''§13''' SYLLABIFICATION follows pronunciation. Single consonants, except x, belong with the following syllable. Consonant groups are divided but l and r must not be separated from preceding b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph, t, th, and v. The combinations qu, gu, su behave like single consonants. '''§14''' CAPITALIZATION differs from English usage in that within the sentence upper-case initials occur exclusively with proper names but not with derivatives from them. In Francia le franceses parla francese ab le initio de lor vita 'In France the French talk French from the start of their lives' Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate 'The fishermen on the Dead Sea catch salt herrings' Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova solmente in Shakespeare 'The true Shakespearean style is found only in Shakespeare' Since sacred terms, the names of religious and other holidays, designations of movements, eras, doctrines, etc. may be considered proper or common names, they are capitalized or not, depending on the meaning intended. Le romanticismo de Hollywood es subinde insipide 'The romanticism of Hollywood is often insipid' Le philosophia del Romanticismo cerca le reunion de scientia e religion 'The philosophy of Romanticism seeks the reunion of science and religion' '''§15''' COLLATERAL ORTHOGRAPHY. - The following rules, not observed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary, yield a simplified system of equal standing with that outlined in the preceding paragraphs. All points not specifically covered below are to be kept unchanged; so for instance the treatment of unassimilated guest words whose orthography remains that used in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. Double letters representing a single consonant are simplified with the exception of ss. Note that the group cc before e, i, and y does not represent a single consonant. e.g. eclesia, aliterar, aducer, interogar (for ecclesia, alliterar, adducer, interrogar) but massa, transsubstantiation, accidente. The vowel y is replaced by i; e.g. tirano (for tyranno). The semi-consonant y remains unchanged; e.g. yak. The digraph ph is replaced by f; e.g. fonetic, emfatic (for phonetic, emphatic). The digraph ch, representing the sound of k, is kept only before e and i. Elsewhere it is replaced by c. e.g. cloric, Cristo (for chloric, Christo) but chimeric. The silent h after r and t is omitted; e.g. retoric, patetic (for rhetoric, pathetic). The letter j replaces g and gi to represent the sound of 'z' in 'azure.' e.g. sajo (for sagio). The suffix -age (also the sound group -age at the end of a word where it is not a suffix) is replaced by the form -aje; e.g. saje, coraje (for sage, corage). The suffix -isar is replaced by the form -izar. Its derivatives are likewise spelled with z. e.g. civilizar, civilization (for civilisar, civilisation). Final e is dropped after t preceded by a vowel except in words which have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. animat, brevitat (for animate, brevitate) but composite. This rule applies likewise to final e after n, l, and r when these consonants are the collateral spelling for nn, ll, and rr; e.g. peren, bel, mel, il, bizar (for perenne, belle, melle, ille, bizarre). Note: Present-tense and imperative forms are not affected by this rule; pote, permite, etc. retain their final -e. '''§16''' PUNCTUATION reflects the rhythm of the spoken sentence and obeys no absolute rules. The signs of punctuation and their general values are the same as in English. Interpolated phrases and relative and conjunctional clauses are enclosed in commas unless the intended rhythm permits no break. In enumerations of more than two items, the use of e 'and' or o 'or' before the last item does not eliminate the comma. Le homine que vos vide es mi patre 'The man you see is my father' Le homine, que se considera como le corona del creation, pare plus tosto facite de metallo blanc que de auro 'Man, who considers himself the crown of creation, seems rather to be made of babbitt than of gold' Le asino, le can, e le catto formava un pedestallo pro le gallo 'The donkey, the dog, and the cat formed a pedestal for the rooster' Es isto le canto del asino, del can, del catto, o del gallo? 'Is this the song of the donkey, the dog, the cat, or the rooster?' Le Statos Unite, Anglaterra e su imperio, e Russia es tres del grande potentias 'The United States, England and its empire, and Russia are three of the great powers' Ille es, pro exprimer lo cortesemente, pauco intelligente 'He is, to put it politely, not very intelligent' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2650 2005-08-06T10:33:01Z 80.102.226.227 /* ''' Spelling & Pronunciation''' */ '''§1''' The LETTERS used are the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet. There are no extra signs and symbols to indicate stress and pronunciation. '''§2''' The NORM OF PRONUNCIATION is "continental." The sound values of the various letters are fluid within type limits. They may be naturally influenced by neighboring sounds as also by native habits of individual speakers. For instance, the sound of u - described in the phrase, "like ''u'' in 'plural' " - may well be pronounced like ''oo'' in 'good' or in 'loom' but not like ''u'' in 'stutter' or in French 'lune.' '''§3''' The tendency of English speakers to obscure unstressed vowels, making them all sound like a in 'China,' should be guarded against. This applies particularly to final e. No sound, final or otherwise, unstressed or stressed, should be unduly slurred over. '''§4''' The normal English pronunciation agrees with that used in the Interlingua for the letters ''b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, ph, qu, v, w'', and ''z''. The remaining letters are covered by the following rules and observations: '''a''' is always pronounced like ''a'' in English 'father'; '''c''' before ''e, i,'' y is pronounced like ''ts'' in 'hats' (or, optionally, like ''c'' in 'city'); otherwise like ''c'' in 'cats'; ''ch'' like ''ch'' in 'echo', 'chrome'; '''e''' always like ''e'' in 'met' or, better, like ''é'' in French 'risqué.' '''g''' like ''g'' in 'good'; '''h''' as in English (or, optionally, silent); after ''r'' and ''t'', silent; '''i''' normally like ''i'' in 'machine'; when unstressed before a vowel, like ''i'' in 'onion' or in 'phobia'); e.g. ''bile, biliose, varie;'' '''j''' like ''z'' in 'azure' (or, optionally, like ''g'' in 'gem' or like ''y'' in 'yes'); '''o''' always like ''o'' in 'obey'; '''r''' like ''rr'' in 'merry' or, better, like ''r'' in Spanish 'caro'; '''s''' like ''s'' in 'stay'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like ''s'' in 'these'); e.g. ''sparse, abstruse, accusativo;'' '''t''' as in English; ''ti'' before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by s, like ''tsy'' in 'he gets you' (or, optionally, like ''sy'' in 'we pass you' or like ''ty'' in 'we let you'); e.g. ''actor, garantia, question, but action, reverentia;'' '''u''' normally like ''u'' in 'plural'; when unstressed before a vowel, like ''u'' in 'persuade' or in 'superfluous'; e.g. ''plural, persuader, superflue;'' '''x''' like ''x'' in 'fox'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like ''x'' in 'exact'); '''y''' unstressed before vowels, like ''y'' in 'yes'; otherwise like'' i'' in 'machine'; e.g. ''Yugoslavia, typo.'' '''§5''' In DIPHTHONGS the vowels retain their independent sound values. The diphthong ai is pronounced as in 'kaiser,' au as in 'kraut.' Stressed e and i are separated by a syllabic break from a following a, e, o; e.g. mie, io, spondeo, via, bastardia. Unstressed i and u turn into semiconsonants before a following vowel; e.g. Bulgaria, filatorio, persuader. '''§6''' DOUBLE CONSONANTS merge in pronunciation. The double consonant ss is always voiceless like ss in 'miss.' The sounds of g and k assimilate a preceding n as in English. Note that the double consonant cc is spelled c at the end of a word (siccar but sic). '''§7''' Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by a system of respelling in which the letters have the same sound values as in Interlingua. The digraph ch stands frequently for the sound of sh in 'English' and is respelled as sh; e.g. choc (sh-). The combination gi often represents the sound of z in 'azure' and is respelled as j; e.g. avantagiose (-ajo-). Simple g has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix -age; e.g. avantage (-aje). '''§8''' On orthographic changes in derivation, see §137. '''§9''' Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Interlingua-English Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. defaite for French défaite, but kümmel as in German. '''§10''' The main STRESS is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. The plural ending does not change the original stress of the word. Adjectives and nouns ending in -le, -ne, and -re preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. fragile, ordine, tempore. In words formed with the suffixes -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, and -ulo, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes -ific and -ifico are stressed on the first i. Deviations from this stress system are covered in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by respelling with stress marks. Most of these deviations might be covered by additional descriptive rules. For instance, the suffixes -issim-, -esim-, -ifer-, and -olog- are stressed on the first vowel. The suffixes -ia and -eria, in so far as they correspond to English -y and -ery, are stressed on the vowel i; etc. Note: Words without consonant or without a vowel before the last consonant are stressed of necessity on the first vowel; e.g. io, via, and certain present-tense forms, as strue, crea, etc. But construe, procrea, etc. and also diminue, substitue, etc. follow the standard rule and have the stress on the vowel before the last consonant. '''§11''' The importance of stress regularity should not be exaggerated. The effort involved in acquiring an unfamiliar stress for an otherwise familiar word seems often inordinate. This does not, of course, imply that Interlingua words may be stressed completely at random but merely that a word like kilometro remains the same international word whether native habits cause a speaker to stress it on the second or on the third syllable. '''§12''' Native habits may likewise be allowed to prevail in questions of INTONATION, SOUND DURATION, and the like. It is suggested, however, that the sequence of a final and an initial vowel, both unstressed and not separated by a pause in intonation, be pronounced as a combined glide; e.g. le alte Ural almost as though it had the four syllables le-ál-teu-rál. '''§13''' SYLLABIFICATION follows pronunciation. Single consonants, except x, belong with the following syllable. Consonant groups are divided but l and r must not be separated from preceding b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph, t, th, and v. The combinations qu, gu, su behave like single consonants. '''§14''' CAPITALIZATION differs from English usage in that within the sentence upper-case initials occur exclusively with proper names but not with derivatives from them. In Francia le franceses parla francese ab le initio de lor vita 'In France the French talk French from the start of their lives' Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate 'The fishermen on the Dead Sea catch salt herrings' Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova solmente in Shakespeare 'The true Shakespearean style is found only in Shakespeare' Since sacred terms, the names of religious and other holidays, designations of movements, eras, doctrines, etc. may be considered proper or common names, they are capitalized or not, depending on the meaning intended. Le romanticismo de Hollywood es subinde insipide 'The romanticism of Hollywood is often insipid' Le philosophia del Romanticismo cerca le reunion de scientia e religion 'The philosophy of Romanticism seeks the reunion of science and religion' '''§15''' COLLATERAL ORTHOGRAPHY. - The following rules, not observed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary, yield a simplified system of equal standing with that outlined in the preceding paragraphs. All points not specifically covered below are to be kept unchanged; so for instance the treatment of unassimilated guest words whose orthography remains that used in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. Double letters representing a single consonant are simplified with the exception of ss. Note that the group cc before e, i, and y does not represent a single consonant. e.g. eclesia, aliterar, aducer, interogar (for ecclesia, alliterar, adducer, interrogar) but massa, transsubstantiation, accidente. The vowel y is replaced by i; e.g. tirano (for tyranno). The semi-consonant y remains unchanged; e.g. yak. The digraph ph is replaced by f; e.g. fonetic, emfatic (for phonetic, emphatic). The digraph ch, representing the sound of k, is kept only before e and i. Elsewhere it is replaced by c. e.g. cloric, Cristo (for chloric, Christo) but chimeric. The silent h after r and t is omitted; e.g. retoric, patetic (for rhetoric, pathetic). The letter j replaces g and gi to represent the sound of 'z' in 'azure.' e.g. sajo (for sagio). The suffix -age (also the sound group -age at the end of a word where it is not a suffix) is replaced by the form -aje; e.g. saje, coraje (for sage, corage). The suffix -isar is replaced by the form -izar. Its derivatives are likewise spelled with z. e.g. civilizar, civilization (for civilisar, civilisation). Final e is dropped after t preceded by a vowel except in words which have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. animat, brevitat (for animate, brevitate) but composite. This rule applies likewise to final e after n, l, and r when these consonants are the collateral spelling for nn, ll, and rr; e.g. peren, bel, mel, il, bizar (for perenne, belle, melle, ille, bizarre). Note: Present-tense and imperative forms are not affected by this rule; pote, permite, etc. retain their final -e. '''§16''' PUNCTUATION reflects the rhythm of the spoken sentence and obeys no absolute rules. The signs of punctuation and their general values are the same as in English. Interpolated phrases and relative and conjunctional clauses are enclosed in commas unless the intended rhythm permits no break. In enumerations of more than two items, the use of e 'and' or o 'or' before the last item does not eliminate the comma. Le homine que vos vide es mi patre 'The man you see is my father' Le homine, que se considera como le corona del creation, pare plus tosto facite de metallo blanc que de auro 'Man, who considers himself the crown of creation, seems rather to be made of babbitt than of gold' Le asino, le can, e le catto formava un pedestallo pro le gallo 'The donkey, the dog, and the cat formed a pedestal for the rooster' Es isto le canto del asino, del can, del catto, o del gallo? 'Is this the song of the donkey, the dog, the cat, or the rooster?' Le Statos Unite, Anglaterra e su imperio, e Russia es tres del grande potentias 'The United States, England and its empire, and Russia are three of the great powers' Ille es, pro exprimer lo cortesemente, pauco intelligente 'He is, to put it politely, not very intelligent' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2678 2005-08-19T23:23:53Z 68.238.248.188 '''u''' starts its own line '''§1''' The LETTERS used are the conventional twenty-six letters of the Roman alphabet. There are no extra signs and symbols to indicate stress and pronunciation. '''§2''' The NORM OF PRONUNCIATION is "continental." The sound values of the various letters are fluid within type limits. They may be naturally influenced by neighboring sounds as also by native habits of individual speakers. For instance, the sound of u - described in the phrase, "like ''u'' in 'plural' " - may well be pronounced like ''oo'' in 'good' or in 'loom' but not like ''u'' in 'stutter' or in French 'lune.' '''§3''' The tendency of English speakers to obscure unstressed vowels, making them all sound like a in 'China,' should be guarded against. This applies particularly to final e. No sound, final or otherwise, unstressed or stressed, should be unduly slurred over. '''§4''' The normal English pronunciation agrees with that used in the Interlingua for the letters ''b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, ph, qu, v, w'', and ''z''. The remaining letters are covered by the following rules and observations: '''a''' is always pronounced like ''a'' in English 'father'; '''c''' before ''e, i,'' y is pronounced like ''ts'' in 'hats' (or, optionally, like ''c'' in 'city'); otherwise like ''c'' in 'cats'; ''ch'' like ''ch'' in 'echo', 'chrome'; '''e''' always like ''e'' in 'met' or, better, like ''é'' in French 'risqué.' '''g''' like ''g'' in 'good'; '''h''' as in English (or, optionally, silent); after ''r'' and ''t'', silent; '''i''' normally like ''i'' in 'machine'; when unstressed before a vowel, like ''i'' in 'onion' or in 'phobia'); e.g. ''bile, biliose, varie;'' '''j''' like ''z'' in 'azure' (or, optionally, like ''g'' in 'gem' or like ''y'' in 'yes'); '''o''' always like ''o'' in 'obey'; '''r''' like ''rr'' in 'merry' or, better, like ''r'' in Spanish 'caro'; '''s''' like ''s'' in 'stay'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like ''s'' in 'these'); e.g. ''sparse, abstruse, accusativo;'' '''t''' as in English; ''ti'' before vowels, unless stressed or preceded by s, like ''tsy'' in 'he gets you' (or, optionally, like ''sy'' in 'we pass you' or like ''ty'' in 'we let you'); e.g. ''actor, garantia, question, but action, reverentia;'' '''u''' normally like ''u'' in 'plural'; when unstressed before a vowel, like ''u'' in 'persuade' or in 'superfluous'; e.g. ''plural, persuader, superflue;'' '''x''' like ''x'' in 'fox'; between vowels, the same (or, optionally, like ''x'' in 'exact'); '''y''' unstressed before vowels, like ''y'' in 'yes'; otherwise like'' i'' in 'machine'; e.g. ''Yugoslavia, typo.'' '''§5''' In DIPHTHONGS the vowels retain their independent sound values. The diphthong ai is pronounced as in 'kaiser,' au as in 'kraut.' Stressed e and i are separated by a syllabic break from a following a, e, o; e.g. mie, io, spondeo, via, bastardia. Unstressed i and u turn into semiconsonants before a following vowel; e.g. Bulgaria, filatorio, persuader. '''§6''' DOUBLE CONSONANTS merge in pronunciation. The double consonant ss is always voiceless like ss in 'miss.' The sounds of g and k assimilate a preceding n as in English. Note that the double consonant cc is spelled c at the end of a word (siccar but sic). '''§7''' Pronunciations deviating from these norms are indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by a system of respelling in which the letters have the same sound values as in Interlingua. The digraph ch stands frequently for the sound of sh in 'English' and is respelled as sh; e.g. choc (sh-). The combination gi often represents the sound of z in 'azure' and is respelled as j; e.g. avantagiose (-ajo-). Simple g has this sound and hence this respelling in the suffix -age; e.g. avantage (-aje). '''§8''' On orthographic changes in derivation, see §137. '''§9''' Unassimilated "GUEST WORDS," that is, foreign or borrowed words which are identified in the Interlingua-English Dictionary as to their origin, retain the pronunciation and spelling of the language of origin. The original diacritical signs are omitted when the resulting simplified spelling suffices to suggest the intended pronunciation; e.g. defaite for French défaite, but kümmel as in German. '''§10''' The main STRESS is normally on the vowel before the last consonant. The plural ending does not change the original stress of the word. Adjectives and nouns ending in -le, -ne, and -re preceded by a vowel have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. fragile, ordine, tempore. In words formed with the suffixes -ic, -ica, -ico, -ide, -ido, -ula, and -ulo, the stress falls on the syllable preceding the suffix. The suffixes -ific and -ifico are stressed on the first i. Deviations from this stress system are covered in the Interlingua-English Dictionary by respelling with stress marks. Most of these deviations might be covered by additional descriptive rules. For instance, the suffixes -issim-, -esim-, -ifer-, and -olog- are stressed on the first vowel. The suffixes -ia and -eria, in so far as they correspond to English -y and -ery, are stressed on the vowel i; etc. Note: Words without consonant or without a vowel before the last consonant are stressed of necessity on the first vowel; e.g. io, via, and certain present-tense forms, as strue, crea, etc. But construe, procrea, etc. and also diminue, substitue, etc. follow the standard rule and have the stress on the vowel before the last consonant. '''§11''' The importance of stress regularity should not be exaggerated. The effort involved in acquiring an unfamiliar stress for an otherwise familiar word seems often inordinate. This does not, of course, imply that Interlingua words may be stressed completely at random but merely that a word like kilometro remains the same international word whether native habits cause a speaker to stress it on the second or on the third syllable. '''§12''' Native habits may likewise be allowed to prevail in questions of INTONATION, SOUND DURATION, and the like. It is suggested, however, that the sequence of a final and an initial vowel, both unstressed and not separated by a pause in intonation, be pronounced as a combined glide; e.g. le alte Ural almost as though it had the four syllables le-ál-teu-rál. '''§13''' SYLLABIFICATION follows pronunciation. Single consonants, except x, belong with the following syllable. Consonant groups are divided but l and r must not be separated from preceding b, c, ch, d, f, g, p, ph, t, th, and v. The combinations qu, gu, su behave like single consonants. '''§14''' CAPITALIZATION differs from English usage in that within the sentence upper-case initials occur exclusively with proper names but not with derivatives from them. In Francia le franceses parla francese ab le initio de lor vita 'In France the French talk French from the start of their lives' Le piscatores del Mar Morte cape haringos salate 'The fishermen on the Dead Sea catch salt herrings' Le ver stilo shakespearean se trova solmente in Shakespeare 'The true Shakespearean style is found only in Shakespeare' Since sacred terms, the names of religious and other holidays, designations of movements, eras, doctrines, etc. may be considered proper or common names, they are capitalized or not, depending on the meaning intended. Le romanticismo de Hollywood es subinde insipide 'The romanticism of Hollywood is often insipid' Le philosophia del Romanticismo cerca le reunion de scientia e religion 'The philosophy of Romanticism seeks the reunion of science and religion' '''§15''' COLLATERAL ORTHOGRAPHY. - The following rules, not observed in the Interlingua-English Dictionary, yield a simplified system of equal standing with that outlined in the preceding paragraphs. All points not specifically covered below are to be kept unchanged; so for instance the treatment of unassimilated guest words whose orthography remains that used in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. Double letters representing a single consonant are simplified with the exception of ss. Note that the group cc before e, i, and y does not represent a single consonant. e.g. eclesia, aliterar, aducer, interogar (for ecclesia, alliterar, adducer, interrogar) but massa, transsubstantiation, accidente. The vowel y is replaced by i; e.g. tirano (for tyranno). The semi-consonant y remains unchanged; e.g. yak. The digraph ph is replaced by f; e.g. fonetic, emfatic (for phonetic, emphatic). The digraph ch, representing the sound of k, is kept only before e and i. Elsewhere it is replaced by c. e.g. cloric, Cristo (for chloric, Christo) but chimeric. The silent h after r and t is omitted; e.g. retoric, patetic (for rhetoric, pathetic). The letter j replaces g and gi to represent the sound of 'z' in 'azure.' e.g. sajo (for sagio). The suffix -age (also the sound group -age at the end of a word where it is not a suffix) is replaced by the form -aje; e.g. saje, coraje (for sage, corage). The suffix -isar is replaced by the form -izar. Its derivatives are likewise spelled with z. e.g. civilizar, civilization (for civilisar, civilisation). Final e is dropped after t preceded by a vowel except in words which have the stress on the third syllable from the end; e.g. animat, brevitat (for animate, brevitate) but composite. This rule applies likewise to final e after n, l, and r when these consonants are the collateral spelling for nn, ll, and rr; e.g. peren, bel, mel, il, bizar (for perenne, belle, melle, ille, bizarre). Note: Present-tense and imperative forms are not affected by this rule; pote, permite, etc. retain their final -e. '''§16''' PUNCTUATION reflects the rhythm of the spoken sentence and obeys no absolute rules. The signs of punctuation and their general values are the same as in English. Interpolated phrases and relative and conjunctional clauses are enclosed in commas unless the intended rhythm permits no break. In enumerations of more than two items, the use of e 'and' or o 'or' before the last item does not eliminate the comma. Le homine que vos vide es mi patre 'The man you see is my father' Le homine, que se considera como le corona del creation, pare plus tosto facite de metallo blanc que de auro 'Man, who considers himself the crown of creation, seems rather to be made of babbitt than of gold' Le asino, le can, e le catto formava un pedestallo pro le gallo 'The donkey, the dog, and the cat formed a pedestal for the rooster' Es isto le canto del asino, del can, del catto, o del gallo? 'Is this the song of the donkey, the dog, the cat, or the rooster?' Le Statos Unite, Anglaterra e su imperio, e Russia es tres del grande potentias 'The United States, England and its empire, and Russia are three of the great powers' Ille es, pro exprimer lo cortesemente, pauco intelligente 'He is, to put it politely, not very intelligent' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1520 2718 2005-10-21T09:35:06Z 212.142.143.114 LINGUAE VASCONUM PRIMITIAE Bernard Etxepare __________ LINGUAE VASCONUM PRIMITIAE per Dominum Bernardum Dechepare Rectorem sancti michælis veteris. Aduertant Impressor, & lectores quod z. nunquam ponitur pro m. Neque t. ante i. pronunciatur pro .c. Et vbi virgula ponitur sub .ç. hoc modo quod fit dum præponitur vocalibus a.o.u. Tunc .c. ponunciabitur paulo asperius quam .z. vt in ce.ci. __________ Erregeren aduokatu bidezko eta nobleari birthute eta hon guziez konplituiari bere iaun eta iabe Bernard Leheteri bernard exeparekoak haren zerbitzari xipiak gogo honez gorainzi bake eta osagarri. Zeren baskoak baitira abil animos eta jentil eta hetan izan baita eta baita szienzia guzietan lettratu handirik miraz nago iauna nola batere ezten asaiatu bere lengoaje propriaren faboretan heuskaraz zerbait obra egitera eta skributan imeitera zeren ladin publika mundu guzietara berze lengoajiak bezala hain. skribatzeko hon dela. Eta kausa honegatik gelditzen da abataturik ezein reputazione bage eta berze nazione orok uste dute ezin deusere skriba daiteiela lengoaje hartan nola berze orok baitute skribatzen berian. Eta zeren orai zuk iauna noble eta naturazkoak bezala baituzu estimatzen goratzen eta ohoratzen heuskara zuri neure iaun eta iabia bezala igorten darauritzut heuskarazko kopla batzu ene ignoranziaren araura eginak. Zeren iauna haiek ikhusirik eta korrejiturik plazer duzun bezala irudi bazautzu inprimi erazi dizazun eta zure eskutik orok dugun ioia ederra Inprimiturik heuskara orano izan eztena eta zure hatse honetik dadin aitzinerat augmenta kontinua eta publika mundu guzietara eta baskoek berzek bezala duten bere lengoajian skribuz zerbait doktrina eta plazer harzeko solaz egiteko kantatzeko eta denbora igaraiteko materia eta jinen direnek gero duten kausa oboro haren abanzatzeko eta obligato giren guziak jeinkoari othoiz egitera dizun mundu honetan prosperoki bizia eta berzian parabizuia. Amen. __________ DOKTRINA KRISTIANA Munduian den gizon orok behar luke pensatu Iangoikoak nola duien batbedera formatu Bere irudi propiara gure arima kreatu Memoriaz borondatez endelgiaz goarnitu. Ezein iaunek eztu nahi muthil gaixtoa eduki Ez pagatu soldatarik zerbizatu gaberik Iangoikua ari duzu hala hala gureki Gloriarik ez emanen hongi egin gaberik Muthilek gure zerbizutan deramate urthia Soldata apphur bategatik harzen pena handia Iangoikoak behar luke guk bezanbat balia Zerbizatu behar dugu emaitekoz gloria. Ogirik eztakusat bilzen hazi erein gaberik Nork zer hazi erein bilzen dizi komunki Obra honak ukhenen du goalardona frangoki Bai etare bekhatuiak punizione segurki. Zeren ieinkoa egun oroz ongi ari baizaigu Guk ere hala behar dugu harzaz unsa orhitu Gure hatse eta fina hura dela pensatu Goiz et arrats orhituki haren izena laudatu. Arratsian Arratsian ezitian gomendadi ieinkoari Eta othoi begirezan peril guzietarik Gero irazar adinian orhit adi bertarik Zenbait ere orazione erraitera debotki. Goizian Albadagik ioan adi elizara goizian Ieinkoari han gomenda bere exe sainduian Han sarzian pensa ezak aizinian nor duian Norekila minzo izan han agoen artian. Ilherrian Hilez unsa orhit adi ilherrian sarzian Hi nolako ziradela bizi ziren artian Hek bezala hil behar duk eta ez iakin orduia Othoi egik ieinkoari deien barkamenduia. Batheiarria Elizara izanian so egik bateiarrira Pensa ezak han duiala rezebitu fedia Ieinkoaren grazia eta saluazeko bidia Hari egin albaiteza lehen ezaguzia. Gorpuz sainduia Bertan gero so albaitegi non den gorpuz sainduia Pensa ezak hura dela hire saluazalia Adorezak debozionez eta galde grazia Azken finian eman diazan rezebize dignia. Kuruzea Kruzifika ikhus eta orhit adi orduian Nola izan redemitu haren odol sainduiaz Hark erio haritu dik hiri leian bizia Pensa ezak nola eman hari bere ordia. Andredona Maria Andere hona den lekhura ailxa izak begiak Mundu oro eztakidik hura bezain balia Ieinkoaren hurranena hura diagok glorian Graziak oro bere eskuian nahi duien orduian. O andere gloriosa eta ama eztia zutan dago bekhatoren speranza guzia Ni zugana niatorkezu bekhatore handia Arimaren saluazera zu zakiztan balia. Sainduier Sainduier ere egin ezak heure ezaguzia Singularki nortan baituk heure debozionia Zein sainduren besta daten orhit egun berian Eta noren izenetan fundatu den eliza Orhituki othoi egin dakizkian balia Orazione igandeko Miserikordiaz bethe ziraden iaun eztia Othoi enzun iazadazu neure orazionia Bizi nizan artian eta erioko phunduian zuk idazu othoi oso neure endelgamenduia Alteratu gabetarik zure fede sainduian Gauzen unsa egiteko neure azken finian. Eta orduian zuk idazu indar eta gratia Bekatuiez ukheiteko bide dudan doluia Perfektuki egiteko neure konfesionia Neure bekhatuiez oroz dudan barkhamenduia Bai digneki errezebi zure gorpuz sainduia Baietare behar diren berze sagramenduiak. Etsai gaiza jinen baita tentazera orduian Nontik engana niroien bere arte guziaz Othoi iauna enguztazu lagun zure sainduiak Enetsaiak benzi enazan neure azken finian. Ene arima orduian har othoi zure glorian Nola baita redemitu zure odol sainduiaz Eta nik han dakusadan zure begitartia Eta sainduieki lauda zure majestatia Goiz etarrastz egiten duk buluz eta beztizia Gorpuzaren zerbizutan barazkari afaria Arimaren saluazeko ieinkoaren ohorian Ezaiala othoi neke gauza hoien egitia Egun oroz ezin bada aste oroz igandian Gure artian haur dakusat itsutarzum handia Nola dugun zerbizazen hanbat gure etsaia Iangoikua deskonozi gure saluazalia Eta orok ezaguzen dela bidegabia Anhiz jendez miraz nago neure buruiaz lehenik Nola gauden mundu huneki hain borthizki iosirik Hanbat jende dakuskula hunek enganaturik Oranokoak igorritu oro buluzkorririk Eta eztute gerokoek hantik eskapazerik Personoro hil denian hirur zathi egiten Gorpuzori ustelzera lur hozian egoizten Unharzuna ahaidiek bertan dute partizen Arima gaixoa dabilela norat ahal dagien Hain biaje bortizian konpainia faltazen. Orhituki igandian behar dugu pensatu Zenbatetan egin dugun aste hartan bekatu Orhit eta ieinkoari barkhamendu eskatu Atorra nola arimere aste oroz garbitu. Bi pundutan diagozu gure gauza guzia Hongi egin badazagu segur parabizuia Bekhatutan hil dadina bertan komdenatuia Berze biderik ezin date hobenari begira. Ehonere eztakusat bain laxo den arzainik Otsoa henzen eztuienik bere ardietarik Gure arimaz kargo dugu iangoikuak emanik Nola gobernazen dugun batbederak so begi Kondu hersi behar dugu harzaz eman segurki Nori baitu bere odolaz karioki erosi Hala zinets eztazana dauke enganaturik. Kontenplatu behar dugu pasione sainduia Eta sendi bihozian haren pena handia Nola zagoen kuruzian oro zauriz bethia Huin eskuiak izaturik eta buluzkorria Ohoineki urkaturik nola gaizkigilia Eta arhanzez koroaturik mundu ororen iabia Haren gorpuz prezioso eta delikatuia Gaizki eskarniaturik kta zathikatuia. Elas orduian nola zagoen haren arima tristia Haren ama maitia eta mundu ororen habia Pena hetan ekusteaz bere seme maitia Eta hilzen begietan mundu ororen bizia. Biozian diraustazu gertuz ama eztia zure orduko doloriak eta bihoz zauriak Begiez nola zenakusan zure iabe handia Orotarik lariola odol preziatuia Hek nigatik ziradela ari nuzu khonduia. Orhit adi nola duian egin anhiz bekhatu Heien kausaz meretsitu anhizetan hondatu Bere miserikordiaz nola huien guardatu Eta dolu ukhen baduk bertan oro barkhatu Eta agian hik eginen bertan berriz bekhatu. Orhit adi iengoikoaren majestate handiaz Zeruia lurra ixasoa daduzala eskuian Saluazia damnazia erioa eta bizia Estendizen orotara haren potestatia Ezi eskapa bari ehor dauginian manuia. Mundu honetan badirogu batak berzia engana Bana berzian egiatik batbedera ioanen da Nor nolako izan giren orduian ageriko da Egin erran pensatuiak ageriko guziak. Orhit adi ieinkoaren iustizia handiaz Nola orok behar dugun eman khondu hersia Egin oroz rezebitu gure meretsituia Erioa dauginian baita haren mezuia. Ordu hartan afer date hari apellazia Hark ehori eztemaio oren baten epphia Ezetare estimazen xipia ez handia Batbederak egarriko orduian bere hatsia. Orduian zer eginen dut gaixo bekhataria Arartekoak faltaturen kontra iuje handia Abokazen eztakike ehork haren gortian Ogen oro publikoki agerturen orduian. Elas othoi orok egin orai penitenzia Behar orduian eztukegu gero agian aizina Anhiz iende enganatu doa luzamenduiaz Seguraturik ehork eztu egun baten bizia. Gu girade egun oroz herioaren azpian Behar dugu prest eduki gure gauza guzia Gure gauzez ordenatu oso giren artian Gero eztugun egiteko hezaz azken finian Arimaz aski egiteko badukegu orduian. Pensa othoi nola gauden bi bideren erdian Salua bano damnazeko perileko punduian Ehor fida eztadila othoi banitatian Sainduiak eziraden sarthu banitatez glorian. Elas othoi hunat beha bekhatore guzia Bekhatuiaz damnazen du iangoikuak munduia Zeren hanbat bekatutan deramagu bizia Eta guhaurk gure faltaz galzen gure buruia. Arzain orok bilzen ditu Irdiak arratsaldian Lekhu honerat eramaiten eguraldi gaizian Batbederak pensa beza arimaren gainian Nola saluaturen duen hura bere finian. Bekhatorek ifernuian dute pena handia Pena handi izigarri ezein pausu gabia Sekulakoz egon behar hango sugar bizian zuhur denak hara eztohen egin penitenzia. Harmak erioaren kontra Erioa iaugiten da guti uste denian Eta agian ez emanen konfesione epphia Hirur gauza albaditu ehork ere egiaz Nola ere hil baitadi doha saluamenduian. Lehen egia O iaun hona aitorzen dut bekhatore nizala Eta gaizki egitiaz ogen handi dudala Nik baizitut offensatu bide eztudan bezala Dolu dizit eta damu zure kontra eginaz. Bigarren egia O iaun hona gogo dizit oren present honetan Goardazeko bekhaturik bizi nizan artian Othoi iauna zuk idazu indar eta grazia Gogo honetan irauteko neure bizi guzian. Heren egia O iaun hona gogo dizit garizuma denian Egiazki egiteko neure konfesionia Bai etare konplizeko didan penitenzia Othoi iauna zuk konfirma ene borondatia. Eta hoiek egiazki ehork hala ezpaditu Albailiaki duda gabe ezin dateiela salbu Bere bekhatuiak oro baditu ere konfesatu Eta hala zinhets beza nahi eztenak enganatu. Apezek ez apezpikuk ez etare aitasainduk Absoluazen halakoaren ezein bothererik eztu Iangoikua bethiere bihozera so diagozu Guhaurk bano segurago gure gogua diakutsu Gogua gabe hura baitan hizak oro afer tuzu Regla ezak egun oroz onsa heure etxia Eure gauza guzietan emak dilijenzia Eta eure trabailuia duian penitenzia Iangoikua lauda ezak gauza ororen buruian. Honekila albaiteza bethiere konuersa Gaixtoeki ezin aite gaizki bezi probexa Berzer egin eztazala nahi ezukeiena Ez etare falta ere hiaurk nahi duiana Lege honi segi bedi salbu nahi duiena. Hamar manamenduiak Adorezak iangoiko bat onhestz oroz gainetik Haren izena ez iura kausa gabe banoki Igandiak eta bestak sanktifika debotki Aita eta ama ohora izak bizi izan luzeki Ehor erho eztazala ez etare gaizetsi Nork beria baiezila emazterik ez hunki Berzerena eztazala ebatsi ez eduki Fama gaizik eztemala lagunari falsuki Berzen emazte alabak ez desira gaixtoki Ezetare unhasuna lekot bedi iustoki. Manamenduiak hoiek dira iangoikuak emanik Hok begira dizagula salua giten hegatik. Iudizio jenerala Iudizio jeneralaz nola orhit eztira Bekatutan bizi dira bethi bere aisira Egun hartan gal ezkiten aizinetik begira Han orduian eztukegu ehork ere aizina Harzaz unsa orhitzia zuhurzia handi da Arma arma mundu oro iudizio handira Zeru eta lur ororen kreadore handia Munduiaren iuiazera rigoroski heldu da Nola gauden apphaindurik bat bederak begira. Manamendu igorten du mundu guzietarik Jende oro bat dakion iosafaten bildurik Ehonere ehorere eskapatu gaberik. Zeru eta lur guzia daude ikharaturik. Erioa manazen du ezein falta gaberik Hilak oro dakazela aizinera bizirik Hantik harat eztukela bothererik iagoitik Mundu oro iarriren da bi lekutan hersirik Glorian ezpa ifernuian ezta eskapazerik. Manazen du ifernuia andi eta bortizki Han direnak igorizan luzamendu gaberik Arima eta gorpuzetan nahi tuiela ikusi Eta emanen daraiela zer baitute merezi. Jende honak onsa pensa iuje hunen gainian Nola duien guzietan potestate handia Erioan ifernuian zeru eta lurrian Zeren dabil haren kontra bada bekhatoria. Gure artian haur dakusat itsutarzun handia Nola dugun zerbizazen hanbat gure etsaia Iangoikoa deskonozi gure saluazalia Eta orok ezaguzen dela bidegabia. Harren bier emanen du sentenzia pizuia Elgarreki pena diten ifernuko garrian Sekulako suian eta ezein pausu gabian Orok othoi onsa pensa zer den irabazia. Egundano ezta izan ez izanen iagoitik Iudizio hain handirik ez etare borthizix Sortu eta sorzekoak hilez gero pizturik Orok hara behar dute eskusatu gaberik. Anhiz gauza behar dira iudizio handian Iujeak duien potestate parte ororen gainian Demandantak erran dezan bere kausa egiaz Baietare defendentak bere defensionia Porogatu datenian nork dukeien zuzena Sentenziaz eman dezan iujiak nori beria. Egun hartan iuje date mundu ororen iabia Baitu ororen gainian potestate handia Akusari bera date eta konzienzia Bekhatu oro publikoki ageriko orduian. Bekhatoren kontra date orduian mundu guzia Zeren duten ofenditu haien kreazalia Ordu hartan ixil dauke triste bekhatoria Orotarik zerraturik daude pausu guziak. Iuje iauna iraturik egonen da gainetik Irestera apphaindurik ifernuia azpitik Etsai gaiza akusazen ezkerreko aldetik Bekatuiak eskuinetik minzaturen publiki Hire kontra heben gituk ihaurorrek eginik Gaizkienik kontra date konzienza barnetik. Estalzeko ez izanen ehonere lekhurik Agerzera nork eginen ordu hartan bathirik Mundu oro egonen da haien kontra Iarririk Sainduak ere ordu hartan oro egonen ixilik Iujeak ere ez enzunen ezein ere othoik Egun harzaz orhit giten othoi hara gaberik. Non dirate egun hartan hebengo iaun erregiak Duke konde markes zaldun eta berze iaun nobliak Eta haien armadako gizon sendoen balentiak ordu hartan baliako guti haien potenziak. Iurista eta theologo poeta eta doktoriak Prokurador aduokatu iuje eta notariak Ordu hartan ageriko klarki haien maliziak Eta guti baliako kautela eta parleriak. Aitasaindu kardenale apphez eta prelatuiak Berez eta ardioroz eman behar han konduia Egun hartan handiena izanen da erratuia Eta bardin iuiaturen bandia eta xipia. Afer date egun hartan hari apellazia Ehonere eztazagu iaunik bere gainian Malizia gaizi zaika eta maite egia Elas othoi orok egin orai penitenzia Egun hartan gero eztugun egiteko handia. Seinaliak jinen dira aizinetik tristerik Elementak ebiliren oro tribulaturik Iguzkia ilhargia odoletan ezinik Ixasoa samurturik goiti eta beheiti Hango arrainak iziturik ebiliren ialgirik. Eta lurra izigarri oro ikharaturik zuhamuiek dakartela odolezko izerdi Tenpestatez igorziriz aire oro samurrik Mendi eta harri oro elgar zatikaturik Mundu oro iarriren da suiak arrasaturik. Iuje iaunak manaturen bera iaugin gaberik Gauza oro tsahu dezan behin suiak lehenik Satsu eta kirats oro dohen mundu guzitik Eta hala iarriren da lur guzia errerik. Tronpeta da minzaturen munduguzietarik Hilak oro iaiki huna zuien hobietarik Arima eta gorpuzetan oro bertan pizturik Orok hara behar dugu eskusatu gaberik. Iustu oro iganen da hertan goiti airian Eta egonen eskoinetik iujearen aldean Bekatoreak dolorezki sugarrian lurrian Hariketa danzuteno sentenzia gainian. Dagoenian jende oro aizinian bildurik Iauginen da rigoroski sainduieki zerutik Iosafaten egonen da airian gora iarririk Bekatorer eginen du arrangura handirik Haren hizak ezarriren oro erdiraturik. Hartu nahi zuienian pasione saindua Haren kontra jin zenian armaturik jendia Hiz huts batez iziturik egozitu lurrian Iuiazera dauginian majestate handian Nola eztu lotsaturen ordu hartan munduia. Erranen du bekatorer dolorezki orduian Nizaz ezineten orhit bizi zinetenian Hanbat ongi nik eginik zuier zuien mendian Esker honbat ukhen eztut zuieganik bizian. Zer ere hon baituzuie oro dira eniak Gorpuz eta hon guziak baietare arimak zuiendako egin ditut lurra eta zeruiak Iguzkia ilhargia eta fruktu guziak. Suiak bero hurak tsahu hats harzeko airia Ainguruiak zuien goarda ararteko sainduiak zuiegatik ezarri dut gero neure bizia Hoiegatik orogatik zer da zuien pagia. Ikusirik anhizetan beharrian pobria Eri gose egarria eta buluzkorria Ene izenian anhizetan galdeginik limosna zuiek ukhen baituzuie hezaz guti ansia. Bai erhoki konplazitu ene kontra etsaia Demonio haragia baietare munduia Orai dela zuiendako maradizionia Ifernuko suia eta iagoitiko nekia Eta zuien konpainia demonio guzia. Ezta anhiz luzaturen etsekuzionia Bertan date irekiren lurra oren berian Su hareki iretsiren oro bere barnian Haur izanen bekatoren undar irabazia. Elas nola izanen den heben damu handia Damu handi izigarri remedio gabia Hanbat iende sekulakoz damnaturen denian O iaun huna zuk gizazu othoi hantik begira. Beretara izuliren ditu gero begiak Goazen oro elgarreki ene adiskidiak Bethi eta sekulakoz gauden ene glorian Desir oro konpliturik alegria handian. Hantik harat ezta izanen bi erretatu baiezi Damnatuiak ifernuian bethi dolorereki Saluatuiak ieinkoareki bethi alegeraki Iangoikuak dagiela gure partia hoieki. Zeruia ezta ebiliren hantik harat iagoitik Iguzkia egonen da orienten geldirik Ilhargia ozidenten begiz begi iarririk Egun honek iraunen du eben eta iagoitik Alabana ez izanen heben gauza bizirik. O iaun hona zu zirade gure kreazalia Bekatore bagirere oro gira zuriak Gure faltaz gal eztadin othoi zure egina Bekaturik garbizazu othoi gure arimak. Baldin erideiten bada gutan falta handia Are duzu handiago zutan pietatia zuretarik giren othoi egiguzu grazia zure ama anderia dakigula balia. Orazionia Abe maria anderia grazia oroz bethia Ieinkoaren ama birjen berak ordenatuia Zeru eta lur ororen erregina dignia Bekhatoren aduokata eta konfortaria. Ni zugana niatorkezu bekatore handia Karioki othoizera zu zakiztan balia Digne ezpaniz aipazera zure izen sainduia Ez jitera aizinera zeren bainiz satsuia. Miserikordiaz bethe ziren andere handia Enazazula othoi iraiz eta ez menosprezia zuk gibela badidazu elas ama eztia Ordu hartan diakusazut galdu neure buruia. Hanbat nuzu gauza orotan ni berthute gabia Oren oroz bekatutan nabilena galduia Eta bethi erratiua nola ardi itsuia Mundu hunek haragiak bethi enganatuia. Zu baizira grazia ororen ama eta iturburuia Berthute eta hon guzien thesorera handia Egundano bekatutan makulatu gabia Berthutetan segizeko egidazu grazia. Zutan dago bekatoren remedio guzia Speranza osagarri eta saluamenduia zuk gibela demazuna nola baita galduia zure gomenduian dena halaber da salbuia. Ieinkoak zuri eman dizi potestate handia Haren ama ziren gero ama ere maitia Zeru eta lur orotan duzun hanbat balia Zer zuk galde baitagizu den konplitu guzia. Eta zure eskutik duten berze orok grazia Eta salua zuk dezazun zuri gomendatuia O andere exzelente ezein pare gabia Saluatuietarik nizan egidazu grazia. Zuri gomendazen nuzu hila eta bizia Neure gorpuz eta arima eta dudan guzia Othoi behar orduietan ku zakizat balia Eta othoi zuk goberna ene bizi guzia. Eta irabaz ieinkoaganik indar eta grazia Bekatuiez egiteko unsa penitenzia Eta gero berthutetan deramadan bizia Eta egin gauza orotan haren borondatia. Begira othoi meskabutik ene gorpuz pobria Bekatutan hil eznadin egidazu grazia Sekulakos damnaturik enoian galduia Bana zure eskutik dudan saluazeko bidia. Eta gero dauginian ene eriozia Arimaren partizeko oren izigarria Ordu hartan behar baitut eman kondu hersia Egin oroz rezebitu neure meretsituia. Eta ez iakin lehen gaoian non daten ostatuia Ez etare zu ezpazira nor dakidan balia Ordu hartan hel zakizat othoi ama eztia Ararteko leial eta neure aiutaria. Othoi zure gomenduian har arima tristia Ordu hartan io eztezan ifernuko bidia zure seme iaunareki egidazu bakia Bekatuiak barkhaturik didan parabizuia Eta nik han dakusadan zure begitartia Eta sainduieki lauda haren majestatia zeren unsa orhit ziten nizaz ama eztia Gogo honez erranen dut zuri abe maria. Orazione haur derrana andredona maria othoi gomendatu duzun bila eta bizia. __________ AMOROSEN GAZTIGIA Berzek berzerik gogoan eta nik andredona maria Andre bona dakigula guzior othoi balia Amorosak nahi nuke honat beha balite Hon lizaten gaztigurik agian enzun liroite Amore bat hautazeko konseilu bat nekeie Balinetan sekulakoz gogoan sar balekie. Nihaurk ere ukhen dizit zeinbait ere amore Bana bantik eztut ukhen probexurik batere Anhiz pena arima gal hanera eta neuriere Amoretan plazer baten mila dira dolore. Amoretan othe date leial denik batere Hiz ederrez ezpa ioiaz mutha eztadin huraere Hoben uste duienori anhizetan traidore Hobena date gaizenik arimaren berere Bekhatuzko amoria bethi date traidore Erioa dauginian egia zogeri date Hartu duten plazer oro orduian iragan date Bekatuia geldizen da penazeko gero ere Anhiz plazer ukhen badu anhiz behar dolore. Amore bat nahi nuke liadutanik egia Bizi eta hilez gero hain lakidan balia Zerbizatu nahi nuke halakoa bizian Heben labur bizia da iagoitikoz berzia. Mundu oro iraganik ez eriden berzerik Ieinkoaren ama hona grazia oroz betherik Haren amore izateko ezta ehor dignerik Unsa zerbiza dazagun maite gitu bertarik. Amoriak bano dira harzaz berze guziak Behar handien denian faltaturen berziak Uste bano lehen gira hilzen bekhatoriak Hark aiuta ezpagiza nola giren galduiak. Andre hona har dazagun orok gure amore Berze oro uzi eta egin hari ohore Hala egin badazagu ohoratu girate. Berzegatik hura gabe oro galdu girade. Ieinkoaz landan mundu orok eztu hanbat balia Zeruia lurra ixasoa haren peko guzia Orotara hedazen du behar bada eskuia Bera handi izan arren preziazen xipia Halakoa uzi eta non dukegu berzia. Berze amoreak baten bezi eztirade perestu Nork beria berziari eztu nahi partitu Ama birjen gloriosa hanbat bada konplitu Ororenzat bera baita leial dela abastu. Amorosek badagite behin bere nahia Handiago jiten zaie berze nahikaria Ezi ukhen behinere bere konplimenduia Bethi peitu deramate bere mende guzia Emazte eta gizon orok har amore maria Eta orori baitekegu berak konplimenduia. Andre honak ukhen dizi ederretan grazia Ehork hura gaixteriaz ezin lezan inbia Bana bistaz hilzen zuien nahikari satsuia Figuraren ekhustiaz dakikezu egia. Ixasoan hur guzia zeruietan izarra Oihanetan izalori lur guzian belharra Egunari iguzkia gau belzari ilhuna Lehen faltaturen dira ezi hura gugana Balinetan egiazki gu bagaude hargana. Zeren bada erho gira gaixo bekhatariak Andre leial honegana goazen othoi guziak Elas othoi aribira berze amore falsuiak Harekila segur dugu behar dugun guzia. Elas amoros gaixoa hire enganatuia Erhogoatan badaramak eure mende guzia Ene andere graziosa ezpadakik balia Bai bizian bai hilian bethi oha galduia. Denbora duian artian egik ahal hongia Erioa dauginian miraz dukek orduia Orduian ere nahi baduk onsa ialgi dagia Onsa hari gomendadi nik diosat egia Finian ere eztik uzten hark galzera beria Orduian ere bere eskuian dik grazia guzia. Mundu honek anhiz jende enganatu darama Iagoitikoz bizi ustez haren sehi dabilza Guti uste duienian ehor uzi darama Erho iokhatuia date hartan fida dadina. Nihaur ere ebili niz anhizetan erhorik Gaoaz eta egunaz ere hozik eta berorik Loa galdu pena aski bana ez arimagatik Orai oro nahi nuke liren ieinkoagatik. Ni bezala anhiz duzu halakorik munduian Mende oro dohatenik bethi banaglorian Ohart giten buruiari denbora den artian Andre honak har gizake gomendutan agian Hanbat bada graziosa ama ororen gainian Jin dadinik eztu uzten hartu gabe grazian Kulpa gabe ehor ezta haur da segur egia Bekhatuiaz damnazen du iangoikoak munduia Bekhaturik ezta izan zutan andre handia Ararteko zakizkula digun barkhamenduia. Bekatoren saluazeko ieinkoak egin zinduzen Bere buruia egin dizi iuje iustiziaren zu miserikordiaren refujio zinaden Nola berak iustizian ezin salua lizake zure miserikordiaz remedia litezen Balinetan egiazki zugana jin balite. Egundano ezta izan ez izanen iagoitik Bekhatore hain andirik ezetare satsurik Bere bidian iaugin bada zuri gomendaturik Ukhen eztuien barkhamendu zure amorekatik Ez galdu da ez galduren zure gomendukorik zuri gomendazen gira bilik eta bizirik. Berze emaztiak ama dira zenbait haurto xipiren Eta gero obororik punzela ezin dirate zu anderia ama zira birjinarik ieinkoaren Eta geroz erregina zeru eta lurraren. Ieinkoa iaun den gauza ororen zu zirade andere Arrazoin da mundu orok dagien zuri ohore Ezi hala ari zauku Ihesu kristo bera ere zuk bezanbat dignitate mundu orok eztuke. O anderia ezin date ehor zure bardinik Gainekorik zuk eztuzu ieinko beraz berzerik Ieinko ezten berze oro dago zure azpitik Ieinkoaren ama zira mundu oroz gainetik. Mundu orok eztu egin zuk bezanbat hargatik Orogatik bano oboro hark ere daidi zugatik Bere ama ezin uzi obeditu gaberik Othoi grazia egiguzu giren zuienetarik. Unsa zuk har banenzazu gomendutan gogotik Ezin damna naindeiela zinesten dut segurki Anhiz begiratu duzu galduren zenetarik Niri ere hel zakizat othoi galdu gaberik. Ehonere gaizik ezta zuk khen eztirozunik Ez etare hontasunik zure eskuian eztenik Denbora eta lekhu orotan ezin duda gaberik Graziak oro zure eskuian iangoikoak emanik. Nahi duiena hala duke amak semiaganik Seme honak anhiz daidi amaren amorekatik Gure natura haritu du zutan amoraturik Iangoikoa ezarri duzu gure anaieturik. Haren eta gure ororen ama zira dignerik Amak eztu sofrizeko semen artian gerlarik Samurturik badakutsu gure gaizkiegatik Ororen ama zira eta bake gizaku bertarik. Orai egiten diraden gaizki handiegatik Ieinkoak ondatu zukeien lur guzia engoitik Balinetan zu ezpazina ararteko gugatik Oro soszengazen gitu zure othoiegatik Gu gaixtoak izan arren ezten zutan faltarik Fin honera hel gizazu giren salbuietarik. Ama eztia nik badagit zure kontra faltarik zuk gaztiga eta dreza nazazu othoi bertarik Elas norat ihes naidi zu neure ama uzirik Neuretako eztazagut zu nolako amarik. __________ EMAZTEN FABORE Emaztiak ez gaiz erran ene amorekatik Gizonek uzi balizate elaidite faltarik. Anhiz gizon ari bada andrez gaizki erraiten Arhizki eta desoneski baitituzte aipazen Ixilika egoitia ederrago lizate Andrek gizoneki bezi hutsik ezin daidite. Zuhur gutik andregatik gaizki erran diroite Haiez hongi erraitea onestago lizate Emazteak zerengatik gaiz erranen dirate Handi eta xipi oro haietarik girade. Balentia sinplea da andren gaiz erraitea Bat gaiz erran nahi badu oro bardin sarzea Ixil ladin nahi nuke halako den guzia Damu gaizik emazteak hari eman dithia Andren gaiz erraile orok bear luke pensatu Bera eta berze oro nontik ginaden sorthu Ama emazte luien ala ez nahi nuke galdatu Amagatik andre oro behar luke goratu Gizonaren probexuko emaztia bethi da Oro behin haietarik sorzen gira mundura Sorthu eta hil ginate hark haz ezpaginiza Haziz gero egun oroz behar haren aiuta. Haren eskuz osoan behar soinera eta iatera Eri denian andre gabe galdu gizon egurra Hil badadi hura nola nor doake gainera Ordu oroz behar tugu ezta heben zer duda Emazterik ezten lekuian eztakusat plazerik Ez gizona ez exia behinere tsahurik Exian den gauza oro gaizki erreglaturik Parabizuian nahi enuke emazterik ezpaliz. Emaztiak eztut enzun lehen gizona iaukirik Bana gizonak emaztia bethiere lehenik Gaixteria ialgiten da bethi gizonetarik Zeren bada daraukate emaztiari hogenik. Bertuteak behar luke gizonetan handiago Emaztetan nik dakusat hongiz ere gehiago Mila gizon gazxtorik da emazte batendako Gizon baten mila andre bere fedean dago. Hek gizoner beha balite elizate bat honik Eztiroute deuskai denik uzi iauki gaberik Bana anhiz emazte da eskapazen zaienik Anderetan zeren baita bertutea hobenik. Nik eztanzut emaztiak borxaturik gizona Bana bera zoraturik andriari darraika Zenbait andre hel baledi oneriztez hargana Zein gizonek andriari emaiten du ogena. Ieinkoak emaztea maite mundu oroz gainetik Zerutika iaitsi zedin harzaz amoraturik Emaztiak ezarri du gure anaieturik Andre oro laudazeko haren amorekatik. Irudi zait emaztia dela gauza eztia Donario guzietan guziz gauza emia Gaoaz eta egunaz ere badu plazer handia Harzaz gaizki erraitia bilania handia. Munduian ezta gauzarik hain eder ez plazentik Nola emaztia gizonaren petik buluzkorririk Beso biak zabaldurik dago errendaturik Gizonorrek dagiela harzaz nahi duienik. Io badeza dardoaz ere gorpuzaren erditik Ainguruiak bano oboro ez larrake gaizkirik Bana dardoa ematurik zauriere sendoturik Bere graziaz ezarteintu elgarreki baketurik. Nor da gizon modorroa harzaz orhit eztena Eta gero halakoa gaizerraiten duiena Ezta gizon naturazko hala egiten duiena Zeren eztu ezaguzen hala hongi egina. __________ EZKONDUIEN KOPLAK Iangoikoa edetazu berzerena gogotik Bera kaptiba da eta ni gathibu hargatik. Ni gathibu nadukana kaptiba da berzeren Ene dixak hala egin du ni gathibu bigaren Gogo honez ikaneniz bizi baniz bataren Bana borxaz baiezila ez iagoitik berziaren. Berzerena har dazanak beretako amore Oborotan ukhenen du plazer bano dolore Bazarriak bekhan eta beldurreki dirate Guti uste dutenian gaiza bertan sor daite. Honestea berzerena erhogoa handi da Plazer baten ukhenen du anhiz malenkonia Begiez ikus ezin minza han dakusat nekia Beriareki dazanian enetako aizia. Perileki baiezila ezin noake hargana Eta agian, hark orduian ezpaituke aizina Badu ere beldur date bertan doha harzara Nik nahien dudanian berzex besoan daraza. Alhor hartan hel badakit ereitera hazia Eta ene bada ere lastoa eta bihia Ez bat ori ahal duket ezetare berzia Lan eginaz esker gaixto galdu irabazia Berzerenzat geldizen da ene zuzenbidia Agian gero alabareki ezkonduko semia. Amoria ehork ere eztu nahi partitu Nik eztakit berziak bana ni ari niz bekhatu Beriareki ekhustiaz hain hain noha penatu Hek dostetan ni neketan orduian errabiatu Jelosiak eztizaket nik gaiz erran sekulan Maite nuiena nahi enuke ehork hunki liazadan Berzerenaz izanuzu amoros lekhu batetan Beriagana jelosturik desesperazer ninzan. Amoria ezin zenzuz ezin daite goberna Anhizetan honesten du guti behar duiena Arnoak bano gaizkiago ordi diro persona Sarri estaka berant laxa hark hazeman dezana. Amoria itsu da eta eztazagu zuzena Eztu uste berzerik dela lekot maite duiena Suiak bano gaizkiago erra diro gizona Ixasoak ez iraungi eraxeki dadina. __________ AMOROS SEKRETUGI DENA Andre eder jentil batek bihoza deraut ebatsi Harzaz orhit nadinian deusere ezin iretsi Nik hura nola nahi nuke hark banenza onhetsi Ezin benturatuz nago beldur dakion gaizi. Mirail bat nik ahal banu hala luien donoa Neure gogoa nerakutson sekretuki han barna Han berian nik nakusen harena ere nigana Hutsik ezin egin nezan behinere hargana. Ene gaizki penazeko hain ederrik sortu zen Gaoaz eta egunaz ere gaizki nizi penazen Harekila bat banadi bihoza zait harrizen Neure penen erraitera are eniz ausarzen. Ene gogoa baliaki maite bide ninduke Ni errege balin baninz erregina lizate Hura hala nahi baliz elgarreki ginate Haren baurrak eta eniak aurride oso lirate. Balinetan nik banerro hari neure bihoza Eta gero balin balit respuesta bortiza Dardoak bano lehen liro erdira ene bihoza Duda gabe eror nainde han berian hilhoza Artizarrak berzetarik abantailla darama Halaber da anderetan ni penazen nuiena Hanbat da eder eta jentil harzaz erho narama zori honian sortu date haren besoan dazana. Ene gogoa nola baita zuzen iarri hargana Harenere iangoikoak dakarrela nigana Ene pena sar dakion bihozian barrena Gogo hunez egin dazan desirazen dudana __________ AMOROSEN PARTIZIA Parti albanengidio hark ezluke parerik Alabana nik eztizit hain hon derizadanik. Amore bat onhetsi dut guziz soberatuki Ene arima eta bihoza iosi dira hareki Haren irudi ederrori begietan ehoki Harzaz orhit nadinian bihoza doat ebaki. Nik hargana hanbat dizit amorio handia Harekila egoitiaz ezpaneinde enoia Harganiko partizia ene eihargarria Berriz ikus dirodano bethi malenkonia. Elas ene amoria nola nuzun penazen zurekila ezin bathuz bihozian errazen Ene gaizki penazeko segur sorthu zinaden Penak oro hon lirate zu bazina orhizen. Minzazeko zurekila gau bat nahi nikezi Hilabete konpliturik hura luza baledi Arranguren khondazeko asti nuien frangoki Ezeinere beldur gabe egoiteko zureki. Orai porogazen dizit dakitenen errana Ehork uzi eztazala eskuietan duiena Elas izul albaneza iragan den denbora Segur orai enikezi dudan gogoan beharra Denbora hartan ohi nizin nik zugatik dolore Orai aldiz zure faltaz muthatu niz ni ere Malenkonia ezitela badukhezu amore Bana ordu bazinduke zenzazeko zuk ere. Badakizu dolorian partaide niz ni ere Eta zure muthazeko ez ogenik batere Neure gaizki penazeko har zinzadan amore Iagoitikoz ukhenen dut nik zugatik dolore. __________ AMOROS JELOSIA Beti penaz izatia gaiz da ene amore Beti ere behar duta nik zugatik dolore. Amore bat ukhen dizit miragarri jentilik Harekila ninzanian enuien nik faltarik Nik iagoitik ezin nuke hura bezain maiterik Haren minez orai nago ezin hilez bizirik. Nork baitere amoria niri daraut muthatu Nik eztakit zer den bana estamendu berri du Ohi nola aspaldian nahi ezait minzatu Zerk andere han tuduien behar dizit galdatu. Sekretuki behar dizit harekila minzatu Ordu hartan iagoitikoz etsai ezpa baketu Niri unsa ezpadagit behar dizit pintatu Ene buruia ziaidazu harendako abastu. Amoria nor izan da gure bion artian Muthaturik bazabilza ia aspaldi handian Nik zugana dakidala faltatu eztut bizian Biok behin sekretuki nonbait minza gitian. Ehonere eztakusat nihaur bezain erhorik Nik norgatik pena baitut hark ene eztu axolik zuhur baninz baninzande ni ere hura gaberik Alabana ezin uzi behin ere gogotik. Jende honak bihoza daut bethiere nigarrez Neure amore xotiltua galdu dudan beldurrez Gaoaz lorik ezin daidit haren gogoan beharrez Gogoan behar handi dizit bethe nnien adarrez. Iangoikoa edetazu amoria gogotik Eta haren irudia ene begietarik Hark nigana eztaduka unsa leialdaterik Ni ere elikatureniz orai hura gaberik Saroia da lohitu eta eztut haren beharrik Nahi badut ukhenen dut orai ere berririk. __________ POTAREN GALDAZIA Andria ieinkoak drugazula orai berdi girade Ni errege balin baninz erregina zinate Pot bat othoi egidazu ezaizula herabe Nik zugatik dudan penek hura meretsi dute. Eia borrat apartadi nor uste duk nizala Horlako bat eztuk uste nik ikusi dudala Horrelako hiz gaixtorik niri eztarradala Berzer erran albaitiza enuk uste duiana Andre gaixtoa bazinade nik eznaidi kondurik Ziren zirena baizira zuzaz pena dizit nik Ene ustian eztut erran desonesta den gauzarik Pot bat niri eginagatik ezinduke laidorik, Hire potak baziakiat berze gauza nahi dik Anderia azti zira nihaurk erran gaberik Bada uzi albainenzak ni holakoz ixilik Horrein gaiz ziraden gero eginen dut berzerik. Bizi nizan egunetan bada ezitut uziren Nik zer orai nahi baitut heben duzu eginen Uste diat eskuiarki ezizala burlazen Gizon hunek orai nuia heben laidoz beteren Eiagora nik zer daidit zaude ixilik hanbaten Etai lelo ribai lelo pota franko berzia bego Andria minza albaizinde berze aldian emiago. __________ AMOREZ ERREKERIZIA Benedika fortuna ala enkontru hona Orai begietan dizit desirazen nuiena. Ene maite maitena egidazu zuzena Ioan duzuna ekhardazu ezpa eman ordaina Nik dakidan gauzarik eztadukat zurerik Lotsaturik iarri nuzu ezpaitakit zegatik. Eztuzula beldurrik eztukezu perilik Gure auzian ezta izanen zuhaur bezi iuierik. Eztut egin gaizkirik ukheiteko perilik Ez etare zerengatik behar dudan auzirik. Bada neure maitia nik diotsut egia Arrobatu nuzu eta balia bekit neuria. Ni enuzu ohoina arrobazer nizana Orai othoi enadila ogen gabe difama. Enetako ohoin zira ohoin ere handi zira Nik beharren nuien gauza daramazu zurekila. Ni enuzu iakintsu klarki erran ezazu Ehork unsa adi zizan nahi balin baduzu. Gizonak duien maitena bai etare hobena Bihozeko pausuia du eta bere lo huna. Orai lorik ezin daidit bihozian ez pausurik Haiek biak galdu ditut amoria nik zugatik. Unsa pensa badezazu gaizki arrobatu nuzu zor handian zaude eta othoi unsa egidazu. Galdu balin badituzu zeren ogen derautazu Nik dakidan lekhutarik ni baitara eztituzu Orai egun batetan zenaudela pensetan Hanbat zuzaz amoratu geroz nuzu penatan. Horla erraitia errax duzu erho bozen badakizu zure pena diozunok nonbait handi bideituzu. Hanbatere handi tuzu ezin erran nizakezu Egiara baziniaki urrikari nangidizu. Penak handi badituzu axeterrik aski duzu Sarri sendoturen zira larruiori oso duzu. Zauri baninz larruian bada axeter herrian Ene mina sendo ezliro zuk baiezi bizian. Zure irudi ederrak eta maina jentilak Gaizkiago zauri nizi ezi dardo zorrozak. Bihozian zauri nuzu eta gathibatu nuzu Amoretan har nazazu nik dudana zure duzu. Ametsetan agerritan ni kugatik doloretan Hiz bat honik erradazu hil eznadin othoi bertan. Zer nahi duzu darradan gauka horren gainian. Mi nolakorik aski duzu berzerik ere herrian. Berze oroz gainetik hanbat maite zitut nik Mundu oro uzi niro zure amorekatik. Albanerra egia nik dut pena handia Sekretuki minza giten biok othoi maitia. __________ AMOROSEN DISPUTA Uztazu hurtanzera amore maite Orai partizeko damu ginate. Amoriak othoi parti gitezen Jendiak diradela hasi bekhaizen Laidok hartu gabe geldi gitezen Jendek irrigarri gerta ezkiten. Elas amoria ene galduia Iamas zurekila enainde enoia Bizirik partizia pena handia Honein sarri uzi nahi nuzuia. Nihaurk ere gerthuz maite bazitut Onerizte gabez uzten ezitut Bana ieinkoaren nuzu beldurtu Sobera digizi egin bekhatu. Orano amorea gazte gituzu Ieinkuaz orhizeko lekhu diguzu Are elgarreki behar diguzu Orai partizeko damu gituzu. Bekatu honetan hilen bagina Damnatu lukezu ene arima Ezitela engoitik nitan engana Niri phorogurik eztidazula. Zineste bat dizit gogoan honela Nik nola dadukat amore zugana Ieinkoari ere eder zaikala Hargatik gaizetsi ezkizakela. Horlako lausenguz uzi nazazu Nola erhoturik narabilazu Othoi zenizauzu niri euztazu Ene gogoa unsa eztakusazu. Nola diostazu horlako hiza Bethi dadukazu tema borthiza Ioan daraudazu lehen bihoza Gero gathibatu neure gorpuza. Horlazeko eranzutez uzi nazazu Geldi bazinite nahi nikezu Gure exian ohart badakizkigu Biok iagoitikos galdu gituzu. Jendiak so daudia bethi gugana Nihaurk sekretuki nator zugana zuhaurk dakikezu noiz den aizina Neke ezaizula jitia nigana. Pixer ebilia hautsi diohazu zuk ni laido handiz betheren nuzu Othoi zenizaizu niri uztazu Nizaz atseginik ezin dukezu. Amore maitia diotsut egia zutan diagozu ene bizia Nahiago dizit zure ikhustia Ezi neuretako herri guzia. Horlako lausenguz uzi nazazu Ixil bazinite nahi nikezu Ieinkoaz orhizeko ordu lukezu Berzerik har ezazu niri uztazu. Ieinko beldurturik iarri ziraia Halaz despeditu nahi nuzuia Hebetik ioan gabe ene buruia Egin behar duzu ene nahia. Orai nahi nuzuia heben borxatu Aldi honetan othoi uzi nazazu Berze aldi batez jinen nizaizu Nahi duzunori orduian daidizu. Haraizinakorik duzu errana Uzi dazanorrek eskuian duiena Nahi duienian eztukeiela Hizak hari bira dugun egina. Orai egin duzu nahi duzuna Eman darautazu ahalgeizuna Maradikazen dut neure fortuna Zeren jin bainendin egun zugana. Amore ezitela othoi despara Honat begitartez izul zakizat Ni baitan dukezu adiskide bat Balia dikezit senhar gaixto bat. __________ ORDU GAIZAREKI HORRAT ZAKIZAT Orai behar dugia konkista berri Eztei iraganez gomitu handi Hanbat ezirade andere larri Meretsi duzuna narzake sarri. __________ AMORE GOGORRAREN DESPITA Andre eder jentil batez hautatu zait begia Herri orotan gauza oroz eztu bere paria Othoize bat banegion larradala egia Biderikan lizatenez ninzan haren grazian Respostuia eman deraut luzamendu gaberik Kortesiaz hon derizut nik zuri hain segurki Berzerik nitan eztukezu abisazen zitut nik Gazte zoroa nizan arren enukezu hargatik. Zu gaztia bazirere adimendu hon duzu Nik zugatik dudan pena othoi sendi ezazu zuretako har nazazu bizi nahi banuzu Ni zugatik hil banadi kargu handi dukezu. Ohoria galzen dela plazergitia gaiz duzu Niri horla erraitia zuri eman eztuzu Gaixteria egitia laido dela dakizu Ni erhoa zu iakintsu beha enakidizu. Zuhaur nahi bazirade ni segretu nukezu Gure arteko amoria ehork eziakikezu Sekretuki minzazeko othoi bide idazu Enekila minzaziaz gaizik ezin dukezu. Gaizki egin dadinian jendek sarri dakite Ene gaizki egitiaz enek laido lukeite zu eta ni elgarreki unsa ezin ginate zaude ixilik zoaz horrat eta hobe baitate. Hiz horrezaz erdiratu deraudazu bihoza Nik zugatik dudan pena hanbat ere handi da zuzaz beraz ezpanadi orai bertan konsola Ene arima ialgiren da falta gabe kanpora. Arimaren ialgitia neke bandia duzu Orai duzun penegatik zuria egonen duzu Horrelako banitatez niri segur uztazu Probexurik eztukezu eta zinhets nazazu. Zurekila gaizki baniz nola bizi ninzande Ene bihoz eta arima zurekila dirade Bihoz eta arima gabe ehor ezin lizate zu eta ni elgarreki unsa ahal ginate Iauna gertuz hik dadukat porfidia handia Ixil endin nahi nikek ala ene fedia Hiz gutitan adi ezak nahi baduk egia Hiretako eztiadukat gertuz neure buruia. Hori horla lizatela nizin neure beldurra Andriak hon derizanari ezpadaki mesura Ni lehenik eta gero amoros oro galdu da Nik zuri hon baderikut gaizzi eztakizula Egundano izan daia ni bai dixatakorik Ni amoriak enu maite nik hura ezin gaizetsi Uste dizit narraiola ezin dukedanari Zeren bada hon derizat hon ezteriztanari. Iangoikoa mutha ezak othoi ene bihoza Amoriaren hark bezala nik eztudan axola Borxaz ere gaizki bano hongi egitia hobe da Nihaurk ere uziren dut hon ezteriztadana. Andre faltaz eniz hilen balinba ni lehena Oroz etsi behar dizit non baitate hobena Heki ezin medra naite bai gal neure arima Bategatik sarri niro diren oroz arnega. __________ MOSEN BERNAT EXAPARERE KANTUIA Mosen bernat iakin bahu gauza nola jinen zen Bearnora gabetarik egon ahal inzanden. Heldu behar duien gauzan ezta eskapazerik Nik ogenik eznuiela hongigitez berzerik Bidegabek haritu nu bide eznuien lekhutik Erregeri gaizki saldu gertuz ogen gaberik. Iaun erregek mezu nenzan ioanengion bertarik Gaizez lagola enzun nuien bana nik ez ogenik Izterbegier eneien malizian lekhurik Ioan nendin enagien ogen gabe ihesik. Balinetan ioan ez aninz ogenduru ninzaten Ene kontra falseria bethi zinhetsi zaten Iustizian enzun baninz sarri ialgi ninzaten Haren faltaz hasi nuzu iaugitiaz doluzen. Berzen gaizaz zenzazia zuhurzia handi da Izterbegi duien oro nitan bedi gaztiga Abantallan dabilela albailedi segura Gaiza apart egoiztea bethiere hobe da. Ni gaixoa etsaiari nihaur jiniz eskura Ene unsa eginak ere orai oro gaiz dira Haren menian ezpanengo nik nukeien zuzena Mirakulu banagi ere orai ene ogena. Falsu testimoniotik ezin ehor begira Halaz kondemnatu zuten ieinkoa ere hilzera Bekatore gira eta mira eztakigula Balinetan bide gabe akusatu bagira Pazienza dugun eta ieinkoak gizan aiuta Malizian dabilena berak diro mendeka. Iangoikua zu zirade egiazko iujia zure gortean bardin dira handi eta xipia Nork bait ere egin deraut malizia handia Haier hura othoi barkha niri balia egia. Iangoikoa zuk begira etsaiaren menetik Nik eniak badakuskit ene gaizaz bozturik zure eskuiaz dakuskidan heiek gaztigaturik Ene gainian eztagiten uste duten irririk. Iangoikua egin dizit zure kontra bekatu Haiez nahi enuzula othoi heben punitu Erregeri dakidala nik eztizit faltatu Zeren egon behar dudan heben hanbat gatibu. Zuganako hutseginez nahi banuzu punitu Errege eta berze oro ene kontra armatu Gogo honez nahi dizit zure egina laudatu Eta etsaiak didan pena pazientki haritu Nahiz heben pena nadin arima den saluatu Haiek zer meretsi duten zuhaurorrek ikhustzu. Penak oro jiten dira ieinkoaren nahitik Eta berak permitizen oro hobenagatik Agian hula ezpanango hil ninzanden engoitik Ene etsaiak galdu ustian ene hona egin dik. Berak bazu hil dirade ni are nago bizirik Hongi egin uste baitut ohorezki ialgirik Gaiza nola hona ere iauginen da bertarik Gaiz ekhusi eztuienak hona zer den eztaki. Hongi egitez gaiz sofrituz behar dugu saluatu Pena eta miseria nik enuien dastatu Orai dakit iangoikuak enu nahi damnatu Heben ene penazera zaidanian orhitu Urhe hunak behar dizi suian unsa purgatu. Bere nahi ezpanindu eninduken punitu Aitak bere haur maitia gaztigatu ohi du Bihi hunak gorde gabe behar dizi xahutu Iangoikoak nizaz ere hala agian egin du. Mosen bernat pensa ezak karzel hori gaiz bada Nonbait ere ifernuia are gaizago dela Heben hik badukek bana haiek ez nork konsola Penak heben fin dik sarri haienak ez sekulan. Batre minik heben eztuk lekot ialgi nahia Han direnek bethi die suian pena handia Pena handi izigarri ezein pausu gabia Harzaz orhït adi eta dukek pazienzia. Berzen gaztigari inzan orai adi gaztiga Pena honez orhit eta hangoa ezak kojita Hebengoaz berzekoa albaheza eskusa Unsa enplegatu dukek heben eure denbora. Hor balego gaztigairo ihaurk berze guzia Bada orai gaztigezak aldiz eure buria Kirisailuiari nola hiri hel eztakia Berzer argi egin eta errazen dik buruia. Hiri egin badaraie bidegabe handia Ieinkoari gomendezak eure gauza guzia Hark orori emanen dik bere meretsituia Gaizkigiler pena handi pazienter gloria. Eztazala gaizeriztez damna heure buruia desiratuz gaixtoari hel dakion gaizkia Ieinkuari egiten duk iniuria handia Hura borrer egiten duk iuje eure buruia. Zertan iuia hik baitazak eure izterbegia Hartan kondemnazen dukek ihaurk kure buruia Eta hartan eztakidik eskusarik balia Erakustak ehonere nor den ogen gabia. Iangoikua orai dizit egiteko handia Hiri honetan eriozez hilzen duzu jendia Gathibutan hil enadin gizon ogen gabia Osorik othoi ialgiteko zuk idazu bidia Izterbegiak eztagidan gibeletik irria Ogenduru zuian eta han galdu dik bizia. Libertatia nola baita gauzetako hobena Gathibutan egoitia hala pena gaizena Ni bezala eztadila othoi ehor engana Ez etare hiz orotan fida ere gizona Iangoikua zuk begira niri ere zuzena. Amen. __________ KONTRAPAS Heuskara ialgi adi kanpora Garaziko herria Benedika dadila Heuskarari eman dio Behar duien thornuia. Heuskara Ialgi adi plazara Berze jendek uste zuten Ezin skriba zaiteien Orai dute phorogatu Enganatu zirela. Heuskara Ialgi adi mundura Lengoajetan ohi inzan Estimatze gutitan Orai aldiz hik behar duk Ohoria orotan. Heuskara Habil mundu guzira Berzeak orok izan dira Bere goihen gradora Orai hura iganen da Berze ororen gainera. Heuskara Baskoak orok preziatzen Heuskara ez iakin harren Orok ikasiren dute Orai zer den heuskara. Heuskara Oraidano egon bahiz Inprimitu bagerik Hi engoitik ebiliren Mundu guzietarik. Heuskara Ezein ere lengoajerik Ez franzesa ez berzerik Orai ezta erideiten Heuskararen parerik. Heuskara Ialji adi danzara. __________ SAUTRELA Heuskara da kanpora, eta goazen oro danzara O heuskara lauda ezak garaziko herria Zeren hantik ukhen baituk behar duian thornuia Lehenago hi baitinzan lengoajetan azkena Orai aldiz izaneniz orotako lehena. Heuskaldunak mundu orotan preziatu ziraden Bana haien lengoajiaz berze oro burlatzen Zeren ezein skripturan erideiten ezpaitzen Orai dute ikasiren nola gauza hona zen. Heuskaldun den gizon orok alxa beza buruia Ezi huien lengoajia izanen da floria Prinze eta iaun handiek orok haren galdia Skribatus halbalute ikhasteko desira. Desir hura konplitu du garaziko naturak Eta haren adiskide orai bordelen denak Lehen inprimizalia heuskararen hura da Basko oro obligatu iagoitikoz hargana. Etai lelori bailelo leloa zarai leloa Heuskara da kanpora eta goazen oro danzara. DEBILE PRINCIPIUM MELIOR FORTUNA SEQUATUR __________ Extraict des regestes de Parlement Svpplie humblement Françoys Morpain, maistre Imprimeur de ceste ville de Bourdeaulx, que pour imprimer vn petit tracte intitule, Linguæ vasconum primitie, luy a conuenu faire plusieurs fraiz & mises. A ceste cause plaise a la Court inhibitions estre faictes a tous les Imprimeurs libraires de ce Ressort de imprimer ou faire imprimer le dict Tracte, & a tous marchans de nen vendre dautre impression dans troys ans a peine de mil liures tourñ. & ferez iustice. Veue laquelle requeste la court faict les inhibitions requises par le dict Morpain a peine de mil liures tourñ. Faict a Bourdeaulx en Parlement le dernier iour Dapuril, mil cinq cens quarante cinq. Collation est faicte, De Pontac. __________ Bertsio informatiko honen egilea: Josu Lavin; Urkiola, 1-1C 48990 - Getxo (Bizkaia) 2720 2005-10-25T14:12:54Z 212.142.143.114 A deler 2789 2005-11-22T10:04:45Z 212.142.143.114 Etxepare euskal idazlea 1521 2719 2005-10-21T09:36:58Z 212.142.143.114 ESKUIZKRIBUA Joan Perez de Lazarraga __________ 1.— SILBERO, SILBIA, DORISTEO TA SIRENA [...] bero e [...] edan egu [...] bere ugaza [...] tiak bere [...] pensadu eu[...] bada Silbe[...] idoro bagu[...] du eben kar[...] manera on[...] «Ainbat eta [...] neure begi[…] daukadan [...] karta oneta[...] uste dot dau[...] nau ezautu[...] badau bere[...] orri mila bider[...] kausea dan azkero[...] ri remedio emun jagi [...] ain andia dan azkero edo bes[...] rik izango ezpada bere nai beki[...] esku delikaduokaz karta oni eranz[...] nai ezpadau ni zure mesedeorr[...] il nadin nagoan lekurea[…] orren […]». [...]ea Sirena […]onjoean a […]nak iraku […]n buruan […]urteten ebela […]eaz zeña eku […]ena zan ez […]i ez legian […]ada mundu […]ik andiae […]ui eben kar […]urrik ezautu […]nik ezin esan […]asegin artu […]bio historieak ber […]renak kartea idoro eben […]u eben manera artan […]ori bere ezer esan baga Silbe- […]a ebilirik utra jakiteko deseo an […]irenak kartea artu eben ala ez sar […]txi eben lekura nun idoro eben […]itxi eben maneran bertan Zegaz utra asegin gutxi Silberok [...] ben bere biozean ekusirik a[...] bere gauzaetan zala ai[...] Silberoren asekabea ana[...] buruko zenzuna benzidu[...] artu eben ain maneraz[...] di batean irazarri ez zan[...] setan ebilela Sirenagaz [...] zidin utra espantadurik[...] bere pensamentua beti ber[...] la eta probaetarren pe[...] ganik apartadu aleia[...] biguela baz zena[...] au esaten ebel[...] egu[...] zeur[...] Silbe[...] [...]Sirenaren berbea zegaz utra [...]artu eben esan zituan [...]k enzun ebelako bada e- [...]an Silbero egoala Sirena [...]ilberoren aposentura utra [...]az zeñak an egoan silla [...]berbaoek esaten asi [...]n. —Silbero nagozu leen [...]arso oriek osteango da [...]el baten zeure eskuz [...]dekidazula zegati [...]bazu nik bere [...]gozu erregutan. [...]au esanda [...] eben Si [...]an leku [...] baga [...]ti Sirenak [...]ten akorda [...]t eskrebie[...] —[...]di eze ezin [...]zuk [...]ura Gura dozun ni enplea nadin zure serbizioan suplikaetan natxazu Sirena ene laztana nai dakizula gaur gabean zeure aposentuko bentanara joaten eze an gura dot neuronek emun [...] zuk agindu deustazun kobrea [...] badurik bada kartea[...] [...] eben egoan lekurean [...] teti geldixe iramo[...] ren aposentura nun [...] rri eben Silberoren [...] rik an zioana [...] eta Silberori [...] urtengo le[...] bero bad[...] sirik Sir[...] nadu[...] Silber[...] eta jarr[...] rik Siren[...] azpian[...] netan eg[...] Sirena ben[...] anzat Silbe[...]. Artu eben biguelea eta utra boz amorosoaz asi zan manera onetan kantaeta: Poeta gatxa idoro dozu Sirena ene laztana [...] bentajaok esateko [...] nigana [...] [...] utra tristerik [...]ik eztakarte [...]ztiok ifinirik [...]txadu dei detizke [...] etorririk [...]ate [...] egirik [...] [...]zuzu [...]txizkoak [...]azu Ala bada nik orain, Jaungoikoa, esango dot nola tratadu nauzun, Sirena, utra birtute andizkoa egizu silenziaz eskutxadu. Silberoren kantu dulzeaz a[...] tu Sirenak arzaite eben e[...] sentuan eukan zanpona[...] utra dulzemente jaiten a[...] au esaten ebela: Kañadaetan arza legez[...] oi nago kongoxadurik [...] ekusi inork ez nagia[...] zugaz egiten ber[...] Silbero zuk bad[...] nola zure ag[...] con tal que ne[...] kutu ez dakid[...] Alaze beti legez [...] zuk erraz dasakezu [...] zure kontra zegati [...] ezer eginik ez na[...] Sirenak bere kantu[...] [...] eben burua bere besoaen ganean eta Sil- [...] bigueleari itxita artu eben berekin [...] arpa bat eta asi zan bere mina Sil- [...]deklaraetan manera onetan: [...]ik esango ditudan berbaok [...]go dira gutxi bazu [...]eau dodan azkero [...]ditut nik komenzadu. [...]engo ene penea [...]ingo dozu donzellea [...]n erexteagati [...]la kateea. [...]ai izango [...] atean [...]an gero [...]a. [...] banagizu [...]ati [...] ene laztana, [...]ot zugaiti. [...]a Silberoren berba [...]bentanea eta Silberori ezer esan baga sartu zan barrura. Silberok ekusirik zala Sirena enojadu, eskuetan eukan arpea iramo eben aiñ furia andiaz eze utra pedazu asko egin zan eta ala tristeza andiaz Silbero joan zan bere aposentura, nun asi zan llantu andi bat egiten, ain tristeza andiaz eze enzun egien guztiai emun eioan tristeza andia. Ainbat sentidu eben bada Silberok Sirenak agaz egin eben kaso gutxia, eze etorri zan eriozako puntura. Egun batean, bada, Silberoren ugazabak ikasirik nola egoan Silbero gaxorik, erregutu eusan bere emazteari eugi legiala kontu andia Silberori bear ebena emaiteaz, zegaiti zan utra keridua bere ugazabaren esean. Eta eseko andreak egin eben ala. Silbero, bada, obato errejidu zegati zan? Eseko andreak agindu eusan Silbiari, zeña zan Sirenaren konpanian egoana, eugi legiala utra kontu andia Silbero errejieteaz, zegaz utra asegin andia artu eben ala Silberok nola Silbiak, zegati utra on alkarri erexten. Egun batean bada, Silbia joan zan Silbero bisitaetan beti kostunbrezat eukana legez, zenagaz asegin andia Silberok artu eben, zegati ai kontu andiaagaz egiten eben, aibat zan Silberoen deseoa Sirena ekusterren, eze erregutu eusan Silbiari legiola ain mesede andia, eze legiola bere partez Sirenari erregutu bisitaetan etorri legiola, zegati leukala esperanza andia Jaun zerukoagan eze, aen mesedea serbidu izaten lizala, Sirenak bisitadu balegi bertati osatua zala. Silbiak, bada, ezauturik Silberoen borondatea, prometidu eusan eze biaramunean sinfalta Sirena eroango leusala bere aposentura. Ainbat asegin Silberok artu eben Silbiak egin eusan promeseaz, eze kasi eukan gax guztia kendu jakan. Biaramun goxean joan zidin Silbia Sirena bisitazen eta osteango beste berbaen artean egion erregutu legiola konpania Silbero egoan aposentura joaten, eta Sirenak esan eusan eze asegin lebela, zeinzuk alkari eskuetarik eustela joan zirean Silberoen kamarara, nun sar zitezenean utra kortesmente Silberori berba egin eusaen, zeñak al egian kortesia eta mesura guztiaz saludadu zituan eta eskatu zidin arpa bat, zeña utra dulzero jaiten asi zan, manera onetan kantaetan ebela: Donzellea, zegati zaoz enegaz enojadurik, zurekin ene aitasuna orrela anzi jakinik? Donzellatxo linda damea, flordelisea zara zu; ene penea dakusun gero arren berba bat esazu. Ekusirik Sirenak Silberoen platikea, artu eben Silberok eskuetan eukan arpea, zeña jaite ebela eranzun egion manera onetan: Jentil honbre penadua, enegaiti kautibua, zure llantu dolorosook emaiten deustae kontentua. Bere kantaetea Sirenak akabadurik, urten eben ain laster Silbero egoan lekurean, eze ez zan bastadu inor bere biurketa. Silberok ainbat sentidu eben bada Sirenak esan eben berbaak, eze erorri zidin jarririk egoan silla baterean; ain agiz, eze, Silbia isasi ez ballako, ez zatean mirakuru an ila. Baegoan, bada, Silbero ain akordu gutxigaz, eze Silbiak uste eben eze eskuartean ilgo lizakala, areanda beregan biurtu zeitean artean. Eta destenpleak itxi egion orduan asi zan Silbia Silbero konsolaetan, bada bere ekusirik Silberok, ain kruelmente bere Sirenak trataetan lebela, ez eben gura inork berbarik legion, salbo bakotxik egon baxe. Eta, ala, Silbiak urten eben arean, nun Silbero geratu zidin bakotxik eta ain konsuelo gutxigaz nola inork pensadu ezin leian, zenak arturik biguela bat asi zan kantaetan manera onetan: Esperanzeau galdu jat, guztiz ez arren, parte bat; neure laztanaen amorearren egin gura dot negar bat. Ai, ene desditxadua, gaitxez rodeatua! Kontentu uste neben orduan, oi, zatort deskontentua! Ene bioz penadua, egun gaxki kuradua, egun askotan bearko dozu zeure aldean medikua. Akabadurik bada Silberok bere kantaetea, urten eben bere kamararean eta igo eben bere ugazabaren aposentura, zeña idoro eben isirik eta itaundurik esekoai nun zan esan eusaen nola emazteagaz joan zidin jardin batera eta beregaz eroan eben Sirena eta Silbia bere donzellaak. Aditurik, bada, Silberok leen esan dogunau, joan zidin musiko bazuen esera eta erregutu eusten legioela lagun musika bat emaitera joaten, zeinzuk esan eusaen baiez. Eta ala, bear eben instrumentu guztiak arturik, joan zirean. Eta eldurik Sirena eta Silbia eozen lekuan, asi zirean Silberogaz joazen musikoak ain dulzemente jaiten euren istrumentuak, eze Silberoen ugazaba eta agaz eozen guztiak zitezen espantadu eta ezin pensadu eben nogaiti edo nork emaite eben musikaoa. Eta onetan eozela, ministrilak ixildurik, asi zirean lau musiko utra konziertu andiaz manera onetan kantaetan: Donzellatxo, linda damea, flordelisea zara zu; nik zuri on dereizut baina zuk ni erruki ez nauzu. amaren seme bakotxa naiz ta, arren, ondo ar naroizu; ama enea seme baga zuk ifiniko al dozu? Ama eneaen seme bageaz, oi, zuk zer probetxu dozu? Lau urtebete euren gabakin zeure onetan naukazu; ene laztana, ene lindea, nai dozuna egizu. Ene laztana, ni ilagaz zuk probetxurik badozu, ori gerriko dageau eta biozeraño indazu. Ene laztana eriozea sentizen ez dot bapere, asegin eta deskansu baxe zu bazarade serbizen. Bada bere nai ez neuke mundu guztiagaitirren zuregaz ene sekretoa deskubri lidin bapere. Akabadurik bada Silberok bere musikeau, ainbat asegin artu eben jardinean eozenak eze ez ostean geiago, espezialmente Silbiak, zeñak utra on eretxan Silberori, zegati ezautu eben Silberoren kantaetea. Akabadurik leen esan dogun kantaeteau, Silbero eta bere lagunak joan zitezen ziudadera, nun Silberok emun eusten ain kolazio andia beregaz eroan zituan musikoai eze ezin kontadu al leidi, gizonak gurearren bere. Eta kolazioa akabadurik, despediku zituan musikoak eta, ai itxita, joan zidin bere esera, nun asi zan bere erropaak kontuz maleta baten sarzaen, zegaiti esan eusan ugazabak eze biaramunean joango zireala euren biajera, zeña zan Italiako ziudade batera, zeñari ereizan Arzileo. Arzileoko ziudadean Silbero el zidinean biziko zala uste ez eben, oi, inor ordu batean. Ainbat zan bada Silberoren amore mina andia, eze ez inor ekusterren isaiten eben begiak. Remediorik ezin lebela, utra gaxorik ebilen, fortunearen esai zala ia asi zan sentizen. Silbia dama galantori pena andiaz bizi zan Silberori on deretxana akordazen da askotan. Doristeo, zaldun gazte bat, ebilen penaz beterik, zegaiti utra on eretxan Silbia donzelleari. Sirena bere ainbeste dabil besteok legez galdurik, Doristeori on deretxala Silbero anzi jakinik. Kupido, nola dozu orrein gaxki zeure matraz doraduok gobernaetan? Zegaiti lauoi bardin on eretxi ez deraustezu euren amoreetan? Dago Sirenagaiti Silbero ilik; Sirenak Doristeori on eretxan; Doristeok Silbiagati asko dauko minik; Silbiak Silberori eusan erreguetan. Silberok, bada, ekusirik bere desditxa andia, negar egiten prometidu dau bizi dan arte guztian. Esperanzea galdu jakinik, bizi zan asegin bage; joan gura dau lekureanik kanpu[r]a bizi izaaten. Leen esan dogun konkistan lau amadoreoek egonik, zan lastima andia nork bere biozean eukan tristezea ekusten, espezialmente Silberok, zeñak ekusirik Sirenak besteri on eretxala akordadu eben joaten arzai baten figuran erriaetarik, ez ain bizi lazeradua iragaiterren. Eta ala, egun baten bere ugazabari lizenzia eskatu jakan bere errira joateko, zeñak utra damu andia artu eben Silberoen joateaz. Silberok, bada, bere ugazabari lizenzia eskatu egionean, joan zidin Silberagana, zeñari, negarrez egoala, despedidu egion. Eta ia joateko egoan puntuan atera eben rabel bat bere maukarean, zena jaiten ebela asi zan negar egiten onela: Ordu onean gera zatez donzella linda erana, noxbait noxbait akorda zatez zurea nola naxana. Esaitasun parebagea nigaz zegaiti daukazu? Muger arrizko bioza bano gogorragoa zuk dozu. Ni onerean joateko kausea, oita, zara zu; Jaun zerukoak, ene laztana, oi, degizula parkatu! Arren, Sirena, ene bioza, suplikaetan natxazu, nik merezidu ez badot bere, ez nagizula anzitu. Zeruko jaunaz, oita Sirena, geratu bada zatez zu; ni onerean banoa bere, ene bioza zuk dozu. Neure begiok giaduko dot tristezea dan errira aseginik sar ez dakidan oi biozeti barrura Despedidurik, bada, Silbero bere Sirenaganik, artu eben arzaiaen jazteko bazu eta asi zan bere biajea arzaien ponienteko aldeetara. Eta bere bidea ekarrela, el zidin ribera utra kaudaloso baten, zenari eretxa Duero, Gaztelako probinzian, nun zirean utra arzai aberasak. Ekusirik, bada, Silberok egoala utra urrun bere errirean, akordadu eben arzai aberaspatekin jarten arzaizat. Eta ala egin eben, zegaiti biaramunean Askanio eretxan gizon aberaspategaz jarri zan, nun bere ganadua goardaetan eben. Silberoren partierea, oi, aditurik Silbiak damu andia, oi, eben artu bioz berean menetan. Silbero baga bizi izaate, oi, ezin eben sufridu; aren azean joateko da lizenzia eskatu. Silbiak bere ugazabari onela esan deuso: —«Romeria bat egiteko, jauna, daukat nik gogo. Onegati serbizen bada, arren, bear deust parkatu, zegaiti biur nadinean serbiduko zaut, jauna, zu». Silbia despedidurik bere ugazabaganik, inork ezautu ez legianzat kendu eben bere jaztekoak eta artu eben arzai baten jaztekoak eta asi zan bere biajea arzaen Silbero joeala ekian lekuetati. Egun baten, bada, bere bideti joeala, topadu zan arzai bigaz, zeñai Silbiak itaundu eusten nora lloazen, zenak eranzun eusten manera onetan: —Arzai polita, ik jakingo dok eze guek goazela Dueroko riberara, zegaiti enzun dogu eze Silbero deretxan arzai batek dabela lutxa andiak armatu komarkaetako arzai guztiakin eta dagoala denporea asignadur egun seigarren eguneko, eta ala, ene lagunau eta ni goaz ara Silberoren jentilezak ekusterren, zegaiti utra manera andian dazauen guztiok alabadu deuskue. Silbiak Silberoren izena enzun egian orduan asi zan negar egiten ain sentimentu andiaz, eze an eozen arzaiakgati izan ez baliz, ez zatean asko an ila. Ekusirik, bada, Silbiagaz eozen arzaiak egoala negarrez, zitezen espantadu eta ezin pensadu eben zer al zaatean kausea, areanda itaundu eioen artean, zenak manera onetan eranzun eusten: —Zuek jakingo dozu, eze Silbero, zuek esan dozun arzaiorregaz egon nax ni denpora andian eta ain da nik deusadan amorioa andia, eze neure erriari itxirik nator aen eske. Eta ainbat asegin artu dot nun dagoan ikasiaz eze, munduan direan rikeza guztiak emun baleustae bere, ezin geiago artu neisus. —Bada —esan eben arzai batak— orrela dan azkero, goazen guztiok batera, eze guek al daigun lagundasunik onaena egingo deusugu. Bada bere, erregutan gagozu esan deiguzula zure izena, zegaiti obato alkar aditu daigun. Onetan eranzun eben Silbiak: —Zuek jakingo dozu, arzai nobleak, eze ni nazala Marsellako naturale eta ene izena da Klarian. —Orrela dan azkero —esan eben arzai batak—[...] (Faksimilean goiko zenbakitze zaharra ez dago behar bezala jasoa, baina dirudienaren arabera, hiru orrialde falta dira eskuizkribuan, 1148tik 1150era hain zuzen). [...]ren konpanian dagoan donzella batek, zenari deretxan Silbia, deretxula utra on eta ainbat graduan, ze zu ona etorri zareala ikasita etorri gura dau zure eske, zenari zuk gura badeusazu on eretxi eta anzitu Sirena on ez deretxun azkero, nik prometietan deusut eze laster osatu zatezkeala daukazun gaxaesun orretarik. Silberok leen esan dogun berbaok enzun egianean, zidin andiro enojadu eta egoan lekurean jagirik joan zidin floresta bateti aurrera Klariani bakarrik itxita, zeñak bakarrik geratu zala ekusen orduan asi zan, negarez beterik bere begia zeukala, berbaoek esaten: Klarian Zorigatxean, oi, neuretako amorea dot ezautu, bardin gura naben azkero onein kureldo tratadu. Oi, amorezko errege jauna, suplikaetan natxazu degiozula, oi, Silberori on derextala agindu. Doristeok, bada, ekusirik bakarrik geratu zala bere Silbia baga, akordadu eben aen eske joaten, zeñak partietako egoan egunean Sirenari berbaoek egin eusan: —Ondo uste dot, Sirena, daukazula aditurik Silbiak bere joateagaz niri bakarrik itxirik emun deustan pena, zeña dan ain andia eze uste dot iraungo baleu denpora askotan lizateala parte niri eriozea laster emaiteko. Eta kausaoek guztiok nik ekusirik, dot akordadu aen eske joaten, zeina deustae esan dagoala Silbero dagoan lekuan. Onegati zuk ezer gura badozu erriaetaruz esan egidazu, zegati utra borondate onez egin daidit. Si[rena]: —Ziertu bazeeki esan dozun berbaokaz egin deustazun asekabea, sinsketa dot ez zebela esango, bada bere, zeure borondate ori bestegan daukazuna legez, ezta mirakuru nigaz konturik euki eza. Bada bere, nik zuri deusudan amorioa ain firmea dan azkero, bazoaz munduen kabura bere, ezin itxi neidizu. Do[risteo]: —Eztozu zeren berbaoriek esan, Sirena, zegati dabe utra probetxu gitxi egiten ala zuretako nola enetako, zegati nigaz ezin inor lloake. Si[rena]: —Jaikoari nai ez dakiola zu joan da ni eben gera nadila! Orregati, Doristeo, zoaz nora ta nundi gura dozun, eze nik itxiko ezteuzut. Doristeok ekusirik zala inposible Sirena bereganik apartaetea, asi zan bere bidea arzaite, zeinak bere begiak negaretan eukala asi zan berbaoek esaten: Doristeo Oi, Sirena, zegaiti zatoz, oi eta, ene azean, inposible, oi, dan azkero nik zuri on erextea? Sirena Doristeo, zegaiti zoaz zeurori bada galdurik, Silbiak, oita, dakusun gero on deretxana besteri? Onela, bada, Doristeok eta Sirenak egin eben euren biajea, areanda Silbero egoan lekuan el zitezkeano, nun nor bere ugazaba banakin. Egun baten, bada, Silbero eta Silbia, Doristeo ta Sirena, lauok batera nor bere ardiakin joazela, topadu zirean iturri fresko baten aldean, nun guztiak alkar ezauturik berba egin eusaen, espezialmente Silberok Sirena ekusen orduan esan eben: —Oi, jaun zerukoa, ni nun ete nago? Lo ete naz ala irazarririk nago? Ezin sinisti dut neure Sirenaen aldean nagoala. Berbaoek esanda joan zidin Sirenaren aurrera, nun belauriko jarri zan negarrez egoala berbaoek egite lebela: —Oi, Sirena, zenaen begiok direan norteagaz konparaduak, natxazu suplikaetan nai dakizula ene peneau onein andia dan azkero remedioa emun jagite. Sirenak Silbero bere aurrean ekusen orduan utra enojadurik esan eusan: —Ken zatez ene begietarik, zegaiti nik ezteretxut on zuri bapere bano geiago, zegaiti ene bioza Doridogan dago. Silberok au enzun egian orduan bere buruari itxi eusan lurrera jausten, zeñagana Silbia joan zidin lasterka, esaten eusala: —Jagi zatez, Silbero, orrean eta itxi egiozu orrein kureldo trataetan zabenorri eta zatoz nigana. Silberok eranzun eusan: —Silbia, ken akit orrean, zegaiti nik ezin anzitu neidi anibat denpora on deretxadan gauzea. Silbiak au enzun egianean desmaiadurik erori zan, zenagana joan zidin laster Dorido eta esan eusan: —Ai, Silbia, ene laztana, akorda zatez zein on deretxudan eta bai nola zabilzen enganadurik igui zabenaren azean: ene amorioau anzitu jakinik suplikaetan natxazu degidazula remedioa emun, medezinea zu zarean gero. Silbiak Doridoren berbaok aditurik esa eusan: —Esan ze egidazu berba oriek, zegaiti gurago dot Silberori on deretxadala il, eze ez a anzituta bizi izan. Doridok eukan esporzu guztia galdurik, ezin zan lurrera utra negar asko bere begietati ezarten ebela. Sirenak, bada, Dori[d]o lurrean negarrez ekusi egian orduan, joan zidin agana konfiadurik respuesta obea idoroko ebela agan ark Silberori emun eusan bano, eta esaten asi jakan: —Egun askotan, Dorido, esan deusut zegaiti zabilzen on ez deretxunorren azean galdurik eta ez dozu sinistu izan nai, areanda zeure begiokaz ekusi dozun artean. Bada, onela dan azkero zeure buruori, desenganadurik nago zu mesede eske onerean aurrera on eretxi degidazula. Doridok utra enojadurik eranzun eusan: —O, falsa traidorea, ken akit neure begietarik ene desditxeonen kausea i axan azkero, zegai ik Silberori on eretxi baeuso, Silbiak bere niri ezin ukatu eidan neure remedioa. Bada, oneinbat gatx ire kausaz etorri dan azkero, zegaiti ezton losarik berbaoriek esaten gure aurrean? Enojuzko berbaoek Silbiak bere Doridoren aorean enzunik, zidin desmaiadurik lurera jausi. Onela lauak eozela desmaiadurik, Silberok esan eben: —Nagin Sirena remediadu! Si[rena]: —Ni Doridogaiti gaxo nax! Dorido: —Silbiak katigaturik nauko! Silbia: —Oita Silberok ni il nau! Platikaoetan lauok eozela, aditu eben os andi bat kanputi etorrena, ain andia eze utra espantadurik eozen zer al zatean ezin pensadurik, areanda Doridok burua goratu ta ekusi eiano salbaje terrible bien figurea, zeinzuk zirudien sua aoetati ezarten ebela eta euren eskuetan ezarten arko bana fletxa zorrozakaz armaturik. Eta Doridok ekusi egian orduan, esan eusan Silberori: —Jagi zatez orrean laster, Silbero, zegaiti eben datoz salbaje andi bi ondo armaturik guri biziok edetera. Silberok enzun egian orduan Doridoen berbaak, utra espantadurik jagi zidin eta artu eben nork bere armak. Bada bere aek ondo begiratu orduko salbaje biak arrebatadu zituen Sirena ta Silbia, zeinzuk utra laster ta erroitu andiaz eroan zituen florestati beera Silberok eta Doridok remediorik emun al baga, zeinzuk geratu zitezen espantu eta tristeza andiaz nork bere eben oneretxia galduagaiti eta ezin pensadu eben nuen agintez edo nora salbajeaek eroan al eukeen. Eta prometidu eben biak ez alkarri itxi jagiteko, areanda Sirena ta Silbia idoro artean. Onetan egun bat eta gau bat irago eben solamente negar baje beste gauzarik egite ez ebela, zeinzuk bigarren egunean, zerbait janda, loak artu zituan arbole fresko bazuen azpian, nun lorik gozoenagaz eozen orduan aditu eben kantaetaz etorrela odeietati figura eder bat, zeña ekusiak emun eusten bildur andi bat eta uste eben ze Sirena eta Silbia eroan ebenak letozela aek bere eroatera. Bada bere, odeietati etorrenak berba egin eusten manera onetan: —Ez bildurrik zeuren biozetan artu, arzai amoraduak, zegaiti ni ez nator zuei gatxik egiten, daukazun gatxorrendako remedio emaiten baxe, eta ala atenzio andiagaz aditu egidazu esan gura deusudan berbaok. Zuek jakingo dozu eze araenegun ekusi zeben salbajeak direala Narbaez enkantadorearen mutilak, zenak bere enkantamentu andiaz ikasi eben nola eben eozen zuen kausaz eta, zegaiti zuek eta aek aseginik artu ez zegian, eroan dau konfusioko esera, nun utra katea andiakaz daukan eta onerean irugarren egunean aterako ditu buruak edetera zuek sokorridu ez badagizu nik esango deusudan manera onetan. Zuek jakingo dozu eze ni bidaldu nabela batalla eta gerratako jaikoak, zeñari deretxan Marte, eta area emun deust ezpataoek zuendako espilu onegaz batetan eta dio joan zatezela konfusioko esera eta an el zatezenean, zeuren ezpataok eskuetan artuta, belauriko jarrik espiluonetara begira zaozela. Eta dakuskezun gauzagaiti ez begiok espilurean kendu, zegaiti bertati galduko zara; eta, barriz, kendu ez badagizu ni joango nax bear dozun orduan lagunketara. Silberok eta Doridok leengo berbaok enzun egian orduan utra asegin andia artu eben euren biozetan, zeinzuk bertati nork bere espiluak eta ezpatak arturik joan zirean konfusioko esera, nun eldu zirean irugarren egunean, nox Sirenak eta Silbiak il bear eben. Eta an eldurik, jarri zitezen begira kanpuruz nun ekusi eben egoala konfusioko esea ai fuerte eta galanto labradurik nola ezin ainbeste munduan al zatean. Onetan eozela, aditu eben etozela jente asko deadarrez, zeinzuen erditan etozen Sirena ta Silbia soka bategaz esku delikaduak loturik lepora, euren guardazat sei salbaje aldeetati ekartela, zenak pregonaetan eben Narbaezek aen kontra emun eben sentenziea manera onetan: Narbaez gizon sabioak, oita, egun dau agindu eriozeaz donzellaok, oi, dagiela pagatu. Onezkero ez ditezen amoreagaz burladu; oenzat kastigua dan eta besteoenzat exenplu. Bioen kontra probanzea klarua dago ziertu, Doridogaz Silberoren berbak zerren ez eben sinistu. Alaze, bada, zuek batera guztiok esan egizu: «amorekin kruel danak onela begi pagatu». Enzun dozun pregoeau egienean aditu Doridok eta Silberok bere, oi, ezin eben zufridu. Belariko jarri zirean, laster zitezen armatu; espiluak arzaiterako, oi, dira determinadu. Zeruetako erregeari, oi, dira enkomendadu, suplikaetan lizatela nai lekiela lagundu. Silbero ta Dorido onela eozela, baetozen Narbaezen jentea euren pregoea deklaraetan ebela. Donzella desditxaduak euren amoreak an ekuslen orduan, ezin zufridu eben negar egin baga egoten, zenak berba amorosoakaz esan eben berbaoek: —A, gizon doloraduak eta kruelak zeuen bizioendako, nola azartu zara zaozen lekura etorten, klaru dakusun azkero biziokaz bano gutxiagogaz pagatuko ez dozuna eta asi que asi ilgo zaituen azkero? Inolako maneraz defendidu al bagagizu emun gura deuskuen tormentu onetarik, zuen kausaz arzaite dogun azkero, zuek bere libertaduko zara edo bestela guek eta zuek bearko dogu jente krueloen eskuetati eriozea gustadu. Berbaoek arzai biak enzun egienean, Jaikoak daki ze asegin gutxi euren biozetan artu eben, bada bere, Marteren mandatariak agindu eustena ez ausaiteren, ezin ezer egin eben. Eta donzellak ekustenean eueren on eretxiak remediorik emaite ez eustela, ia eozen eueren esperanzea galdurik, bada bere dios Marteren mandataria ezpata bategaz salbajeaen arteti sartu zan utra agiz emuten leustela bere ezpata zorrozagaz, zeinzuk ies egin eben Sirenari eta Silbiari itxirik, zenai eskuak askaetan egotela Silbero eta Dorido, enzun eben aen alderuz kantaetaz etozela gizon bazu, zenak ekarten mutiltxo bat silla baten jarririk utra ponpa andiaz, zeñak eukan tafetaezko benda bategaz begiak isirik eta eskuetan arko bat saeta zorroz bategaz armaturik, zeinzuk esaten eben utra konzer-[...] (Zenbakitze zaharraren arabera, lau orrialde falta dira eskuizkribuan, 1155tik 1158ra hain zuzen). __________ 2.— GUGAZ ETORRI NAI BADOZU Gugaz etorri nai badozu erraz daizu ekusi donzella linda damarik asko munduan parebagarik joan ninzan da ekusi neben asko donzella galantik konziertu konzertaduaz oita guztiak jarririk retulo bat ekusi neben kanpuaen alde bateti urregorrizko letra bazugaz egoan eskrebidurik eozen begi ederrik asko aren aldean jarririk nungo direan esaten dabe alkarri begiraturik Ozaetako bandereagaz oita gu gara etorri iguzkiaren aldean dago gure onrea jarririk geure azean guk darabilgu mundua katigaturik goitixeago ekusi neben beste alderuz eginik donzella flordelisarik asko guztiak gorriz janzirik gaztelu Gebarakoan gara gu bizi defendidurik gure jazteko gorriok dira kontentuagaz josirik justarik asko zaldun guztiok egiten dabe gugaiti amoriozko errege jauna ekusi neben bertati dama bazuen oñetara oi belauriko ezinik zeinzun ekarten debiseagaz ezautu ditut badanik D’Erediako galea dator ponpa andiaz beterik oi ainbait dira ederrak eze ni nago admiradurik zaldunik asko ekusi neben guztiak oriz janzirik zeña dan utra librea gatxa desesperanzas beterik Ezkerekotxan oi darabilte pensamentuak galdurik zegaiti ango larrosatxoak eztau piedaderik librerik eta ardura baga oita dirade ebili zegaiti ez dau amorioak bere fletxeaz iregi aen bioz utra gogorrak bularrak erdiraturik __________ 3.— ARK ILTE NABEN GERO NI Zu ekusita beste gauzarik oi ezta zerren ekusi zegaiti alegriarik ez da munduan zure parerik Ain kontenturik nago ni zugaz nola zu nigaz gaxtoto zegaiti jaunak egin ez naben zure kontentamentuko Zure begiok nekusenean bertati neben ezautu oieta ezin ze indidala neure bizian gozadu Ene laztana ze daidizu zeure gogoan pensadu zuk ni gaxki tratadu arren oi ni naxala azpertu Zegaiti emaiten deustazu zuk onelako bizia bizi naxala iragaiten dot munduko pena guztiak Penado de tanta pena nago zu ekusizkero y ninguna cosa buena oi enetako ez dago Joan gura dot ekustera nik on deretxadanari joan gura dot ekustera ark ilte naben gero ni Lastimadurik joango nax amoreaz da fedeaz beti bere erruki naben munduak eta jenteak Ezzin faltarik neidio nik on deretxadanari joan gura dot ekustera ark ilte naben gero ni Zu ekustera etortearen ene lindatxo maitea penarik asko iragaro dot egunean da gabean Ona etorri naxan azkero eskerrik asko jaunari joan gura dot ekustera ark ilte naben gero ni Ene fedeau andia da ta ondo tratadu nagizu oneinbat bider eriozea zerren emaiten didazu Ene lindea serbizen bada kolpe batean il nagi joan gura dot ekustera ark ilte naben gero ni Otras Aren egia bat zarezt on dereiztazuin ala ez aoan laztan zaitudaz bana gogoan batez ere ez Donzellatxo atrebidea ez zabilz ene gogoan ez bestela ondo deizut baña ezkondu baxin batean ez Gure ortuan madari gura zaurik amabi beste amore bilatuko nax amore bear banadi Ene laztantxo linda damea esporzu artu egizu uste gutxien dozun orduan enegaz bearko dozu Urtan eder arria aen gañean txoria amorantian lekidanari atera neio begiak __________ 4.— BETI PENSAMENTUAN GALZAEN ZAITUE Linda damatxoa nola zanode beti pensamentuan galzaen zaitue Ezer trabajurik oita badozu ene laztantxoa arren esazu guztiau zurea nax ta erraz dakiket beti pensamentuan galzaen zaitue Ene laztanorrek arren esazu laztan nindukezun on baneretxu zure mutil ninzan gura zendukez beti pensamentuan galzaen zaitue Inoen bildur baga arren esazu zeure pensamentuan zer dadukazun zurekin ene faltaok estaliko det beti pensamentuan galzaen zaitue __________ 5.— BETI PENSAMENTUAN GALZAEN ZAITUEZ - 2 Linda damatxoa nola zanode beti pensamentuan galzaen zaituez Ezin trabaxa ibar ibar lelo (Irakurtezina)alelo ibar ibar lelo xea suturadok egi dabe zeze adar bagea audikarok naun deusai golpea ilgo bere ba(i)ten uai ai egiten aren burlea __________ 6.— FAMA ANDIA ZATOZ NIGANA Loa de las damas y galanes vascongados Fama andia zatoz nigana arren zaakit lagundu mundu guztiko erreñuetan laster egizu famadu txoriak eta tortolatxoak gura deusut agindu gure erriko abantajaok daikezula kantadu oi onezkero goxozetan da kantu dulzeaz loadu jaun zerukoa nik errazoaz beti zaidaz loadu zerua eta izarrak bere oita ze bitez ixildu isasoorrek horbe guztiaz beti zagie laudatu zegaiti dozun Euskel Erria ainbat bentajaz dotadu isasoori tinta balidi zeru zabala liburu oi Arabako abantajaok ezin litezke kontadu jente noblea ezin nesake bear deustazu parkatu flakezeonen bildur nax baia oita gura dot azartu Barrundiako dama galantak esaten irakastazu Axparreneko larrosatxoak geraziea indazu morroe galant estiraduak oi defendidu nagizu oi Gaztelako errege jauna erregiagaz ikasu zeure kortean dama ederrik nola bapere ez dozun zegaiti Euskel Errian dira eder guztiok dotadu ene berbaok jente noblea ze daidizu pensadu neure erria alabazerren nik ditudala finjidu badanik bere jakin egizu oita naxala fundadu oi antxinako liburuetan zeñetan ditut ezautu Euskel Erriau oi nola eben errege batek pobladu jente noblez da lenguajeaz zenak eusten agindu zeruko jaunaren fede santua oi legiela kunplidu oi Salamonek eskribizen dau jente noblea jakizu bere bizian oi ez ebela jente obarik topadu __________ 8.— JAN DONEANEZ BEZPERA BATEN Un caso que acaesció al autor en un camino con una dama Jan Doneanez bezpera baten igaro ninzan basoti Iruraizko hermandadean leku on baten aldeti dama bategaz topadu ninzan lindea parebagarik berba egiten asi ninzazan jarri ginean geldirik neure bizian ekusi ez dot ain gauza abisadurik forma onetan berba negion ez jat anzitu berbarik alabazen dot zeruan jauna bide dodana eginik zegaiti naben zuregaz batu lindea eben bakarrik edolabere joan bano leen oi bear dozu ikasi zure amorez ene laztana nola nagoan galdirik eranzun zidan utra kortesdo begiak abajadurik neure buruau erraz daidit nik ditxosazat edugi jentil honbrea zegaiti naxan egin ni zugaz topadiz oi eta barriz osteangoan arren ze begit burlarik ene laztana ene fedea ez dot egiten burlarik egun askotan ni ebili naiz ez dot edugi ditxarik ene lindea zu ekusteko banago sepultadurik oi arren jauna ixilik bego ze besat orrelakorik oita zegaiti zu eraiteko ni eztot poderiorik poderioa andia dozu zeruko jaunak emunik zure begiok ekusizkero banago katigaturik pensamentuok altuan ditut zuk ala mereszidurik oi eta ez dot abajaduko neure bizian punturik zure berbaok adietako ez dot entendimenturik klaruxeago berba egizu edo zaoza ixilik ene laztana zure bildur nax ezin egin dot berbarik nik klaruago banesakezu oi baneu lizenziarik ene laztana enzun nagizu arren ez artu penarik neure peneau esan bear dot ezin neonke ixilik donzellatxoa egun batean oi eta ninzan etorri zure lekura flordelisea oi inor baga bakarrik zeure eseko portaleetan oita zeonzen jarririk neure begiok goratu neben ez neben pensamenturik dama galanta an zeonzela oita zeurori bakarrik atrebimentuz usadu neben banago gaztigaturik itaundu nagon poridadean beste donzella bateri nola ereizun zeure izenaz eranzun zidan Katalin oi arrezkero jaun zerukoak bertxeak daki bakarrik Katelinatxo nola nagoan amore minez gaxorik zuk baxe inork ezin liket munduan remediorik ene laztana osa nazazu ez egin beste gauzarik leku onean topadu gara jaun zerukoak gurarik oi apeadu bear neuke badozu borondaterik ene laztana solas daigun geurtxeok biok bakarrik jaun zerukoaen amorearren jauna zaoza geldirik basoan neurau bakarrik nago ze begit agrabiorik ene laztana ezin neike nik orrelako gauzarik kulpa andia ezarri leidae eiza galdu banegi jentil onbrea ez neikezu neure bizian berbarik oi eta bardin ezpa ze egit oi orain itxi librerik biarreziak urrean datoz arren betorke ebeti al dagidana nik egingo dot ez artu asekabarik orrela gura dozun azkero ezin neike besterik domekaan etorriko naiz eztot egingo faltarik askotan ondo geratu zatez ene lindea bakarrik oi esegino lagun deizut badozu borondaterik eskerrik asko jentil honbrea ez dot ardura lagunik gaazustenak oi ez dagien pensadu beste gauzarik itxi neusan berbaxkoek neure laztanaz eginik berori defendidu jat eta ni geratu nax galdurik __________ 9.— EZKON BAZATEZ EONGO ZARA Donzellatxoa orain zaoz soberbiagaz beterik ezkon bazatez eongo zara ardia legez masarik Egun bazaoz libertadeaz oi noxbait galduko dozu fortunea kurela dana aldi bat pensa ezazu onezkero fiaze zatez ez artu fantasiarik ezkon bazatez eongo zara ardia legez mansorik Beste bategaz ezkondu arren uste badozu oba dala errazoaz desakezue la bella mal maridada orduan akordaduko zara oi nola esan nizun nik ezkon bazatez eongo zara ardia legez mansorik Ala zara mudaduko ze ez zau inork ezautuko bizi beste bat artuko dozu kondizioak ken zaiteko __________ 10.— SAN DONATO JAUNA San Donato jauna doneatxia erakustak neure oneretxia arren agir zatez izar zuria bein Ernandez da gero Maria akabadu eztididin ene bizia ez nigana iramo zeure gezia sinis ezakezu ene egia noxpait irekazu zeure begia zuretako nik daukadan guztia ezta minzor salbo ezti eztia zugan ereingo dan ene azia ez bildurtu eze ezta gazia __________ 12.— NESKEA BILDURAGO NAX Iragarri oi ez nagizun jentil honbrea bildur nax neurk ekusirik nola zarean neskea bildurago nax Nola andraen bildur zara aek baga onik ez badozu aen obraen oita bildur nax zure bere bai badagizu ez dot egingo gauza gaxtorik oi ez dasazun bildur nax neurk ekusirik nola zarean neskea bildurago nax Zerren diozu sekretorik oi andraetan ez dala zerren kausea begirazaka ifinten dabe obratan faltaduko jazulako zenzuna gogan bear nax neur ekusirik nola zarean neskea bildurago nax Andraetan diskreziorik ez dala uste al dozu bai baia daben zenzutxoori gaxki daroae giadu oita bildurrak ikara nabil ez dakit neurau nor naxan neurk ikusirik nola zarean neskea bildurago nax __________ 13.— ARREN TXORIAK EXILIK ZAOZ Arren txoriak exilik zaoz badozu miramenturik mundu guztia isasoagaz nanzuzu zaoz geldirik dama galantak ni ez nax digno ez dot mereszimenturik zuetan miiau ifinterako banago losaz beterik oi bada bere borondateau dadukat utra osorik zeñak ixilik egoterako ez dit emaiten lekurik obligazioz bete ninduzun guztiok ala gurarik pagaetako ezin neike bapere serbiziorik oi bada bere presentetxoau artu egizu niganik lizenziea arren indazu badozu borondaterik dakidantxeau esaterako ez egin beste gauzarik gauzaxe batek oita nauko andiro enojadurik donzellatxoak esan bear dot ezin neonke exilik zuegaz barriz ez eukaen oita bapere konturik ene bizia geratu ninzan andiro afrontadurik zeruko jaunak oi ekiela amoreokin ditxarik zerren da zeurok serbietako ez daben konstanziarik dama galantak sinis nazazu oi ze ukazu dudarik lekuonetan biziko baninz ez neiala besterik gabaz egunaz serbidu baxe sekula asperzakarik au zuegaiti egiterako asko da errazoarik oi bada bere bizioi nax jaun zerukoak gurarik (z)iudadetxo txikir batean (n)eurtxeau bakar bakarrik ene izena letra onetan oi dago eskrebidurik oi onegaiti jentil onbreak ez egon enojadurik zegaiti zuek enojazeko ez dot nik borondaterik guzti guztiok serbizerako nago ni obligadurik oi bada bere ziertamente banago enojadurik zerren damaok serbietako ez dozun miramenturik geixeago esango neben eugi baneu astirik badanik bere amoreonek ez dit emaiten lekurik on deretxunai on eretxazu ez artu soberbiarik zegaiti laster orrako gara oetan akabadurik amoreata biok gabilza ez dogu beste lagunik dama kurela ifinten dogu gaztigaduta mansarik abisaetan zaitudan gero ez egin beste gauzarik zuen arteko donzella batek nauko enterradurik aen izena letra onetan oi dago relatadurik pensamentuok altuan ditut ark ala mereszidurik __________ 14.— JAIO ZITEZEN MAIAZ ILEAN Jaio zitezen maiaz ilean amorioa oekin donzelleari Lora ereizan morroeorri don Martin egun batean jaio zitezen jaun zerukoak gurarik oen artean jasarri zidin amore mina dulzerik mundua mundu formaduzkero oi ez da jaio semerik ene ostean nor izan dan au baño gizon firmerik ese banatan bizi zirean zeñak eusten alkarri eurak biak oi ebilzen bapere baga lagunik gazte zirean artean baña azkero beti loturik zerren guztiak egon joazen andiro admiradurik oi nola beti ebilte dira Martin da Flora bakarrik aita amaok efini dabe flora oi enzerradurik zerren bertati jarri zirean sospetxa gatxez beterik amoraduok ekustenean euren buruak loturik aen biozak nun bere baita egon joazen tristerik pensamentuak leukaela dolorez mantenidurik remedioa bila zitezen eurenzat gora kastarik bijeak alkar ekusterako olzori dabe iregi ifini dabe miraderoa bioendako zilegi __________ 15.— TENPORA BATEN BANEROEAN 1 Tenpora baten baneroean dama eder bat serbidu audenziarik ez emunaz oi ninduan penadu 2 Gabaz egunaz oi nituan aren ateak rondadu askotan sarri nik neroean rekeridu ta segidu 3 Aldi bat leku sekreto baten neuroni zidan agindu jentil onbrea ona zatozke gura banozu gozadu 4 Aren aoti berbaoa negianean aditu reberenzia jagiteko belaunok neben inkadu 5 Krianza onez gura ekion ni arerean goratu esku zauden on baekidan neure besoti oratu 6 Ark niri tira nik ari pulza ainbat negian aspertu supitamente baekion uzkar andi bat soltadu 7 Neska gaxoa ainbat zidin afrontaduta korridu begietati laster ekion itogintxo bi mobidu 8 Nik banegian aleginaz palagaduta exildu finjidu neben ez nebela nik alakorik aditu 9 Esan eustan ai ene jauna zuk egidazu parkatu sekula barriz ezin neinde zure aurrean agirtu 11 Zuk onenen kontra gura badozu rebelde izan jakizu ene parteti izango zara justiziara zitadu 12 Nik zu andiro laztan izana an izango da probadu zuk bere niri derextazula an eskatuko natxazu 13 Amoradua amorez ilten ezin leite sufridu edo berandu edo goxago zuk bear nauzu kuradu 14 Karro trunfala ene perlea nik bearko dot gozadu Mazias gloriosoa legez ezpanagie ebenada __________ 16.— GAZTELATIKA JENTIL ONBRE BAT Gaztelatika jentil onbre bat orain etorri ei jaku etorrizkero donzella batek amorez ei dau benzidu Donzelleorri on deretxo donzelleorrek ez ari au onela oi dan azkero eskerrik asko jaunari Joan Lopez jauna Zuazuko ene esan bat egizu bardin on ez deretxun gero donzelleorri itxazu Zure adiskidea nax ta geiago ez dot esango zegaiti bakit dakusunean nola zarean eongo __________ 17.— KOPLARIK ONDO ORDENAETA Koplarik ondo ordenaeta? abilidade badozu orain egin dan ortos andian metrifikadu egizu Au esan eta baekidan ies eginda estaldu ilabetean ezin oi neben sekula barriz topadu Egun batean leukala beste bazugaz kabildu aen artera izan ninzan exil exilik koladu Aren aldean jasarri ninzan zerren ez lidin uzatu badanik bere bertan eben zerbait lizana somadu Izurrariau baekidan sentidu baga askatu guztizko uzkar terrible bat nik banegion pulkatu Esesan negion ene laztana ez onegaiti penadu zegaiti orain zu ta ni gara biok igual geratu __________ 18.— ORAIN JAIO DALA NUESTRA SALVACIÓN Barri onak dakart Peritxo y Anton orain jaio dala nuestra salvación Guztiok genbilzela en nuestro ganado oi etorri jaku un ángel volando esan deusku gero aquesta canción orain jaio dala nuestra salvación Barria genzuanean el ato dejamos guztiok alkarregaz y a Belén llegamos ainbat gauza egoan de admiración jaio zan lekuan nuestra salvación __________ 19.— MONESTERIO SANTU DEBOTOA 1 Monesterio santu debotoa jaunaren graziaz eben jarria ese prenzipala eta barria 2 Basoan zu zaoza fundadua eta il zan arren fundadorea bakus munduak zure balorea 3 Zegaiti zu zara dubdadu baga korridu badidi ondo mundua beste guztietan estimadua 4 Oñ esku zardenok apazen diot illustre abbadesa notadea zerren egin deustan mesedea 5 Ni kaso naxala baldin badator euroen artera tentazioa bertati eske nax parkazioa 5 Konbento guztia generalmente saludazen dot nik agur eginda belauriko barriz zu ene linda? 6 Abisada eder parebagea eztakart gorgera eztaust gona ekusi nagi ze ni ona ona 7 Monjea kausa dala kokotean enamoraduak ze begi azik zerren monje aenak eztau gazik 8 Ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai ai dardo zorroza zein triste dagoan ene bioza 9 alegere dago isas aldean uda ta negu beti naranjea monesterioan tristea monjea 10 Esen badagie eztaozeela alegere baxe sekula triste nik diok egun dala aratixte 11 Zegaiti monjea inox eztago baize au edo ori pensaetan beti bere koitaen arilketan 12 Jaiorean ninzan desditxadea zerren aita neben guztiz gogorra senideak labur ama leorra 13 Ene senideak libre daoza gozazen dabela libertadea ni nago katigu subjetadea 14 Zilegi dabela euren senarraz iragaiten gustosoro bizia nik ez bai esateko lizenzia 15 Adata zanean bere senarrak bere beso laztanaz estaldurik nik jagi bear oi dot ozak ilik 16 Gaztea sartu ninzan sentizaka andi arzaite neben engañua bizi nax bizi guztiz estrañua 17 Kontentu baga dakuet ditudala neure urte dulzeak kastaetan loturik nagoala olzoetan 18 Isi jazun bada sekulareko karzel gogor onetako ateak ai ai ene narru zuri gazteak 19 Ama libreaganik jaio ninzan ditxarik ez nebenau alabea dirurren saldu ninzan esklabea 20 Neure aragiok dakustanean zein zarden direan eskutxoetan berti jasarte nax eresketan 21 Amore dulzearen ardurea zeinbat dodan probadu gutxiago ainbat irudizen jat dulzeago 22 Kanpuan oba leuke atxur zala izango baleu bere beti presa mila monjaren baño abadesa 23 Kontentuago dagoalakoa gaaten dabela basallorea eperki janik baño priorea 24 Zerren beti bere da arinago borondatez nekea egitea baiño bere posa asedetea 25 Orain dator fraile malmaz arro bat atxakiz arturika bisitea onagaz dakarrela agintea 26 Erabilten gaitu ilabetean bere tripearenzat errastruan geur barriz tiri taio konbentuan 27 Arenzat eperra bardin al bada ez gorri tantarik baize zuria aumarik badogu ez azuria 28 Konbenturik konbentu dabilela or ase eben bete bigardoa mutil mando bota ta tabardoa 29 Niri barriz zerren negian berba neure aide jabe prenzipal batez deo graziaz zu azota zatez 30 Ipochrita vellaco riguroso soberbio regalon y desonesto jauna barka zakezt si peco en esto __________ 20.— MUNDU GUZTIAN ORAIN EZ DAGO Mundu guztian orain ez dago gizon kontentuagorik oita nola ni orain nagoan zeruko jaunak gurarik zazpigarren ilabetean urteje onau sarturik iru egun kunplidu baga oi setienbrek emunik zeña zan egun alegerea ene laztanak gurarik ene laztanak gurarik eta neurk ala trabajadurik amore poderosoa jauna asko deusut eskerrik zu serbizeko ez jat faltako sekula borondaterik denpora baten lotu ninduzun katea fortiz batekin jaun zerukoa alabadu ze orain banago librerik donzellatxo bat ekusi neben lindea parebagarik oi neure bioz amorosoau idogi zidan bertati neuregaz neben libertadea eroan zidan berekin ni aren minez ilte ninzan da a beti alegererik nik aregaiti iragaro dot munduan asko penarik ark enegaiti oi oraingaño eztau edugi ansirik oi orain barriz nik ifini dot bera kateaz loturik oi bada bere nik aregana asko dot borondaterik ez dakizunok jakin egizu ze kaoz enganadurik zerren dama bat serbietako asko bear da gauzarik amoraduak zer bear daben banago irakasirik oi enzuzu ta jakin dagizun badozu borondaterik zegaiti askok jakin ez arren egon oi da tristerik irakasterren ez nago eske bapere intereserik oi lenaengo abantajea dasadan zaoz exilik jentil honbre oita bear dau izango badau ditxarik utra galanto ebili bidi oi badau potestaderik bere aoa ifini begi palabra dulzez beterik bere laztanaz ze beuzaike sekula fantasiarik oi barriz kunpliduko ez badau ze begi alfer promesik krueldaderik baderakuso beoke beti tristerik dameak gaxki esanagaiti ez galdu esperanzarik iñor begira dagoanean ze beikeo berbarik utra dulzero esan begio bere penea exilik presentexeak emun begio gauza usaiz beterik oi partieta danean barriz zuzpirioxe garrazpi- koitarik esan oi badegio ifini esporzadurik polsea barriz oi berabilke oi diruz adornadurik erreal ori kastaetarren ez azeratu pausorik bere laztana dakusenean ebeli utra graberik sekula barriz ze besakeo besteren abantajarik denporeorrek emun badagi ez egon tentazakarik zegaiti bera ezta ezingo oean zabal zabalik gabaz egunaz ze berakuske sekula kobardiarik laztanagana joango bada ze beroake lagunik bere begiak oi berabilke laztantxoagan josirik sekula gauza gutxiagaiti ze begi sentimenturik oi beazatu badagi bere ez erakusi bildurik oita irago ze bekikeo bisitazaka asterik zegaiti artu ez daikean oi beste serbidorerik oi alkanzadu daikeano ez artu jagin zelorik gabaz egunaz serbidu begi sekula asperzakarik oi geiago gura badozu amoraduak ikasi estudiadu arren egizu laztanaen borondateti zerren bestela oita ez jazu probetxaduko gauzarik mundu guztian ni baño ezta oi amoradu firmerik ene laztanak mereszidu dau oi asko abantajarik a serbizerren aspertu banax banago deskansadurik arta lastoa agin egizu nik al dagidan gauzarik eguaztena ifini nauzu obligazioz beterik __________ 21.— EGUN BATEAN NENDORRELA 1 Egun batean nendorrela bide estretxo batean esku batean nekarrela kalzaidu usez erro dela zaldi on baten gañean 2 Banekarren esku bestean listra onezko dardoa adarga on bat arzoean arnes fortiza gorpuzean korazaakaz kaskoa 3 Konpaniazat tristurea askotan legez arturik giazat barriz benturea baneroean etxurea txitez guztiau galdurik 4 Neroeala forma onetan biozau guztiz tristea nik ez nebela pensaetan gero nekusen gauzaetan erratu neben bidea 5 Ribera baten eldu ninzan guztizko alegerea neure buruau gora nezan dama eder bat topa nezan autoridadez betea 6 Neurau exilik nengoala berak esadan berbea ongi etorri zareala errazoa da dasadala gizon armatu gaztea 7 Nungo zarean esadazu bada al didin gauzea zeure begiok irekazu deskubridurik afindazu apelliduaz nonbrea 8 Ezeren losa bildur baga esazu zeure benturea zer gaxaesun kontxallaga zeren dizudan bereala kuraetako rezetea 9 Nik diosudan berbaetan duda efinten badozu ni ez banauzu sinisketan bizi zarean egunetan zuk beti damuko dozu 10 Ribera artan neskaoa bakotxik nekusenean razonamentu dulzeoa forma artan da alakoa ain laster egidanean 11 Neure begiok banegian aregan laster fixadu nun eldu ninzan ez nekian aren ederrak benengian konsoladu ta turbadu 12 Terziopelo berdez egoan gorpuz guztian janzirik leona baten kostadoan jarririk legez baegoan kristalez koronadurik 13 Arpa eder bat esku bietan figuraz eskulpidurik urregorrizko tablaetan biboratxo bat bularretan kollare legez janzirik 14 Apea nindin zaldirean gutxi bat apartadurik berba negion lurrerean neurau nengoan lekurean reberenzia jakinik 15 Umilladurik egiten dot errazoa dan gauzea oñ eskuetan besazen dot dakidan legez esaten dot donzella koronadea 16 Obedeszidu dagidala nik zure mandamentua errazoa da naturala neure aoaz dasadala itaundu jatan kasua 17 Jagi zan bere sillarean nik au esanda bertati artu ninduan eskurean bagioanzen arerean floresta baten erditi 18 Jarri ginean berbaetan rosale baten parean asi ninzakan kontatetan nola ninduen penaetan gauza bik biozerean __________ 23.— ENE LAZTANA ENE LINDEA Ene laztana ene lindea banago beti gaxorik ene negarrau enzun egizu badozu borondaterik zeure bioza bera bekizu badozu piedaderik oi ni onela penaetan ez dozu errazoarik ni zugaz amoraduagaiti eztaukat nik bearrik zegaiti ene eskuan ez zan egiten beste gauzarik neure bioza or dauzazu ondo kateaz loturik libertadea aregaz dago ni barriz beti bakarrik pensamentuau daukadala zuregan enklabadurik neurgaz sekula egiten ez dot zuregaz baxe konturik zuk barriz nigaz ez daukazu bapere memoriarik sekula oita ez badeusut egiten serbiziorik kausaetan dau ez jakiteak zure gogoko barririk bestela bere nigan ez dago zurea ez dan gauzarik zure izenaz oita daukat guztiak senaladurik zugana deudan amorioak oi iñon ez dau kaburik oi zugan barriz piedadeak sekula komienzurik linda damea erruki nauka ez dodan gero kulparik zu lakoagan ez leuke bear krueldadeak parterik amoreorrek egin ez oi dau kurelez konfradiarik oi zuk ni ondo trataetako asko da nigan kausarik amore poderosoa jauna ni belauriko jarririk mesede baten eske nagozu ez bea jako berbarik damatxo baten amore minak narabil desterradurik ene biozau a serbizeko jarri zan obligadurik sekula ondo arzaiten eztau oi nik desodan gauzarik sekula goardaetan eztau oi zure mandamenduturik estimaetan ezertan eztau oi zure serbizaririk onetan zuri ekiten jazu oi asko agrabiorik dama kurelau arren efinzu oi ondo gaztigaturik sekula bestek oi eztagian artu atrebimenturik konjuro gogor pare baga bat daukat ordenadurik otorgaduko deustazula asko deut esperanzarik asi gura dot zuregan jauna oi baiez konfiadurik ene perlea enzun egizu badezu borondaterik zure entendimentua bego gutxitan irazarrik Conjuro Tortolatxoa ebilten da bakotxik maiaz ilean bere laguna galdu jakinda tristerik soledadean konjuraetan oi eta zaitut kurela poridadean gabaz egunaz oi zabilzela negarrez ene azean unikornio animal fortiz animaloen artean naturalezaz umillazen da damarik dakusenean konjuraetan oi eta zaitut oean zauzidenean gogaberatu zakezkedala begioz nakusunean Prosigue Konjuraetan oita deuzut gorpuzeango aragiok nigana manso bakarkezula zeure begitxo linda biok Prosigue Pelikanoak amorioz umeak dagianean bere odolaz mantenizen dau guztiak azi artean konjuraetan zaitut laztan niga borz nabilean zeure bularrok jan dagizula zeurgana sartu artean __________ 24.— ZEGAITI BEGIRATU GURA EZ DOZU 1 Zegaiti begiratu gura ez dozu zugaiti nola nagoan kantaetaz biozau jo deustazu anetx fletxaz nigaz konturik egin nai ez dozu begira egizu zer egiten dozun nuen kontrata nola oita zabilzen amoreak zer deusan zuri aginzen belarriok irekazu eta danzuzun 2 Donzella guztioi deustet aginketan dagiela amoraduok ondo artu onegaz linda guztiok beukae kontu zerren joango nax neurau eskaetan kurela ifiniko dot estuetan baldin da mandamentuau goarda ez badez nik au erraz daiket neure partez asi banadi amorez konbatietan 3 Amoreak enzun dozu ene laztana oi bere mandamentuan zer dioan apa bat baneidizu ao gozoan bakusu ene fedea firmea dana donzellea arren egizu ene esana zegaiti zuk ez dozu ezer galduko neure bizian ez zaut anzituko zurezat izango da nik dodana 4 Zu zara eder guztioen kapitana zeruko irargi zuria dirudizu ene guztiau zeure egin egizu inor baño ederrago zareana libertadeau joan jatan zuregana ni bizi izaatea zure eskuan dago remedioaren esperanzas beti nago zeña bakit larrosatxoa zugan dana 5 Espantadurik nago donzellea bioz oi nola dozu orrein kurela tratadu ze nagizu beti onela enzuzu dama guztioen estrellea gura dot relajadu kerellea osatu ene llageau nai badozu larrosa maiazekoa nola dozu enezat orrein gogor murallea 6 Donzellea piadadez ar nazazu barriz gura deusat erregutu katea geiagogaz ez ni lotu neure biozau libre jafindazu biurtu libertadea egidazu alegeratu didin ene gogoa zu serbizeko andi dot deseoa aldi bat zeure besoan narazazu 7 Ediraiten eztau inork munduan zu lako donzella bat ain lindarik sekula jaio ez da amoradurik ni duin firmerik ene lekuan enegaz jarri zatez partiduan zegaiti onezkero da denporea berba bat egidazu traidorea plazaz edo bestela estalduan 8 Nigana zaozela dirudizu enojadarik beti kausa baga askotan egote nax berba baga orein edolabere ze nafinzu aldi bat perla lindea egin egizu nigaz ordu bakox bat kunplidua zu zara ene begioen espilua azkero zeure eskuogaz il nagizu 9 Jaunorrek ez dindala ondasunik gogoau baldin badot bestegana orrein kruel izaten enegana nik mereszidu ez dot zureganik sekula nik ez oi dot beste lanik onela iragaiten jat gau egunak ain dira ene begiok elzaidunak zugana laster doaz eneganik 10 Beti begira nago zuregana ezin azartu nax ezer esaten kontentu deskontentuak puntu baten laster etorten dira enegana badozu zeure gogoa bestegana alferrik engañadu ze nagizu zeure gogoko barria esan egizu ikasi nik dagidan zugan dana 11 Parerik eztozuna al dakizu guztioen gañetiko larrosea eguzki ederraren esposea agaiti zuk onela narabilzu kundizio kurelok nai bekizu onezkero zeurganik ken zaitea beraro ar nazazu traidorea edo bestela noxbait il nagizu 12 Donzellea zuk banozu sentietan sentizen zaitut bai zeurori bere zuk banazauzu ni bai nik zu bere zuk nik legez nik zu zaut adietan ze gabilzaden beti puntuetan dagigun konbersadu alkargaz zu nigaz konfesadu ni zuregaz alkar darazagula besoetan 13 Nik negar dagidanean zu zaoz barrez nik barre dagidanean zu tristerik banago zure aldean jasarririk izuten dozu buruoi grabedadez berbarik badegizut poridadez gogorrik jarten zara bereala askota zu bazina pedernala edo ni sufrizeko baninzatxez 14 Neskea zara zu ta ni gizona zuk legez ditut nik narru zuriak zuk bere bai ni legez aragiak zuk legez ni bere dot gorpuz ona narabilzuna legez orra ona axeak oi darabil beletea zarean esadazu donzellea kastaz benturaetan amazona 15 Amorea da onako ez dakit zer bat etorten da arago eztakit nundi eztakit nola biozean sarzaite da zuk agin dagizuna egiteko dudazen badozu ene laztana asko da ditxoso desditxaetan nik ain on baneu bozau kantazeko padeszietan dodan doloreak __________ 26.— AITAK EZKONDU EZPANAGI 1 Jaio azkero serbidu deut ezkondu nagi onezkero ezkonketako edadea deut ogei urtean elduzkero zorigaxtoan jaio ninzan ezkondu baga il banadi aitak ezkondu ezpanagi neurauni ezkonduko nax sarri 2 Gau egunetan beti nago esekoakin deadarrez senar gureak oita nago esekoxeok beti barrez oraingaño gaztea ax ta urtexe baten goza adi aitak ezkondu ezpanagi neurauni ezkonduko nax sarri 3 Oi nolako atrenpea darabildan ankaetan banekike goruetan gonearekin atorrea saldu neike gorgerea aregaz ezer al banegi aitak ezkondu 4 Ain egin jat az andia neure zilonen artezean jarri banadi sugatean beroetan jat iturria egingo jat minoria remediadu ezpanadi aitak ezkondu ezpanagi 5 Nun bere baita asko dago enetako dolorerik ezta munduan morroerik nork desakedan nola ago orazio ta beti nago osoak aita jan balegi aitak ezkondu ezpanagi 6 Zerenzat deut lau bost gona ez aseginik arzaiteko gura dodana egiteko ebiliko nax orra ona artuko deut koipe ona denporatan el banadi / aitak / 7 Lege baliz eskaetan amorosari lanzetea banikeo nik aurraldea (Ezabatuta) eskuetan ukabila musuetan izorra ezpanaagi aitak ezkondu ezpanagi 8 Neurau baño nor? ete da ederrago donzellarik mutil gose on gurarik mundu guztian ez ete da banzito bati berba palagadu al banegi aitak ezkondu ezpanagi __________ 28.— AIN ON EMUN BALEUST KANTAZEKO 1 Ain on emun baleust kantazeko bozau naturalezaz bentureak nola emun eustan amoreak borondateau dama serbizeko edo nik izan baneu sufrizeko gatxoek biozau ainbat zabala zein dodan buruan bena liberala edozein kantaeta trobazeko 2 Bataz esango neuke doloreak bakotxik nenbilela illunetan dulzero nituala biderketan zugana kexaak eta klamoreak artu nengianean kolereak zure amorearren penazeko podere baneukaike tenplazeko neure begi beraoen alboreak 2 bis Ni nax izen onegaz firmaetan zurea izan nax izan da izango zu nungo zarean ni bereango eztot nik sobrenonbreau mudaetan beti nax jaio azkero bilaetan gauzea nola al zaidan kontentadu ezertan nik bazaitut enojadu nagozu sekulako penaetan 3 bada bere ditxaz desditxadua jaio bide ninzan ain tenporatan zeinaz benturea joaki jatan sekulako nigaz despedidua enezat faltadu zan kontentua enezat faltadu zan asegina enezat faltadu zan alegina enezat faltadu zan esporzua 4 Ene bearra da ezta zurea neurk konfesazen dot au alaclara zerren biur ez nezan txaolara neure begi luze ekusgurea bada bere ditxoso tenporea ditxoso begiak ditxoso oñak ditxoso burua ditxoso soñak ditxoso artu neben banderea 5 Ditxoso eguna nox galdu ninzan ain gauza andia irabazteko ditxoso lutua sarri jazteko ditxoso puntua zeinaz il ninzan ditxoso bioza zeina jarri zan zuregan ain ondo enklabadua ditxoso ni lako amoradua zegaiti gararrilean jaio ninzan 6 Ditxoso zuregaiti ilten dana ni legez bizi dala penaetan determinadu baga rendietan zugaiti kruel dala beregana ditxoso ni nolako kapitana ditxosa zu lako arerioa ditxoso ni lako arrilleroa zerren asesta nezan zuregana __________ 29.— NIK LANZETEAZ JO DIAT ETA Denpora baten izan ninzan amore minez tentadua donzella batek edegi zidan oi neure bioz koitadua egun askotan nik egin nagon modu askotan erregua arren osatu nengiala al izan gero medikua errespuesta emaiten zidan lizala neska onestua aita amaak likeoela berebiziko afrontua ni barriz gizon desditxaduau bizi nax bizi penadua egun batean artu neben neure ballesta armatua zagita zorroz bat ifini nagon berar gaxtoaz gantxitua laztanagana oi izan ninzan us egin baga giadua kamaraetan idoro neben santua legez pintadua neure aoau ifini neden palabra dulzez gantxitua bere zenzuna ifini nagon promesa askoz pobladu neure aragi gaxtoaganik izan ninzan ni tentadua ezin sufridu neikean biziagati tormentua pena artarik askatu nau ta bizi nax bizi kontentua Donostiako San Franziskuan agoan gizon soldadua donzelleoni egin jazak izta ondoan anditua nik lanzeteaz jo diat eta oi ik ezarrok enplastua __________ 31.— NI BADA ILGO NAX FORMA ONETAN Ni bada ilgo nax forma onetan zuk bada egizu gura dozuna mundu guztiak dakus dakusuna ni zugaiti naxana gastaetan alfer ifini naizu purgaetan ozpin barakazetan sekulako ez deraustae besterik aterako salbo bai zaitudala amaetan Garia pagazen da diruagaz dirua bere bai beste gauzakin bada bere ezta amoreakin amorez baize jarri igoalaz nik laztan bazaitut agaz beragaz pagatu bear dozu zeure zorra tenplazen dozula bioz gogorra amore jaunaren prezetuagaz __________ 32.— JAUN ZERUKOAI EMAITEN JAGOT Jaun zerukoai emaiten jagot oi asko geraziarik deseo neben okasio bat zerren nagoan jakinik nik orain diot inox ez zala ipui zarrik guzurrik zegaiti gauza eginik ezta munduan sekretokorik nik au onela esaterako asko da errazoarik oi geiago zufrietako eztot nik pazenziarik poeta gazte jakinduna ze zaoz engañadurik zu pagazeko faltako dala nigan entendimenturik egin dozuna egiterako ez dozu errazoarik zerren nik zuri eman eztizut artako okasiorik ez geiago nik egin ez dot zure basoan egurrik sekula barriz nik ez negian oi zure kontra berbarik obra barri bat ei daukauzu nigaiti konponidurik linda damea asko deusut nik aregaiti eskerik mesedeori serbietako eztot nik intereserik orretan bertan oi bear dozu geratu satisfetxarik onin batenaz adi nazazu badozu sentimenturik zure entendimentua bego gutxitan irazarrik bere burua oi bear leuke efini korrejidurik lenaengo ta gero juzgadu bestegan baliz tatxarik edo izanagaiti bere eugi enkubridurik au egiteka zugan asko da dama galanta kausarik zuri egiten ez jazun gero ezertan agrabiorik errazoarik ez daukazu niri ifinten koplarik ene kapea ojal ona da neure diruak kostarik iñoenari ezteusala bapere inbidiarik ene kapaak egon doaz ain ondo toleztadurik nola bazuen saboianea gauza usaiz beterik oita kapa bat emunagaiti ez nax geratu piloxik inori emun bajagot bere ez nago damu jakinik ene erriti oita zurera badago bidazidorrik oi aetati paseazeko eztot ardura lagunik bide artati iramo badot zure kalera gezirik ene laztana oi utra dago galanto enpleadurik zure lekuan ederra nor dan zeur ezpazara ez dakit zegaiti inor ederra dala gurean ez da famarik linda damea ni neurau nago galanto informadurik zure lekuan ez oi dala ederrez konfradiarik donzella eder juzgaetako asko bear da gauzarik onestidade parebagea fundamentuzat arturik mal pekado frutaau dago lekuorretan galdurik limosneraok salzaen dabe lekuan beste frutarik onin batenaz egon gura dot aldionetan exilik zegaiti arren eztit emaiten igitaiak lekurik bada nipere jarri badagit sekula barriz koplarik poeta gazte doña Elena ez nax egongo exilik au nik onela esaterako asko dot errazoarik berorren serbizaria nax ta ez niri barriz burlarik __________ 33.— AIDE ANDIOK BIDALDU DEUSTAE Aide andiok bidaldu deustae eskrebidurik kartea ezkondu gura nindukeela ene gogoko tristea oi eta bardin onela bada andia jatort kaltea zegaiti bein ezkonduzkero galdu dot libertadea onein batenaz oi kenduko jat amoraduen nonbrea eragoziko deraustae damaok serbietea akordaduko sekula ez jat kalean paseazea astirik barriz ez dot izango zear ifinten gorrea gabetan barriz ez jagot joko laztanai biguelea ez geiago oneretxiai bentanarean flautea debekatuko oi deustae ari egiten apea ez geiago ez jagot joko kontereagaz atea erraz daoke azkero geldi oi ene errodelea arkaan barriz erraz dafinket malla finezko kotea oi eztot zerren azkero janzi seda finozko kalzea ez geiago aren ganean zapata kutxilladea oi arrezkero nik ez dot zerren estudiadu danzea ez geiago dekoro jakin pabaneagaz bajea ondasunoek galdu badagit semea ditxabagea erruki nauzu neure aideak zegaiti nax ni gaztea oi oraingaño ez nax ni eldu oi bada ogei urtean oi eta barriz andiegi da ezkonduaren kargea bertati dakar gizonaenzat ardurea ta plagea enzuzu eta dirakasudan ezkonduaren dotea ezkondu eta lenaengoa ona dau ilabetea badanik bere bertati dauko kargutan aziendea berandu ezin eta gox jagi iruli sarri oean pensamentua darabilela leku askotan fedea pobrea bada zegaiti eztau zegaz sustendu honrea askotan estu oi bearko dau errelleagaz goldea izerdi orio franko bear dau oi bere bular artean maira datorrenean barriz baba zigorrez saldea zazpi librako tremes andia faisaezat aldean ardao zuri San Martingoa pitxerraz iturrirean ume txikik oi eta badau azaiketako losea aziazkero ezkonketako [...]idago polsea pobreonenzat oi gatxik asko aberasonek doblea mutil neskatoz lenaengoa bete bear dau esea oi eta aen gobernazeko bear dau andi manea pausorik asko egin bea dau sustentazeko plazea kontu andia bear dau egin ez erorteko area emazteori ona ezpadau esean erriertea alkar aditu ezpadagie ez dabil ondo esea kapelaetan darabiltela beti aragi errea aragionen jaaterako asekabazko salsea abenietan badira bere ezta fatako kargea interesean beti darabil gizonak borondatea ama askoren seme askogaz bear dau batu urtean ordu askotan oita bear dau iregi bere polsea semerik badeu esaten jago aita egidak jakea ari jakea egin orduko alabeorrek gonea oi ainbat dazust lazeria ze eraetan jat fedea oni aparta al dagiona ditxa onezko semea edolabere urten artean ogeta amar urtean neuronek ala egin gura dot bizi al baninz artean jaun zerukoak arren dindala kunplietako ditxea nigaz ezkondu gura dabena sosega bidi bakean oi onegaiti itxaden begi dozenaxe bat urtean artean barriz goza dezadan oraingo libertadea oi oni luze deretxanori ze bego ene ustean oi nitaukautat emazte on bat zeña dan ama andrea jaun zerukoak oni demala bizi ona ta luzea zegaiti onek sustenduko nau egunean da gabean gradu andian jarririk nago ene egi ta fedea oi orain ez letorket ondo arereanik jastea orain dama bat serbietan dot lindea parebagea oi eztauko mereszidurik niganik anzietea egin deustan mesedeak serbidu jagin artean zegaiti nei traspasadu amorearen legea oraindo beti izan nax oi amoradu firmea orain ez neuke errazoarik izenau borraetea ez geiago gazta zaroau ain laster anzietea klaramente dakustan gero galzaite libertadea ezkonduzkero probetxaetan oi ezta damuketa uztarriori ezarrizkero sufridu bear goldea orapilagaz lotu azkero neke da askaetea gauza fortiza oi dana bakust ezkonduaren kargea karga andia sufrietako oraindo nax gaztea azaiteau galdu lerait ardura usazakeak ene aginok ezin jan leie aragi erre bagea estomagoau galdu leiket bianda probazakeak oean kalentureak liket lagunik baneu aldean laster batean oi lirazueket beste mundura bidea gauza sakona bide da izan isaso ondar bagea neure buruau ez nei ondo andratan konfiazea ene aideak oi arren au da neuronen respuetea akordaetan ez dodala ain laster ezkonketea __________ 34.— DITXA BAGEAU JOAN NINZAN Ditxa bageau joan ninzan ezer baga eskuetan esaiorrez topa nindin gradaetan legoala ballesta bat armaetan traidorea zer da onela zer egin deuk jauregietan eiz ona itxi dinat menaetan igo eginda asi adi mozietan ni banajoa salsearen aurkietan ez al deustak baldin egia kontaetan igo egin laster eze eurk dakusken erietan igo neben bista bga begietan neure jaunak baesadan nora zatoz penaetan ene jauna zer diostazu zer daukazu bularretan zagita bat eben daukat azarri ez nax tiraetan konfesorea bekardae lasterretan ene jauna jarri zatez sillaetan nork egian kolpeori zure aragi ederretan Garzilasok ene andrea nengoala menaetan bigueleaz kanzio baten kantaetan il banadi nik deusat parkaetan bizi banax jakingo deut bengaetan au esanda il ekidan eskuetan andra ditxa bageau barriz sei ilekoaz maiaetan ene esai traidorea pozik kalza juponetan tristea nengoan iru ileko egunetan asekaba garraz asko oi nebela sufrietan sabelekoaz ez ninzala gozaetan senar baga jarri ninzan belaunetan amaeka ilabete neure jauna goza nezan ala andrea ditxa baga sortu bazan neskaetan zerren il ez ete ninzan jaio ninzan egunetan seme batez erdi ninzan digna ez ninzan gozaetan ilabete ez egian ama bereaen ugazetan arrezkero ene semea eztakust neure begietan ondo uste dot galdu zala isasoaren ondarretan Garzilaso traidoreak agindu eben undaetan az txikirra biozagaz lekarroela señaletan gumutatu ez lekion bere aita eskaetan ala bada eroan eben mandamentua kunplietan aide baga bakox nago desditxadeau eresketan gizon batek or daroa inozentea besoetan isasaldea beera doa bere buruaz berbaetan il agidala jaunak jaustak aginketan bioza ta az txikirra daroadala señaletan inozentea damu diat ain gatx andia obraetan borondate jaukaat al badagit salbaetan bere begiak erazala (Irakurtezina) negarretan gizon onau baegoan zer leikean pensaetan txakurtxo bat an eldu zan ur aldeti eizketan gizon onak dei eginda lotu eben gibeletan atera deuso biozori gorde dau kalzamudoetan inozentea efini dau lau azetan lotu deuso eskutxoa ust eztidin odoletan estali dau seitxoa arrai bazuen kontxaetan Garzilasok esan eusan senaleagaz kunplietan az txikirra biozagaz emun deuso eskuetan utra kontenturik dago forma onetan berbaetan __________ 35.— EGUN BATEAN SARTU NINZAN Egun batean sartu ninzan billa on baten bakarrik amorearen min berarraz ondo deskuidadurik pensamentuau ez neukala nik agan okupadurik aen podere andiagaz ez nedukala konturik seguro ustez ez nioean bapere prebenidurik neure begiok neroeala librero desplegadurik traidoreonen redeagaz ez neben memoriarik uste dot eze ninoeala lo ze ez irazarririk bizi ninzala uste neben arduraba librerik neure buruau banedukan zaarzat jubiladurik tenpora baten amoreorrek bazugaz konsultadurik bere korteti ni baninduan ezarri desterradurik ala ni bada egun azkero nengoan despedidurik uste ez neben izango zala sekula amistaderik egin eusten agrabioa amoreonek ezaunik __________ 36.— OI GIZON BATEK ERREGE BALEU ENOJADU Aquí comienza un tratado de lo que verdaderamente aconteszera antes y el día del temeroso juicio y el galardón y premio que los buenos y los malos han de rescebir según sus obras compuesto por Lazarraga sometido al gremio y corresción de la Santa Madre Iglesia arrimado a la fe y al mejor juicio Invocación a la madre de Dios Oi gizon batek errege baleu enojadu enojaduta asko maneraz afrontadu itaunketan dot oi leikean azertadu atrebimentuz oi balekio arrimadu nik ez neike al egiala konsejadu zerren leike oita bertati kondenadu badanik bere amea baleu ain onradu onrada eta bere semeaz konzertadu oita zeñari semeak leion otorgadu eska lekion mesedea ta konfirmadu banexexkeo oi legiola umilladu gatx egilea andra oni ta suplikadu bere semeari oi legiola alkanzadu parkazioa zerren lebela enojadu oita bertati ameak leike azeptadu erreguxeau zeñak leian prokuradu oi legiola seme jaunorrek otorgadu kulpaduaren barkazioa ta konfirmadu bada jentea zerren daigun atajadu esan dogunau arren daigun aklaradu jakin egizu oita dogula enojadu jaun zerukoa zerren ditugu kebrantadu oi mandamentu santuak eta traspasadu zegaiti dogun pena andi mereszidu infernuetan daoz zuenzat grilluak zerren deustazun oi ausi mandamentuak oi laster zoaz gaxto deskomulgaduak ez indan jaate oita nengusun orduan nola nengoan goseak ilik munduan ez ze egidan surik oz ninzan orduan oi ez ninduzun ai rekojidu neguan gaxo ninzala ez nindukazun kontuan ez geiago katigu nenzan lekuan esango dabe kondenaduak orduan oi nox zenbilzen orrinbat gatxez munduan eldu ez zara guek geonzen lekuan exilik zaoz eranzungo dau orduan jaun zerukoak oi au desoen puntuan akorda zatez oi eta zarriz kontuan zin bat joazen ebili pobre munduan goseak ilik ozak bere bai kanpuan oi zuetara joan joazen orduan limosna eske jaungoikoaren kontuan zuek oegaz oi kontu gitxi orduan orain zaoza gumuta dezun lekuan zuelakoak egon doazen moduan utra gaxtoto bizi zinean munduan ataidea ez zeukala kontuan ene gauzarik ez zeukala buruan beti zeonzen Satanasekin jokuan pensamentuok ifini baga zeruan traspasadurik oi ene mandamentak oi debozio gutxi zeukan tenpluan sazerdoteak meza esate orduan ez geiago predikaeta orduan oi zuen gatxok utra dakust nik klaruan zoaz da zarriz infernuaren zoruan finik izango ez daben asientuan ernegaduko dabe gaxtoak orduan enjendraduta jaio zirean puntuaz egingo dabe oita onela llantuak ernegazen dot oi konfesore juduaz zerren ninduzun oi asolbidu orduan oi egin baga penitenzia munduan oi konfesore kondenaduak orduan eranzungo dau oi au danzuan puntuan ernegazen dot zugaz madarikatua zerren ninduan zuk engañadu tenpluan on izango nax esan zeustan orduan eongo dira onela kondenaduak sekularekoz finik ez daben lekuan oi onak barriz beti kontentamentuan zerren deuste jaunak esango orduan oi zatoz zatoz neuronen eskojiduak jasarri zatez padarisuko reñuan zeña dagoan zuenzat asinadua oi zerren nauzun beti eugi kontuan oita munduan bizi zinean orduan kunplidu dozu oi ondo mandamentuak goza nazazu neure aitaren tronuan oita goazen ene bedeikatuak joango dira onak norbere kontuan jarriko dira angeruakin zeruan __________ 37.— NAI EKION NIK AREN KONTRA Nai ekion nik aren kontra oi ez nedukan kexarik ez eben gura nik aren kausaz egin negian negarrik ekusen gero ez neukana ezertan bere bearrik bere kriadu leialaz nola a nizaz akordadurik dei egin zidan neure izenaz neurk baize sentizakarik zu nundi zabilz amoradua bakotx deskonsoladurik ene kabaña realerean ala deskarriadurik gora ezazu zeure begiok badozu sentimenturik amorea naiz eta nakusu baldin badozu begirik nik berbaoek nenzuanean andiro admiradurik txapez lurrean efini neben belaunok umilladurik eskuaz sonbreroa kenduta buruau inklinadurik neure begiok goratu neben bildurra posponidurik ekusi neben odei zuri bat zagitaz ingiraturik __________ 38.— ELEXA SANTA DEBOTA BAT DA Elexa santa debota bat da monezterio barria relijiosaz beterik dago barru aldeti guztia San Bernardoren abitoa ojal balza ta zuria egiten dabe utra santaro barruan penitenzia jaun zerukoak emunik dabe partikulare grazia eurak dakite kuraetan min oria ta gorria Jan Doneanez Bautistea zeruan santu argia mundu guztian zelebrazen da jaun onen eguzaria tenporea da ebelteko azeptoa ta garbia bezpera artan jentez oi da aiuntamentu andia galai galantok ara doaz egiten erromeria __________ 39.— AREN ERDITAN SILLA BERDE BAT Aren erditan silla berde bat moraduz jaspeadurik silla onetan baegoan sei eder bat jarririk narru zuriak estalzerako ez eben bestidurarik tafetan gorriz oi bazedukan begiak rebozadurik esku batean arko galanpat fletxeaz adreszadurik forma onetan nik nedukala zenzunau elebadurik ene aldeti igaro zidin dama bat enrizadurik ene parean eldu eta krianzaz komedidurik ongi etorri zu jauna baize ez esan beste gauzarik neska berbea nenzuanean txitxitez alteradurik baxadu neben neure begiok zeruko altureanik donzella linda graziosea nengoan lekureanik debisa nezan zerbait lizana neuregan rezeladurik ari begira nengoala ondo disimuladurik izerdi batek artu ninduan penadu ninduan bizirik sentidu neben amorearen arkua desarmadurik ene bioza bazegoana kolpeaz maltratadurik bertati boz bat adi nezan zeruko odei artarik serbi nezala donzella ura ordu bat faltazazarik eranzun nagon ni nozun gero efinten obligadurik donzella oni ez emun jauna ni eraiteko armarik eparaetan bardin bajazu beste zagita zorrozik onen biozau nai bekizu efini senaladurik erreguketan didazun gero asko dot borondaterik efiniko dot orren bioza zureaz orapildurik au esan eta amorioak agana begiraturik bere arkua armatu eben amen bat beranzakarik donzella urak ekusenean ala determinadurik akojidu zan sagradura ark emun baga kolperik ni arrezkero beti nago amore minez gaxorik ai ene desditxadua bada ezpadot remediorik __________ 40.— BERE MAKESA ATERA DAU ZORROZIK Bere makesa atera dau zorrozik ebagi deuso belaaria baterik lanternea eskuan eroanari orduan jaunak umildadez beterik agindu eusan ez lemala besterik modu onetan oita berba jakinik sar ezak Peru gabineteoi geldirik bere lekuan ze egik beste gauzarik armaz inor il dagiak armaz il bearko dik Jan Done periak ez egian besterik sartu egian gabinetea exilik juduak bariz asko eukan negarrik zerren eusan belaaria ebagi jaun zerukoak umildadez beterik belaarria ifini deuso osorik oek guztiok ortuan iragarorik eroan eben Kristo bera loturik Jerusalemen sartu da arrastradurik asko daroae juduok alaridurik jaiten dabela asko tronpeta garrazik euren biozak kontentamentuz beterik traidoreak txu egiten deusae losa bagerik bai geiago ostean asko burlarik __________ 41.— MARI LOPEZKO EDERREZA Canción para cantar por alguna persona que ha murmurado Mari Lopezko ederreza (Gainean: atrebidea) ez esan sekulan gauzik (Ezabatuta: arren zaoke exilik) baldin gura ezpadozu ez difinzuen tatxarik berbarik asko esan oi duzu (Aurrekoarekin ordezkatuta: oi aserratu deraustazu) ene ausenzian eginik (Aurrekoarekin ordezkatuta: zeurorrek ala gurarik) bada nik bere irabazi (Aurrekoarekin ordezkatuta: baia bardin irabazi) ez dozu gona barririk (Aurrekoarekin ordezkatuta: ez dozu agaz honrarik) zierto obato izango zan egon bazina exilik oi bada bere berba gureak ez dizu emun lekurik Luzuriagan jaio zinean Langarikan zaoz kalterik oi gutxiago esaterako nik ez dot pazenziarik berbarik asko erraz dasaket zuk ala mereszidurik zeure aoan dozu agiri an ez dozuna kilzarik (Lerro artean: freurik?) oi zu ederra izan ez arren nik ez daukat bearrik oi onegaiti gatx esalea (Ezabatuta: ene laztana) ze eukakezu penarik zerren zu (Lerro artean: txipi) balza izanagaiti asko da (Lerro artean: galai) dama galantik Oi Langarikan egonagaiti ez artu soberbiarik (Lerro artean: amoraduok egonagati) ezkondu gura baldin badozu (Lerro artean: estao zure) asko daukezu senarrik Peru errotxek asko dauko esean seme galantik areantxe bat oi al badozu bila ze zatez besterik uste badozu iñon ez dala a ta zu lako beste bi ipirdietan deikiozu erraz mun biok alkarri juramentu egiten jagot (Lerro artean: adiketan duen guztiori) obian dazan amari nigan miirik badafinzu ez egoteko exilik (Lerro artean: ezai izanagaiti) zerren zu ederra izanagaiti ez dot bapere bildurrik (Lerro artean: penarik) osaba jaunaz ezpazeonza jakin egizu niganik alogoroak oi neukala zurezat ondo gorderik oi aren serbizaria nax ta ez dot esango besterik (Lerro artean: berba dollorok gorde egizu) oiñ eskuetan mun egiozu ez niri barriz burlarik __________ 42.— SALBATIERRA EGUN EI DAGO TRISTERIK Historia de la quema de Salbatierra que fue a primero de agosto del año del nascimiento del Señor 1564 compuesta por Lazarraga Salbatierra egun ei dago tristerik oita dabela egiten asko negarrik zerren jarri da guztia destruidurik ez da geratu barruan ese galantik zerka zabalok jarri ei dira bakarrik oi onezkero ez da merkatu bearrik apain ze bedi oita donzella galantik erraz daoke Araba lutoz janzirik ez ara eroan barrundiarra frutarik Nafarroarik jasi ze bidi gararrik Salbaterrarrak ez egin barriz justarik erraz zaozke oi ondo gaztigaturik jaun zerukoak onela permitidurik ezin esan dot egon bear dot exilik flakezeonen estit emaiten lekurik balia bekit oi badot adiskiderik ifini nagi oi arren esporzadurik konta dezadan dolorez asko koitarik ez dakienak daozen abisadurik asi gura dot nanzuzu zaoz exilik mila ta bosteun urte alkarri eranzi irurogeta lau geiago ganeti da jaio zala jaun zerukoa justorik abuztu ilak egun bat kunplizakarik oita jagi zan su ori utra fortizik Salbaterragaz andiro enojadurik portaleetan komienzua arturik oita erre dau Jan Doneanez kalterik kanpaak bere txapitelegaz arturik bobedaxeok itxi dau eurok bakarrik zerren ez dago nork sokorridu jenterik zerren eozen izurriteaz urtenik ifini dabe oi eta asko penarik komarkaetan ara balloa gizonik zerren eozen larrin guztiak beterik persona askoz izurriagaz gaxorik oi jente asko egoan pare bagarik ara begira oi ezin sokorridurik su ori barriz oi beti soberbiorik ez eukala bapere piadaderik izurridunak asko eukaen llanturik nork bereari oi ezin kobru emunik etorri dira oi barri onok enzunik komarkaetan eozenok rekojidurik oita lebela egiten asko negarrik zerren ekusten eben guztia galdurik galdurik eta suorrek abrasadurik emun al baga bapere remediorik al egienak esporzuz animadurik ateraetan asi zirean tristerik aziendea dolorez kontu bagarik andiok barriz utra negoziadurik euren eseak oi ezin defendidurik ala galdu zan lekuau desastradurik enparazaka ese bat baize besterik asko erre da barruan joia galantik bai geiago oi asko arka garirik askok dauko bioza ondo errerik eugiko bere sekula osazarik eukaiteko asko da errazoarik zerren egin da oi asko kalte andirik guraso asko jarri da ume bagarik umeak bere oita guraso bagarik asko dabilza kureldo desterradurik nork bere ese apaindurean urtenik oita dabela ekusten asko penarik zerren ez daukae nun paseadu kalerik ez geiago erregalozko tendarik ez geiago alkate rejimenturik jaunak dabela oi asko geraziarik bizi garean guztiok rekojidurik oi ez kargadu nork bere konzenziarik jaunak ez digun oita gaztigu besterik ez inor egin <eze>r lukuru gauzarik ez geiago konzenziazko traturik ez erabila deretxo baga auzirik eroan ustez inori aziendarik ze eukaikezu iñogaz injuriarik proximoari ez egin agrabiorik akorda zatez zaoza irazarrik Salbaterrai ez artu soberbiarik zerren dakusu oi asko profeziarik jaun zerukoak zuri bidaldu jaginik adietako badezu miramenturik ez konsentidu zeure lurrean gaxtorik rejimentua ifinzu abisadurik ez dagiala bide ez daben gauzarik oi dafinela republikea garbirik bazterrok bere oi ondo gobernadurik begirauzu ez egin beste gauzarik __________ 43.— ZERU ZABALA OI ESTALI DA IZARREZ Zeru zabala oi estali da izarrez ene begiak asi zatez negarez ene bioza erdira zatez dolorez Jerusalem gaur bete da traidorez jaun zerukoa an ei dabil klamorez saldu dabela oi eta Judas traidorek asper ze zatez jentea negar egitez ikara jabilt lau laurenok bildurez arren nanzuzu jaun zerukoaen amorez konta dezadan pasio santua dolorez Eguaunari eguaunguren esanik zeruko jauna <jarria> zan tristerik oi leukala asko pensamenturik biozean da dolorez amargurarik zerren eukan Judasek gaxki saldurik judeguakin aurraz berba eginik ogeta amar <monedaz saldurik> Entregazeko Jesukristo loturik traidoreasak ondo disimuladurik afariori aurkietan baebilen solizitorik aurkitu eta dei egin deuso umilik umilik eta lisonja askoz beterik joan zan jauna dizipulook arturik afaritan maia bedeikaturik nun esan eusten guztiai berba jaginik eben dago ni naukana saldurik eranzun eben guztiak espantadurik benturaetan ez al nax bada jauna ni neuronek bakit arren extazu exilik jagi zidin afaritarean tristerik guztiai oñak garbitu eusten bertxeak umilladurik nun esan eusten asko palabra dulzerik gero joan zan guztiai ala etxirik amabietan [...]kojidurik __________ 44.— LEKU ON BAT DA ESKOZIA De la señora Maria Estibaliz de Sasiola Leku on bat da Eskozia obeagoa da Beneszia ene aldeko lagunoni elkaenzako flakezia nai deban orduetako andia dakar fantasia bosteun dukat kosta jakan baroeoni balentia emperadore jaunaganik ekarizea lizenzia eleizara juen oi naiz egin oi det bekatu abemaria asi baize ezin oi det notatu liburuan bere jari oi naiz begi neureok lausotu fraidia predikazen jarri izik ezin aditu ofrendara dianea ondo oi det miratu sagara gora dianean amore lindeaz oroitu amore linda galantorek gogoan oi ni banindu lagunok baiez diostau neuronek ezin sinistu neuronek esin neio baia egingo digot mandatu arenzat jaio ninzala ta enagiala largatu es bisteak konsolat[...] ez egonak amorat[...] ez maian asentatu[...] ez oean albergatu[...] jaun zerukoa estagik[...] gizona onein amor[...] laztan enea nai gara[...] sure atean arteti aren agun zaite[...] sakuskedan leiotik [...] egun artan nik ez ne[...] munduan lizan bear speranzeak bizi oi [...] erri onezat atean speranzea galdu oi dot errira natorronea[...] ene lastan zuri ederra zure laztan ni banari kontu estua emango digozu zeruetako jaunari munduan diran podere oro eskuan dituanari bazinaki gogoa lastana biozekoa [...]re minez ilgo banaiz [...]udatu jaun zerukoa [...]more linda galant bata [...]ne amore berria [...]ura dakustan ordu orotan [...]rzean ur det irria [...]a estakustanea [...]ldea malenkonia [...]gun ekusi estet eta [...]oi ene bekataria [...]sigarika banendorren [...]patu egun batean [...]estanarekin enkontra nezan [...]an Juanen aurea [...]e iru matalotekin [...]uza galanta joean zazpi urtekoz ekari nau gajoturik oea korzierrean irte neban baii? joean kalean debotaro enzutera birjinearen mezea Madalena santea da ene abogadea arren emon degidala eska nakion doea arimakoz eta gorpuzekok obe dedan bidea ene laztan biozekoa kortes enseinadea eri onetan bestek eztu ar oi deban librea Franziako armak dakaz goian eta bean aren ekuzten etoriko naiz lebante urrunerean biok ondo izango gara mundan garan artean paradisu ereinuan mundutik goazenean __________ 45.— ITAI LELO I BAI LELO Itai lelo i bai lelo etxean arai leloa damarika dan galantaena Belagai Butroekoa Belagaia dioza eta korionean jajoa oreanik jagi ninzan astelen goizean eskuetan busti eta kalera nirteanean ene lastan zuri ederra berdurakin aurean soinean gonaz ondo jazita jurapa oria gainea gerian gerikoa eder solea sotil oinea bularteria trapua zuri labradurak urrea donzellakin fordelizak lepoan goienainean donzella batek jozi zeban Iruneko kalean niri ondo kosta jakin Gipuskoako lurrean orain aldiaz aita deza[...] Gaztelako noblezia Burgus ta Toledo ta Kordoba ta Sibillia [...]ko e Rei[...] Barzelona ta Balenzia Napol erri noblea da arek urrean Kalabria Genoako kondaduan Pisakin Florenzia Pullalekin Ferrera baino obeagoa da Beneszia munduak klaramentean daki zurca dana Zizilia [...]ostaenez lezu on dira Toskanarekin Lonbardia aek gustiak baino bere obeago ene amore oneszia __________ 56.— KOPLA ZENBAKITUAK 51 Bada nola kantadu ezpadaki edo zer kantadu ezpadauko eztau musiko inor benziduko 52 Askok enzuten dau nik probadu dot polseak ez ebena enlazadu aoak egiala alkanzadu 53 Esazu zegaiti danzuanean jaio barri danak kantaetea loak benzizen dau inozentea 54 Arzaiten dau enzunago deskansua zerren arimeetan klaramente dago musikea beti presente 55 Bada sei batek arzaiten badau kantu sinple batez ainbat deskansu zerren ez gazteak baldin badanzu 56 Esan badagizu ezta faltako neurk jakin ez arren badogu diru juglare pare bat nogaz konplidu 57 Apukaduko jazu bein barriz alkilazen bazabilz lagun ona beste bati apuka egiona 58 Gizon bat ebilen utra galdurik donzella eder baten serbietan zeiñak amorez eben penaetan 59 Urte bat eta bi bost eta amar kastadu egian desditxaduak beti bere minaz fatigaduak 60 Gizon onek seme bat badukan kantalari guztiz graziosoa gazte lindo kortes kuriosoa 61 Baegion aiteak erregutu gau baten arren lagun legiola zerren asegin andi leiola 62 Semeak baeson ni asegin dot aita egin zure mandamentua zerren ori da ene kontentua 63 Bajoazen bada gau illun baten aitea ta seme biak batera aitearen bioza koplazera 60 Baeson aiteak ene semea neuri bano oba deretxudana ebentxe bizi da ene laztana 61, 65 Bada bear dozu dagoan gero gau aroau illun fresko ta oza dulzero kopladu ene bioza 62, 66 Tenplazen asi zan biguelea kontentaetarren bere aitea esanjk ai Jesus ene koitea 67 Comienza la musica M 1 Udabarri guztiz alegerea maiazeko lora ederraena ze indazu beti oneinbat pena M 2 Gau illun onetan egizu argi irargi zuria eta ederra rendidurik nago ze bekit gerra M 3 Dakusun azkero ene negarrok ene laztan maite bioz gogorra nola zara nigaz mutu ta gorra M 4 Zer irabazten dozu ni ilagaz edo zer ideraiten anzituaz edo zer galzaite ni osatuaz M5 68 Mereszidu ezpadot ezer bere neure partez zerren naxan pobrea zureti bai zerren naxan zurea M6 Begiratu baga zuk ni nor naxan salbo zu zeurori nungo zarean nidokazu nagoan penarean M7 Nik eztot galduko esperanzea alferrik izango da kurelago naiz beaza begit naiz alago M8 Edo nafinzu barrez sekulako edo zuk indazu bizi tristea zuregan dan azkero emaitea M9 Ni ez nagozu eske fiadurik ez urregorria ez laborea salbo zor deustazun amorea M10 Ene aragiok ikara dabilz ainbat sartu jate zure bildur beretxat naxala gaxtolaz M 11 Begiok irekazu gutxi baten eta inka ezazu orrerean zeure sierbo onen biozean M 12 Zegaiti dakusan nola dagoan ia bizi onegaz aspertua minez mila lekutan zulatua M13 Zegaiti dakizun zeurk ekusita ez naxana min baga kexaetan baize justo naxala eskaetan M14 Eske nagozuna ene laztana akorda badezazu ukazea nik bere ukazen dot bizizea M 15 Juzgazen badozu uleonegaz ozitu jatala niri odola indarsuak ditut birlo? ta bola 91 Erdeeraazko ipui batek la bieja escarmentada berba(Irakurtezina) lebela regazada paso el r(Irakurtezina) 92 Nik bere jaunorrek ala gurarik probadu dot mina eta dulzea bietan busti da ene ulzea 93 Konkluizen dot nik onein bategaz inor izango bada abisadu bear dau forzoso enamoradu 94 Gizon damaogaz eztaukana konbersazioa gusdu anditan bioa porra batez arraitan * * * 37 Sentidu baga kastazen da andiro aziendea galzaiten dogu kreditoa joia inestimablea 38 Egiten dogu delito bat guztiz indolerablea andiro ofendietan dogu guztioen kriadorea 39 Onegaz enojaetan dogu guk aren majestadea alborotadu daroagu birtuosooen bakea 40 Alteradurik jasarten da pueblo popularea guk barez irabazten dogu infamearen nonbrea 41 Zeina dan gizon gaztearenzat asa dakarren sar(Irakurtezina)ea zuk eta zure lako (Irakurtezina) barriz efinia eztaben penea 42 Sobrenonbre bat jenerala pue(Irakurtezina)zeaz etea Martin ga(Irakurtezina)ko prime ain barri zuk niri itaunke(t)ea 43 Utra da neskak egiteko pregunta losabagea badanik bere dozuna legez aragi gaxto gosea 44 Estilo onzat artu dozu erro bakotx bat jaiztea ai arren bada gald(Irakurtezina) oi zola ortu artako frutea 45 Ilinti gatxek poda dezala an jaiaiten dan boreea astean bein balezarzue aus oza ta brasea agaz osatu lekidizu matadurako frezea [...] 64 Arereanik aterazu il baten kalaberea espilu artan mira zatez neskame engañadea 65 Agan kontenpla badezazu gogoaz biozerean urteten prokuraduko dozu zaozen kostunbrerean 66 Nik barriz erreguketan dizut kunplietan dan gauzea nigana gia eztezazula sekula zeure barkea 67 Ene plazaan ze efinzu zeure gorpuzez tendea zegaiti ez dot nik erosiko an jarri didin frutea 68 Konkluizen dot onein bategaz salba prolixidadea nik uste baño luze izan da kartako parabolea 69 Bakit jarriko zareana nigana enojadea nik aregaiti ez nei emun txoritxo baten lumea 70 Zeurorrek emun dozun gero kausa orejinalea remediozat ar ezazu zeurorrek sufrietea 71 Aserraturik egon arren ez dot isiko polsea lau dukat bidalketan dizut moneda alegerea 72 Estal ezazu oriegaz zeure nezesidadea on zara eze ezta faltako zeruko ruziadea * * * 31 Kabuan emaiten dau firmadurik konklusioz zer zera berzerea nebeaz bear dala terzerea 32 Ai ala gatxaren guztiz fortiza ala biziaren bizi bedarra benzu munduak ene deadarra el 33 autor Ona bada senoras klaramente nun relatadu dan zuen bizia zeina dan zuenzat guztiz gazia 34 Bada zeurk bazenduan eskojidu zeurezat orrelako bizizea zurazat ar ezazu sufrizea * * * 19 Zu bazarade serbietan jakiten naxan nungoa baldin badozu adietan erri artako berbaetan ni banax Arabakoa Copla 20 Urte askotan bizi banax ezin nagoke arabaga bardin da usdu dodan banax neure izenaz nonbraeta nax Joan Perez de Lazarraga 21 Amoreorrek il egidan zagita batez bioza libertadea gal ekidan aren ordeko baegidan prendatan etxi izoza 22 Agindu zidan negiala dama eder bat serbidu ark niri barriz legidala gabaz egunaz alabala kontrariozat segidu 23 Beti nabil kasoau dala trabajadua azkero inox ditxarik eztodala benzedorezat atabala jo jagiteko sendoro 24 Desditxaduau ditxaetan beti narabil galdurik akordadu dot erietan desiertuko errietan ez ebilterren saldurik zazpi egun da nabilela lekuti despedidurik ene zaldiau dabilela berau piloto berau bela jan baga fatigadurik 25 Jakizu bada gura badozu ene jenaok euradu aideok deseazen dabe leku onera giaetan ziertu prokurazen babe birretan erabildu nabe donzella bigaz ezkonketan 26 Basoetati ebili naiz ez erri zelaietati ni gizonegaz batu ez naiz ia ja kasi txitez il naiz eztakust begietati 27 Ziertamente au da bada donzella poderosea ene mina ta dubda baga puntu bat enkubridu baga kontadu dizut prosea 28 Nik au onela nesonean goratu eben burua jagi gindizen arerean puntu artarik bertarean illundu zidin zerua 29 Ene semea baesadan artu egizu esporzu zugaz asegin ar dezadan gatxori repara dezadan ielmo ori eronzu 30 Ainbat tenpora dan azkero zabilzadela galdurik eben aseden eta gero joan zatezke kaballero andiro mejoradurik 40 Galdu balegi gizon batek begietako bistea gero mediku andi batek __________ 47.— TESTU SOLTEAK Al baneza dakidan legez euroen arteko apetitoa batek emun lezaket abitoa Bada bere jaunaz ez nafinela serbida bada ni pauso laz artan parkatu ez nago ni denporatan * * * Konsolaitan naiz da konsola zaitez konsolaitan naiz ni beti negares on da pazenzia sufri[...] balez galterik asko iatork neure beares ene gau egunok ga- ziok dolorez lorik ezin egin dot amore minez dako ita dolorez oi ene laztanari alan- zairez balia da- kidala launa amorez ezpa- ilgo naiko dabe rore? minez * * * Ene laztan zuri ederra flordelisea zara zu arren zatozke ene oera beti ze egidazu gerra borondaterik badozu * * * Piloxik jaio ninzan pilox nago piloxik ilgo nax ni gero bere ezteusta gaiti(Irakurtezina)enze bapere * * * Danon korrua leku askotaik ondo akompañadua dama galantak ara doaza galanti adornaduak gustietati lorea dira orduan Axpurukoak * * * Estandarterik onaena Jesukristoren kurzea gauzarik ezta ain zierturik nola dan eriozea * * * Amorea da onako zer bat nundi datorren eztakit * * * Casaras y amansaras pare baga arek la leña kerellea (Irakurtezina) zuk barizta gora dei eropena eore * * * Mendi altuan erura daidi aran baxuan eguzki mendiarank gustiak baino ene koitaok naguzi ikaz laztan ninduan donzella batek aurten nai ez ekei laster kanbiatu ninduan deseo ebenagaiti * * * Leku ona Bikuña soloan soloan muiña edozeinek gura leike angoa bere suiña 2721 2005-10-25T14:14:36Z 212.142.143.114 A deler 1522 2722 2005-10-28T00:14:42Z 213.46.224.101 [http://33100.a.mq6.info 0] [http://51903.a.mq6.info 1] [http://2551.a.mq6.info 2] [http://68344.a.mq6.info 3] [http://128570.a.mq6.info 4] [http://19982.a.mq6.info 5] [http://32681.a.mq6.info 6] [http://17128.a.mq6.info 7] [http://104835.a.mq6.info 8] 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2899 2005-12-11T08:39:05Z Zigger 5 Blanked link-spam 2901 2005-12-14T00:46:14Z 202.56.253.183 [http://www.g155.info 0] 2908 2005-12-15T19:48:53Z Hégésippe Cormier 6 blanked: spam 2909 2005-12-17T02:37:39Z 203.115.1.134 [http://www.f9zs.info 0] 2910 2005-12-19T23:56:27Z Hégésippe Cormier 6 blanked: spam 1575 2817 2005-11-30T21:09:38Z 138.25.254.4 [http://www.zya9.info 0] 2818 2005-12-01T02:38:39Z 128.12.33.99 rm linkspam; I am [[w:en:User:Mxn]] [[w:vi:User:Mxn]] 2824 2005-12-01T06:55:24Z 195.39.170.102 [http://www.zya9.info 0] 2827 2005-12-01T12:51:16Z Zigger 5 Blank link-spam by 195.39.170.102. 2884 2005-12-06T16:40:57Z 210.178.65.93 [http://www.010b.info 0] 2889 2005-12-10T03:22:48Z 64.24.35.14 [http://www.e16.info 0] [http://www.e16.info 0] 2895 2005-12-11T08:37:06Z Zigger 5 Blanked link-spam 2942 2005-12-29T11:51:26Z 212.165.142.178 [http://16092.V.5g6y.info 0] [http://31078.V.5g6y.info 2] [http://74838.V.5g6y.info 4] [http://32412.V.5g6y.info 6] [http://44505.V.5g6y.info 8] 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[{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=purge}} ↺] [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|oldid={{REVISIONID}}}} rev-ID : {{REVISIONID}}]<br /> [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:special:Prefixindex|from=Gangleri&namespace=2}} special:Prefixindex|from=Gangleri&namespace=2] <br clear="all" /> __NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__ ===== [[commons:User:Gangleri]] ===== [[Image:Redirect arrow without text.png|left]] ::* '''irc://irc.freenode.net/wikimedia''' ::* [[wikipedia:de:Benutzer:Gangleri]] ::* [[wikipedia:en:User:Gangleri]] ::* [[wikipedia:eo:Vikipediisto:Gangleri]] ::* [[wikipedia:is:Notandi:Gangleri]] ::* [[wikipedia:ro:Utilizator:Gangleri]] ::* [[wikipedia:yi:באַניצער:Gangleri]] ::* '''[[meta:User:Gangleri]]''' [[de:Benutzer:Gangleri]] [[en:User:Gangleri]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Gangleri]] [[is:Notandi:Gangleri]] [[ro:Utilizator:Gangleri]] [[yi:באַניצער:Gangleri]] 1600 2957 2006-01-09T21:59:25Z Gangleri 10 from [[wikibooks:en:template:wikivar]] <span dir="ltr" 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Le Ranetto Promenante == Le filio de Rana, Rinrin Ranetto Sortiva iste matino multo firme et belletto con pantalones curte, cravata al moda Jachetta nuptial et cappello de banda. Puero, non sorti! -le crita mamma ma ille face un gesto et orgolioso se va. Trovava in le cammino un Mus vicino Et le diceva : amico! Veni vos con me, Visitara insimul a Domina Mus Et il habera festa et repasto abundante. Ad pauco arrivava, et avantia Mus, Alonga le collo et frappa le porta, da duos o tres colpos, demanda: qui es? Io, Domina Ratta, basio a vos le pedes es vos in domo? - Si senior, si es, et celebro multe vider a vos hodie; io esseva in mi mestiero, filando coton, sed illo non importa, benvenites es. Se salutava, se donava le mano, Et dice musetto, qui es plus veterano: Mi amico le verde, rabia de calor, Dona le un bira, face me le favor. Et in tanto que le picaro consume le jarra Ordinava la seniora apportar le gitarra Et a Ranetto le demanda que cante Versettos allegres, tonata elegante. ah! de mille amores lo facerea, seniora, sed il est impossibile donar le iste placer ora, parque habe le gorga plus sicca quam stoppa et me serra multe ista nova roba. -Lo senti infinito, responde Amita Ratta, disserra se un pauco gilet et cravata, et io intertanto le va a cantar un cancionetta multo particular. Mais essendo in ista brillante function De dansa et bira, gitarra et cantion, La Catta et sus Cattos transpassa le limine principal, Et torna se illo le judicio final Domina Catta Vetula trenchat per le aure Al infante musetto miaulando le salute : Holla! Et les infantos Cattos a la vetula Ratta Un per le gamba et altero per le cauda Don Ranetto spectando iste assalto Et aperiente le porta con manos et nasos, Partiva dando a totes noctes multo felices Et sequeva saltando tanto alte et celere, Que Perdeva le cappello, lacerava le camisa, Se percola in le bucca de un anate glutton et iste se lo mangiava de solo colpo Et assi conclude, un, duo, et tres Mus, Domina Ratta, et le Rana postea; Le Cattos mangiava et le Anate dinava, et mamma Ranetta soletta restavat! '''''Rafael Pombo''''' == Le Mustela, Aphrodite e le Mus == == Le gigante egoista == == Le maestro == == Le Discipulo == == Le Rossiniolo e le rosa == == Le Cicada e le Formica == == Chichibio e le grue* == == Lo que concerne a un mus == == Le ordine == == Duo Lupos == == Ancian Legenda Oriental == == Un ver amico == == Le Corvo e le Lupo == == Le Tortuca e le Aquila == == Le Mure Urban e le Mure Campestre == 2963 2006-02-09T13:14:10Z McDutchie 20 transferentia de Wikipedia == Le Ranetto Promenante == Le filio de Rana, Rinrin Ranetto Sortiva iste matino multo firme et belletto con pantalones curte, cravata al moda Jachetta nuptial et cappello de banda. Puero, non sorti! -le crita mamma ma ille face un gesto et orgolioso se va. Trovava in le cammino un Mus vicino Et le diceva : amico! Veni vos con me, Visitara insimul a Domina Mus Et il habera festa et repasto abundante. Ad pauco arrivava, et avantia Mus, Alonga le collo et frappa le porta, da duos o tres colpos, demanda: qui es? Io, Domina Ratta, basio a vos le pedes es vos in domo? - Si senior, si es, et celebro multe vider a vos hodie; io esseva in mi mestiero, filando coton, sed illo non importa, benvenites es. Se salutava, se donava le mano, Et dice musetto, qui es plus veterano: Mi amico le verde, rabia de calor, Dona le un bira, face me le favor. Et in tanto que le picaro consume le jarra Ordinava la seniora apportar le gitarra Et a Ranetto le demanda que cante Versettos allegres, tonata elegante. ah! de mille amores lo facerea, seniora, sed il est impossibile donar le iste placer ora, parque habe le gorga plus sicca quam stoppa et me serra multe ista nova roba. -Lo senti infinito, responde Amita Ratta, disserra se un pauco gilet et cravata, et io intertanto le va a cantar un cancionetta multo particular. Mais essendo in ista brillante function De dansa et bira, gitarra et cantion, La Catta et sus Cattos transpassa le limine principal, Et torna se illo le judicio final Domina Catta Vetula trenchat per le aure Al infante musetto miaulando le salute : Holla! Et les infantos Cattos a la vetula Ratta Un per le gamba et altero per le cauda Don Ranetto spectando iste assalto Et aperiente le porta con manos et nasos, Partiva dando a totes noctes multo felices Et sequeva saltando tanto alte et celere, Que Perdeva le cappello, lacerava le camisa, Se percola in le bucca de un anate glutton et iste se lo mangiava de solo colpo Et assi conclude, un, duo, et tres Mus, Domina Ratta, et le Rana postea; Le Cattos mangiava et le Anate dinava, et mamma Ranetta soletta restavat! '''''Rafael Pombo''''' == Le Mustela, Aphrodite e le Mus == « Un mustela se inamorava de un belle e juvene homine e implorava a Aphrodite de la metamorphosar in femina. Le Dea habeva pietate de su passion e faceva de illa un belle e incantator puera. Assi le juvene homine esseva seducite a prime vista e la prendeva como sposa. Quando illes reposava sur le lecto nuptial, Aphrodite, curiose de saper si le mustela, cambiante de corpore, habeva etiam prendite altere manieras o costumes, lassava un mus in le medio del camera : Oblidante su condition, le sposa saltava de su lecto e persequeva le mus pro devorar lo. Tunc le Dea, irate, la restabliva in su ancien natura. Assi le homines : illes qui ha un mal natural pote cambiar de maniera, sed lor natura resta immutabile » Esopo, Fabulas == Le gigante egoista == Cata vespere, al sortita del schola, les infantes vadeva a jocar al jardin del Gigante. Esseva un jardin grande e belle, con arbustos de flores e coperite de herba verde e suave. Per hic e per ibi, intre le herba, se aperiva flores luminose como strellas, e habeva dece-duo albaricochieros que durante le Primavera se coperiva con delicate flores color rosa e nacre, et al arrivar le autumno se plenava de ric fructos pruinose. Le aves restava in le branca del arbores, e cantava con tan dulcor que le infantes habeva le habitude de stoppar de jocar pro ascultar lor trillos. -¡Que felice nos es hic! -se diceva un a alteres. Sed un die le gigante regresava. Ille habeva vadite de visitar ubi su amico le Ogro de Cornish, et habeva restate con ille durante le ultime septe annos. Durante iste tempore illes jam se habeva dicite omne lo que illos habeva a dicer se, nam su conversation esseva limitate, e le Gigante sentiva le desiro de revenir a su proprie castello. Quando ille arrivava, lo primo que videva esseva le infantes jocante in le jardin. -¿Que vos face hic? –diceva con voce resonante, e le infantes pavorose sortiva currente. -“Iste jardin es mie. Es mi jardin private” –diceva le Gigante-; “toto le mundo debe comprender illo, e non permittera que nemo jocar hic excepte ego”. E, de immediate, construeva un multo alte muro circum, et in le porta collocava un annuncio que diceva: :ENTRATA STRICTEMENTE PROHIBITE :INTRUSOS SERA PROSEQUITE Esseva un Gigante multo egoista. Le povres infantes nunc non habeva loco ubi jocar. Ille tentava de jocar in le strata, sed esseva plen de pulvere e petras et illos non amava. Sovente illes deambulava circa del muro quando illos habeva finite lor lectiones e parlava sur le belle jardin e rememorava “Quam felice nos esseva ibi” Se diceva le un al altere. Quando le Primavera retornava, omne le village se populava de aves e flores. Solmente, le jardin del Gigante Egoista remaneva in hiberno.Como non habeva infantes, le aves non voleva cantar in ille, e le arbores oblidava florescer. Sol un vice un bellissime flor apparer inter le herba, mais quando ille videva le annuncio, se sentiva tan triste per le infantes que volveva a mitter se sub terra e volveva a dormir. Le unic que ibi esseva a gusto esseva le neve e le gelo. “Le Primavera ha oblidate iste jardin” –critava illes-, “Tunc nos vivira hic toto le anno”. Le Neve coperiva le terra con su grande copertura albe e le gelo coperiva de argento le arbores.Deinde illes invitava al vento del nord a restar con illes, e ille veni. Ille arrivava inveloppate in pelle, e ille rugiva omne le die sur le jardin, e su sufflo faceva cader le capelleto del camino. “¡Que loco plus incantator!” –ille diceva, Nos debe decir le al Grandine que veni a esser con nos. “Tunc le grandine tamben veniva”. Cata die durante tres horas ille strepitava in le tecto del castello, usque que rumpe le malior parte del ardesias. Postea ille curreva circum del jardin lo plus celere que ille poteva. Ille se vestite in grey e su halito era como le glacie. “No pote comprender per que le Primavera tarda tanto in arrivar hic –diceva le Gigante Egoista, quando regardava al fenestra e videva su jardin frigide e blanc; “io spere que tosto le tempore cambiara. Sed le Primavera nunquam arrivava, ni adhuc le Estate. Le autumno donava fructos aurate in tote le jardines, mais al jardin del Gigante non donava nihil. “Ille esseva assatis egoista –diceva ille. Assi, le jardin del Gigante restava semper submergite in le hiberno, e le vento del nord, e le grandine, e le gelo, e le nive dansava inter le arbores. Un matino, le Gigante jaceva evaliate in le lecto quando ille audiva un music multo belle desde foras. Sonava tan dulce in lor aures, que pensava debe ser le musicos del rege que passava. In realitate, era sol un carduele que esseva cantante fronte a su fenestra, ma faceva tanto tempore que le Gigante non ascoltava trillar un ave in su jardin, que le semblava audir le music plus belle del mundo. Alora le Grandine stoppa su dansa, e le vento del Nord lassava de rugir et un perfumo deliciose veniva a ille per inter le persianas aperite. " Io crede que le Primavera al fin ha venite, " diceva le Gigante; e saltava del lecto e reguardava foras. ¿E que es lo que ille videva? Fronte lor oculos habeva un spectaculo meraviliose. Per medio de un parve brecha in el muro le infantes habeva entrate, sin ser appercipite, et illos se sedeva in le branca del arbores. In cata arbore habeva un parve infante, e le arbores esseva tan felice de tener le infantes de retorno, que illos se habeva coperite de flores, e balanciava suavemente lor brancas supra le capitas del infantes. Le aves volava cantante circa de illos e pipava de placer, e le flores levava le vista inter le herba verde e rideva. Iste era realmente un scena multo belle, sol in un angulo remaneva le hiberno. Era le angulo plus longitan del jardin et in ille se incontrava un parve infante. Sed era tan parvo que ille non obteneva attinge le brancas del arbore, e le infante tornava circum del trunco plorante con amaritude. Le povre arbore esseva totevia completemente coperite de gelo e neve, e le vento del nord sufflava e rugiva sur ille. -¡Monta parve infante! –diceva le arbore, inclinante lor brancas tan basse como iste poteva. Sed le infante esseva parvissime. Le Gigante sentiva su cordo funder se. -¡Quam egoista he essite! -exclamava-. “Nunc io sape per que le Primavera non voleva venir hic. Montara a isse parve infante al arbore e postea va a abatter le muro. E mi jardin sera pro semper un loco de jocos pro infantes. Ille esseva realmente repentete per illo que habeva facite. Alora ille descende le scala, et aperiva cautamente le porta del domo, et entrava in le jardin. Sed quando le infantes lo videva illes esseva tan espaventate que omne fugiva, e al jardin retornava le hiberno de nove. Sol aquelle parve infante non fugiva, per que lor oculos esseva tan plen de lacrimas que ille non videva vanir al Gigante. Tunc le Gigante se approxima detra de ille e lo prendeva con delicatessa inter su manos, e lo montava al arbore. E le arbore floresceva subitemente, e le aves veniva a cantar in su brancas, e le infante extende le bracios e imbracia le collo del Gigante e lo basia. E le infantes, quando videva que le Gigante jam non esseva mal, reveniva currente, e con illes retornava le Primavera al jardín. -“Desde ora le jardin sera pro vos parve infantes”, e ille prendeva un grande hacha e abatte le muro. E quando le gente vadeva al mercato al mediedie omne poteva vider al Gigante jocante con le infantes in le jardin plus belle que jammais habeva videte. Illes jocava, omne le die, e per le vespere illes vadeva a dicer adeo al Gigante. -¿Sed ubi es le plus parve ? –questionava le Gigante-, ¿isse infante que io montava al arbore . “Le Gigante lo amava plus que le alteres, perque ille le habeva donate un basio. -Nos non sape diceva le infantes-, respondeva le infantes. Ille ha partite. -“Vos debe dicer le que retorna deman” – diceva le Gigante. Sed le infantes respondeva que illes non cognoceva ubi viveva , e que nunquam lo habava videte ante. E le Gigante se sentiva multo triste. Tote le vesperes, quando le infantes sortiva del schola vadeva a jocar con le Gigante Sed le infante plus parve, isse que le Gigante plus amava, jammais esseva viedete de nove. Le Gigante era multo amabile con tote le infantes sed regrettava a su prime amichetto, e sovente parlava de ille. -¡Como amarea poter revider lo! –diceva usualmente. Passava le annos, e le Gigante deveniva vetule e debile . Ille jam non poteva tocar plus, sed sedite in un grande chaise, videva tocar al infantes e admirava su jardin. -“Io habe multe belle flores -se deceva”-, Sed le infantes es le flores plus belle de omne. Un matino de hiberno, ille reguarda a traverso del fenestra donec ille se vestiva. Ille jam non odiava le hiberno nam sapeva que le hiberno esseva simplemente le Primavera dormite , e que le flores se reposava. Subito ille frictiona sue oculos meraviliate, e reguarda, reguarda. Illo era realmente un meravilia lo que esseva vidente. In le angulo plus longitan del jardin habeva un arbore coperite de belle flores blanc. Omne lor brancas esseva aurate, e de illes pendeva fructos de argento. Infra de illes esseva le parve infante que ille tanto habeva amate. Plen de allegresa , le Gigante bassava currente le scalas et entra in le jardin. Ille se hastava trans le herba, e veniva juxta del infante. Sed quando ille se approcha del infante su facie se rubiface de ira, e diceva, “¿Qui ha ausate facer te damno?” Namque le infante habeva marca de clavos in le palma del manos e le pedes -“¿Sed qui ha osate facerte damno?” crita le Gigante; “dice me lo, que io pote prender mi spada et occider lo”. -¡Non ! –respondeva le infante-. “Istes son le feritas del Amor”. -¿Qui es tu, mi parve infante? –diceva le Gigante, et un estranie timor lo invadeva, e caudeva de genu ante le parve infante Tunc le infante rideva e le diceva al Gigante -Un vice vos me lassava jocar in tu jardin; hodie vos venira con me a mi jardin, que es le Paradiso. E quando le infantes arrivava isse vespere, Illes incontrava al Gigante que jaceva morte infra del arbore, e su corpore esseva totalmente coperite de flores blanc. == Le maestro == [Conto. Texto complete] '''''Oscar Wilde''''' E quando le tenebras caudeva supra le terra, Joseph de Arimathea, deinde de haber incendete un torcha de ligno de pino, descendeva del collina al valle. Namque ille habeva un negotio in su proprie domo. E de genus supra le petras de sílice del valle del desolation, videva a un juvene que esseva nude e que plorava. Sue capillo esseva de color de melle, e sue corpore esseva como un flore blanc, sed ille habeva ferite su corpore con le spinas y supra sue capillo habeva cineres como un corona. E Joseph, que habeva multe ricchessas, diceva al juvene nude que plorava. -Comprende que su dolor sia grande perque sea grande tu dolor porque vermente ille esseva un homine juste. Mais le juvene respondeva: -Non es per ille que io plora mais per mi ipse. Io tamben he convertite le aqua in vino también he convertido el agua en vino, y ha sanate al leproso et ha rendite le vision al ceco. Io ha camminate supra le aguas, e de illos que habita in le sepulchros ha expellite le demonios Io ha donate a mangiar al famelic in le deserto, ibi ubi non ha necun alimento, e io ha levate al mortes de lor lectos stricte, E per ordine mie e facie a un grande multitude de gente, un fichiero sterile se marcesceva distante. Omne le cosas que ecce homine ha facite io le ha facite equalmente. E per que tu plora, alore? Namque adhuc illes non me ha crucifixite. == Le Discipulo == [Conto. Texto complete] '''''Oscar Wilde''''' Quando Narcisso moriva le stagno de su placer cambiava de un tassa de aguas dulce in un tassa de lacrimas salate, e le flores (Oreads) veni plorante a traverso del bosco que illes poterea cantar al stagno e donar le conforto. E quando illes videva que le stagno habeva cambiate de un tassa de aquas dulce a un tassa de lacrimas salate, illes laxava le tressas verde de sue capillo e critava al stagno e diceva “Nos nos questiona que vos deberea affliger se per Narcisso quam belle ille esseva” ¿Sed Narcisso esseva belle? Diceva le stagno -“¿E qui poterea saper lo melior que vos? –Diceva le flores (Oreads. Omne le dies se inclinava supre le ripa e te videva e in le speculo de tue aquas ille contemplava su beltate.” -E le stagno respondeva, “Si io amava Narcisso perque, quando ille se inclinava supra mi ripa e me videva, in le speculo de sue oculos io videva semper mi proprie beltate reflectite” == Le Rossiniolo e le rosa == [Conto. Texto complete] '''''Oscar Wilde''''' - Illa diceva que dansarea con me si io le portava su rosas rubie, se lamentava le juvene studente; “sed in tote mi jardin non habe necun rosa rubie”. Desde su nido in le robore le ascoltave le rossiniolo, et illo lo videva trans le folias surprendite. -¡Non habe necun rosa rubie in omne mi jardin! –critava le studente, e su belle oculos se impleva de lacrimas. -¡Ah, de que cosas tan parve e cosa plus insignificante depende le felicitate! Io ha legite omne lo que le homines sage ha scripte, e tote le secretos del philosophia son mie, et adhuc per carer de un rosa rubie es mi vita miserabile! “Ecce, per fin, le ver inamorate”, diceva le rossiniolo. Nocte trans nocte io le ha cantate, ancora sin cognocer lo; Nocte trans nocte io le diceva lor historia al stellas, et ora io lo vide. Su capillo es obscur como le flor del hyacintho, e su labio son rubie como le rosa de su desiro; mais le passion lo ha lassate pallide como le ebore, e le dolor ha lassate su sigillo supra su fronte.” “Le prince dona un ballo deman in le nocte, murmurava le jovine studente, “e mi amor assistera. Si io le porta a illa un rosa rubie, illa ballara con me usque le alba. Si io le porta un rosa rubie, io la prendera in mi bracios, et illa appoiara su capita sur mi humero, e su mano stringera le mie. Sed non ha necun rosa rubie in mie jardin, tunc io me assidera sol, et illa non me remarcara. Illa non se fixara in mi, e mi cordo se rumpera.” -“He aqui le ver inamorate” diceva le rossiniolo. “per que canto io, ille sufre, tote lo que es allegressa pro me es per ille es dolor. Securmente le amor es cosa meraviliose. Illo es plus preciose quam le esmeragdos, e plus apréciate que le fine opalos. Perlas e granatas non pote comprar lo, perque non se incontra exponte in le mercato. Non pote ser comprate al venditor ni poner lo in un balancia pro acquirer lo a peso de auro. -Le musicos se sedera in lor tribuna, diceva le juvene studente. Illes sonara lor instrumentos de corda e mi amante dansara al sono del harpa e del violino. Illa dansara tan ligiermente que lor pede non toccara le solo, e le cortesanos con lor allegres costumes van al multitude circa de illa. Sed con me illa non dansara, perque non io non ha rosas rubie que dar le. E ille se lassava cader in le herba, e se coperiva su facie con lor manos, e plorava. -¿Per que plora ? –questionava un parvo lacerta verde, currente circa de ille, con le cauda in le aere. -Si, ¿por que? –diceva un papilion que papilionava sequente un radio de sol. -¿por que? –murmurava un margarita a lor vicin, con un voce tenue. -Ille plora pro un rosa rubie, diceva le rossiniolo. -¿Per un rosa rubie? ¡Que futuitate ! E le parvo lacerta, que era un pauco cynic, se rideva sin moderation. Mais le rossiniolo, que comprendeva le secreto del dolo del studiante, et illo se sedeva silentiose in le robore, e resta pensante in le mysterio del amor. Subito illo displica su alas brun et interprende le volo, e se eleva in le aere. Illo passa per le bosco como un umbra, e como un umbra illo transversa le jardin. In el centro del prato se levava un belle rosario, et quando illo lo videva, volava verso ille et se posava supra un branchetta. -Dona me un rosa rubie – illo critava- et io te cantara mie cantos plus dulce. Sed le rosario succuteva le capita. -Mi rosas es blanc -respondeva-, blanc como le spuma del mar, plus blanc que le nive del motania. Va e cerca mi frater que cresce circum del vetule horologio de sol e forsan ille vos donara lo que vos vole. Alora le rossiniolo volava verso le rosario que creceva circa del vetule horologio de sol. -Dona me un rosa rubie –illo critava -, e io te cantara mie plus dulce cantos. Sed le rosario succuteva le capita. -Mie rosas es jalne -respondeva-, tan jalne como le capillos del sirena que se asside supra un throno de ambra, e plus jalne que le narcisso que floresce in le pratos ante que le falcator arriva con su falce. Sed va ubi mi fratre que cresce basse le fenestra del studente, e forsan ille te dara lo que vos vole. Alora le rossiniolo volava al rosario que cresceva basso del menestra del studente. -Dona me un rosa rubie –illo critava-, et io te cantara mie plus dulce cantos. Sed le brossa succuteva le capita. -Mie rosas es rubie –respondeva -, tan rubie como le pedes del columba, e plus rubie quam le grande flabellos de corallo que se balancia in le cavernas oceanic. Mais le hiberno ha frigidate mie vena, e le gelo ha marcite mie buttones, e le tempesta ha frangite mie brancas, e io non habera plus rosas iste anno . -Un rosa rubie es omne lo que io vole, critava le rossiniolo, Sol un rosa rubie! ¿Non ha necun maniera per le quel io pote obtener lo? -Ha un medio –respondeva le rosario; sed illo es tan terribile que io non osa dicer te lo. -Dice me lo –replicava le rossiniol, io non habe timor. -Si vos vole un rosa rubie, diceva le rosario, vos debe facer lo con nota de musica al lumine del luna e tintar lo con sanguine de tu proprie corde. Cantara pro me con le pectore appoiate contra mie spinas. Cantara pro mi durante omne le nocte et le spina debe perforar tu corde, e su sanguine vital fluera inter mie venas e devenira mie. -Le morte es un grande precio pro pagar un rosa rubie , replica le rossiniolo, e le vita es multo valutate pro totos. Es agradabile seder se in le bosco verde, e vider le sol in su carro de auro, e le luna in su carro de perlas. Dulce es le odor del spino, e dulce es le hyacinthos silvestre que se absconde in le valle, e le ericas que sulfa in le collina. Tamen, le amor es melior que le vita, e que es le corde de un ave comparate al corde de un homine. Tunc illo displica su alas brun pro le volo, e se eleva in le aere. Illo passava pro le jardin como un umbra e como un umbra transversava le bosco. Le juvene studente jaceva allongate sur le herba, ubi le rossiniolo lo habeva lassate e le lacrimas ancora non esseva sic in su belle oculos. -Sia felice, critava le rossiniolo, sia felice; vos habera tu rosa rubie. Io lo creara con le notas de musica al lumine del luna e le tintara con le sanguine de mi progre corde. Lo unic que io demanda de vos, vos sia un amante ver, jam que le amor es plus sagio que le philosophia, ben que ille sia sage, plus forte que le poter, ben que ille sia potente. Rubie illuminate es su alas e su corpore color flamma. Su labios es dulce como le miel e su halito como le incenso. Le studente leva le oculos del herba, et escolta, ma ille non poteva comprender lo que le rossiniolo diceva, jam que ille sol sapeva del cosas que esseva scripte in le libros Sed le robore comprendeva, et esseva triste, perque ille amava multe al parve rossiniolo que habeva construite su nido in su brancas. -Canta me un ultime canto ille susurrava; Cántame la última canción -murmuró-. ¡Io me sentira multo sol quando vos parti. Alora le rossioniolo cantava pro le robore, e su voce esseva como le aqua bullose in un potto de argento. Quando illo ha finite su canto, le studente se levava, e sortiva un cuaderno et un stilo de su tasca . "Le rossiniolo ha un beltate” se diceva a ille ipse divagante per le boschetto , que non pote negar se, ¿mais ille senti? Me time que non. De facto, illo es como multe artistas: pur stilo, exepte de sinceritate. Illo non se sacrificarea pro le alteres. Illo sol pensa in le musica, et toto le mundo sape que le artes es egoistic. Sin dubita non pote nagar se que su voce es bellissime. Que pena que toto illo non ha nulle senso, o fin practic!" E ille retornava a su camera, e se reposava supra su parve lecto, e comenciava a pensar in su amante, e, deinde un tempore ille se dormi. E quando le luna brillava in le celo, le rossiniolo volava al rosario, e collocava su pectore contra le spina. E omne le nocte illo cantava con su pectore appoiate contra le spina, e le luna frigide de crystallo le ascoltava. E omne le nocte durante multe tempore illo cantava, e le spina vadeva plus e plus profunde in su pectore, e su sanguine vital flueva de ille. Al initio illo cantava le nascimento del amor in le corde de un puero et un puera. E supra le racemo plus alte del rosario floresceva un rosa meraviliose, petalo trans petalo, canto trans canto. Prime esseva pallide como le nebula que voga sur le rivo, pallide como le pedes del matino et argentee como le alas del aurora. Como le umbra de un rosa in un speculo de argento, como le umbra de un rosa in un stagno de aqua esseva le rosa que floresceva in le racemo plus alte del brossa. Sed le rosario critava al rossiniolo de premer se plus contra le spina. “preme te plus parve rossiniolo” critava le brossa, “o le jorno venira ante que le rosa sia finite”. Tunc le rossiniolo se premeva plus contra le spina, e su canto esseva plus forte, perque cantava le nascimento del passion in le anima de un homine et un dominicella. E un rubor delicate appare supra le petalos del rosa, como le rubor in le facie del inamorato quando ille basia le labios de su un delicado rubor apareció sobre los petalos de la rosa, lo mismo que enrojece la cara de un inamorato que besa le labios de su inamorata. Sed le spina non habeva attingite adhuc le corde del rossiniolo, per illo le corde del rosa esseva totavia blanc, perque sol le sanguine de un rossiniolo pote : enrubescer le corde de un rosa. E le rosario critava al rossiniolo que se premeva plus contra le spina “pressa te plus, parve rossiniol,” critava le brossa, “o le jorno venira ante que le rosa sia finite. -Alora le rossiniolo se pressava plus contra le spina, e le spina attingeva su corde, et ille sentiva un feroce punctura de dolor que le penetrava. Quanto plus acerbe era su dolo, plus impetuose sortiva su canto, jam que cantava le amor que es perfectionate per le morte, le amor que non mori in le tumba. E le rosa meraviliose se rubifaceva como le rosa del celo del est. Carmesin era le color de su petalos e rubie como un rubino esseva su corde. Sed le voce del rossiniolo se debilitava , e su parve alas comenciava a batter, e un nube se extendeva sur su oculos. Su canto esseva plus e plus debil e sentiva que se le suffocava in le gorga. Tunc ille donava un ultime scintilla de musica. Le luna blanc lo ascoltava, et ille se oblidava del aurora, e remaneva in le celo. Le rosa rubie lo ascoltava, et omne ille trebulava del ecstase, e aperiva su petalos al aere frigido del matino. Le echo lo portava verso su cavana purpura del collinas, et eveliava de lor somno al pastores addormite. Le canto flottava inter le cannas del rivo, que portava su message al mar . -vide, vide, critava le rosario, “le rosa jam es finite”; mais le rossiniolo non respondeva, jaceva morte sur le alte herbas, con un spina in su corde. E in le medie die le studente aperiva su fenestra e videva. -¡Que bon fortuna! Ille exclamava; “ecce un rosa rubie! Io non ha videte nunquam ha vidite un rosa simile a iste in omne mi vita. Ille es tan belle que io es secur que illo debe haber un longe nomine in latin”; e ille se inclinava et le prendeva. Alora ille se colloca su cappello e curreva al casa del profesor, portante in su mano le rosa. Le filia del profesor eseva sedite in le entrata bobinante seta blau sur un bobina, e su parve can jaceva supra su pedes. “vos habeva dicite que vos ballarea con me si io portava un rosa rubie,” diceva le studente. “ecce le rosa plus rubie de tote le mundo. Iste nocte vos le usara circa a tu corde, e quando nos baila insimul, ille te dicera quanto io te ama”. Sed le puera arrugava le supercilio -“Io time que iste rubie non combina con mi vestimento,” Illa respondeva; “de plus, le nepote de Chamberlain me ha inviate alicun ver joieles, e toto le mundo sape que le joieles costa multe plus quam le flores.” -¡Ben, guai, que ingrate es vos! diceva le studente irate; et ille lanceava le rosa in le strata, ubi cadeva into del canaletto, et un carro passava supra illo. -“¡Ingrate! –diceva le puera. “io dice que, vos es multo grossier; e, post toto, qui es vos? Sol un studente. Per que, io non crede que vos ha obtenite fibulas de argento a su scarpas como le nepote de Chamberlain habe;” et illa se leva de su sella et entra in le casa. "Que fatuitate es le amor,” –diceva le studente mintere partiva. “ Iste non es ni le medie de util quam le logica, ja que non pote demostrar nihil; parla semper de cosas que non sucedera e face crecer al gente cosas que non es certe. De facto, es satis impractic, e como in iste etate toto debe ser practic, io regressara al philosophia et al studios metaphysic” Dicite iste, le studente un vice in su camera, aperiva un grande libro pulverulente e comenciava a leger. == Le Cicada e le Formica == [Conto. Texto complete] '''''La fontaine''''' :Le Cicada, habente cantate :tote le estive, se incontra in le penuria :Quando le vento del nord veniva : :ni un sol parvo morsello :De musca o de vermette. :ille va critar fame. :Ubi le formica su vicin, :Le supplicante de le prestar :Alicunos granos pro subsister :Usque le nove station. :"Io le pagara, le dice ille, :Ante del recolta, parola de animal, :Interesse e principal. " :Le Formica non es prestator: :Illo is su minor defecto. :Que face vos durante le station calide ? :Dice-ille a iste prestatario. :- Nocte e die toto le tempore :Io cantava, illo non le molesta. :- Vos cantava ? io es multo tranquille. :Eh ben! dansa nunc. == Chichibio e le grue* == [Conto. Texto complete] '''''Giovanni Boccaccio(1313-1375)''''' -Decameron, quarte novella del sexte die Traducite per Alberto Mardegan, Italia Il viveva in Florentia un nobile citatano, appellate senior Currado, cognoscite per totes pro su splendor e generositate, qui semper se delectava in canes e aves, pro non parlar de su plus importante operas. Il eveniva un die, presso Peretola, que con le falcon ille prendeva un belle grue e trovante lo juvene e grasse, lo mandava a un su habile cocinero, qui se appellava Chichibio e esseva venetian, pro preparar lo con grande cura e servir lo a cena. Chichibio lo prendeva e immediatemente lo preparava, lo poneva super le foco e initiava a cocer lo; e quando le grue esseva proxime al coction, un agradabilissime odor se diffundeva per tote le aere. Il eveniva que un juvene femina del pais, qui se appellava Brunetta e de qui Chichibio esseva fortemente inamorate, entrava in le cocina e, in sentir le odor del grue, e vidente lo, multo precava Chichibio pro haber un coxa. -Jammais! - ille respondeva- Io non pote dar vos lo. Donna Brunetta se turbava multo, e diceva: -In fide de Deo, si tu non me lo da, tu nunquam habera de me ulle favor! -e, pro dicer lo in breve, illes debatteva multo. Al fin, Chichibio, pro non deluder su amata, removeva un coxa del grue e lo dava a illa. Al cena, quando le grue sin coxa esseva portate ante Currado e alicun su invitatos, Currado se surprendeva e faceva venir Chichibio pro demandar le que habeva accidite con le altere coxa del grue. E le venetian mentitor le respondeva: -Senior, grues non ha plus que un coxa e un gamba. Currado le diceva turbate: -Que diabolo, illos ha solmente un coxa e un gamba? An isto es le prime grue que io vide? Chichibio continuava: -Il es como io dice, senior; e quando vos vole, io vos lo demostrara con illos vive. Currado, pro non enoiar le invitatos que ille habeva, non continuava le discussion, ma diceva: -Sia! Nos los videra deman matino, e si il es como tu dice, io essera contente, ma io te jura sur le corpore de Christo que, si il essera alteremente, io te facera batter in maniera tal, que tu semper vadera rememorar mi nomine con enorme sufferentia, si tu superviveraa isto. Le parolas finiva pro ille vespere, ma in le matino sequente de bon hora, Currado, qui ancora esseva furiose, se eveliava plen de ira e comandava que le cavallos esseva preparte; e faceva salir Chichibio sur un cavallastro, e illes partiva al ripa del fluvio, ubi usualmente al initio del die on pote vider les grues. -E nunc on videra, qui inter nos duo es le mentitor! - ille diceva menaciante. Chichibio, vidente que le ira de su patron esseva ancora ben vive, e que ille debeva provar su mentita, cavalcava juxta su patron, con grandissime pavor. Ille habeva volite fugir, si ille poteva; ma post que ille non poteva, ille reguardava circum se, sin saper que facer, e toto lo que ille videva le pareva esser grues stante con duo pedes. Arrivante al fluvio, ille primo videva dece-duo grues sur le ripa, totes stante con un pede sol, assi como illos face qquando illos dormi. Alora subito ille diceva a Currado: -Nunc vos pote ben vider, senior, que heri io vos diceva le veritate: que grues ha solmente un coxa e un pede, si vos reguarda los que sta ibi. Currado, vidente los, replicava: -Attende, que io va monstrar te que illos ha duo! - e post vader plus proxime a los, ille critava -Ho! Ho! - e immediatemente tote le grues poneva a terra le altere pede e post alicun passos illos initiava a fugir. Alora Currando se tornava a Chichibio e le diceva: -Que sembla a te voraciastro. An non il te pare que illos ha duo gambas? Chichibio, meraviliate, sin quasi saper in qual mundo on viveva, respondeva: - Senior, si! Ma vos non critava "Ho!Ho!" a lo de heri vespere; perque si vos critava, illo habarea mittite fora su altere coxa e pede, assi como istos ha facite! A Currado iste reponsa placeva tanto, que tote su ira se converteva in allegressa e riso, e diceva: -Chichibio, tu ha ration, io habeva ben debite facer assi! E in iste maniera Chichibio, con su preste e mordace responsa, salvava se del periculo e se repacificava con su patron. <nowiki>*</nowiki>Grue: Grande ave con longe gambas (''Grus grus'') == Lo que concerne a un mus == '''''Traducite per Jay Bowks''''' Un mus mirava per le apertura de su parve casa in le pariete del ferma e videva que le agricola e su sposa aperiva un pacco. "Que alimentos contine le pacco?" Ma le mus esseva devastate in trovar que le contento esseva un trappa pro mures. Rapidemente facente un retraite strategic al stabulo, ille curreva critante un alarma: "Il ha un trappa-mures in le ferma! Il ha un trappa-mures in le ferma!" Le gallina cluccava e grattava le solo con su pedes, elevava su capite e diceva al mus "Sr. Mus, io vos pote dicer que isto es forsan un importante occasion pro vos, ma illo non es de consequentia pro me, io non pote importar me pro un tal cosa." Le mus se tornava al porco e diceva le sin minus excitation que anteriormente: "Il ha un trappa-mures in le ferma! Il ha un trappa-mures in le ferma!" Le porco sympathisava con ille ma diceva al mus: "Io lo senti multo Sr. Mus, ma io non pote facer necun cosa. Ma io assecura te, Sr. Mus, que io me recordara de vos in mi preces". Alora le mus tornava se al vacca. Illa diceva "Eheu, Sr. Mus, io es certemente multo triste pro vos, ma vermente illo non me concerne tanto, a causa de que io es un vacca e il non ha un trappa-vaccas in le ferma!" Assi que le mus retornava al casa del ferma, totalmente deprimite. Ille mesme nocte le echo de un sono viagiava per le ferma. Le sono esseva como illo quando un trappa-mures trappa su victima. Le sposa del agricola vadeva rapidemente pro ver lo que cadeva sur le pincias del trappa-mures. In le obscuritate illa non poteva vider que il esseva un parve serpente que explorava per le ferma. Le serpente de reflexo, surprendite, mordiva le gamba del sposa del agricola. Le agricola prendeva su sposa al hospital si tosto como possibile, e illa retornava al ferma con febre. Ora totes sape que le melior remedio contra le febre es le suppa de pollo, assi que le agricola occideva le gallina e faceva suppa pro su sposa. Ma le maladia del sposa continuava, assi que amicos e vicinos veniva visitar la. Pro dar de mangiar a tante visitantes le agricola occideva le porco. Ma le sposa del Agricola non se recuperava, e moriva. Si, illa moriva e tantes veniva al servicio funerari que le agricola se videva fortiate provider pro le condolentes. E assi ille occideva le vacca pro haber bastante carne pro tote illes. Alora, le proxime vice que vos audi que qualcuno ha qualque problema, pensa que illo importara a vos, recordante vos que quandocunque un de nos es menaciate, recorda te que quando un altere es menaciate, forsan vos essera afficite, quando uno es menaciate omne nos curre le risco, per extension. == Le ordine == '''' Anton Chekhov ''''' ''Traducite del texto original russe per ''Nicolai Rabeneek'' Registrator collegial Lev Pustiakov, preceptor al progymnasio militar, habitava juxta su amico, le locotenente Ledenzov. A iste ille se dirigeva le matino del nove anno. "Ascolta, Grisha, lo que io vole demandar te," ille diceva al locotenente post le costumari gratulationes del nove anno, "io non te importunarea si il non esseva absolutemente necessari. Presta me pro hodie, mi columbetto, tu ordine de Stanislas. Nam io dina hodie al domo del mercante Spichkin. E tu le cognosce, iste bandito Spichkin: ille adora ordines e omnes que non ha qualcunque in le butoniera o pendente al collo ille considera como quasi villanos. E de plus, tu sape, ille ha duo filias... Nastia e Zina... Io te preca como amico... Tu me comprende, mi caro. Face me iste favor." Rubescente e balbutiante Pustiakov presentava su demanda, intertanto reguardante timidemente le porta. Le locotenente blasphemava, il es ver, sed consentiva. A duo horas post meridie Pustiakov vadeva in un fiacre al Spichkines; ille habeva le pellicia un pauc aperite e reguardava su pectore. Ibi radiava le auro e brillava le colores de email del Stanislas prestate. "De un maniera o altere on senti pro se mesme plus de respecto," pensava le preceptor e tussettava. "Un parve cosa, pote valer cinque rublos al plus, e causa nonobstante tante sensation!" Quando ille arrivava al domo de Spichkin ille aperiva le pellicia largemente e se poneva sin haste a pagar le cochiero. Il le pareva que le cochiero se petrificava al vista del epaulettes, del buttones, e del Stanislas. Contente de se mesme Pustiakov tussettava e entrava in le domo. Quando ille se disvestiva de su pellicia in le antecamera ille jectava un reguardo in le sala. Ibi un dece-cinquena de personas sedeva jam al longe tabula a dinar e mangiava. On audiva voces e le tintinnar de plattos. "Qui ha sonate ibi?" se faceva audir le voce del maestro del domo. "Ah, Lev Nikolaich! Entra, io vos preca, vos es un pauc tarde sed non importa... Nos nos ha justo nunc sedite al tabula!" Pustiakov expandeva le pectore, levava le capite, e fricante le manos entrava in le sala. Sed ibi ille videva alique horribile. Al tabula, juxta Zina, sedeva su collega Tremblant, preceptor del lingua francese. Monstrar le ordine al francese significava provocar un multude de questiones le plus disagradabile, significava facer se ridicule e contemptibile pro semper ... Le prime pensata de Pustiakov esseva de aveller le ordine o de currer retro; sed le ordine esseva attaccate multo solidemente e un retraite esseva jam impossibile. Hastivissimo ille coperiva le ordine con su dextera, se faceva le plus parve possibile inclinante se disgratiosemente in un saluto general sin serrar le mano a alicuno, e se sedeva pesantemente super le sol sede non occupate exactemente opposite a su collega, le francese. "Ha bibite nimis, evidentemente!" pensava Spichkin vidente su facie confuse. Un platto de suppa esseva placiate ante Pustiakov. Ille prendeva le coclear in le mano sinistre, sed quia il occurreva a ille que in societate respectabile il non es permittite mangiar con le mano sinistre, ille declarava que ille habeva jam dinate e non poteva mangiar plus. "Io ha jam mangiate... Merci..." ille balbutiava. "Io visitava mi oncle, le protopresbytero Yeleiev, e ille me persuadeva de... de... dinar a presso de ille." Le anima de Pustiakov esseva plen de angustia constringente e de enoio irate: le suppa oleva tanto gustose e le sturion vaporate emitteva un odor inusualmente appetibile. Le preceptor tentava coperir le ordine con le mano sinistre pro liberar le dextera, sed etiam isto semblava a ille non multo conveniente. "On lo remarcara... Alora mi bracio jacera super tote mi pectore como si io me poneva a cantar. Domino mie, si solmente le dinar esseva finite! Io pote dinar plus tarde al albergo!" Post le tertie platto ille reguardava le francese timidemente, con un sol oculo, pro si dicer. Tremblant, qui pro alicun ration esseva multo confuse, reguardava Pustiakov e etiam non mangiava. E post que le duo habeva reguardate le uno le altero, illes deveniva ancora plus confuse e fixava le oculos super su plattos vacue. "Ille lo ha remarcate, le porco!" pensava Pustiakov. "Io lo vide super su miserabile facie que ille lo ha remarcate! Le bandito es un intrigante. Jam deman ille informara le director." Le hospite e le invitatos mangiava le quarte platto e, como le fato lo habeva determinate, illes mangiava etiam le quinte... Un senior grande, con large nares capillute, con un naso curvate e oculos congenitalmente constringite, se levava. Ille passava le mano super su capite e exclamava: "Eh - eh - eh... io... io... eh propone, eh, biber al salute del damas hic presente." Le seniores se levava con ruito e elevava su bicarios. Un "hurrah" sonava a alte voces per tote le habitation. Le damas surrideva e se poneva a lassar toccar lor vitros. Pustiakov etiam se levava e prendeva su vitro in le mano sinistre. "Lev Nikolaich, presenta per favor iste vitro a Nastasia Timofeievna!" se adressava un senior a ille e le passava al mesme tempore un bicario. "Persuade la de biber!" A su plus grande horror Pustiakov esseva fortiate iste vice de poner su dextera in action. E finalmente le Stanislas con su banda crispate videva le lumine del die e luceva brillantemente. Le preceptor pallidiva, bassava le capite e reguardava timidemente verso le francese. Iste le reguardava equalmente con oculos surprise e questionante. Su labios se distorqueva in un surriso astute e le expression confuse dispareva lentemente de su visage... "Julij Avgustovich!" le hospite se adressava al francese. "Si il vos place, passa me ille bottilia!" Indecisemente Tremblant extendeva su dextera verso le bottilia e... oh, qual fortuna! Pustiakov percipeva un ordine super su pectore; e illo non esseva simplemente un Stanislas, illo esseva un integre Anna! Ergo etiam le francese habeva fraudate! Pustiakov erumpeva in risos de gaudio e finalmente se placiava comfortabilemente super su sede... Nunc non jam esseva necessari celar le Stanislas! Ambos esseva culpabile del mesme peccato e consequentemente le uno non poteva calumniar le altero o facer le risibile... "Ah, ah... hm!..." grunniva Spichkin quando ille videva le ordine super le pectore del preceptor. "S-si!" diceva Pustiakov. "Il es surprendente, Julij Avgustovich! Quante paucos inter nos esseva proponite ante le ferias! Como nos es numerose e totevia solmente vos e io ha recipite un! Es multo sur-pren-den-te!" Tremblant nutava hilaremente e al mesme tempore exponeva le reverso sinistre de su jachetta ubi resplendeva le ordine de Anna del tertie grado. Post le dinar Pustiakov se promenava per omne le cameras e monstrava le ordine al seniorettas. Su anima esseva leve e libere ben que le fame constringeva su stomacho. "Si io habeva sapite alique de iste fraude," ille pensava con invidia, reguardante Tremblant qui justo tunc parlava con Spichkin super ordines, "io me haberea simplemente attaccate un Vladimir. Qual damno que io non considerava illo!" Solo iste pensata le inquietava. In omne altere respecto ille esseva integremente felice. == Duo Lupos == Traducite a ia per Jay Bowks. Un vespere un vetere Cherokee narrava le historia de un battalia interne a su granfilio. Ille diceva: "Mi granfilio, le battalia es inter "duo lupos" que vive intra nos omnes, un de illos es le iniquitate. Illo es le ira, le invidia, le jelosia, le mentitas, le orgolio, le arrogantia, le impietate, le perversitate, le inferioritate o le superioritate e le "ego". Le altere lupo es le bonitate. Illo es le gaudio, le pace, le amor, le sperantia, le serenitate, le humilitate, le patientia, le benevolentia, le empathia, le generositate, le veritate, le serenitate, le compassion e le fide. Le granfilio reflectava durante un momento, tunc ille demandava de su granpatre: "E le qual lupo gania le battalia?" Le vetere Cherokee simplemente respondeva: "Illo que tu nutri." == Ancian Legenda Oriental == Traducite a ia per Jay Bowks. Un vice un rege oriental desirava saper le historia del homine. Un sage portava ad ille cinque cento tomos, ma proque le rege esseva occupate per affaires de stato, ille commandava le vader e condensar los. Dece-duo annos depois le sage veniva retro e su historia esseva ora in solmente cinquanta tomos, ma le rege, essente ora troppo vetule pro leger tante libros pesante, pregava le vader e render los ancora plus breve. Dece-duo novem annos passava, e le sage, vetule e gris, portava le un tomo singular, in le qual esseva concentrate le sapientia que le rege habeva cercate. Ma le rege esseva in su lecto de morte e habeva nulle tempore pro leger mesmo isto. Finalmente le sage donava le tote le historia del homine in un singular linea: "Ille nasceva, suffreva, e moriva." == Un ver amico == ''Per Harleigh Kyson Jr.'' Un arabe qui iva morir vocava a se su filio e diceva, "Dice me, filio, quante amicos ha tu aquirite durante que io ha vivite?" In responsa, su filio diceva, "Io crede que io ha aquirite cento amicos." Tunc diceva le patre, "Un philospho dice, 'Non lauda un amico ante probar le.' Io vermente es vetule e io ha acquirite solmente le medietate de un amico. Como ha tu aquirite cento? Vade tunc a probar les omnes, e apprende si ulles ex illes essera pro te un ver amico." Le filio diceva in responsa, "Como les probara io?" E le patre diceva, "Occide un vitello, talia lo in pecias, e pone lo in un sacco, e le sacco essera tintate con sanguine. E quando tu venira a un amico, dice, "Car amico mie, io ha occidite un homine per accidente, e io te implora a interrar le. Io te roga proque nemo habera suspiciones que tu lo faceva, e assi tu potera salvar me." Le filio faceva lo que su patre mandava. Ma le prime amico al qual ille veniva diceva, "Porta via ille homine morte circum tu proprie collo. Tu ha facite alique mal, e tu debe pagar le penalitate! Tu nunquam intrara in mi casa." Il faceva isto con omne su amicos, e omnes le dava le mesme responsa. Le filio retornava a su patre e annunciava lo que ille habeva facite, e su patre diceva, "Lo que te eveniva es exactemente lo que diceva le philosopho: 'On sempre ha multe amicos in conditiones de prosperitate ma pauches in conditiones de necessitate.' Vade a mi semiamico e vide lo que ille dice. Ille vadeva a iste amico e narrava lo que ille habeva dicite al altere amicos sue. "Intra in mi casa," diceva iste amico. "Nos non debe facer disseminar iste secreto!" Le amico de su patre inviava via su marita con omne su familia e excavava un tumba. Ma post vider omne iste preparationes, ille explicava lo que vermente habeva occurrite, dicente gratias a ille. Ille tunc retornava a su patre e narrava toto, e su patre diceva, "Concernente un tal amico le philosopho dice, "Ille es vermente un amico qui te adjuva quando le mundo te falle." == Le Corvo e le Lupo == Un corvo, que sedeva in un arbore alte, mangiava un caseo que illo habeva sasite de un fenestra. Un lupo, vidente lo, comencia a laudar le pennas lucente, le beltate de su capite, e le elegantia de tote su corpore. "Ma il ha un cosa que tu non ha," illo diceva, "un voce sonor. Si tu habeva isto, tu esserea multo melior que omne le altere aves." Ma le corvo stupide voleva monstrar que illo habeva un voce placente e dulce. E durante que illo se prepara a cantar, illo lassa cader le caseo, que le lobo furtive rapidemente sasi con su dentes. Moral del historia: Illes qui liberemente ascolta laudatores vermente debe ascoltar iste fabula. == Le Tortuca e le Aquila == Un tortuca interprende un concurso con un aquila pro arrivar a un certe loco. Illo propone un destination e dice, "Qui arriva a iste loco durante le tertie die essera le victor." Le aquila, contemnente le lentor del tortuca, comencia a volar in avante, a facer altere cosas, e finalmente reposante omne le nocte sin volar via de bon hora. Ma le tortuca nunquam cessa durante le viage e cammina directemente al destination final. E assi, con su persistentia, illo esseva le prime qui arrivava ibi e vinceva le aquila. Moral del historia: Le constantia es plus efficace pro le celeritate que le velocitate inconstante. == Le Mure Urban e le Mure Campestre == Ante un certe periodo de tempore un mure urban visitava un mure rustic in su cavo. Al mure urban non place le alimentos offerite a ille per su hospite, ciceres e avena. "Perque vive tu assi?" dice ille. "Non vole tu venir cum me al urbe ubi nos habera alique melior?" Le mure rustic es de accordo. De ibi ambes vade al urbe a medie nocte, usque que illes arriva al focar de un homine ric. Illac remane in grande corbes multe parve peciettas ex le alimentos de un grande cena. Ibi le mure urban trova un sede pro su amico e prepara pro ille un banchetto. Ille mangia avidemente e gaude de su sorte mutate. Subito tamen un ruito ingente los succute. Terrificate, illos curre trans tote le casa a causa de lor terror. Illos es completemente terrificate, e, a causa de lor terror, illos curre in omne partes del casa. Le casa resona con le ruitose latrato de canes vitiosissime. "Io non vole viver de iste maniera," diceva le mure rustic. "Adeo. Le foreste e mi caverna sempre me protegera de iste tipo de difficultate. {{Revision}} 1603 2964 2006-02-09T13:19:40Z McDutchie 20 <br clear="all" /> <div style="width:75%; padding:.35cm; background:#f7f8ff; border:1px solid gray; margin:0 auto;"> ''Un requesta pro '''revision linguistic''' esseva facite pro iste articulo. Si tu trova errores grammatical o orthographic in iste pagina, nos te invita a [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=edit}} modificar lo] e postea rescinder iste etiquetta.'' </div> <includeonly> [[Category:Articulos pro revider|{{PAGENAME}}]] </includeonly> 3421 2006-12-15T10:22:23Z 212.238.240.159 nove version copiate de wikipedia <div style="width: 80%; background: #f7f8ff; border: 1px solid #8888aa; padding: .2cm; margin: .2cm auto; clear: both"><div style="float: left">[[Image:ISO_639_Icon_ia.svg|40px|ISO 639 Interlingua]]</div><div class="plainlinks" style="margin-left: 1.2cm; text-align: justify"><p style="border-bottom: 1px solid #8888aa">'''Require revision linguistic'''</p>''Pro iste articulo esseva facite un [[Wikipedia:Auxilio redactorial|requesta]] pro revision [[linguage|linguistic]]. Si tu trova mal [[grammatica]], [[orthographia]] o stilo, nos te invita a [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=edit}} meliorar le articulo] e a rescinder postea iste etiquetta.''</div></div><includeonly> [[Categoria:Articulos pro revider|{{PAGENAME}}]] </includeonly><noinclude> ---- Iste patrono ''(template)'' addera le articulos marcate con illo al categoria [[:Categoria:Articulos pro revider|Articulos pro revider]]. Pro ulterior informationes vide [[Wikipedia:Auxilio redactorial]]. [[Categoria:Patronos statos de paginas|{{PAGENAME}}]] </noinclude> 3422 2006-12-15T10:23:59Z 212.238.240.159 ligamines <div style="width: 80%; background: #f7f8ff; border: 1px solid #8888aa; padding: .2cm; margin: .2cm auto; clear: both"><div style="float: left">[[Image:ISO_639_Icon_ia.svg|40px|ISO 639 Interlingua]]</div><div class="plainlinks" style="margin-left: 1.2cm; text-align: justify"><p style="border-bottom: 1px solid #8888aa">'''Require revision linguistic'''</p>''Pro iste articulo esseva facite un [[:w:Wikipedia:Auxilio redactorial|requesta]] pro revision linguistic. Si tu trova mal [[grammatica]], orthographia o stilo, nos te invita a [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=edit}} meliorar le articulo] e a rescinder postea iste etiquetta.''</div></div><includeonly> [[Categoria:Articulos pro revider|{{PAGENAME}}]] </includeonly><noinclude> ---- Iste patrono ''(template)'' addera le articulos marcate con illo al categoria [[:Categoria:Articulos pro revider|Articulos pro revider]]. Pro ulterior informationes vide [[Wikipedia:Auxilio redactorial]]. [[Categoria:Patronos statos de paginas|{{PAGENAME}}]] </noinclude> 1604 2965 2006-02-09T13:22:10Z McDutchie 20 Iste categoria es pro articulos que require un revision linguistic pro corriger errores in le grammatica, orthographia, etc. Non tote le mundo sape scriber interlingua correctemente e totevia nos prefere un participation maxime del publico general. Pro permitter isto, insere le etiquetta {{revision}} al fundo de vostre articulo si vos non es confidente de vostre habilitates de interlingua, a fin que le parlatores experte pote facilemente trovar vostre articlo e applicar le correctiones necessari. 2966 2006-02-09T13:22:38Z McDutchie 20 Iste categoria es pro articulos que require un revision linguistic pro corriger errores in le grammatica, orthographia, etc. Non tote le mundo sape scriber interlingua correctemente e totevia nos prefere un participation maxime del publico general. Pro permitter isto, insere le etiquetta <code><nowiki>{{revision}}</nowiki></code> al fundo de vostre articulo si vos non es confidente de vostre habilitates de interlingua, a fin que le parlatores experte pote facilemente trovar vostre articlo e applicar le correctiones necessari. 1632 3058 2006-03-02T02:28:40Z 81.100.85.143 I've wikified this page, as an example of what the whole series could look like. Thanks to the original author. Sorry for the English and not starting at page 1. 3080 2006-03-06T01:02:14Z 81.100.85.143 I've wikified the first few pages, as an example of what the whole series could look like. Thanks to the original author. Sorry for the English. 1664 3119 2006-05-27T10:09:12Z 151.198.132.96 vitaliano vitaliano 1665 3121 2006-06-21T19:51:57Z 192.85.50.1 vamonos 3122 2006-06-21T19:53:01Z 192.85.50.1 talk to you 1842 3344 2006-10-10T15:52:33Z 66.36.243.77 Small problem... Sorry for your time.... Why i can't see images on this resource? My Browser is: Opera. Thank you. 3417 2006-11-04T03:04:02Z 67.188.240.6 rv 1899 3418 2006-12-07T22:18:30Z 87.118.106.177 One Litl Girl Let's Speak about English I'm Kelly, from Arabia, and I'm 19 y.o Hi, Girl and Boy I've studied English sinse this Autumn . It's very! I want like to meet handsome gays and girls and practisice My English with them. Thanks!!! 3429 2007-01-14T11:31:54Z 207.210.93.73 Ho wmany days gone? Hello Bye 3431 2007-01-22T23:25:29Z 72.40.154.80 Question by your forum Hello! I want to know, where you have a section for advertising at a forum? Or it is not present? I have not found it. P.S. Are you see storm in Europe? It's a horror... 1900 3420 2006-12-15T10:21:15Z 212.238.240.159 transferite de Wikipedia (le articulo ibi esseva eliminate) {{Revision}} Alcun conversationes simplice in Interlingua. On debe controlar le texto... == Catto Famisate == Le catto reguarda le refrigerator.<br /> Le catto ha fame.<br /> Le catto sempre ha fame.<br /> Le catto besonia alimentos.<br /> Le catto sape que il ha alimentos in le refrigerator.<br /> Assi, le catto reguarda le refrigerator.<br /> == Quando es Lunch? == Puera: Qual hora es il?<br /> Matre: Es dece horas del matino.<br /> Puera: Al un hora del postmeridie, nos mangiara nostre lunch.<br /> Matre: Si, un hora post meridie, nos va lunchar.<br /> Puera: Quante tempore ante lunch?<br /> Matre: Tres horas, melle.<br /> == Le Claves == Sposo: Esque tu sape ubi es mi claves?<br /> Sposa: No. Io non ha vidite tu claves.<br /> Sposo: Diabolo! Io non los pote trovar alicubi!<br /> Sposa: Esque tu probava le tabula?<br /> Sposo: Si, io ha probate le tabula.<br /> Sposa: Esque tu ha mirate super le television?<br /> Sposo: Si, io mirava super le television.<br /> Sposa: E in tu tasca?<br /> Sposo: Ah... Gratias!<br /> == Spaghetti Pharmaceutic == John: Salute! Como sta tu?<br /> Anya: Salute! Ben, gratias. E tu?<br /> John: Anque ben. Que face tu?<br /> Anya: Io va al pharmacia, pro comprar alcun spaghetti.<br /> John: In le pharmacia?!<br /> Anya: Es spaghetti special. E tu?<br /> John: Io... debe... vader rapidemente... foras. Ciao!<br /> Anya: A revider! Hehehe!<br /> == Antoine e le Blonda == Antoine: Heri vespere io incontrava un blonda.<br /> Catrina: Un blonda, hmm?<br /> Antoine: Si. Bellissime. Tu non sape quanto...<br /> Catrina: E..?<br /> Antoine: Ella me dava su numero telephonic.<br /> Catrina: Bon! Tu la va telephonar?<br /> Antoine: No. Io lo ha perdite.<br /> Catrina: Perdite???<br /> Antoine: Io ha mi sonios. Illos es bastante.<br /> == In un Autobus == Ille: *ehem* Excusa me, tu me pare... deprimite.<br /> Ella: No. Io sempre pare como iste.<br /> Ille: Vermente?<br /> Ella: *hmph* Cosas sta mal al momento. Nihil plus.<br /> Ille: E tu non besonia conversation?<br /> Ella: Io me appella Danniella.<br /> Ille: Ah! Io es Stefan.<br /> 1901 3423 2006-12-15T10:25:05Z 212.238.240.159 cat [[Categoria:Patronos]] 1902 3424 2006-12-15T10:25:17Z 212.238.240.159 cat [[Categoria:Wikibooks]] 1903 3425 2006-12-15T10:25:28Z 212.238.240.159 cat [[Categoria:Tote]] 1904 3426 2006-12-15T10:26:04Z 212.238.240.159 New page: Le categoria al summitate del arbore de categorias. Necun articulo, solmente subcategorias, debe esser parte de iste articulo. Le categoria al summitate del arbore de categorias. Necun articulo, solmente subcategorias, debe esser parte de iste articulo.