Wikiversity:Sandbox

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{{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}
/*If you are happy and you know it clap your hands*/
----
* {{#invoke:Sandbox/Chibsedu|hello}}
* {{#invoke:Sandbox/Chibsedu|meet}}

* {{#invoke:Sandbox/Chibsedu|variables}}

----

* {{#invoke:Sandbox/Chibsedu|arithmetic}}
* {{#invoke:Sandbox/Chibsedu|relational}}
* {{#invoke:Sandbox/Chibsedu|logical}}
* {{#invoke:Sandbox/Chibsedu|length}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Football (soccer)</title>
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      <comment>/* Off Sides */ Reply</comment>
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[[User:Student Galaxy|Student Galaxy]] 12:15, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

== Off Sides ==

Note: This is not the place for biograghies of any footballers, stadiums or teams. Just the teachings of football.

Nice work so far Galaxy!  I have played soccer in USA pickup games for several years now and been used as one of a group of &quot;practice dummies&quot; for some teams but I have trouble understanding the offsides rules.  Can you explain this for me somewhere in your lessons?  Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 22:19, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

:hello i like soccer for blud thormen [[Special:Contributions/122.148.32.99|122.148.32.99]] ([[User talk:122.148.32.99|discuss]]) 05:34, 4 June 2025 (UTC)

offside was already there, but I've made it a little easier to make it out in the text.
[[User:Student Galaxy|Student Galaxy]] 15:55, 14 December 2006 (UTC)</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello A F K When Needed, and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you need [[Help:Contents|help]], feel free to visit my talk page, or [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] and [[Wikiversity:Questions|ask questions]]. After you leave a comment on a [[Wikiversity:Talk page|talk page]], remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]]; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon [[Image:Signature_icon.png]] in the edit window makes it simple. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
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&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

And don't forget to [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]], and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a [[twitter]] user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --[[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]])  18:52, 27 May 2010 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
:Thanks, but I've ~15,000 edits to my name on various Wikis.
:I take it you're &quot;Ottava&quot; from the English Wikipedia IRC Channel? :-) [[User:A F K When Needed|A F K When Needed]] 13:09, 28 May 2010 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Digital Marketing</title>
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      <comment>/* Search Engine Optimization (SEO) */</comment>
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      <text bytes="5541" sha1="hor7q5ca35t9t7rmrxrbppg2urywe1x" xml:space="preserve">==Definition==
Online marketing is an extension to direct marketing and define it thus: [[wikipedia:Online_advertising|online marketing]] entails interaction with known customers and others in the marketing channel, on a one-to-one basis, often in real-time, to maintain value-laden relationships and to generate a measurable response and/or transaction using electronic network tools and technologies. &lt;ref&gt;Kotler, P., Brown, L., Adam, S., Burton, S., Armstrong G., (2007),''Marketing 7th edition'', Pearson Education Australia, New South Wales.&lt;/ref&gt; In the era of information technologies, digital marketing become widely accepted as a major tool used by many businesses to handle customers relationship.    

==Digital Marketing Strategy==

Digital marketing strategy consists of the steps taken and procedures followed for marketing a brand through the web. The center of attraction in any e-marketing strategy is the website of the company to which Internet users are to be attracted for increasing sales. But firstly, the company's website needs to be in a proper design, format, attractive, and one that will have a good impression on prospective buyers. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.buzzle.com/articles/e-marketing-strategy.html&lt;/ref&gt; Some components of the digital marketing strategies are: [[#Search Engine Optimization|Search Engine Optimization (SEO)]]; [[#Email Marketing| Email Marketing]]; [[#Online Advertising|Online Advertising]];[[#Online Newsletters|Online Newsletters]] [[#Media News Rooms|Media News Rooms]]. If You Want To Learn More  About Digital Marketing Choosing A [https://digiperform.com/digital-marketing-course-delhi/ Digital Marketing Course] Will Be A Smart Move.  

==Search Engine Marketing (SEM)==
Search Marketing, also known as &quot;[[wikipedia:Search_engine_marketing|Search Engine Marketing]]&quot; or &quot;[[wikipedia:Search_engine_marketing|SEM]]&quot; is an umbrella term that includes both [[wikipedia:Search_engine_optimization|organic (SEO)]] and [[wikipedia:Pay-per-click|paid (PPC)]] marketing strategies.

===Search Engine Optimization (SEO)===
Search engine optimization (SEO)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://yrocconsulting.com/what-is-search-engine-optimization-seo/|title=What is Search Engine Optimization (SEO) {{!}} Yroc Consulting|website=www.yrocconsulting.com|access-date=2025-03-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; is the process of affecting the online visibility of a website or a web page in a search engine's unpaid results—often referred to as &quot;natural,&quot; &quot;organic,&quot; or &quot;earned&quot; results. SEO may target different kinds of search, including image search, local search, video search, academic search, news search and industry-specific vertical search engines. The various strategies used for SEO are collectively known as organic optimization. As an Internet marketing method, SEO considers how search engines work, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines and which search engines are favored by their targeted audience. One of the most effective tactics for improving an organization's SEO is through blogging and other &quot;content marketing&quot; efforts whose purpose is to attract visitors to a company controlled property and increase awareness.

===Pay Per Click Advertising (PPC or CPC)===
[[wikipedia:Pay-per-click|Pay per click]] (PPC), also called cost per click (CPC), is an internet advertising model used to direct traffic to websites, in which advertisers pay the publisher (typically a website owner) when the ad is clicked.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_per_click&lt;/ref&gt;

==Display Advertising==
Display advertising is an ever growing market consisting primarily of banner advertising. The entire market of the display has hit a stride ever since Facebook started allowing ads on the site, and the entire market is estimated to earn $25.27 billion dollars in 2012 and $34.4 billion dollars in 2013.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.techjournalsouth.com/2012/02/online-display-advertising-growing-rapidly-to-reach-25-2b-this-year/&lt;/ref&gt; 

==Social Media Marketing (SMM)==
Social media marketing involves efforts to engage with customers or potential customers via social networks (e.g., [[wikipedia:Facebook|Facebook]], [[wikipedia:Twitter|Twitter]], [[wikipedia:Instagram|Instagram]], [[wikipedia:LinkedIn|LinkedIn]] etc.) for the purpose of expanding awareness, increasing engagement, or providing customer service.

==Email Marketing==
Email marketing is one to many direct communication to email subscribers, also known as an Opt-in list. Utilizing email marketing is an important ingredient required for building effective digital marketing strategies. Email marketing communication requires the sender to write a clear and concise message containing text, graphics, and links to useful resources.

==Online Newsletters==
Online newsletters typically fall into the category of email marketing, but can also be hosted on a website as a monthly, weekly, or bi-weekly newsletter. They are digitally stored reports that share news and other items pertaining to a particular field of study or a group of people. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/newsletter&lt;/ref&gt;

==Video Marketing &amp; Advertising==
Video Marketing &amp; Advertising envelops online presentation notices that encapsulate video, however it is commonly acknowledged that it alludes to promoting that happens previously, during or potentially after a video stream on the web.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.incrementors.com/blog/video-marketing-truth-answers/&lt;/ref&gt;
==Media News Rooms==

==Note==
&lt;references responsive=&quot;&quot; /&gt;
[[Category:Marketing]]</text>
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Ping is a command used to test the accessibility of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network using [[Internet Control Message Protocol]] and to measure the round-trip time for messages sent from the originating host to a destination host.  These activities will show you how to use the ping command. A computer in order to answer to ping request has to be available and configured to answer to ping/[[ICMP]] request.

== Readings ==
* [[w:Ping_(networking_utility) | Wikipedia: Ping (networking utility)]]

== Activities ==
* [[/Host | Ping a Host (Windows)]]
* Ping an IP in Linux using [[ping (command)]]: &lt;code&gt;ping 8.8.8.8&lt;/code&gt;
* [[/Length | Ping Length]]
* [[/MTU | Ping Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)]]
* [[/Performance_test | Ping Performance Test]]
* [[/Sweep | Ping Sweep]]
* [[/TTL | Ping Time To Live]]
* [[/Disable Ping Response in Linux/|Enable or disable Ping Response in Linux]]
* Enable or Disable Ping response in Windows: https://bitsanddragons.wordpress.com/2018/02/19/windows-10-enable-ping-and-ad-login/

== See also ==
* [[Check TCP connectivity]] using [[Nmap|nping]]
* [[arping]]
* [[fping]]
* &lt;code&gt;Test-Connection&lt;/code&gt; [[Powershell]] cmdlet
* [[mtr]], [[traceroute]], [[tracepath]]
* [[Linux server administration/Performance and Troubleshooting]]

Sai.net</text>
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Ping is a command used to test the accessibility of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network using [[Internet Control Message Protocol]] and to measure the round-trip time for messages sent from the originating host to a destination host.  These activities will show you how to use the ping command. A computer in order to answer to ping request has to be available and configured to answer to ping/[[ICMP]] request.

== Readings ==
* [[w:Ping_(networking_utility) | Wikipedia: Ping (networking utility)]]
* Sai.net

== Activities ==
* [[/Host | Ping a Host (Windows)]]
* Ping an IP in Linux using [[ping (command)]]: &lt;code&gt;ping 8.8.8.8&lt;/code&gt;
* [[/Length | Ping Length]]
* [[/MTU | Ping Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)]]
* [[/Performance_test | Ping Performance Test]]
* [[/Sweep | Ping Sweep]]
* [[/TTL | Ping Time To Live]]
* [[/Disable Ping Response in Linux/|Enable or disable Ping Response in Linux]]
* Enable or Disable Ping response in Windows: https://bitsanddragons.wordpress.com/2018/02/19/windows-10-enable-ping-and-ad-login/

== See also ==
* [[Check TCP connectivity]] using [[Nmap|nping]]
* [[arping]]
* [[fping]]
* &lt;code&gt;Test-Connection&lt;/code&gt; [[Powershell]] cmdlet
* [[mtr]], [[traceroute]], [[tracepath]]
* [[Linux server administration/Performance and Troubleshooting]]

Sai.net</text>
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Ping is a command used to test the accessibility of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network using [[Internet Control Message Protocol]] and to measure the round-trip time for messages sent from the originating host to a destination host.  These activities will show you how to use the ping command. A computer in order to answer to ping request has to be available and configured to answer to ping/[[ICMP]] request.

== Readings ==
* [[w:Ping_(networking_utility) | Wikipedia: Ping (networking utility)]]
* Sai.net

== Activities ==
* [[/Host | Ping a Host (Windows)]]
* Ping an IP in Linux using [[ping (command)]]: &lt;code&gt;ping 8.8.8.8&lt;/code&gt;
* [[/Length | Ping Length]]
* [[/MTU | Ping Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)]]
* [[/Performance_test | Ping Performance Test]]
* [[/Sweep | Ping Sweep]]
* [[/TTL | Ping Time To Live]]
* [[/Disable Ping Response in Linux/|Enable or disable Ping Response in Linux]]
* Enable or Disable Ping response in Windows: https://bitsanddragons.wordpress.com/2018/02/19/windows-10-enable-ping-and-ad-login/
* Sai.net

== See also ==
* [[Check TCP connectivity]] using [[Nmap|nping]]
* [[arping]]
* [[fping]]
* &lt;code&gt;Test-Connection&lt;/code&gt; [[Powershell]] cmdlet
* [[mtr]], [[traceroute]], [[tracepath]]
* [[Linux server administration/Performance and Troubleshooting]]

Sai.net</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
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        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
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== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20250605.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>isedbmn658iytekpjnqo8c4rldql1pe</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:OneOldNewspaperFan</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>218076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2717856</id>
      <parentid>1850708</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-03T13:43:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cabayi</username>
        <id>26584</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Cabayi moved page [[User talk:Chrisisreed]] to [[User talk:OneOldNewspaperFan]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/Chrisisreed|Chrisisreed]]&quot; to &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/OneOldNewspaperFan|OneOldNewspaperFan]]&quot;</comment>
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&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Chrisisreed!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:Insert-signature.png]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
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&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:29, 8 December 2016 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal of Science/Potential upcoming articles</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-03T17:49:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OhanaUnited</username>
        <id>18921</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove 1 declined</comment>
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      <text bytes="2171" sha1="j3fzvqd6kcctmrq9d44uook89ipca99" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJSci top menu}}{{WikiJSci right menu}}
{{:WikiJournal User Group/Potential upcoming articles‎}}

----
The table below is generated from the records on Wikidata, with the exception of the &lt;span style=&quot;color:#006930&quot;&gt;'''''Notes'''''&lt;/span&gt; column, which can be &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{PAGENAMEE}}?veaction=edit '''edited in Visual Editor''']&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! style=&quot;border-top:1px solid transparent;border-left:1px solid transparent;border-bottom:1px solid transparent; background-color:white;&quot;| Stage
! Wikidata 
!style=&quot;width:300px&quot;| Article
! Submission
! Editors
! Reviewers
! DOI
! PDF
! WP
!style=&quot;background:#99DFB9&quot;|''Notes'' &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal;&quot;&gt;[[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Science/Potential_upcoming_articles?veaction=edit edit]]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|{{Article in processing|Q104785241}} || Study summarized in WP. Can do more integration 
|-
|{{Article in processing|Q104661268}} ||
|-
|{{Article in processing|Q112943149}} || 
|-
|{{Article in processing|Q113866335}} || Need to send reviewers' comments to author
|-
|{{Article in processing|Q116768204}}|| Peer review reports presented to author
|-
|{{Article in processing|Q116768205}}|| Author undergoing revisions following peer review
|-
|{{Article in processing|Q118936609}}||
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|-
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|-
|{{Article in processing|Q131333897}}|| 
&lt;!------- insert new row above this line -------&gt;
|}
+ &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Science/Potential_upcoming_articles?action=edit edit]]&lt;/span&gt; using article Q number (needs to be done in source editor)&lt;noinclude&gt;

'''{{#tag:CategoryTree|Articles currently submitted to {{ROOTPAGENAME}} for peer review‎|depth=0|showcount=on|mode=all}}'''
'''{{#tag:CategoryTree|Article preprints not yet submitted to {{ROOTPAGENAME}} for peer review|depth=0|showcount=on|mode=all}}'''
[[Category:Article preprints not yet included in {{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:WikiJournal Preprints]]
[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dog's behaviour</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-03T17:40:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.157.130.171</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sniffing other dog's butt */</comment>
      <origin>2717864</origin>
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      <text bytes="5238" sha1="las05tfx6tsh3jrcrnh7nl70icb6sy0" xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup|grammar, spelling--good article, just listing the things to work on in this article. Keep up the work!}}
Dogs have fair share of behaviour to other animals that are truly baffling. As humans, it’s hard for us to make sense of many dog’s body language and slay Our pet dogs' desire to sniff butts, hump legs, and chase their own tails just doesn't make sense to us.

== Tail chasing ==
This amusing behaviour of dogs is to expend their excess energy. No medical issues are normally connected with it, but if your dog does this constantly, then it might have anal gland problems or flea allergy dermatitis. Chasing one's tail is also called whirling, this is quite natural behaviour often seen among different species of predators.
We often wonder what puppies would do if they caught their tails. One snap of the teeth is probably enough to teach most puppies that their tails are indeed attached to their bodies. Watching a puppy chase its tail can be very funny. If you laugh and give your puppy attention when it chases its tail it will say slay queen, your puppy may chase its tail more often when it wants more attention from you. Whether they learn that their tails are always going to be following them around or they just don't play as much anymore like whattt, older dogs tend not to chase their tails like puppies do. When older dogs chase their tails, it can be a sign that a trip to the veterinarian might be a good idea. For example, older dogs might chase their tails if they have fleas or worms. Tail chasing in older dogs can also be a sign of a behavioral problem. Like humans, dogs can develop compulsive disorders. Sometimes these disorders cause dogs to chew or lick themselves. In other cases, they can cause them to chase their tails for no apparent reason.

== Eating feces ==
The habit is just plain gross. Reasons may vary behind Coprophagia (the medical term for consuming feces). She does so, maybe because she is hungry or could be because she likes the taste and the smell. It’s possible that she is missing key nutrients from her diet. She might just think it's fun. It’s definitely not a behaviour humans want to dwell on. Eating feces is normal with many different animal species. In dogs, it is not part of the digestive process, but it is a normal cleaning behaviour in mother dogs with pups. Some dogs eat stool even without puppies in a misguided attempt to clean either the yard or their kennel. This can easily turn into a habit.
Another reason can be malnourished dogs who lack nutrients in their diet or are unable to digest the nutrients in their food may resort to eating partially digested food in poop in order to meet their nutritional needs. Consult your vet about the best diet for your dog, and also to rule out any existing medical problem associated with coprophagia, the scientific name for the act of dogs eating their own or other animals’ feces.

== Howling ==
Wait, what! We thought wolves howl, but yes, dogs howl too at times. Another strange way of behaviour. Since wolves and dogs share the same ancestor, it could be just a behaviour passed on from their ancestral cousins. According to the behaviorists, howling is instinctively rewarding and necessary for dogs. 
Howling is one of many forms of vocal communication used by dogs. Dogs howl to attract attention, to make contact with others and to announce their presence. Some dogs also howl in response to high-pitched sounds, such as emergency vehicle sirens or musical instruments.

== Humping ==
Dogs humping objects, toys, and other dogs does not always mean sexual behaviour. The dog humps because he is excited and seeking attention. This behavior could bring quite an embarrassment when the dog does it to you that is why you can always use toys to redirect your dog. Toys always work well. Dogs often mount and hump their littermates, other playmates, people, and toys. Some experts believe that this behavior functions as practice for future sexual encounters. As puppies reach sexual maturity, they start to mount other dogs in sexual contexts. Often, during courtship, females in heat mount and hump their male “suitors.” Female dogs also commonly mount and hump other females when one or both are in heat.

== Head tilting ==
Your dog's eyes always trained(?) on you with her head tilt a little. Chances are, she is hoping you are going to give her a treat. But sometimes her direct eye contact means threatening. She is annoyed for some good reason and it's time you pamper her.
Even though dogs can hear frequencies we can’t, they’re actually not as good as humans at finding out where a sound is coming from. Some experts believe that when a dog tilts its head, it’s trying to adjust the pinnae, or outer ears, to better detect where a sound is coming from. So when you’re making a weird noise, your dog might be thinking, “That’s weird. I better find out if that sound is really coming from my human.”

== Sniffing other dog's butt ==
This is dog’s way of saying ‘’hello, nice to meet you’’, to another dog. In the human world, this behaviour can land one in jail, but in dog's world this is a socially acceptable form of greeting.

[[Category:Animal psychology]]</text>
      <sha1>las05tfx6tsh3jrcrnh7nl70icb6sy0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2717868</id>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>276019</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/152.157.130.171|152.157.130.171]] ([[User_talk:152.157.130.171|talk]]) to last version by [[User:SimmeD|SimmeD]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="5211" sha1="bjjnnqqr0cd4rkpe2pzodnq8qmjqw5m" xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup|grammar, spelling--good article, just listing the things to work on in this article. Keep up the work!}}
Dogs have fair share of behaviour to other animals that are truly baffling. As humans, it’s hard for us to make sense of many dog’s body language and social cues. Our pet dogs' desire to sniff butts, hump legs, and chase their own tails just doesn't make sense to us.

== Tail chasing ==
This amusing behaviour of dogs is to expend their excess energy. No medical issues are normally connected with it, but if your dog does this constantly, then it might have anal gland problems or flea allergy dermatitis. Chasing one's tail is also called whirling, this is quite natural behaviour often seen among different species of predators.
We often wonder what puppies would do if they caught their tails. One snap of the teeth is probably enough to teach most puppies that their tails are indeed attached to their bodies. Watching a puppy chase its tail can be very funny. If you laugh and give your puppy attention when it chases its tail, your puppy may chase its tail more often when it wants more attention from you. Whether they learn that their tails are always going to be following them around or they just don't play as much anymore, older dogs tend not to chase their tails like puppies do. When older dogs chase their tails, it can be a sign that a trip to the veterinarian might be a good idea. For example, older dogs might chase their tails if they have fleas or worms. Tail chasing in older dogs can also be a sign of a behavioral problem. Like humans, dogs can develop compulsive disorders. Sometimes these disorders cause dogs to chew or lick themselves. In other cases, they can cause them to chase their tails for no apparent reason.

== Eating feces ==
The habit is just plain gross. Reasons may vary behind Coprophagia (the medical term for consuming feces). She does so, maybe because she is hungry or could be because she likes the taste and the smell. It’s possible that she is missing key nutrients from her diet. She might just think it's fun. It’s definitely not a behaviour humans want to dwell on. Eating feces is normal with many different animal species. In dogs, it is not part of the digestive process, but it is a normal cleaning behaviour in mother dogs with pups. Some dogs eat stool even without puppies in a misguided attempt to clean either the yard or their kennel. This can easily turn into a habit.
Another reason can be malnourished dogs who lack nutrients in their diet or are unable to digest the nutrients in their food may resort to eating partially digested food in poop in order to meet their nutritional needs. Consult your vet about the best diet for your dog, and also to rule out any existing medical problem associated with coprophagia, the scientific name for the act of dogs eating their own or other animals’ feces.

== Howling ==
Wait, what! We thought wolves howl, but yes, dogs howl too at times. Another strange way of behaviour. Since wolves and dogs share the same ancestor, it could be just a behaviour passed on from their ancestral cousins. According to the behaviorists, howling is instinctively rewarding and necessary for dogs. 
Howling is one of many forms of vocal communication used by dogs. Dogs howl to attract attention, to make contact with others and to announce their presence. Some dogs also howl in response to high-pitched sounds, such as emergency vehicle sirens or musical instruments.

== Humping ==
Dogs humping objects, toys, and other dogs does not always mean sexual behaviour. The dog humps because he is excited and seeking attention. This behavior could bring quite an embarrassment when the dog does it to you that is why you can always use toys to redirect your dog. Toys always work well. Dogs often mount and hump their littermates, other playmates, people, and toys. Some experts believe that this behavior functions as practice for future sexual encounters. As puppies reach sexual maturity, they start to mount other dogs in sexual contexts. Often, during courtship, females in heat mount and hump their male “suitors.” Female dogs also commonly mount and hump other females when one or both are in heat.

== Head tilting ==
Your dog's eyes always trained(?) on you with her head tilt a little. Chances are, she is hoping you are going to give her a treat. But sometimes her direct eye contact means threatening. She is annoyed for some good reason and it's time you pamper her.
Even though dogs can hear frequencies we can’t, they’re actually not as good as humans at finding out where a sound is coming from. Some experts believe that when a dog tilts its head, it’s trying to adjust the pinnae, or outer ears, to better detect where a sound is coming from. So when you’re making a weird noise, your dog might be thinking, “That’s weird. I better find out if that sound is really coming from my human.”

== Sniffing other dog's butt ==
This is dog’s way of saying ‘’hello, nice to meet you’’, to another dog. In the human world, this behaviour can land one in jail, but in dog's world this is a socially acceptable form of greeting.

[[Category:Animal psychology]]</text>
      <sha1>bjjnnqqr0cd4rkpe2pzodnq8qmjqw5m</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linux server administration/Performance and Troubleshooting</title>
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    <id>256257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2717882</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>2001:44C8:4500:BA34:A5FE:3E6A:6941:F370</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Sai.net</comment>
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      <text bytes="1078" sha1="n7sxznddiwcvuhcpq0537lnsiirga3h" xml:space="preserve">* Performance tools: 
*** [[learning and memory|memory]]: [[vmstat]], free, [[linux server administration/sar|sar -r]]
** Disk tools:  &lt;code&gt;iostat&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[linux server administration/iotop|iotop]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[hdparm]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[linux server administration/sar/sar -d|sar -d]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[ionice]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[hdparm]]&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;dd&lt;/code&gt;
** [[Network Administration|Network]]: [[ntop]], nmap, [[computer Networks/Ping|ping]], [[computer Networks/Ping/Sweep/fping|fping]], ncat, [[mtr]], [[traceroute]], [[tracepath]]
**** [[Linux kernel|Kernel]]: [[perf]], strace, [[ftrace]], [[Dtrace]]
** [[cgroups]] and [[devOps/Docker|docker]]: systemd-cgtop&lt;ref&gt;https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-cgtop.html&lt;/ref&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[docker stats]]&lt;/code&gt;
* Troubleshooting tools: &lt;code&gt;cfg2html&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[devOps/Ansible|ansible-cmdb]]&lt;/code&gt; , &lt;code&gt;[[sysreport]]&lt;/code&gt;, [[sosreport]] and &lt;code&gt;[[linux server administration/acct|acct]]&lt;/code&gt;

sai.net@a.sai.com


== See also ==
* [[Benchmarking tools]]
* [[monitoring]]

{{CourseCat}}</text>
      <sha1>n7sxznddiwcvuhcpq0537lnsiirga3h</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2717883</id>
      <parentid>2717882</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-04T07:52:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>2001:44C8:4500:BA34:A5FE:3E6A:6941:F370</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Sai.net</comment>
      <origin>2717883</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1100" sha1="cgzmzolqk7xjmgsqke1n351g1tx278z" xml:space="preserve">* Performance tools: 
*** [[learning and memory|memory]]: [[vmstat]], free, [[linux server administration/sar|sar -r]]
** Disk tools:  &lt;code&gt;iostat&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[linux server administration/iotop|iotop]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[hdparm]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[linux server administration/sar/sar -d|sar -d]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[ionice]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[hdparm]]&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;dd&lt;/code&gt;
** [[Network Administration|Network]]: [[ntop]], nmap, [[computer Networks/Ping|ping]], [[computer Networks/Ping/Sweep/fping|fping]], ncat, [[mtr]], [[traceroute]], [[tracepath]]
**** [[Linux kernel|Kernel]]: [[perf]], strace, [[ftrace]], [[Dtrace]]
** [[cgroups]] and [[devOps/Docker|docker]]: systemd-cgtop&lt;ref&gt;https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-cgtop.html&lt;/ref&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[docker stats]]&lt;/code&gt;
* Troubleshooting tools: &lt;code&gt;cfg2html&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[devOps/Ansible|ansible-cmdb]]&lt;/code&gt; , &lt;code&gt;[[sysreport]]&lt;/code&gt;, [[sosreport]] and &lt;code&gt;[[linux server administration/acct|acct]]&lt;/code&gt;

sai.net@a.sai.com


== See also ==
* [[Benchmarking tools]]
* [[monitoring]]

{{CourseCat}}
&lt;references /&gt;Sai.net</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2717872</id>
      <parentid>2440546</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>193.194.106.42</ip>
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      <text bytes="30847" sha1="q4j622yhp87ka5ofkep4nj2lrclqx55" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Writer's block:&lt;br&gt;What causes writer's block and how can it be overcome?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/Vq16_CisbGI}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
There are many types of writers, and many types of written content. One problem that many writers face is writer's block. Writer's block is a common complaint of writers from every profession, referring to the inability or difficulty in creating written content. This topic is not well understood, and information provided may be general or vague. This chapter addresses the issue of writer's block considering psychological theory and research in order to offer some practical solutions for dealing with writer's block.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is writer's block?
* What are the theories surrounding writers block? 
* How do you overcome writer's block?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Defining writer's block==
Writer’s block, an inability to write (Huston, 1998), varies in its definition (Boise, 1985). The generally accepted definition was provided by Rose (1984), who defined writer’s block as the inability for someone, who has the skills and the commitment to write, to create written content, distinct from the inability to write due to lack of skill, or lack of effort. However Boise (1985), commenting on the vagueness of the term, raised the issue of what the label of writer’s block might cover. Was there one type of block or many? Should those suffering from anxiety be placed into the same category as those who display procrastination? An individual experience, it can occur to writers of any age or group, at any stage in the writing process, though most blocks happen during the composition and articulation processes of writing (Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, 2016; Ahmed, 2019; Boice, 1985). Rose (1984) describes experiences of [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]], missing deadlines, feelings of anger, fear, and confusion due to unproductive work. Productivity is not necessarily stopped completely (Rose, 1984). The average length of a block is a few weeks but blocks can vary from a few days to over a year (Ahmed, 2019).

[[File:Amp-55-1-68-fig1a.gif|alt=Self-determination continuum|thumb|''Figure 1.'' The self-determination continuum, showing intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation.]]

== Writer's block in theory ==
Various theories have been connected to writer’s block, describing causes from a variety of perspectives. Theories describing [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivational]], [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognitive]], [[wikipedia:Affect_(psychology)|affective]], and [[wikipedia:Psychological_stress|stress]] related causes have been suggested in connection with writer’s block (Ahmed, 2019; Davidson, 2014; Rose, 1980). Here the [[wikipedia:Self-determination|self-determination theory]] of motivation, [[wikipedia:Flow_(psychology)|Csikzentmihalyi’s theory of flow]], and theories relating to stress, [[wikipedia:Arousal|arousal]] and [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]] will be discussed.  

=== Self-determination theory ===
Self-determination theory differentiates between [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]], performing a task for its inherent value, and extrinsic motivation, in order to obtain some desired outcome (Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000; Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000). The theory describes [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Amotivation|amotivation]] as the state of being unmotivated by a task, and further defines extrinsic motivation into types, varying by degrees of self-motivated behaviour, as shown in Figure 1. The theory takes the position that the ideal motivational state, the most productive and helpful for well-being, is the self-motivated extrinsic, or intrinsic motivated state, the theory assumes that this is the state all people naturally grow into given the right circumstances (Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000; Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000; Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009). To develop intrinsic motivation an individual must satisfy three innate psychological needs, [[wikipedia:Autonomy|autonomy]], the experience of being self-directed, competence, the belief that an individual has the ability to affect their circumstances, and relatedness, the experience of contentedness and support from others (Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000; Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000; Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009). Fulfilling these needs by making changes to surrounding contexts, aids intrinsic motivation, and hindering these needs damages intrinsic motivation, causing amotivation (Deci et al., 1994; Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000; Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000).  

According to self-determination theory, writer's block, would be primarily caused by hindrance, or unfulfillment of these needs. A writer may be blocked if they are not interested in the task, if the task has no appeal or meaning to them or if they are pressured by others, via deadlines, directives and uncontrollable circumstances, blocking may occur if the writer does not feel capable of completing the task, or if they are lacking a supportive, connected environment with others (Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009; Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000). A writer may improve intrinsic motivation by making changes to their environment, to allow for the fulfilment of these needs (Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000; Deci et al., 1994;). Working on something interesting or worthwhile, and removing constraints by others, being flexible with deadlines, topics and directives, would allow writers to work on their own volition, increasing autonomy. Getting helpful feedback from others, and increasing skills may help a writer's feeling of competence. Forming supportive connections with peers, colleagues or a writing group may aid a writer’s sense of relatedness.

=== Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory ===
[[File:Challenge vs skill Commons.jpg|alt=Challenge and skill flow model|thumb|''Figure 2''. The challenge vs skill, Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of flow.]]

Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of flow is another theory mentioned as an explanation of writer’s block, {{gr}} Davidson (2014) attributing writer’s block to an inability to enter the state of flow caused by anxiety. Flow theory describes a state of focused attention and concentration that an individual can experience when undergoing a task that they find intrinsically enjoyable (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Fullagar, Knight &amp; Sovern, 2013). Described as a state of peak enjoyment, its main features are an intense concentration on the task, a distorted sense of time, and a clear sense of one’s goals (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Abuhamdeh &amp; Csikszentmihalyi, 2012). In order to achieve this state a key element is the balance of skill and challenge (Fullagar, Knight &amp; Sovern, 2013). In order to achieve a state of flow the activity must be challenging enough to stretch skills, as shown in Figure 2, if the task is too easy, [[wikipedia:Apathy|apathy]] and boredom are produced, but if the task is too difficult, one experiences anxiety (Fullagar, Knight &amp; Sovern, 2013; Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). Anxiety, being an opposite state to flow, it and other distractions, may prevent an individual from entering flow (Fullagar, Knight &amp; Sovern, 2013). A failure to enter flow could cause anxiety, or anxiety or distractions could prevent a writer from entering flow. According to the theory, one could help overcome writer’s block by adjusting task difficulty or increasing skills and reducing anxieties and distractions (Fullagar, Knight &amp; Sovern, 2013).  

=== Stress, anxiety and arousal theories ===
[[File:HebbianYerkesDodson.JPG|alt=Yerkes-Dodson curve|thumb|''Figure 3''. The Yerkes-Dodson curve, showing the relationship between arousal and performance.]]

Other theories which have been put forth as explanations for writer's block are theories surrounding the high intensity, affective and arousal states of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Stress on motivation|stress]] and anxiety (Huston, 1998; Bane, 2010; Ahmed, 2019). The concepts of evaluative anxiety and writer’s anxiety, fear surrounding negative evaluation, are often linked to writer’s block (Peterson, 1987; Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, 2016; Rose, 1984). Theories such as the distraction arousal theory, and the distraction conflict theory, put forth that states like anxiety and stress decrease creativity and productivity by using up valuable cognitive resources that would otherwise have been devoted to the task (Teichner, Arees, Reilly, 1963; Baron, 1986). Similar concepts, relating to higher arousal states like stress, are the inverted U theory and the [[wikipedia:Yerkes–Dodson_law|Yerkes-Dodson law]], which suppose that some level of stress increases performance, to an optimum level, but any stress beyond that level decreases performance, as shown in Figure 3 (Muse, Harris &amp; Feild, 2003; Teigen, 1994). Though these theories have been criticised, with some suggesting bias (Muse, Harris &amp; Feild, 2003), and others claiming a lack of empirical validity (Corbett, 2015), these theories have received support (Muse, Harris &amp; Feild, 2003; Teigen, 1994).  

Byron, Khazanchi &amp; Nazarian in 2010 suggested that the effect of stress on an individual, depends on the type and the amount of stress. High levels of stress and stress events that the individual had little or no control over, such as deadlines, or harassment, decrease performance, where as stress events that can be seen as challenges, like work evaluations can improve productivity in low amounts. This concept is similar to the self-determination theory, where events that reduce autonomy and competence lead to reductions in motivation and performance (Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009; Ryan &amp; Deci&lt;sup&gt;a,&lt;/sup&gt; 2000). According to these theories, anxiety, stress and other such distractions would be the prime causes of writer's block, and managing those intense states and removing stressors and distractions would be the primary methods of overcoming such a block. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
;Example
Sally has a research essay due for class in a number of weeks, but she feels unmotivated and uninterested in the task. She’s tried to start writing but finds her unable to put words on the page. It’s a topic that Sally didn’t choose and doesn’t care much about, since she doesn’t find it relevant to her own life. On top of that the deadline is getting closer and she’s feeling anxious about her grades. Sally lives alone, as has fallen out of touch with friends due to studying, and has no support group.
Sally has writer’s block, most likely caused by amotivation and anxiety. To overcome writer’s block Sally could try the following:
*Find some aspect of the topic that she finds interesting or relevant to herself, or worthwhile to discuss and focus on that while writing.
*Take a small break to relieve anxiety and plan her approach through clear reasonable goals.
*Get in contact with friends and peers to discuss ideas for essay and form a supportive network.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Writer's block in research==
Throughout the literature, there are many reported causes, and factors contributing to writer's block, and a majority of researchers identify multiple causes including; procrastination, stress, [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]], rigid rules and evaluation anxiety. (Ahmed, 2019; Boise, 1985; Rose, 1984). Researchers have suggested that writer’s block may be a multi-dimensional construct (Boise, 1985), with some suggesting multiple types of writer's block (Huston, 1998; Peterson, 1987), each existing at different levels or through different causes. However some causes of writer's block have been identified as more common than others, such as stress, anxiety and depression, as well as motivational causes, namely the loss of intrinsic motivation (Ahmed, 2019; Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, 2016). Other frequently reported causes of writer’s block include cognitive causes such as possessing rigid rules and perfectionism, and other behavioural factors like procrastination (Rose, 1980; Boice, 1985).

=== The importance of environments: Connections to self-determination theory and stress/anxiety theories ===
In a study exploring the causes of writer's block on prospective teachers, Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, (2016) found that the environments and context that teachers were writing in had a large impact on blocking. Limitations on topics, lack of time to write, anxiety of being assessed and controlled, fear of criticism, lack of information or poor instruction on how to write as well as the negativity in the environment were found to be among the major causes of writer's block. The study suggests that writer's block may occur more often when writing less interesting, academic or instructive texts, as opposed to texts the writer feels intrinsically interested in. This connects with self-determination theory, supporting the importance of the environment and intrinsic motivation on writer's block, and the need for choice, contentedness and feelings of competence in motivation. It also supports the theories surrounding flow and stress, demonstrating the effect of anxiety and stressful events on writer's block. In their suggestions for combating writer’s block Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, (2016) reinforced the importance of the context or space that the writing happens in, suggesting that writers choose a space that they find comfortable. The results of this study, which uses adult prospective teachers, cannot necessarily be generalised to other populations, and other types of writing. The research also qualitative and not quantitative methods, so though common causes were identified, the study could not determine which had the most effect. 

=== Stress and anticipatory anxiety on writer's block ===
Several other studies have suggested the importance of stress and anxiety on writing, including Bane (2010) who supports a distraction-arousal view of stress, suggesting that a stressed state inhibits cognitive processing, affecting performance, and Huston (1998), who considers writer's block to be caused by anticipatory anxiety of writing, leading to stress. In their study Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, (2016) suggested that anxiety and writer's block were connected processes that feed off each other. Various studies have suggested similar ideas with many implying anxiety and writing apprehension play an important factor in many types of writing blocks (Boice, 1985; Rose, 1984; Peterson, 1987).  

=== Rigid rules, and inflexible plans: Faulty cognitions in writer’s block ===
Other studies on writer's block have focused on a cognitive perspective (Rose, 1980; Boice, 1985; Rose, 1984), but even those studies propose that writer's block has several causes, including cognition, and emotional causes (Rose, 1980). Rose (1980), through a case study examining a group of blocked and unblocked student writers, found that those who were blocked possessed rigid and inflexible rules about the process of writing, compared to those students who weren’t blocked, claiming that these rules impeded the problem solving process of writing, which requires a flexible approach. The treatment he applied to these cases of writer's block involved altering the students cognitive rules about writing allowing them to be more flexible. This approach was found to be successful in most, but not all cases. Rose suggested that those other cases may have more deeply rooted emotional causes of writer's block. Rose’s studies, were conducted as case observations of a small number of academic students, and the generalisability is limited to that group. As well as cognition, it has also been found that [[wikipedia:Attitude_(psychology)|attitudes]] and dispositions towards writing itself, had a major effect on writer's block (Bastug, 2015). This gives weight to the idea that writer’s block is not a simple concept, but that there may be many different varieties. 

=== The multi-faceted approach: Types and layers of writer's block ===
A similar approach has been adopted by others, suggesting that there are often layers to writer’s blocks, varying in severity. Huston, 1998 supposes three levels, with the most mild being caused by cognition factors, such as rules or perfectionism, and the deepest blocks requiring professional counselling. While others suggests that writer's blocks vary more broadly, or by type, (Smeets, 2008). In a 1985 study Boice discovered seven types of faulty cognitions that contributed to writer's block. The most significant being procrastination, perfectionism, evaluation anxiety and [[wikipedia:Dysphoria|dysphoria]]. Rigid rules and planning during the writing process was a contributor, but contrary to other studies (Rose, 1980; 1984) it wasn’t a major cause of writer's block. Factors such as procrastination, perfectionism, and anxiety have also been identified as causes by other research (Boise, 1985; Peterson, 1987).

=== The four causes of writer's block ===
Ahmed, in her study of professional writers in 2019, identified four categories of causes; affective causes, such as stress, anxiety and depression, motivational causes, cognitive causes, including perfectionism and behavioural causes, namely procrastination, bad writing habits and interruptions from others. She identified affective causes such as general anxiety, life stress and depression as the most common causes of writer's block, followed by amotivation and evaluation anxiety. Cognitive and behavioural causes, were not as common among professional writers, as in previously studies frequently involving less intrinsic, academic writing (Rose, 1980; Boice, 1985; Rose, 1984). This not only gives support to the inverted U theory, Yerkes-Dodson law, Csikzenymihalyi’s{{sp}} flow, and distraction arousal/conflict theories, with the suggestion that stress and anxiety impede productivity, this also supports the self-determination theory. In this study, Ahmed identified the most common, and most effective strategies used to overcome writer's block. These were taking a break from writing, working on a different project, ignoring the block, and discussing ideas with others. Another strategy was going for a walk, though this was not common, it was 100% effective (Ahmed, 2019). In comparison to some other studies, the participants in Ahmed’s study were those who had much interest and experience in writing, which are factors in writer’s block, and affect results, as well as generalisability, however it provides a good contrast to most other studies. 

== Combining research and theory ==
Writer's block may be caused by a number of factors and several types of blocks may exist (Rose, 1984; Ahmed, 2019; Huston, 1998). Research has identified that anxiety and stress related causes, and motivational causes are among the most common (Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, 2016; Ahmed, 2019). The nature of the writing task, the writer’s attitude, experience and the environment, are major influences (Bastug, 2015; Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, 2016). The importance of context and motivational causes, show that much of this research and theory are connected. The distraction-arousal theory, distraction-conflict theory, Inverted U theory, Yerkes-Dodson law and Csikzentmihalyi’s flow all propose that high levels of internal arousal, such as stress and anxiety are the underlying causes of writer’s block (Fullagar, Knight &amp; Sovern, 2013; Muse, Harris &amp; Feild, 2003) which has been supported by research. The anxieties and stresses themselves relate to self-determination theory, as a majority of the described stressors in research are hindering competence and the need for autonomy (Byron, Khazanchi &amp; Nazarian, 2010; Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009). 

Procrastination, perfectionism and inflexible, and rigid rules, do not fit with many of these theories, and though they are not among the most common (Ahmed, 2019), they are still reported causes of writer’s block (Rose, 1984; Ahmed, 2019). Suggesting that there are multiple causes, belonging to different dimensions of writer's block{{gr}}. The cause of a block likely depends on the writer, the environment and the task itself.

== Overcoming writer's block ==
Since there are multiple causes of writer’s block, the best way to overcome a block is to choose a method suitable for the cause (Smeets, 2008; Ahmed, 2019). There are several methods of overcoming writer's block according to literature. Suggestions from theory primarily involve altering the environment so the needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness may be met, as well as reducing intense arousal states of stress and anxiety (Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009; Fullagar, Knight &amp; Sovern, 2013). There is some overlap in these suggestions with methods tested in research, giving further support for these theories of writer’s block.  

=== Stress, arousal, anxiety and other distractions ===
If the block is primarily caused by distressing, intense arousal states such as stress and anxiety, impeding creativity or interrupting flow, managing or removing these distractions may improve the block and increase productivity (Byron, Khazanchi &amp; Nazarian, 2010). As suggested by Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin (2016) and others (Bane, 2010; Ahmed, 2019), helping to manage arousal, especially stress and anxiety by altering the environment, or changing locations, making the writer more comfortable were among the most common and the most effective solutions for all causes of blocks.

=== Improving intrinsic motivation, autonomy, competence and relatedness. ===
The theories suggest that altering the environment may also improve intrinsic motivation for writing (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;; Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009) and offered such suggestions as, working on a topic that is interesting or worthwhile, exercising freedom in writing choices, while, where possible, seeking to remove or adjust constraints such as deadlines, and directives from others, increasing skills to improve feelings of competence, and getting helpful feedback and information from others, and forming supportive peer networks or joining a writer's groups to feel a sense of relatedness with others. Ahmed (2019), describes some similar suggestions in her study of professional writers, finding these to be the most successful methods of overcoming writer's block, including; taking a break from writing, working on a different project and discussing ideas with others to promote creativity. 

=== Rigid rules, perfectionism, procrastination and other bad writing habits ===
Other suggestions for overcoming writer’s block described in research include, correcting mental attitudes about writing, rigid rules, unrealistic expectations and perfectionism. These methods are primarily useful for those who posses cognitive based blocks (Rose, 1980; Bastug, 2015; Huston, 1998). Encouraging positive behaviours and habits, like routine and structure (Davidson, 2014; Wallace, 1977). Using cognitive or behavioural therapy for more persistent blocks (Smeets, 2008; Huston, 1998), or simply persevering and writing anyway (Ahmed, 2019){{gr}}. 

==Conclusion==
There are many reported causes and factors that contribute to writer’s block. Some of the most common causes have been identified as affective and motivational causes, other causes such as cognitions, procrastination, perfectionism and other behavioural factors are also shown (Ahmed, 2019; Rose, 1984; Boice, 1985). A first step in overcoming writer's block should be to attempt to identify the cause of the block (Peterson, 1977; Smeets, 2008). There are methods of overcoming that may be effective for a variety of causes, such as writing about something interesting, talking with others about ideas, taking a break from writing and choosing to write in a space that is comfortable (Ahmed, 2019; Bastug, Ertem &amp; Keskin, 2016).  

For causes related to stress and anxiety, removing stressors and finding ways to relax would be a primary method of overcoming the block. For lack of motivation, due to an uninteresting topic, constrictive conditions that hinder autonomy, a lack of competence in ability to do the work, or lack of a supportive network (Ryan and Deci, 2000&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;; Stone, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2009), adjusting the environment to allow for the fulfilment of these needs would be the primary method of overcoming writer's block. Joining a writing group, exercising flexibility with restrictions, such as deadlines, or topics, increasing skills or getting helpful feedback from others and adjusting the difficulty of tasks to improve feelings of competence. For writer's blocks that are based on cognitive causes, methods such as making strict rules more flexible, or creating better writing behaviours may improve productivity. 

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Affect_(psychology)|Affect]] (Wikipedia)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Artistic creation motivation|Artistic creation motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Creativity|Creativity]] (Book chapter, 2011)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Depression and motivation|Depression and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)

[[wikipedia:Flow_(psychology)|Flow]] (Wikipedia)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2013)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)

[[wikipedia:Writer's_block|Writer's block]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Yerkes–Dodson_law|Yerkes-Dodson law]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Abuhamdeh, S., &amp; Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2012). The importance of challenge for the enjoyment of the intrinsically motivated, goal-directed activities. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38''(3), 317-330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211427147 

Ahmed, S. J. (2019). ''An analysis of writer's block: Causes, characteristics, and solutions.'' [Graduate Dissertation, University of North Florida]. UNF Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://digitalcommons.unf.edu/etd/903

Bane, R. (2010). The writer’s brain: What neurology tells us about teaching creative writing. ''Creative Writing: Teaching Theory &amp; Practice, 2''(1), 41-50.

Baron, R. S. (1986). Distraction-conflict theory: progress and problems. ''Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19'', 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60211-7 

Bastug, M. (2015). Effects of primary school fourth-grade students' attitude, disposition and writer's block on writing success. ''Education and Science, 40''(180), 73-88. https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2015.4279

Bastug, M., Ertem, I. S., &amp; Keskin, H. K. (2017). A phenomenological research study on writer’s block: Causes, processes, and results. ''Education + Training, 59''(6), 605-618. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-11-2016-0169

Boice, R. (1985). Cognitive components of blocking. ''Written Communications, 2''(1), 91-104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088385002001006

Byron, K.,  Khazanchi, S., &amp; Nazarian, D. (2010). The relationship between stressors and creativity: A meta-analysis examining competing theoretical models. ''Journal of Applied Psychology, 95''(1), 201-212. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017868 

Corbett, M. (2015) From law to folklore: work stress and the Yerkes-Dodson Law. ''Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30''(6), 741-752. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-03-2013-0085 

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975) ''Beyond boredom and anxiety''. Jossey-Bass. 

Davidson, R. (2014). On writer’s block. ''Overland, 261''(1), 25-32.

Deci, E. L., Eghrarl, H., Patrick, B. C., &amp; Leone, D. R. (1994). Facilitating internalisation: The self-determination theory perspective. ''Journal of Personality, 62''(1), 119-142. 

Fullagar, C. J., Knight, P. A., &amp; Sovern, H. S. (2013) Challenge/skill balance, flow, and performance anxiety. ''Applied Psychology: An International Review, 62''(2), 236-259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00494.x

Huston, P. (1998). Resolving writer's block. ''Canadian Family Physician, 44''(1), 92-97. 

Muse, L. A., Harris, S. G., &amp; Feild, H. S. (2003) Has the inverted-U theory of stress and job performance had a fair test? ''Human Performance, 16''(4), 349-364. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327043HUP1604_2 

Peterson, K. E. (1987) ''Relationships among measures of writer’s block, writing anxiety, and procrastination''. [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Ohio State University.

Rose, M. (1980). Rigid rules, inflexible plans, and the stifling of language: A cognitivist analysis of writer's block. ''College Composition and Communication, 31''(4), 389-401. http://www.jstor.com/stable/356589

Rose, M. (1984). ''Writer’s block: The cognitive dimension''. Studies in writing &amp; rhetoric. Paper presented at the Composition Communication, Urbana, IL.

Ryan, M. R., &amp; Deci, E. La. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classical definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25'', 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 

Ryan, M. R., &amp; Deci, E. Lb. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, self-development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1037110003-066X.55.1.68 

Smeets, S. (2008). Writer’s Block as an Instrument for Remaining in Paradise. ''Communication in Science'', Zeitschrift schreiben, 1-8.

Stone, D. S., Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2009). Beyond talk: creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. ''Journal of General Management, 34''(3), 75-91. 

Teichner, W. H., Arees, E., &amp; Reilly, R. (1963). Noise and human performance, a psychophysiological approach. ''Ergonomics, 6''(1), 83-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140136308930678 

Teigen, K. H. (1994). Yerkes-Dodson: A law for all seasons. ''Theory and Psychology, 4''(4), 525-547. 

Wallace, I. (1977). Self-control techniques of famous novelists. ''Journal of Applied Behavioural Analysis, 10''(3), 515-525. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1977.10-515
}}

==External links==
[https://www.helpguide.org/articles/depression/coping-with-depression.htm Coping with depression] (helpguide.org)

[https://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/quick-stress-relief.htm Quick stress relief] (helpguide.org)

[https://allessay.org/american-students-on-the-edge-depression-hunger-and-colleges-that-dont-care/ Depression, hunger and neglect] 

[https://www.writersdigest.com/be-inspired/top-websites-for-writers-10-online-writing-communities 10 Online writing communities] (writersdigest.com)

[https://adaa.org/tips Tips to manage anxiety and stress] (adaa.org)

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Is slavery good? NO. It was practiced by a variety of civilizations and some people thought it was good even in 20th century.

Disclaimer: The arguments for the motion do not represent the view of Wikiversity. Wikiversity editors do not assert that slavery is good, just, morally acceptable or that some people are slaves by nature. The purpose of this page is to examine arguments in a debate format, including arguments one disagrees with. me: I dont agree slavery 

Key distinctions and notions: slavery, serfdom, freedom, achievement, human rights, humaneness, viability, practicability, humans, human societies, animals, parasitism, food chain.

Limitations: the article does not yet cover all arguments found in [[W:Proslavery]].

== Slavery is BADDDD ==

=== Arguments for ===

* {{Argument for}} Slavery was practiced by great civilizations such as Egyptians, Ancient Greeks, Ancient Rome, ancient China, ancient Korea and ancient India. It enabled their achievements.
** {{Objection}} Slavery is unnecessary for the achievement of a nation. What constitutes an achievement, or at least a desired one, is subjective. For example, some argue high wealth is an achievement while others argue mere wealth accumulation is not an achievement or desired achievement for a nation. This also begs the question: are any of these nations truly great?
*** {{Objection}} The above objection states at least three different arguments, and per the debate format, they should be separate objections.
*** {{Objection}} The first sentence is too vague or general, giving no time period for the sake of analysis.
*** {{Objection}} The last sentence is a question yet questions are usually not a form of argument but rather a form of leading a discussion.
*** {{Objection}} The objection contradicts itself by first using the word &quot;achievement&quot; without any challenge, implying the speaker understands what is meant by &quot;the achievement of a nation&quot;, yet then we learn that achievement is ''subjective'', which casts doubt on the use of the definite article in &quot;the achievement of a nation&quot;.
** {{Objection}} That seems to assume that achievement is a justification for violation of human rights. If we assume so, we may allow medical experiments on prisoners or on selected races to increase human achievement and possibilities. That does not seem acceptable.
** {{Objection}} It is not clear why similar feats could not be achieved by serfdom. At the very least, the master should not have the right to kill their slaves.
** {{Comment}} Slavery did not end in Antiquity, it only changed form and name. Slaves became workers. Slaves worked for roof, food, clothes and medical treatment; workers work for salary barely sufficient for roof, food, clothes and medical treatment. Slavery is bad but inevitable in any civilized society
*** {{Objection}} For the sake of this discussion, we use words in a strict, non-metaphorical sense. Industrial workers are not slaves, by definition, no matter how bad conditions they are exposed to.
* {{Argument for}} Expanding on the above, slavery enabled Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Without slavery, we would not have this great philosophy.
** {{Objection}} See the objections above.
* {{Argument for}} Slavery was practiced by a wide range of societies, high-achieving and low-achieving. See the linked Britannica article. It is a near-universal human practice. It is therefore unlikely to be bad.
** {{Objection}} The same is true of war, yet we hope to achieve a world free from war or at least one where there are much fewer wars. We hope to achieve moral progress, to move beyond morally and instrumentally bad past practices whether near-universal or not.
* {{Argument for}} Slavery is found not only in humans but also in [[W:slave-making ant]]s. It is a natural phenomenon, a good move discovered by natural selection. It cannot be bad.
** {{Objection}} That assumes that features or relationships discovered by natural selection are good and in particular morally good. It would follow that parasitism is good since it is a phenomenon widely found in biological nature. That does not seem acceptable.
*** {{Objection}} Parasitism is not within a single species. When we analyze things between species, humans eat plants, one organism destroying another organism to take advantage of it. Such a relationship is unavoidable for humans.
*** {{Objection}} An analog of parasitism in human world is hard to avoid. Thus, large employers take advantage of their workers by giving them lower wages than a true many-many labor market would produce. A society of genuine equals is impossible.
** {{Objection}} War was discovered by natural selection. We do not accept aggressive war as good.
** {{Objection}} The above ignores the is-ought problem. The fact that slavery was widely practiced, whether by humans or ants, does not automatically make it ''morally good'', something that ''ought'' to be practiced.
* {{Argument for}} Black people have not genetically evolved in the conditions of civilization, unlike the white races or the Chinese. Black people will have greater tendency to violence. The greater performance of black people in sports is in line with that: sports have much more to do with the requirements of primitive life in Africa than in the civilized life in Europe.
** {{Objection}} The above speculation requires a solid proof, and none is available. It has to be proven that blacks have a greater tendency to violence. If that is proven, it has to be proven that slavery provides better conditions for dealing with the tendency to violence than both serfdom and freedom for the blacks. If it is proven that serfdom is insufficient, there is still a range of options of limiting freedom of blacks that violates their dignity but does not reduce them to slaves: for instance, there could be a law that makes it easier for police to stop blacks and investigate them. This is not to say that it would be a good law; it is to avoid false dichotomies. Since, the space of non-slavery is rich, and includes serfdom and various hard to overview options for limited freedoms. The idea that the right of the master to kill the slave and the right to sell the slave as property are requirements for handling putative problems seems particularly badly justified.
* {{Argument for}} Some people are slaves by nature, and their enslavement serves their best interests. In particular, some people are related to other people like body is to soul or like animals are to humans. Thus, in some people the principles of bodiness (muscularity as opposed to intellectuality) and animality dominate, and these are the kinds of people who are slaves by nature.
** {{Objection}} That would assume that whole ethnics or nations are somehow more body-oriented or more like animals than humans. That is so since the actual practices of slavery were based on ethnicity, in part for ease of administration. That assumption seems implausible.
** {{Objection}} That would assume that it is in the best interest of a slave to be threatened with killing by their master. That seems implausible. At a minimum, serfdom would be more adequate.
** {{Objection}} Plato's learned slaves did not seem to be dominated by masculinity. Slaves could be used for purposes related to muscle as well as dexterity and the mind. Thus, the above is implausible.
** {{Objection}} Enslavement is a result of a combination of force with disregard for human rights, not a result of proper application of the mind. The principles of animality and muscularity are found in the enslavers, and are found in their act of enslaving someone else. It does not take a genius to be an enslaver.
*** {{Objection}} Perhaps it takes a military genius.
**** {{Objection}} It might. But many of the enslavers are not military leaders but soldiers. A group of people dominated by the concerns of the mind such as learning and acquisition of knowledge cannot on their own enslave another nation.
* {{Argument for}} Since the Old Testament condones slavery, slavery cannot be bad.
** {{Objection}} Since morality is entirely subjective, the concept of slavery can be neither good nor bad, objectively.
** {{Objection}} That assumes the Old Testament is good.
** {{Objection}} That assumes the Old Testament is a word of God rather than fiction created by a fairly backwards culture.
** {{Objection}} Old Testament was amended by New Testament. The amendment is clear in Jesus doctrine of forgiveness, in contrast to the old eye for eye. Thus, Old Testament should not be taken to be the final word by God but rather a first draft.
*** {{Objection}} If we are Jews, Old Testament is the final word.
**** {{Objection}} Old Testament is an incoherent jumble of contradictions anyway, so anything can be derived from it, whether support for slavery or opposition to slavery. It has no force, and no place in an honest philosophical examination of merits and demerits of slavery.
* {{Argument for}} While not all slavery is good, voluntary slavery is: people should be able to sell themselves as slaves. Prohibiting them from doing so is a violation of Mill's harm principle. See also [[Should Mill's harm principle be accepted?]]
** {{Objection}} That may be an argument for accepting Mill's principle only in a limited form. There is a paradox: by taking some freedoms of people away, we greatly increase their ''effective'' freedom, or in any case their negotiating power. Negotiation power can be greatly increased by losing options, a classic example being two drivers playing a game of driving against each other and the one who turns away loses. In that game, a driver who throws away the steering wheel first wins, by forcing themselves to not turn away and the other party turns away to avoid death. If we accept that people should be free to give up their fundamental rights in exchange for money, we will accept development of a wide range of undesirable social phenomena resulting from desperate people accepting otherwise unacceptable deals. Thus, people may undergo dangerous medical experiments for money (they only harm themselves), prostitutes can function (they only harm themselves), people should be able to sell their arm as a spare part for the rich (they only harm themselves) or sell one of pair organs such as kidneys. The space is rich, and seems generally unacceptable. It follows we need a restricted form of Mill's principle, and one of the restrictions is that fundamental human rights are not for sale.
*** {{Objection}} Good point. However, in a non-disclosure agreement, the fundamental human right of free speech is sold.
**** {{Objection}} Good point. However, what it means is that we may need a more differentiated approach; the general principle stands. The right not to be a slave is probably much deeper human right than the right of free speech, especially since free speech is in fact limited to some extent, e.g. as for libel.
***** {{Objection}} One could argue that all libel laws should be abolished as doing more harm than good, but that would be for a separate discussion.
**** {{Objection}} That may be an indictment of non-disclosure agreements: perhaps they should be banned. That would not only increase human rights but also prevent a range of undesirable business practices. But that would be for a separate discussion.

=== Arguments against ===

* {{Argument against}} All people were made by God to be equal.
** {{Objection}} This is a straight up opinion. While it is just and reasonable to deem all humans as being of inherent equal value, to claim that this equality was enacted by a deity is objectionable because not everyone is adherent to a deistic faith.
** {{Objection}} Probably not by the Christian God since otherwise the Christian holy texts would not condone or tolerate slavery.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery violates basic human rights.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery goes beyond serfdom in unreasonable and inhumane ways, e.g. by allowing the master to kill the slave. All that slavery promises to do can be achieved with serfdom, which is much more humane.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery goes beyond the social institute of people dependent on work for livelihood, whether peasants, industrial workers or working intelligence. All that slavery promises to do can be achieved by freedom.
** {{Objection}} That seems improbable given that so many great civilizations depend on slavery.
** {{Objection}} That may be true in the technological conditions of enlightenment Europe, but it is not clear it was true in the technological conditions of ancient civilizations.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery, due to how cheap these human resources are, hinders the adoption of more technological methods of production or automation where the need for human labor gets reduced and humans have more time for other things such as labor that can't be automated or having a higher well-being.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery greatly harms the well-being of those enslaved.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery is unfair to the worker who is oppressed.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery is often used for purposes that make little sense and limits the say that laborers have in what the economics produce and provide.

== Further reading ==
* [[W:Proslavery]]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/slavery/ethics/justifications.shtml Attempts to justify slavery], BBC
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/slavery/ethics/philosophers_1.shtml Philosophers justifying slavery], BBC
* [https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/overview-some-proslavery-arguments An Overview of Some Proslavery Arguments], libertarianism.org
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology/Historical-survey slavery - Historical survey], britannica.com

[[Category:Slavery]]
[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Ethics]]</text>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/152.157.130.171|152.157.130.171]] ([[User_talk:152.157.130.171|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="13790" sha1="ook9j589sjzvg2jmm3fvczjwdpc86bv" xml:space="preserve">{{Wikidebate}}

Is slavery good? It was practiced by a variety of civilizations and some people thought it was good even in 20th century.

Disclaimer: The arguments for the motion do not represent the view of Wikiversity. Wikiversity editors do not assert that slavery is good, just, morally acceptable or that some people are slaves by nature. The purpose of this page is to examine arguments in a debate format, including arguments one disagrees with.

Key distinctions and notions: slavery, serfdom, freedom, achievement, human rights, humaneness, viability, practicability, humans, human societies, animals, parasitism, food chain.

Limitations: the article does not yet cover all arguments found in [[W:Proslavery]].

== Slavery is good ==

=== Arguments for ===

* {{Argument for}} Slavery was practiced by great civilizations such as Egyptians, Ancient Greeks, Ancient Rome, ancient China, ancient Korea and ancient India. It enabled their achievements.
** {{Objection}} Slavery is unnecessary for the achievement of a nation. What constitutes an achievement, or at least a desired one, is subjective. For example, some argue high wealth is an achievement while others argue mere wealth accumulation is not an achievement or desired achievement for a nation. This also begs the question: are any of these nations truly great?
*** {{Objection}} The above objection states at least three different arguments, and per the debate format, they should be separate objections.
*** {{Objection}} The first sentence is too vague or general, giving no time period for the sake of analysis.
*** {{Objection}} The last sentence is a question yet questions are usually not a form of argument but rather a form of leading a discussion.
*** {{Objection}} The objection contradicts itself by first using the word &quot;achievement&quot; without any challenge, implying the speaker understands what is meant by &quot;the achievement of a nation&quot;, yet then we learn that achievement is ''subjective'', which casts doubt on the use of the definite article in &quot;the achievement of a nation&quot;.
** {{Objection}} That seems to assume that achievement is a justification for violation of human rights. If we assume so, we may allow medical experiments on prisoners or on selected races to increase human achievement and possibilities. That does not seem acceptable.
** {{Objection}} It is not clear why similar feats could not be achieved by serfdom. At the very least, the master should not have the right to kill their slaves.
** {{Comment}} Slavery did not end in Antiquity, it only changed form and name. Slaves became workers. Slaves worked for roof, food, clothes and medical treatment; workers work for salary barely sufficient for roof, food, clothes and medical treatment. Slavery is bad but inevitable in any civilized society
*** {{Objection}} For the sake of this discussion, we use words in a strict, non-metaphorical sense. Industrial workers are not slaves, by definition, no matter how bad conditions they are exposed to.
* {{Argument for}} Expanding on the above, slavery enabled Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Without slavery, we would not have this great philosophy.
** {{Objection}} See the objections above.
* {{Argument for}} Slavery was practiced by a wide range of societies, high-achieving and low-achieving. See the linked Britannica article. It is a near-universal human practice. It is therefore unlikely to be bad.
** {{Objection}} The same is true of war, yet we hope to achieve a world free from war or at least one where there are much fewer wars. We hope to achieve moral progress, to move beyond morally and instrumentally bad past practices whether near-universal or not.
* {{Argument for}} Slavery is found not only in humans but also in [[W:slave-making ant]]s. It is a natural phenomenon, a good move discovered by natural selection. It cannot be bad.
** {{Objection}} That assumes that features or relationships discovered by natural selection are good and in particular morally good. It would follow that parasitism is good since it is a phenomenon widely found in biological nature. That does not seem acceptable.
*** {{Objection}} Parasitism is not within a single species. When we analyze things between species, humans eat plants, one organism destroying another organism to take advantage of it. Such a relationship is unavoidable for humans.
*** {{Objection}} An analog of parasitism in human world is hard to avoid. Thus, large employers take advantage of their workers by giving them lower wages than a true many-many labor market would produce. A society of genuine equals is impossible.
** {{Objection}} War was discovered by natural selection. We do not accept aggressive war as good.
** {{Objection}} The above ignores the is-ought problem. The fact that slavery was widely practiced, whether by humans or ants, does not automatically make it ''morally good'', something that ''ought'' to be practiced.
* {{Argument for}} Black people have not genetically evolved in the conditions of civilization, unlike the white races or the Chinese. Black people will have greater tendency to violence. The greater performance of black people in sports is in line with that: sports have much more to do with the requirements of primitive life in Africa than in the civilized life in Europe.
** {{Objection}} The above speculation requires a solid proof, and none is available. It has to be proven that blacks have a greater tendency to violence. If that is proven, it has to be proven that slavery provides better conditions for dealing with the tendency to violence than both serfdom and freedom for the blacks. If it is proven that serfdom is insufficient, there is still a range of options of limiting freedom of blacks that violates their dignity but does not reduce them to slaves: for instance, there could be a law that makes it easier for police to stop blacks and investigate them. This is not to say that it would be a good law; it is to avoid false dichotomies. Since, the space of non-slavery is rich, and includes serfdom and various hard to overview options for limited freedoms. The idea that the right of the master to kill the slave and the right to sell the slave as property are requirements for handling putative problems seems particularly badly justified.
* {{Argument for}} Some people are slaves by nature, and their enslavement serves their best interests. In particular, some people are related to other people like body is to soul or like animals are to humans. Thus, in some people the principles of bodiness (muscularity as opposed to intellectuality) and animality dominate, and these are the kinds of people who are slaves by nature.
** {{Objection}} That would assume that whole ethnics or nations are somehow more body-oriented or more like animals than humans. That is so since the actual practices of slavery were based on ethnicity, in part for ease of administration. That assumption seems implausible.
** {{Objection}} That would assume that it is in the best interest of a slave to be threatened with killing by their master. That seems implausible. At a minimum, serfdom would be more adequate.
** {{Objection}} Plato's learned slaves did not seem to be dominated by masculinity. Slaves could be used for purposes related to muscle as well as dexterity and the mind. Thus, the above is implausible.
** {{Objection}} Enslavement is a result of a combination of force with disregard for human rights, not a result of proper application of the mind. The principles of animality and muscularity are found in the enslavers, and are found in their act of enslaving someone else. It does not take a genius to be an enslaver.
*** {{Objection}} Perhaps it takes a military genius.
**** {{Objection}} It might. But many of the enslavers are not military leaders but soldiers. A group of people dominated by the concerns of the mind such as learning and acquisition of knowledge cannot on their own enslave another nation.
* {{Argument for}} Since the Old Testament condones slavery, slavery cannot be bad.
** {{Objection}} Since morality is entirely subjective, the concept of slavery can be neither good nor bad, objectively.
** {{Objection}} That assumes the Old Testament is good.
** {{Objection}} That assumes the Old Testament is a word of God rather than fiction created by a fairly backwards culture.
** {{Objection}} Old Testament was amended by New Testament. The amendment is clear in Jesus doctrine of forgiveness, in contrast to the old eye for eye. Thus, Old Testament should not be taken to be the final word by God but rather a first draft.
*** {{Objection}} If we are Jews, Old Testament is the final word.
**** {{Objection}} Old Testament is an incoherent jumble of contradictions anyway, so anything can be derived from it, whether support for slavery or opposition to slavery. It has no force, and no place in an honest philosophical examination of merits and demerits of slavery.
* {{Argument for}} While not all slavery is good, voluntary slavery is: people should be able to sell themselves as slaves. Prohibiting them from doing so is a violation of Mill's harm principle. See also [[Should Mill's harm principle be accepted?]]
** {{Objection}} That may be an argument for accepting Mill's principle only in a limited form. There is a paradox: by taking some freedoms of people away, we greatly increase their ''effective'' freedom, or in any case their negotiating power. Negotiation power can be greatly increased by losing options, a classic example being two drivers playing a game of driving against each other and the one who turns away loses. In that game, a driver who throws away the steering wheel first wins, by forcing themselves to not turn away and the other party turns away to avoid death. If we accept that people should be free to give up their fundamental rights in exchange for money, we will accept development of a wide range of undesirable social phenomena resulting from desperate people accepting otherwise unacceptable deals. Thus, people may undergo dangerous medical experiments for money (they only harm themselves), prostitutes can function (they only harm themselves), people should be able to sell their arm as a spare part for the rich (they only harm themselves) or sell one of pair organs such as kidneys. The space is rich, and seems generally unacceptable. It follows we need a restricted form of Mill's principle, and one of the restrictions is that fundamental human rights are not for sale.
*** {{Objection}} Good point. However, in a non-disclosure agreement, the fundamental human right of free speech is sold.
**** {{Objection}} Good point. However, what it means is that we may need a more differentiated approach; the general principle stands. The right not to be a slave is probably much deeper human right than the right of free speech, especially since free speech is in fact limited to some extent, e.g. as for libel.
***** {{Objection}} One could argue that all libel laws should be abolished as doing more harm than good, but that would be for a separate discussion.
**** {{Objection}} That may be an indictment of non-disclosure agreements: perhaps they should be banned. That would not only increase human rights but also prevent a range of undesirable business practices. But that would be for a separate discussion.

=== Arguments against ===

* {{Argument against}} All people were made by God to be equal.
** {{Objection}} This is a straight up opinion. While it is just and reasonable to deem all humans as being of inherent equal value, to claim that this equality was enacted by a deity is objectionable because not everyone is adherent to a deistic faith.
** {{Objection}} Probably not by the Christian God since otherwise the Christian holy texts would not condone or tolerate slavery.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery violates basic human rights.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery goes beyond serfdom in unreasonable and inhumane ways, e.g. by allowing the master to kill the slave. All that slavery promises to do can be achieved with serfdom, which is much more humane.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery goes beyond the social institute of people dependent on work for livelihood, whether peasants, industrial workers or working intelligence. All that slavery promises to do can be achieved by freedom.
** {{Objection}} That seems improbable given that so many great civilizations depend on slavery.
** {{Objection}} That may be true in the technological conditions of enlightenment Europe, but it is not clear it was true in the technological conditions of ancient civilizations.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery, due to how cheap these human resources are, hinders the adoption of more technological methods of production or automation where the need for human labor gets reduced and humans have more time for other things such as labor that can't be automated or having a higher well-being.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery greatly harms the well-being of those enslaved.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery is unfair to the worker who is oppressed.
* {{Argument against}} Slavery is often used for purposes that make little sense and limits the say that laborers have in what the economics produce and provide.

== Further reading ==
* [[W:Proslavery]]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/slavery/ethics/justifications.shtml Attempts to justify slavery], BBC
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/slavery/ethics/philosophers_1.shtml Philosophers justifying slavery], BBC
* [https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/overview-some-proslavery-arguments An Overview of Some Proslavery Arguments], libertarianism.org
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology/Historical-survey slavery - Historical survey], britannica.com

[[Category:Slavery]]
[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Ethics]]</text>
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    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Practical applications of moisture sorption models for predicting the drying characteristics and shelf-life of malted and/or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean-based complementary foods</title>
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| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| last1 = Anonymous until published
| orcid1 = 
| first1 = 
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| keywords = adsorption, desorption, storage, monolayer, multilayer, moisture
| license = CC-BY-SA 4.0 License and the GFDL
| abstract = Abstract
The aim of this study is to examine practical use of BET and GAB models for studying the drying characteristics and shelf-life of malted and/or fermented rice plus soybean based complementary foods as well as to employ double logarithmic polynomial (DLP) equation to generate statistical significance between the sorption data.  FARO 44 rice cultivar and soybean were obtained from the National Cereal Research Institute and Agric Seed Store House, respectively. Rice was processed into flours and further formulated with processed soybean flour, to provide 16% protein in each of the mixtures. The ratio of rice to soybean was calculated by the material balance equation and the experiment was a 2 x 2 completely randomized design. In this study, the equilibrium moisture contents of the formulated foods were determined gravimetrically at 20, 30, 40 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C. The data generated are subjected to a one-way analysis of variance and also modelled. The net isosteric heat showing the drying effect and the shelf-life of the formulated foods were predicted. The results of the study showed that the equilibrium moisture contents, GAB and BET monomolecular moisture contents, enthalpy values of monolayer, heat of sorption of multilayer, total surface area of solids, net isosteric heat of desorption and the shelf-life of the formulated products ranged from 0.20 to 30.60 g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids, 2.244 to 7.676 (Mg) g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids, 2.284 to 4.612 (Mb) g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids, 40.947 to 64.752 kJ/mol, 31.419 to 42.246 kJ/mol, 80.24 to 162.02 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids, 0.449 to 14.200 kJ/mol and 1059 to 1992523 days, respectively. The sorption study agreed with BET and GAB models’ concepts. Isotherms were observed to be temperature dependent and also showed slight formation of hysteresis. The monolayer moisture values varied and also energy constants are temperature dependent. The r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and RMS values justified the sorption parameters. The non-fermented formulated rice-based products are more hygroscopic than the other samples. Also, the malted-fermented rice-based product exhibited the highest thermostable characteristics (limited changes in energy constants) than the other samples. Drastic reduction of shelf-life was observed with increase in temperatures, packaging permeability, type of package etc.  The isotherms within the BET region are essential for the shelf-life prediction of these products at simulated temperatures and relative humidity studied which are averages for the humid and dry regions and it reveals adequate storage stability (long-keeping) for these products. From this study, a well packaged dehydrated food product would permanently be stable in an appropriate storage environment.


'''Keywords''': '''adsorption, desorption, storage, monolayer, multilayer, moisture'''
}}

== Glossary ==
'''Adsorption''': to take in moisture or gas.

'''Complementary foods''': infants or babies’ foods which are often used to support babies’ breast feeding, usually at the age of six month until the child adopt solid foods. It can be given to invalid or an adult may also take it.  

'''Critical water activity''': water activity at which undesirable change occurs in foods or products, below critical water activity food is most stable and will have a very long shelf life or will not expire if stored properly.

'''Desorption''': to give out moisture or gas

'''Equilibrium moisture''': water or moisture in food that is at the state of balance or stability with the surrounding water vapour (relative humidity).

'''Fermentation'''; technology that utilizes the growth and metabolic activities of microorganisms for the transformation of food materials, most often break down of larger molecules to smaller ones

'''Hysteresis''': difference between adsorption and desorption

'''Isotherm''': moisture sorption curve on a graph. 

'''Malt''': germinated grain containing sufficient enzymes and modified-starch endosperm (maltose).

'''Malting:''' a controlled sprouting process of grain or germination of grain to yield malt.

'''Monolayer''': the first one moisture layer of food, also called monomolecular layer, which is made up of a non-reactive moisture because of high binding energy capacity

'''Multilayers''': many of the moisture layer that over-lay on top of monolayer, also called multimolecular layers.

'''Shelf life''': the time during which a product will maintain desired physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory stability as well as to comply with nutritional labelling.

'''Sorption''': either adsorption (absorption) or desorption or both

'''Water activity''': water intensity or potentials of food, it is the ratio of the vapor pressure of water in the solid to the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

== Introduction ==

Moisture sorption isotherms (curves) describe the relationship between water activity and moisture content at a specified temperature &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Kiranoudis, C. T., Maroulis, Z. B, Tsami, E., Marinos-Kouris, D. (1993): Equilibrium moisture content and heat of desorption of some vegetables. J. Food Eng. 20, 55-74.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Vega-Ga´ lvez, A., Lemus-Mondaca, R., Fito I. P., Andres, A. (2007): Moisture sorption isotherms and isosteric heat of red bell pepper (var. Lamuyo). Food Sci. Technol. Int. 13 (4), 309 - 316. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1082013207082530&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2012-09-30|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.29104/phi-aqualac/2012-v4-2|journal=Aqua-LAC|volume=4|issue=2|doi=10.29104/phi-aqualac/2012-v4-2|issn=1688-2873}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Sengev, I. A., Ariahu, C. C., Abu, J. O., Gernah, D. I. (2017): Moisture adsorption and thermodynamic properties of sorghum-based complementary foods. Int. J. Food Eng. Technol. 1 (1) 1 - 8. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.116448/j.ijfet.20170101.11&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; and is unique to every food. This means the desorption (drying) and adsorption (rehydration) properties of one particular food differs with one another. Traditional complementary foods such as ''ogi'' (''akamu''), ''agidi'', ''kunu'' (''koko''), ''kunun zaki'' etc and those of the new rice-based formulated food products have high moisture and can spoil easily if not dried after fermentation. Researchers in many parts of Africa have attempted to dry and convert some of them into instant food powders, which can be reconstituted with water as other conventional infant foods. Previously, we successfully produced instant ''Ogi'' powders &lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;Bristone, C. Chibuize, E. O., Badau, M H. and Katsala, L. H. (2016). Production of powdered maize ogi (indigenous complementary food) flours complemented with soybean and sorghum malt. Mayfeb J. Agric. Sci. 2016; 3: 1-14.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Bristone, C. and Jibrilla, A. (2017). Ogi (Nigerian rice based complementary food) from rice and bambara groundnut, Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, trade mark of International Book Market Service Ltd., member of Omniscriptum Publishing Group, 17 Meldrum Street, Beau Bassin, 71504, Mauritius, Pp. 1 - 42.&lt;/ref&gt;. Nonetheless, drying alone is not enough for food which is intended to be packaged, transported, marketed or kept in shops for sale without evaluating their sorption behaviours through which knowledge of their drying characteristics or storage stability under low or high temperatures and relative humidity could be ascertained. 

Water or moisture is recognized as being very important, if not critical to the stability of most products. Controlling of moisture within a product, by some method of drying or by chemically/structurally binding such as salting or sugaring has long been used by man for preservation. These do not only control microbial spoilage but also chemical and physical stability &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=MIYOSHI|first=Nori|last2=NISHI|first2=Toshikazu|last3=NONAKA|first3=Shigeo|date=1980|title=Two Cases of Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2336/nishinihonhifu.42.811|journal=Nishi Nihon Hifuka|volume=42|issue=5|pages=811–818|doi=10.2336/nishinihonhifu.42.811|issn=1880-4047}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/05084-7|title=Bamgbose, Ayo (b. 1932)|last=Ojo|first=A.|date=2006|publisher=Elsevier|pages=674–676}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Moisture content determination is essential in meeting product nutritional labelling regulations, specifying recipes and monitoring processes. However, moisture content alone is not a reliable predictor of engineering processes or microbiological as well as chemical responses such as oxidation, browning or deterioration etc. which occur in food during processing or storage &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Hence the search for the knowledge of moisture sorption study and the best-simplest model that could describe the process &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1995|editor-last=Zaman|editor-first=Khurshid|editor2-last=Atta-Ur-Rahman|editor3-last=Shekhani|editor3-first=Saleh|title=Yearbook of Asymmetric Synthesis 1991|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0235-3|doi=10.1007/978-94-011-0235-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Limitations of moisture content measurement as an indicator of safety and quality are attributed to differences in the intensity which water associates with other food components &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. The water content of a safe product varies from one product to another. But using only moisture content alone, it will be impossible to know the available moisture in a product that would support process, reaction or microbial growth which may influences product quality and stability &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;.

Moisture sorption isotherms and the equations that describe these relationships are important for the solution of many engineering problems of foods &lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1601/ex.888|title=Exemplar Abstract for Komagataeibacter sucrofermentans (Toyosaki et al. 1996) Yamada et al. 2013, Gluconacetobacter sucrofermentans (Toyosaki et al. 1996) Cleenwerck et al. 2010, Acetobacter xylinus sucrofermentans corrig. Toyosaki et al. 1996 and Acetobacter xylinum sucrofermentans (sic) Toyosaki et al. 1996.|last=Parker|first=Charles Thomas|last2=Wigley|first2=Sarah|date=2003-01-01|website=The NamesforLife Abstracts|access-date=2023-08-16|last3=Garrity|first3=George M}}&lt;/ref&gt;. According to the authors and as reported earlier by Labuza ''et al.'' &lt;ref&gt;Labuza, T. P., Mizrahi, S., Karel, M. (1972): Mathematical models for optimization of flexible film packaging of foods for storage. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 15, 150-155&lt;/ref&gt;, Rizvi &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wirsing|first=Robert|last2=Korson|first2=J. Henry|last3=Rizvi|first3=Hasan-Askari|date=1995|title=Contemporary Problems of Pakistan.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2761299|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=68|issue=4|pages=606|doi=10.2307/2761299|issn=0030-851X}}&lt;/ref&gt; and also Rockland and Stewart &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-591350-8.50005-x|title=Preface|last=Rockland|first=L.B.|last2=Stewart|first2=G.F.|date=1981|publisher=Elsevier|pages=xiii–xv}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Moisture sorption isotherms are useful thermodynamic tools for determining information about water and food substances and provide information to assess food processing operations such as drying, mixing, packaging and storage. Many researchers across the globe reported applications of moisture sorption isotherms. Aqua lab &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; reported that a moisture sorption isotherm is a powerful tool for predicting the shelf life of food. Moisture sorption isotherm can be used to find critical water activity values where changes such as caking, clumping, loss of texture occur etc. Similarly, it can monitor product responses to ingredient and formulation changes, estimation of accurate shelf life, creation of mixing models, performing of packaging calculations and obtain the monolayer moisture value where a product is most stable during storage. According to Akubor &lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;Akubor, P. 1. (2017): Moisture sorption characteristics of locust bean pulp flour. Chem. Res. J. 2 (6), 8-16.&lt;/ref&gt;, moisture sorption isotherm is being used to investigate structural features of food (surface area, pore volume, pore size distribution, crystallinity). Such data are useful for selecting appropriate storage conditions and packaging systems that optimize or minimize retention of both sensory and nutritional qualities of food. Food sorption isotherms vary with different temperatures, processing methods and give insight into the food moisture binding energy.

The knowledge of moisture sorption isotherms is very important for the analysis and design of several transformation processes of foods (e.g., in drying). It is important for understanding the physicochemical changes involved in the production processes which can assist in calculating the driving force (potential) in many mass transfer operations as well as predict ingredients' behaviour upon mixing. Also, the appropriate packaging material for food stability during processing or upon storage &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The malting and fermentation processes are important for bulk reduction of gruel and thereby increase nutrients density for infants. Also, for reducing the pH in food and increase its storage stability by mitigating microbiological proliferation and biochemical processes which favour food spoilage. Rice and soybean combination has been used by earlier researchers to formulate diets that would alleviate nutritional challenges &lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;;&lt;ref&gt;Chinelo, O. E., Christopher, U. E., Chukwudi O. P., Anulika O. D. (2017): Evaluation of complementary foods from blends of roasted rice and soybean flours. Innovare J. Food Sci. 5, 20 – 24.&lt;/ref&gt;. Nowadays, rice among many other cereal grains is the most receiving global attention for human consumption&lt;ref&gt;Bristone, C., Ariahu, C. C., Ikya, J. K., Eke, M. O. (2021): Microbiological, essential dietary minerals and amino acids composition of malted and /or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean based complementary foods. Ann. Clin. Nutr. 4 (2), 1-12.&lt;/ref&gt;. FARO 44 rice among a series of rice varieties released in African sub-region has the most unique properties. These properties have satisfied both farmers’ and consumers’ preferences. High germination capacity, early maturity (110-120 days), optimum production capacity under low management, high yield (7 to 10 tonnes per hectare on a normal basis), high resistance to blast, pests and diseases etc. are farmers’ desired traits of FARO 44 rice. Consumers desired traits exhibited by FARO 44 rice include minimum breakages during milling as well as good cooking and adequate nutritional quality&lt;ref&gt;Udemezue, J. C., Agwu, A. E. (2018): Improved Rice Varieties, Production Technologies and Processing Constraints in Nigeria. Direct Res. J. Agric. and Food Sci. 6 (12), 360 - 373.&lt;/ref&gt;;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O|first=Ebenehi|last2=TA|first2=Ahmed|date=2019-01-01|title=Perceived relevance of extension methods used to disseminate faro-44 rice variety to rice farmers in Kogi state, Nigeria|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.33545/26646064.2019.v1.i1a.4|journal=International Journal of Agriculture and Nutrition|volume=1|issue=1|pages=19–21|doi=10.33545/26646064.2019.v1.i1a.4|issn=2664-6064}}&lt;/ref&gt;;&lt;ref&gt;Idu, E. E., Onwumere, F. E., Haruna, L. Z., Irewa, I. I. (2021): Preference study of three varieties of rice among farmers in Kwali Area Council of Abuja, Nigeria. J. Agric. Food Environ. 8 (2), 58 - 64&lt;/ref&gt;. These sorption properties together with the improved rice cultivar and the formulated food products have not been investigated. Notwithstanding, there is paucity of sorption research that incorporate both the drying characteristics and the shelf-life study, especially as single product is affected by malting and/or fermentation.  
==Materials and Methods==

'''Sources of raw materials and preliminary handlings''' 

About 120 kg of FARO 44 was obtained from the National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, Bida, Niger State. This was dry-cleaned and destoned using de-stoner (De-Stoner, Hunan Sunfied Machinery Co., Ltd, Model: TQS 320, China) as described by Danbaba ''et al.,'' &lt;ref&gt;Danbaba, N., Idakwo, P. Y., Kassum, A. L., Bristone, C., Bakare, S. O., Aliyu, U., Kolo, I. N., Abo, M. E., Mohammed, A., Abdulkadir, A. N., Nkama, I., Badau, M. H., Kabaraini, M. A., Shehu, H., Abosede, A. O., Danbaba, M. K. (2019): Rice postharvest technology in Nigeria: An overview of current status, constraints and potentials for sustainable development. OALibJ. 6: e5509. 1-22. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1105509&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. Also, sixty-five (65 kg) kilogram of soybean (''Glycine max'') was procured from Agric Seed Store House, Gire market, Gire Local Government, Adamawa State. The soybean was sorted and washed with clean water. It was steeped, dried, toasted and de-husked as described by Iwe &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Iwe|first=Josephine I.|date=2003-09|title=Libraries and Information in Sustainable Rural Development in Nigeria|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0266666903193004|journal=Information Development|volume=19|issue=3|pages=169–177|doi=10.1177/0266666903193004|issn=0266-6669}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Badau ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. The kernel was milled into flour in a hammer mill and let to pass through a 0.8 mm mesh size screen (Christy Hunt Agricultural Ltd, Foxhills Ind. Est Scunthorpe, Model DE DN15 8QW, South Humbers, England) as described by Badau ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;.                                                   

'''Malting and milling of rice'''

After cleaning, the paddy was divided into two equal lots. The first lot was malted while the second lot was left un-malted as described by Ariahu ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chukwuma Ariahu|first=Charles|last2=Ukpabi|first2=Ucha|last3=Obinna Mbajunwa|first3=Kingsley|date=1999|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1008196725387|journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition|volume=54|issue=3|pages=207–216|doi=10.1023/a:1008196725387|issn=0921-9668}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Gernah ''et al.'' &lt;ref&gt;Gernah, D. I., Ariahu, C. C., Umeh, E. U. (2012): Physical and microbiological evaluation of food formulation from malted and fermented maize (''Zea mays L.'') fortified with defatted sesame (''Sesamun indicum L.'') flour. Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol. 4 (3), 148-154&lt;/ref&gt;. Malting of paddy was carried out with slight modification. Paddy was washed twice with clean water. The cleaned paddy rice was steeped inside sufficient clean water to cover the surface of the grains completely. It was kept at 29 ± 2 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C with good air circulation for 24 hours. The steeping process was interrupted after every 6 hours by draining. An “air-rest” period of one hour each for every interruption was provided until the grain reached about 42% moisture content &lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-1940-1_6|title=Which Hough?|last=Leavers|first=V. F.|date=1992|publisher=Springer London|isbn=978-3-540-19723-2|location=London|pages=113–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Kabeir, B. M., Shuhaimi, M., Muhammad, K., Abd-Aziz, S., Yazid, A. M. (2004): A nutritious ''Medida'' (Sudanese cereal thin porridge) prepared by fermenting malted brown rice flour with ''Bifidobacterium longum'' BB 536. Malays. J. Nutr. 10 (2), 183-193.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;Owusu-Mensah, E., Oduro, I., Dziedzoave, N. T., Sarfo, K. J. (2014): Effect of air-rest treatment on rice malt. Plant Sci. Int. 1 (1), 41-46. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.12735/psi&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  v1n1p41&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;Adebowale, A. A., Sanni, S. A., Karim, O. R., Ojoawo, J. A. (2010): Malting characteristics of Ofada rice: chemical and sensory qualities of malt from Ofada rice grains.  Int. Food Res. J. 17, 83-88.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Marconi, O., Sileoni, V., Ceccaroni, D., Perretti, G. (2017): The use of rice in brewing. Adv. Int. Rice Res. 49-65.  &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66450&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;. The steeped paddy was then drained and wrapped in a wet jute bag to provide about 3 to 5 cm depth. FARO 44 grain was germinated for 43 hours at 29 ± 1 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C (Figure 1). The short period of germination was timed and was done to counter technical difficulties during the de-husking of malted rice as experienced during pre-trials. After drying of germinated grains at 29 ± 2 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C under constant air circulations and turning of paddy for 48 hours, the germinated dried grains were polished by detaching the roots and rootlet &lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

About 40 kg of cleaned and dried paddy for each lot was de-husked using a Greep Rice Mill (Model-MBLN-115, China). The malted and non-malted paddy were dried at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C in an air draft oven (air flow rate 140, Oven BS, Model OV-160, Gallen Kamp, England). After de-husking, the grains were finally dried again at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C in an air flow thermostat oven until constant weight was obtained &lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;Nielsen, S. S. (2010): Food analysis. 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition. Springer Science + Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, USA, pp. 3 - 586. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1478-1_1&lt;/nowiki&gt;. &lt;/ref&gt;. Then all the rice (malted and un-malted rice) was milled using a hammer miller and let to pass through a 0.8 mm sieve (Christy Hunt Agricultural Ltd, Foxhills Ind. Est Scunthorpe, Model DE DN15 8QW, South Humbers, England) as described by Badau ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. 

'''Accelerated natural fermentation'''

The rice flours obtained from malted and non-malted paddy were each divided into two sub-lots. A sub-lot of each was subjected to accelerated natural fermentation as described by Ariahu ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. After fermentation, the pastes were spread on drying trays (Figure 1) and dried to constant weights in an air draft oven at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C (Airflow safety thermostat oven with air flow rate 140, Oven BS, Model OV-160, Gallen Kamp, England) as reported by Nielsen &lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Finally, it was milled and let to pass through a 0.8 mm sieve, where each sub-lots yield malted-fermented rice (MFR), malted-non-fermented rice (MNFR), non-malted-fermented rice (NMFR) and non-malted-non fermented rice (NMNFR).
[[File:Plate 1. Food Processing.jpg|thumb|394x394px|Food Processing|left]]


'''Product formulation''' 

The product formulation aimed at obtaining 16 g protein of each test product. The various amounts were obtained by materials balance &lt;ref&gt;Rao, D. G. (2010): Fundamentals of food engineering, Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97 Connaught Circus, New Delhi, pp. 23 - 29&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Eshun, G., Baffour, N. K., Ackah, P. Y. (2011): Nutrient content and sensory acceptability of a weaning diet formulated from mixtures of soybean, groundnut and rice. Afr. J. Food Sci. 5 (17), 870-877.&lt;/ref&gt; based on the proximate compositions of the food materials determined as described by AOAC &lt;ref&gt;AOAC (2006): Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Method of Analysis of the AOAC. W. Horwitz Editor, 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition, Washington D. C.&lt;/ref&gt;, and to comply with recommendations of the protein advisory group (PAG) as described by WFP &lt;ref&gt;WFP. (2021). Nutritional Guidance for Complementary Food.Retrieved from: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://docs.wfp.org&lt;/nowiki&gt; › api › documents › download (Accessed, 25&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; September, 2021).&lt;/ref&gt;. The flours at appropriate ratios were blended in a dry mixer, parked in self-sealing polythene bags and placed in dry and cleaned plastic containers which were stored on dry shelves. Four test products comprising non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean (NMNFRS), malted-non-fermented rice + soybean (MNFRS), non-malted-fermented rice + soybean (NMFRS) and malted-fermented rice + soybean (MFRS) were obtained. A 2 x 2 completely randomized experimental design was used as described by Gomez and Gomez &lt;ref&gt;Gomez, A. K., Gomez, A. A. (1983) Statistical procedure for Agric Res. 2&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition. John Willey, New York, pp. 7- 84, 187 - 240.&lt;/ref&gt;. 

'''Determination of equilibrium moisture contents'''

Equilibrium moisture contents were determined gravimetrically by placing the samples to an atmosphere of known relative humidity controlled by saturated sulphuric acid solutions prepared with concentrations of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80% in desiccators (Desiccators, Moncrieff, Parth, England). The prepared concentrations of sulphuric acid solutions at constant temperatures of 20, 30, 40 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C created an avenue for the calculated water activities &lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;Sahin, S., Sumnu, S. G. (2006): Physical Properties of Foods. Springer Science + Business Media, LLC., 233 Spring Street, New York, USA, pp. 1 - 248.

&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Gravimetrically, quadruplets samples of 0.5 g each were weighted with analytical balance (Mettler Toledo B144 College Precision Balance Max 151 G, Mettler Toledo, Model: B154. Switzerland) and were placed in a petri dish with a diameter of 3 cm in thermostatic incubators (Electrothermal Incubator, Searchtech Instrument, Model DNP-9032 and Gallenkamp Economy Incubator, Gallenkamp, Model 3A 4038, England) until equilibrium weight is established. When required for the desorption study, the dried sample was rewetted by sprinkling with 0.5 ml of distilled water using a hypodermic sterile syringe as described by Ariahu ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;Ariahu, C. C., Kaze, S. A., Chem, C. D. (2005): Moisture sorption characteristics of tropical fresh water crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). J. Food Eng. 75, 355-363.&lt;/ref&gt;. Samples were placed at constant temperature in an incubator and were weighted until a weight change of about &lt; ± 0.001 g was recorded on two consecutive weighs when the samples were assumed to be at equilibrium. The equilibrium moisture content of each sample was calculated as described by Diosady ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;Diosady, L. L., Rizvi, S. S. H., Cal, W., Jagdeo, D. J. (1996): Moisture sorption isotherms of canola meals and application to packaging. J. Food Sci. 61 (1), 204-208.&lt;/ref&gt; and Sengev ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. Equilibration using sulphuric acid concentration is fast (within 2 to 3 days). We have checked the weights of sorbates and found that two to three days equilibrations are not different from two weeks except if precautions are not taken when opening and closing of dictators. 

'''Modelling of sorption isotherms'''

The equilibrium moisture content generated were subjected to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using IBM SPSS statistics version 22 and mean values were separated by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% significant level &lt;ref&gt;Duncan, D. E. (1955): Multiple range and Multiple f-tests. Biometrics. 11, 1- 42.&lt;/ref&gt;. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model, Guggenheim-Anderson and De Boer (GAB) model and double logarithmic polynomial (DLP) equations (equations 8, 9 and 14 respectively) were fitted into the equilibrium moisture data using non-linear regression methods (Decagon Devices Inc. MAT 2.0.11.0). Isosteric heat of sorption was determined by employing the use of Prism (GraphPad, Software Inc. version 8.2) and shelf-life study as described by Robertson &lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;Robertson, G. L. (2010). Food Packaging and Shelf Life. Taylor and Francis Group, LLC. Brisbane, Australia. Pp 1-16.&lt;/ref&gt;.

BET model sorption parameters of malted and/or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean-based complementary foods have been determined as described by Van den Berg &lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;Van den Berg C. (1981): Vapour sorption equilibria and other water starch interactions; a physico-chemical approach, PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Department of Food Science, Wageningen, pp. 9 - 164.&lt;/ref&gt; and Rahman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;Rahman, S. (1995): Food properties handbook. CRC Press LLC, 2000 N, W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 1 - 86.&lt;/ref&gt; using:              

&lt;math&gt; BET Emc= M_b C_b\boldsymbol{\alpha}/(1-\boldsymbol{\alpha})[1+(C_b-1)]\boldsymbol{\alpha}&lt;/math&gt;                      (8)     

Where:      

BET = Brunauer, Emmett and Teller; 

E&lt;sub&gt;mc&lt;/sub&gt; = Equilibrium moisture content (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids); 

M&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; = BET monomolecular moisture content (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids); 

C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; = Energy constant related to the net heat of sorption and

''a''&lt;sub&gt;w&lt;/sub&gt; = Water activity (dimensionless). 

GAB model was used to determine sorption parameters of malted and/or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean-based complementary foods as described by Van den Berg &lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;, Rahman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; and Quirijns ''et al.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;Quirijns, E. J., Van Boxtel, A. J. B., Van Loon, W. K., Van Straten, G. (2005): Sorption isotherms, GAB parameters and isosteric heat of sorption. J. Sci. Food Agric. 85, 1805 - 1814. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2140&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; using: 

&lt;math&gt;GAB    Emc = M_gCk\alpha/\bigl(1-k\alpha\bigr)\bigl(1-k\alpha+Ck\alpha\bigr)&lt;/math&gt;                        (9)                          

Where: 

GAB = Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer; 

E&lt;sub&gt;mc&lt;/sub&gt; = Equilibrium moisture content in g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids; 

''a''&lt;sub&gt;w&lt;/sub&gt; = Water activity (dimensionless); 

M&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; = GAB monomolecular moisture content (g/g, d.b.) in g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids; 

K = Constant in the range of less than 1 (i.e., &lt; 1) and 

C = Constant in the range of 1 to 2000. 

Both (C and K) are sorption constants which related to the energies of interaction between the first and the further sorb molecules at the individual sorption sites. The temperature dependence is included in the constants (C and K), such that:

&lt;math&gt;C =\exp  &lt;/math&gt; &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q_1/q_m = C_0\exp   &lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;\bigl(\vartriangle H_c\bigr)/RT\bigr)&lt;/math&gt;  = &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;C_0\exp   &lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;\bigl(H_n - H_m\bigr)/RT\bigr)&lt;/math&gt;                (10)

&lt;math&gt;K = \exp q_L/q_m = K_0\exp   &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\bigl(\vartriangle H_k\bigr)/RT\bigr)&lt;/math&gt;  = &lt;math&gt;K_0\exp \bigl(H_L- H_n\bigr)/RT\bigr)     &lt;/math&gt;               (11)

&lt;math&gt;\vartriangle H_c = H_n - H_m   &lt;/math&gt;                                                                                  (12)

&lt;math&gt;\vartriangle H_k = H_L - H_n  &lt;/math&gt;                                                                                 (13)

Where:                                                                    

∆H&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = Difference in enthalpy between monomolecular and multi-molecular layer (kJ/mol);

∆H&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = Difference in enthalpy between bulk liquid and multi-molecular layer (kJ/mol);

H&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; = Molar sorption enthalpy of the monomolecular layer (kJ/mol);

H&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; = Molar sorption enthalpy of the multi-molecular layer on top of the monomolecular layer (kJ/mol);

H&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt; = Molar sorption enthalpy of the bulk liquid (kJ/mol);

T = Absolute temperature (K); 

R = Molar gas constant (0.008314 kJ/mol K);

q&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = Partition function of molecule in monomolecular layer;

q&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt; = Partition function of molecule in bulk liquid;

q&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; = Partition function of molecule in multi-molecular layer; and

C&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; and K&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; = Entropic accommodation factors.

A polynomial equation was also used to calculate sorption parameters of malted and/or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean-based complementary foods as reported by Bonner and Kenny &lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;Bonner, I. J., Kenney, K. L. (2013): Moisture sorption characteristics and modelling of energy sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench). J Stored Prod. Res. 52, 128-136. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2012.11.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; and Igbabul ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;Igbabul, B. D., Ariahu, C. C., Umeh, E. U. (2013): Moisture adsorption isotherms of African arrowroot lily (''Tacca'' ''involucrata'') tuber mash as influenced by blanching and natural fermentation. J. Food Res. 2 (3), 79 - 92. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v2n3p79&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; using:      

&lt;math&gt;DLP Emc  &lt;/math&gt;=&lt;math&gt;b_3 &lt;/math&gt;.&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt;(-&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt;(χ))&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;+&lt;math&gt;b_2 &lt;/math&gt;.&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt;(-&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt;(χ))&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+&lt;math&gt;b_1 &lt;/math&gt;.&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt;(-&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt;(χ))+&lt;math&gt;b_0 &lt;/math&gt;        (14)

Where: 

DLP = Double log polynomial equation; 

E&lt;sub&gt;mc&lt;/sub&gt; = Moisture content in g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids;

b&lt;sub&gt;3,&lt;/sub&gt; b&lt;sub&gt;2,&lt;/sub&gt; b&lt;sub&gt;1,&lt;/sub&gt; b&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; = Isotherms model parameters (empirical constants); and 

χ = ln(-ln(aw)) or water activity.

The monolayer values obtained were used to calculate the total surface area of the sorbent &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot;&gt;Ariahu, C. C., Kaze, S. A., Chem, C. D. (2005): Moisture sorption characteristics of tropical fresh water crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). J. Food Eng. 75, 355-363.&lt;/ref&gt; using:

&lt;math&gt;S_0 &lt;/math&gt;=&lt;math&gt;\bigl( &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;1 &lt;/math&gt;/&lt;math&gt;M_s &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\bigr) &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;N_0AM_0 &lt;/math&gt;                              (15)

Where:

S&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; =Apparent surface area of the sorbent (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids);

M&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; =Relative molecular mass of water (18 g/g mol);

N&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; = Avogadro’s number (6.023 x 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; molecules/mol);

A = Apparent surface area of one water molecule (1.05 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-19&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;); and

M&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; = Monomolecular moisture content (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids).


The drying characteristic study employed the net isosteric heat of sorption.  An algorithm was employed using numerical precision created by the Prism which divide range into 1000-line segments &lt;ref&gt;Motulsky, H. J. (2021). GraphPad Curve Fitting Guide. Accessed 9 March 2021. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.graphpad.com/guides/prism/7/curve-fitting/index.htm&lt;/nowiki&gt;? reg_standard_errors_and_confidence.htm&lt;/ref&gt;. A linear standard curve was used and x minimum and maximum values (2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12% moisture, also temperatures of 20, 30, 40 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) was considered for the computation. For sample NMNFRS at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, 2% moisture correspond to water activity of 0.159103890951915 etc. at 95% confidence interval. The water activity values obtained for all the samples were converted to natural logarithm values and plotted against temperatures employed (i.e., their respective reciprocal of absolute temperatures (1/T)) using linear regression analysis (Figure 4).

The heats of moisture adsorption and desorption of the formulated food products were determined from equilibrium sorption data using the Integrated Clausius–Clapeyron &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; equation:                                     

&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;\alpha_\omega &lt;/math&gt;=&lt;math&gt;C_s &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt;  - Δ&lt;math&gt;H &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sub&gt;st&lt;/sub&gt; / &lt;math&gt;R1/T &lt;/math&gt;                        (16)

Where:

ΔH&lt;sub&gt;st &lt;/sub&gt;= Net isosteric heat of sorption;

H&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = Isosteric heat of sorption (kJ/mol);

H&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt; = Latent heat of vaporization of pure water (kJ/mol);

T = Absolute temperature (&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C);

R = Molar gas constant (0.008314 kJ/mol &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C); and

C&lt;sub&gt;st&lt;/sub&gt;= Constant related to entropy of sorption (Note: ΔH&lt;sub&gt;st &lt;/sub&gt;= − R × slope).

           Net isosteric heat of sorption was plotted against moisture content of the formulated food products (Figure 5). 

           To predict the shelf life of the formulated food products, the water vapour permeability (water vapour permeance/film thickness) of the packaging materials was determined (predicted) using standard test methodology of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International, adopted and as described by Gaikwad &lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; which employed Arrhenius type equation: 

&lt;math&gt;P &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=&lt;math&gt;P &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1e&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;E &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;math&gt;\bigl(1 &lt;/math&gt;/&lt;math&gt;T &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;  - &lt;math&gt;1 &lt;/math&gt;/&lt;math&gt;T &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;math&gt;\bigr) &lt;/math&gt;/&lt;math&gt;R &lt;/math&gt;                             (17)

Where:

E&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; = activation energy (kJ/mol); 

R = universal gas constant (0.008314 kJ/mol. k); 

T&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = initial temperature (&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;K) of the initial packaging permeability P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg); and

T&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = predicting temperature (&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;K) predicting the packaging permeability P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg). 

Relative humidity was also taken into consideration using the least square fit. Hence, a working isotherm (straight line equation) derived from the isotherms of the formulated products was employed for predicting the shelf life of the formulated products as described by Sherma ''et al''. &lt;ref&gt;Sherma, S. K., Mulvaney, S. J. and Rizvi, S. S. (2000). Food Process Engineering: Theory and Laboratory Experiment, Wiley India, Pvt. Limited, Pp. 287 - 288.&lt;/ref&gt; and Robertson &lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; using:

&lt;math&gt;M = Y + b_\alpha\omega &lt;/math&gt;                                                    (18)

Where:

b = slope, Y = intercept at water activity equal (α&lt;sub&gt;ω&lt;/sub&gt; = 0) to zero, which represent initial moisture content (M&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;) at a given water activity or relative humidity. The above straight-line equation was used to estimate the initial moisture content (M&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;), Critical moisture content (M&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;) and equilibrium moisture content (M&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;) at their respective water activity. Hence, shelf life was predicted using:

&lt;math&gt;ln&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;\bigl(M_e-M_i/M_e - M_c\bigr) = B/X  \times A/W_s \times P_0/b \times t_s &lt;/math&gt;             (19)

Where: 

B/χ = Water vapour permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of test packaging material;

A = surface area (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) of package;

M&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = initial moisture content (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids);

M&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = equilibrium moisture content (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids) at specified storage relative humidity and temperature (from moisture sorption isotherm;

M&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = critical moisture content (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids);

P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; = vapour pressure of pure water (mmHg) at storage temperature (from data book);

W&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; = weight (g) of dry food material in package;

b = slope (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids) of straight line of moisture sorption isotherm within the BET region; and

t&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; = time (days) to reach M&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; (on set of spoilage or storage life) at the specified conditions.

==Result and Discussion ==

====== '''Equilibrium moisture sorption of the formulated food products''' ======
The equilibrium moisture adsorption and desorption of malted and/or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean-based complementary foods at 20, 30, 40 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C are shown in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and respectively. The water activity of sulphuric acid solutions used as reported by Sahin and Samnu &lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. 

Regardless of temperature change, the adsorption and desorption of moisture contents ranged from 0.20 to 29.25 and 0.30 to 30.60 g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids respectively. The result of moisture sorption mostly showed a significant difference (p &lt; 0.05) especially at higher than lower water activity. Those which did not vary significantly (p &gt; 0.05) most often differ by less than or equal to 0.0001 g of sorbate. The temperature dependency of the moisture sorption was observed to be evident. Equilibrium moisture contents decreased at lower water activity with increasing temperature (i.e., at 40 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C). This is in agreement with many sorption studies &lt;ref&gt;Palou, E., Lopez-Malo, A., Argaiz, A. (1997): Effect of temperature on the moisture sorption isotherms of some cookies and corn snacks. J. Food Eng. 31, 85-93.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot;&gt;Samapundo, S., Devlieghere, F., De Meulenaer, B., Atukwase, A., Lamboni, Y., Debevere, J. M. (2007): Sorption isotherms and isosteric heaths of sorption of whole yellow dent corn. J. Food Eng. 79, 168- 175.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; that equilibrium moisture content at constant water activity decreased as temperature increased. However, contrary to the results obtained at a higher water activity of about 0.8 to 0.9, because of sudden inversions; equilibrium moisture contents increased as temperature increased. It was earlier mentioned to occur as a result of changes in water binding, water dissociation or solubility of the solute. A similar trend was also reported to occur in many foods at a water activity of higher than 0.7 &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;. This was also observed on sorghum-based food products &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. In addition, at a water activity of about 0.5 to 0.7, a sudden increase of equilibrium moisture contents throughout the sorption process was observed. This was in agreement with many reports and it may indicate the beginning of the capillary condensation region where water molecules tend to be free &lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot;&gt;Andrade, R. D. P., Lemus, R. M., Perez, C. E. C. (2011): Models of sorption isotherms for food: uses and limitations. VITAE. 18 (3), 325-334.&lt;/ref&gt;. A similar trend of a sharp increase of moisture, at about water activity beyond 0.6 and 0.7 &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;. In most cases, higher equilibrium moisture contents (more hygroscopic) were observed in sample NMNFRS and MNFRS than the other formulations. Also, higher moisture desorption than adsorption at the same water activity was observed throughout this study. A study by Mathlouthi &lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mathlouthi|first=M.|date=2001-07|title=Editorial|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0308-8146(01)00140-6|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=74|issue=1|pages=97|doi=10.1016/s0308-8146(01)00140-6|issn=0308-8146}}&lt;/ref&gt; in a model food system within the water activity range of 0.32 – 0.93 caused degradation of vitamin C as a result of moisture differences between adsorption and desorption. Thus, constant moisture or water activity shifts in food as a result of temperature change would enhance food susceptibility to microbial or chemical degradation &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 1. Equilibrium moisture sorption (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g  solids) of the formulated food products at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C''' 
|-
|Water activity
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|
|
|Adsorption
|
|
|-
|0.0048
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.19
|0.50&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.38
|1.30&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.35
|0.95&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.34
|-
|0.0422
|0.57&lt;sup&gt;cd&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.19
|0.52&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.38
|1.35&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.35
|1.10&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.20
|-
|0.1573
|2.50&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.48
|4.90&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 2.56
|2.65&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.41
|3.45&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.50
|-
|0.3442
|4.35&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.87
|4.95&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 2.51
|3.85&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.19
|3.85&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.19
|-
|0.5599
|6.45&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.00
|7.45&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.64
|8.45&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.06
|7.40&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.95
|-
|0.7491
|11.50&lt;sup&gt;de&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.42
|12.65&lt;sup&gt;cd&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.45
|14.35&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.8
|14.15&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.55
|-
|0.8796
|17.15&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.82
|17.35&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.60
|17.90&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.77
|17.95&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 2.37
|-
|0.9558
|23.28&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.82
|24.90&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.66
|23.90&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.38
|25.00&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.97
|-
|
|
|Desorption
|
|
|-
|0.0048
|0.75&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.19
|0.65&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.30
|1.35&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.30
|1.10&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.26
|-
|0.0422
|0.90&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.12
|0.95&lt;sup&gt;cd&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.41
|1.65&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.30
|1.50&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.20
|-
|0.1573
|3.10&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.48
|5.50&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 2.56
|3.25&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.41
|4.50&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.50
|-
|0.3442
|4.95&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.87
|5.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 2.45
|4.45&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.19
|5.45&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.19
|-
|0.5599
|7.05&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.00
|8.05&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.64
|9.00&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.08
|8.00&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.95
|-
|0.7491
|12.10&lt;sup&gt;cd&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.42
|13.20&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.49
|14.75&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.55
|15.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.13
|-
|0.8796
|17.75&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.82
|17.95&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.60
|18.50&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.77
|18.45&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 2.39
|-
|0.9558
|23.90&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.77
|25.50&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.66
|24.50&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; ± 0.38
|25.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ± 1.97
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Mean values in a raw with common superscripts are  not significantly (p &gt; 0.05) different. Each value is a mean ± SD of  quadruplicate determinations.''

NMNFRS:  Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented rice +  soybean, NMFRS: Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean, MFRS: Malted-fermented  rice + soybean.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 2. Equilibrium moisture sorption (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g  solids) of the formulated food products at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C''' 
|-
|Water activity
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|
|
|Adsorption
|
|
|-
|0.0059
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|0.50 &lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|0.30&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|0.45&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|-
|0.0470
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|0.51&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.30
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|0.70&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|-
|0.1677
|2.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|2.45&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.38
|2.80&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.91
|3.10&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.62
|-
|0.3574
|4.05&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.66
|3.70&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.60
|4.00&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|4.00&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|-
|0.5711
|5.40&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.46
|6.00&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|6.20&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.40
|6.50&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.00
|-
|0.7549
|11.70&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|11.40&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.67
|11.25&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.72
|11.35&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.53
|-
|0.8814
|16.45&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.56
|17.85&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.57
|17.65&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.91
|16.60&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.21
|-
|0.9562
|28.10&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.81
|26.10&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|28.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|26.45&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.34
|-
|
|
|Desorption
|
|
|-
|0.0059
|0.70&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|0.70&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|0.50&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|0.65&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|-
|0.0470
|0.95&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|2.05&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.10
|2.75&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 3.50
|1.10&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|-
|0.1677
|2.85&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|3.05&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.38
|3.40&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.91
|3.70&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.62
|-
|0.3574
|4.65&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.66
|4.30&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.60
|4.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|4.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|-
|0.5711
|6.00&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.46
|6.60&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|6.80&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.40
|7.10&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.00
|-
|0.7549
|12.05&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.57
|12.00&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.67
|11.85&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.72
|11.95&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.53
|-
|0.8814
|17.05&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.56
|18.45&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.57
|18.25&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.91
|17.20&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 1.21
|-
|0.9562
|28.70&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.81
|26.70&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|28.80&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|27.05&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.34
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Mean values in a raw with common superscripts are  not significantly (p &gt; 0.05) different. Each value is a mean ± SD of  quadruplicate determinations.''

NMNFRS:  Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented rice +  soybean, NMFRS: Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean, MFRS: Malted-fermented  rice + soybean.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 3. Equilibrium moisture sorption (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g  solids) of the formulated food products at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C''' 
|-
|Water activity
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|
|
|Adsorption
|
|
|-
|0.0071
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|-
|0.0521
|1.00&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|0.75&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|1.00&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|1.25&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.34
|-
|0.1781
|2.60&lt;sup&gt;cd&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|2.55&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|2.50&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|2.90&lt;sup&gt;abc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|-
|0.3702
|3.65&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|3.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.53
|3.65&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.41
|3.15&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|-
|0.5816
|5.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.30
|5.80&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.92
|5.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.23
|5.30&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.58
|-
|0.7604
|8.80&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|9.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|8.00&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|8.00&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|-
|0.8831
|19.45&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|18.65&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|18.25&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|16.45&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|-
|0.9565
|28.50&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|24.70&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|26.10&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|24.70&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|-
|
|
|Desorption
|
|
|-
|0.0071
|0.85&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|0.65&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|0.85&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|-
|0.0521
|1.95&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|1.80&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|1.90&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|2.00&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|-
|0.1781
|3.20&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|3.20&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|3.45&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.34
|3.30&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|-
|0.3702
|3.95&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|4.60&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|4.40&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|3.40&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|-
|0.5816
|6.15&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ±  0.19
|6.95&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|6.15&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|6.15&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|-
|0.7604
|9.50&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|9.90&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|8.70&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|8.70&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|-
|0.8831
|20.10&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|19.30&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|18.90&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|17.10&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|-
|0.9565
|29.30&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|24.30&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|26.90&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|25.50&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Mean values in a raw with common superscripts are  not significantly (p &gt; 0.05) different. Each value is a mean ± SD of  quadruplicate determinations.''

NMNFRS:  Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented rice +  soybean, NMFRS: Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean, MFRS: Malted-fermented  rice + soybean.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 4. Equilibrium moisture sorption (g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g  solids) of the formulated food products at 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C''' 
|-
|Water activity
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|
|
|Adsorption
|
|
|-
|0.0085
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|0.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|-
|0.0575
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|0.70&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|0.65&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|0.40&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.00
|-
|0.1887
|1.90&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|1.80&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.54
|2.00&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|2.10&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.35
|-
|0.3827
|3.80&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.59
|3.75&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.66
|3.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.53
|3.10&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|-
|0.5914
|6.45&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|6.00&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.57
|6.26&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|6.15&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.64
|-
|0.7655
|10.75&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.44
|10.05&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.64
|10.40&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.91
|9.15&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|-
|0.8848
|18.45&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.30
|16.00&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.28
|15.30&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|19.40&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.37
|-
|0.9570
|29.25&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 2.07
|29.20&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.81
|24.45&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.66
|27.10&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.90
|-
|
|
|Desorption
|
|
|-
|0.0085
|0.30&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|0.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|0.55&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|-
|0.0575
|1.30&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|1.50&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.20
|1.50&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.20
|1.25&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.10
|-
|0.1887
|2.85&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.35
|2.40&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.37
|2.65&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|2.80&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|-
|0.3827
|4.65&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.44
|4.90&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.12
|4.25&lt;sup&gt;bc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.34
|3.60&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|-
|0.5914
|7.00&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.43
|6.75&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.72
|6.75&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|6.65&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.84
|-
|0.7655
|11.40&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.43
|10.60&lt;sup&gt;abc&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.67
|11.15&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.82
|9.75&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.19
|-
|0.8848
|19.00&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.28
|16.75&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.30
|20.95&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|19.40&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.69
|-
|0.9570
|30.60&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.16
|30.10&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.26
|25.45&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.25
|28.00&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;  ± 0.37
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Mean values in a raw with common superscripts are  not significantly (p &gt; 0.05) different. Each value is a mean ± SD of  quadruplicate determinations.''

NMNFRS: Non-malted-non-fermented  rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, NMFRS:  Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean, MFRS: Malted-fermented rice + soybean.
|}


'''Moisture sorption isotherms of the formulated food products'''

Moisture sorption isotherms are shown in Figure 2 and 3. These isotherms have been observed to correspond with many sorption studies of agricultural products and as described by many researchers &lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. The shapes of the isotherms are in agreement with the earlier classification and description Brunauer ''et al.'' &lt;ref&gt;Brunauer, S., Deming, L. S., Teller, E. (1940): Theory of Van der Waals adsorption of gases. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 62 (7), 1723-1732.&lt;/ref&gt; and as reported by Andrade ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot; /&gt; as sigmoidal (type 2); similar in resemblance with the Greek letter symbol sigma (ς). Similarly, this phenomenon has been reported in the literature for cereal-based products &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;, whole yellow dent corn &lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt;, energy sorghum &lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; and many other agricultural products &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;. 

Regardless of temperature change, the desorption isotherms are slightly above adsorption isotherms throughout. As earlier reported (Rahman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;; Sahin and Samnu, &lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;, such a phenomenon (hysteresis) is a normal sorption process which usually occurs in hygroscopic products (agricultural products). Mathlouthi &lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot; /&gt; elucidates that the filling and emptying of moisture in capillaries of food does not follow the same kinetics and changes in the structure of some food constituents subjected to various water activity are the main causes of hysteresis. There are many sorption theories of hysteresis in literature which tried to explain how such a phenomenon occur. After studying many theories of hysteresis, research workers concluded that it is impossible to give a single explanation of the hysteresis phenomena in foods &lt;ref&gt;Rao, M. A., Rizvi, S. S. H., Ashim, K. (2005): Engineering properties of foods. 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; edition. Published by CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. New York, pp 239 - 309. &lt;/ref&gt;;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shafiur Rahman|first=Mohammad|last2=Hamed Al-Belushi|first2=Rashid|date=2006-09|title=Dynamic Isopiestic Method (DIM): Measuring Moisture Sorption Isotherm of Freeze-Dried Garlic Powder and Other Potential Uses of DIM|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10942910600596134|journal=International Journal of Food Properties|volume=9|issue=3|pages=421–437|doi=10.1080/10942910600596134|issn=1094-2912}}&lt;/ref&gt;. But in this study, one can infer vapour pressure, capillary or other optimal conditions for desorption than in adsorption might have been the major contributing factors for higher moisture desorption than adsorption. Hysteresis which is the difference between adsorption and desorption isotherms appeared distinctly close to the midpoints of the isotherms (curves). Samples MFRS and NMFRS at 20 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C respectively, exhibited higher hysteresis than any other sample. Different loop shapes of hysteresis have been reported to depend on the composition of the product, temperature, storage time and the number of successive adsorption and desorption (Sahin and Samnu,&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. Rahman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; and Andrade ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot; /&gt; highlighted the effect and variety of hysteresis loop shapes of different foods, which also correlates with these FARO 44 products. Though there were many differences between adsorption and desorption isotherms in this study, no much clear difference in features was observed at the hydration monolayer nor region of free water of the isotherms, probably due to the skewness of the regression. A previous report has supported the argument that hysteresis in high sugar or high pectin foods mainly occurs in the monomolecular region &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;. In this study, the effect of fermentation, malting, heat treatment and composition of the mixtures might have influenced hysteresis in other regions of the isotherms, especially in malted or fermented ones. It was observed that sorption isotherms at about the water activity of 0.8 to 0.9 showed a decrease in hysteresis as temperature increased except sample NMFRS.  Also, changes in water binding, dissociation or dissolution of sugar at higher temperatures might have influenced the slight shift in hysteresis at higher water activity. There is a likelihood then, the effect of hysteresis may transient the sorption regions. As reported earlier (Quirijns ''et al.,''&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt;, many times effects of hysteresis may complicate thermodynamic data derived from sorption isotherms. From this study, hysterical effects at levels of low water activity are remarkable for browning reaction, oxidation, loss of nutritional and sensory qualities as well as the growth of ''Osmophilic'' yeasts. However, not much in most of the samples.

[[File:Figure 1a. Moisture sorption isotherms of non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean (NMNFRS) and malted-non-fermented rice + soybean (MNFRS). Mc = Critical moisture content, αωc = Critical water activity..png|thumb|Moisture sorption isotherms of non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean (NMNFRS) and malted-non-fermented rice + soybean (MNFRS). M&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = Critical moisture content, α&lt;sub&gt;ωc&lt;/sub&gt; = Critical water activity|left]]
[[File:Figure 1b. Moisture sorption isotherms of non-malted-fermented rice + soybean (NMFRS) and malted-fermented rice + soybean (MFRS).png|thumb|'''Moisture sorption isotherms of non-malted-fermented rice + soybean (NMFRS) and malted-fermented rice + soybean (MFRS)'''|left]]

'''BET, GAB and DLP model parameters of the formulated food products'''

The BET, GAB and DLP model equations were fitted to the experimental sorption data by non-linear regression analysis as shown in Tables 5a and 5b. The GAB and BET monomolecular moisture contents (M&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; and M&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;) regardless of temperature change varied from 2.244 to 7.676 and 2.284 to 4.612 g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids, respectively. In addition, the GAB energy constant (C) ranged from 1.972 to 49.425. The GAB constant (C) which measure the strength of water binding to the primary binding sites, is the ratio of the partition function of the molecule in a monolayer to that of the partition function of molecules in a multilayer &lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt;. On the other hand, K values ranged from 0.681 to 0.990. K which measures the entropic configuration (arrangement) and mobility of water molecules, is the ratio of the partition function of molecules in bulk liquid to the partition function of molecules sorbed in the multilayer &lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt;.  The BET constant (C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;) also ranged from 3.253 to 141.917. Both BET and GAB energy constants are in agreement with their respective model concepts. C and C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; values showed a strong temperature dependency than the K values. From vast literature which reported K values of foods including those compiled by Rahman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; are mostly between the range of 0.6 to nearly 1. The more the energy constants of a particular food differ from one temperature to the other, the more likely the instability of the food products.

Tables 5a and 5b showed the monolayer most strongly bound at the sorption sites. The monolayer at the desorption sites had higher water-binding capacity than the adsorption. This is also not far-fetched from the enthalpy energy the difference between the state of the multilayer during adsorption and desorption, probably caused by difference between distributions of water molecules over the polymer matrix during its swelling and shrinking as reported previously for entropy change &lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;. Also, effects of hysteresis as stated by other researchers in many theories of hysteresis are eminent. Samples MNFRS, MFRS, MFRS and MNFRS at 20, 30, 40 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C respectively had the highest binding energy of water molecules at the desorption sites. While samples NMFRS, MNFRS, MNFRS and NMFRS at the same corresponding temperatures had the lowest binding energy (at sites). From these findings, the adsorption phenomenon contributed weakening of the molecular binding energy of MNFRS and NMFRS. The energy capacity is higher for desorption than adsorption except for NMFRS (1.972) which recorded the lowest, followed by MFRS (5.795) at 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C (Table 5b). On average, the GAB C values of MFRS ranged from 8.985 (adsorption) to 20.444 (desorption). MFRS had the strongest monolayer energy binding capacity on average, followed by NMNFRS (C = 5.3125 to 19.287), MNFRS (C = 6.149 to 16.219) and NMNFRS (C = 4.878 to 12.440). In general, as temperature increased to 30 and 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, the GAB constant (C values) of most samples exhibited strong monolayer water molecules. But at 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C (Table 5b) energy capacity was reduced, which agreed with the thermodynamics of sorption. The high temperature was known to decrease binding energy between molecules because of the increased excitation.  As such, mutual distances between molecules would increase, resulting the weakening of their molecular attractive forces. Thus, causing molecules to break away (Quirijns ''et al.,''&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt;. Van den Berg &lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt; explained that decreasing binding energy shows an increasing residence time for the sorbed molecules in the first layer, meaning that at high temperature the character of the sorption process become less strongly localized. It can be seen; the energy capacity of sorption sites is important for keeping dehydrated food quality because food without binding energy is prone to moisture migration. It is as important as the food is in free moisture region which allows the entering or escaping of moisture. A food with zero energy binding capacity would mean food in a free-water region. 

The K values of samples were mostly structured and the multilayer water molecules differed from the bulk liquid. It is also varied and was found to exhibit slight temperature dependency. Most values of K increased slightly as temperature increased. This phenomenon occurred because of temperature effects causing the movement of water molecules to the sorption sites. Thus, as temperature increased, multilayer properties of water molecules become less structured which corresponds with the molecules in the bulk liquid. Sample MNFRS (at 20, 30 and 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) had more (better) structured multilayer at the sorption sites, followed by NMFRS (50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) at desorption sites. However, sample NMNFRS (30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) had a less structured multilayer at desorption sites, followed by MFRS at desorption (40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) and adsorption (50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) sites. This means multilayer water molecules of samples NMNFRS and MFRS at those points are not well organized and had multilayer properties slightly comparable with bulk liquid molecules. Food with K value equal to or greater than 1, is an interpretation that that food is already predisposed to the movement of free water molecules according to GAB model assumptions. Observed entropy differences between the state of the multilayer adsorption and desorption are slight. 

The coefficient of determination (r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) and RMS of the DLP for the food products ranged from 0.982 to 1.000 and 0.166 to 1.193; GAB ranged from 0.986 to 1.000 and 0.062 to 1.100; and BET ranged from 0.823 to 1.00 and 0.026 to 0.785 respectively. Irrespective of temperature or sorption mode, the GAB model fitting parameters were better correlated (r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0.886 to 1.000), followed by DPL (r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0.982 to 1.000) and BET (r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0.823 to 1.000). GAB model has been reported earlier to be the best fit for predicting sorption isotherms of foods or agricultural products &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;Yogendrarajah P., Samapundo S., De Vlieghere F., De Saeger S., De Meulenaer, B. (2015): Moisture sorption isotherms and thermodynamic properties of whole black peppercorns (''Pipernigrum'' L.). LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 64 (1), 177 - 188. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.05.045&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;. The use of GAB and DLP equations for modelling was better justified at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and also BET at 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, because there were good correlations at those points. A predictive equation (Double logarithmic polynomial) was employed to check how the sorption parameters of the sorption models vary statistically and it was found to correlate well. In general, the use of r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and RMS as determinants for model validation in this study's reviled BET model is better justified for the modelling of malted and/or fermented rice plus soybean-based complementary foods than the GAB model or DPL equation. However, an earlier report (Samapundo ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt; stated that a good fit for a model to experimental data does not describe the quality of the sorption process but only the mathematics of the model. In addition, it only reveals or measures how closely the data points to the line of the best fit. 

For dehydrated food to be stable for a long time under storage, available moisture must be removed from the food down to monolayer moisture level and prevent any subsequent moisture adsorption from the environment into the intended food made for storage. This process would be enough to preserve or retain the quality of the food materials for a long time, probably being shelf stable.  Tables 5a and 5b indicated samples NMFRS and MNFRS had the highest GAB and BET monolayer moisture respectively and MFRS the lowest. The GAB monolayer moisture values of formulations were mostly higher than the BET monolayer moisture values and both mostly decreased as temperature increased. GAB and BET monolayer moisture desorption of foods were also observed to be mostly higher than adsorption. A similar trend was also reported &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; and who also reported GAB and BET monolayer values decreased significantly with increasing temperature after studying about 100 foods and food components. Samupundo ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt; reported that at higher temperatures water molecules do break away from sorption sites causing the decrease in monolayer moisture. However, Van den Berg &lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt; and Rahman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; stated that monolayer moisture is not temperature dependent. Another study also found monolayer moisture decreased or increased with increasing temperature &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;. 

The monolayer moisture values of foods obtained in this study are slightly comparable to those found by Bonner and Kenney &lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; who modelled energy sorghum at 15 to 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, and found the range of GAB monolayer moisture values from 6.86 to 8.44% during desorption and 5.41 to 5.70% during adsorption by the dynamic dew-point method. GAB monolayer moisture values of whole yellow dent corn from 6.03 to 7.44% (adsorption) and 6.84 to 8.46% (desorption) at 25 to 37 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C found by Samapundo ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt; slightly match this study. Moraes ''et al''. &lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot;&gt;Moraes, M. A., Rosa, G. S., Pinto, L. A. A. (2008): Moisture sorption isotherms and thermodynamic properties of apple Fuji and garlic. Int. J. of Food Sci. Technol. 43, 1824 - 1831.&lt;/ref&gt; found GAB monolayer moisture for garlic from 5.0 to 5.6%, which is within the range of monolayer moisture values obtained. But slightly varied with BET monolayer moisture (3.0 to 5.0%). The result of the sorption study on whole black peppercorns by Yogendrarajah ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot; /&gt; yielded comparable GAB monolayer moisture of 3.49 to 4.78% during adsorption and 4.36 to 4.67% during desorption (22 to 37 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C). Similar monolayer moisture values from 2.27 to 3.65 g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids for adsorption and 2.70 to 5.48 g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g for desorption (25 to 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) were obtained by Ariahu ''et al''. &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. Their results correspond better with this study probably because of the similar adopted methodology. Syamaladevi ''et al.'' &lt;ref&gt;Syamaladevi, R. M., Sablani, S. S., Juming Tang, J., Joseph Powers, J., Swanson, B. G. (2009): State diagram and water adsorption isotherm of raspberry (Rubus idaeus). J. Food Eng. 91, 460 - 467.&lt;/ref&gt; found comparable results of BET and GAB monolayer moisture of 4.5 and 7.4% respectively, for raspberry at room temperature (23 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) by the isopiestic method. Results obtained by Kim ''et al.'' &lt;ref&gt;Kim, S. S., Kim, S. Y., Kim, D. W., Shin, S. G., Chang, K. S. (1999): Moisture Sorption Characteristics of Composite Foods Filled with Chocolate. J. Food Sci.  64, 2.  300 - 302.&lt;/ref&gt; vary slightly with the GAB monolayer moisture obtained. In their work, the monolayer moisture values of composite foods filled with chocolate was between 1 to 5% (20, 30 and 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C). Many sorption studies that reviled monolayer values of foods and other agricultural products were found to correlate well with this study.

Much higher monolayer moisture values of agricultural products than the ones obtained in this study were also observed. Diosady ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; obtained higher monolayer moisture values of canola meals from 9.06 to 9.60% (10, 22 and 34 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C). Another estimated GAB parameter by Kiranoudis ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; reviled monolayer moisture values of 8.70 to 21.20% db. for vegetables and 10.50 to 15.00% db. for fruits (30, 45 and 60 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) which are much higher than the results obtained, probably temperature disparity may be responsible. Also, at a much-elevated temperatures (from 20 to 70 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) than the ones used in this study, Goula ''et al''. &lt;ref&gt;Goula, A. M., Karapantsios, T. D., Achilias, D. S., Adamopoulos, K. G. (2007): Waster sorption isotherms and glass transition temperature of spray dried tomato pulp. J. Food Eng. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.07.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; found much higher GAB monolayer values (20.00 to 21.30%) of spray-dried tomato pulp. Monolayer moisture of 9.73 g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solids for vacuum-dried onion and 9.79 g H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/100 g solid for air-dried onion has been reported by Masud Alam and Nazrul Islam &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alam|first=Md Masud|last2=Islam|first2=Md Nurul|last3=Islam|first3=Md Nazrul|date=2015-03-12|title=Study on drying kinetics of summer onion|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjar.v39i4.22545|journal=Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research|volume=39|issue=4|pages=661–673|doi=10.3329/bjar.v39i4.22545|issn=2408-8293}}&lt;/ref&gt; which are higher than the results obtained. BET and GAB monolayer moisture values between 5.19 to 14.60% and 5.92 to 16.42% respectively for African arrowroot lily (10 to 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) found by Igbabul ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; are also much higher. Regression methods also might have been the contributing factors which resulted in much significant difference in the results obtained. Moraes ''et al''. &lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot; /&gt; also found higher monolayer moisture values of apples from 10.7 to 16.8% (GAB) and 10.6 to 14.8% (BET) (50, 60 and 70 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C). High-temperature disparity was also observed and possibly the cause of much difference with the results obtained. Souza ''et al.'' &lt;ref&gt;Souza, S. J. F. D., Alves, A. I., Vieira, E. N. F, Vieira, J. A. G. V., Ramos, A. F., Telis-Romero, J. (2015): Study of thermodynamic water properties and moisture sorption hysteresis of mango skin. Food Sci. Technol. 35 (1), 157-166.  &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-457X.6557&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; carried sorption study (20, 26, 33, 38 and 44 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) for mango skin and obtained much higher GAB (1.114 × 10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; to 2.940 × 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; kg/kg, d.b) and lower BET monolayer moisture values (5.712 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; to 8.519 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; kg/kg, d.b) compared to this report. The GAB and BET monolayer moisture values of more than 290 foods including food components compiled from relevant kinds of literatures by Rahman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; were observed to be mostly between the ranges of 0.98 to 33.3% and 0.74 to 13.50% for GAB and BET respectively. Also, three different regression methods used to compare the GAB monolayer moisture content of onion, green bean and apricot were found to be varied between 5.31 to 13.54% &lt;ref&gt;Samaniego-Esguerra, C. M., Boag, I. F., Robertson, G. L. (1991): Comparison of regression methods for fitting the GAB model to the moisture isotherms of some dried fruit and vegetables. J. Food Eng. 13 (2), 115 - 133. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/0260-8774(91)90014-J&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;. It is likely then, the reason for having higher monolayer moisture in fruits or vegetables than cereal-based foods may be attributed to many available sorption sites for the binding of water molecules. It is also possible that the use of higher temperatures for sorption study would not contribute decrease in monolayer moisture values as many reported and as expected by classical thermodynamic principles of sorption, but due to anomaly of mathematical regression analysis. Many researchers that modelled at higher temperatures could have obtained lower monolayer moisture contents than those modelled at lower temperatures using the same methodology. But it was not so as observed.

To elucidate, if the sorption sites are empty or partially empty, then it can easily pick up moisture to fill the empty sites. Hence, spoilage by microorganism or biochemical process. But if these sites are already filled up with moisture, the faster the deterioration or spoilage of food. Sorption sites of food may partially be empty of moisture if the food is well dried and this would promote keeping qualities of foods.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; |'''Table 5a.  DLP, GAB and BET sorption isotherm regression parameters of the formulated food products'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Adsorption
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Desorption
|-
|Products
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|
|
|
|
|20  &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|
|
|
|
|-
|DLP
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;
|4.397
|5.423
|5.116
|5.062
|5.004
|6.359
|5.702
|6.256
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.632&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.556&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-5.472&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-5.141&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.704&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.445&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-5.505&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-5.225&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|1.084
|0.779
|1.320
|1.218
|1.006
|0.533
|1.208
|0.950
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|0.194
|0.071
|0.370
|0.260
|0.175
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|0.336
|0.204
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.998
|0.995
|0.994
|0.992
|0.998
|0.990
|0.995
|0.987
|-
|RMS
|0.391
|0.605
|0.647
|0.805
|0.419
|0.849
|0.597
|1.003
|-
|GAB
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;
|4.578
|4.467
|7.676
|5.486
|4.604
|4.673
|6.687
|5.461
|-
|K
|0.851
|0.681
|0.753
|0.828
|0.852
|0.855
|0.780
|0.827
|-
|C
|4.664
|10.431
|2.440
|4.449
|7.505
|18.933
|4.166
|10.910
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.998
|0.996
|0.992
|0.990
|0.998
|0.992
|0.992
|0.986
|-
|RMS
|0.241
|0.573
|0.850
|0.919
|0.373
|0.783
|0.852
|1.073
|-
|BET
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.820
|4.121
|2.324
|2.883
|3.987
|4.612
|2.834
|4.079
|-
|C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|5.827
|9.869
|141.917
|26.837
|8.818
|15.179
|86.604
|21.521
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.977
|0.907
|0.820
|0.868
|0.973
|0.849
|0.876
|0.922
|-
|RMS
|0.205
|0.208
|0.316
|0.102
|0.383
|0.785
|0.516
|0.658
|-
|
|
|
|
|30  &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|
|
|
|
|-
|DLP
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.805
|3.831
|4.109
|4.352
|4.418
|4.639
|5.029
|4.969
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.831&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.448&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.039&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.913&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.829&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.304&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.774&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.978&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|1.146
|1.302
|1.095
|0.947
|1.035
|1.193
|0.971
|0.865
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.042&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|0.132
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.035&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.027&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.078&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|0.087
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.095&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.046&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.996
|0.998
|0.998
|0.998
|0.996
|0.996
|0.997
|0.998
|-
|RMS
|0.643
|0.455
|0.386
|0.408
|0.591
|0.549
|0.540
|0.426
|-
|GAB
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.323
|4.151
|3.521
|3.493
|3.405
|3.812
|3.480
|3.688
|-
|K
|0.924
|0.888
|0.918
|0.909
|0.922
|0.899
|0.920
|0.904
|-
|C
|6.747
|3.668
|7.394
|9.989
|12.198
|14.217
|43.581
|15.647
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.994
|9.998
|0.999
|0.998
|0.995
|0.997
|0.999
|0.997
|-
|RMS
|0.721
|0.386
|0.322
|0.443
|0.668
|0.514
|0.341
|0.471
|-
|BET
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.585
|3.024
|3.272
|3.147
|3.622
|2.839
|3.106
|3.479
|-
|C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|4.843
|7.452
|7.829
|10.839
|8.697
|47.993
|58.457
|15.060
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.979
|0.958
|0.962
|0.940
|0.979
|0.999
|0.978
|0.941
|-
|RMS
|0.282
|0.335
|0.438
|0.435
|0.324
|0.057
|0.265
|0.485
|-
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; |NMNFRS: Non-malted-non-fermented  rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, NMFRS: Non-malted-fermented  rice + soybean, MFRS: Malted-fermented rice + soybean, r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = Coefficient of determination
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; |'''Table 5b.  DLP, GAB and BET sorption isotherm regression parameters of the formulated food products'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Adsorption
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Desorption
|-
|Product
|NMNFS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|
|
|
|
|40  &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|
|
|
|
|-
|DLP
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.063
|3.119
|3.071
|3.090
|3.943
|4.444
|4.193
|3.887
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.558
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.984&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.366&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-2.920&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.738&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.302&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.463&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.004&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|1.916
|1.886
|1.691
|1.512
|1.391
|1.180
|1.056
|1.044
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|0.125
|0.288
|0.113
|0.061
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.026&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|0.147
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.075&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.129&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.987
|0.985
|0.983
|0.990
|0.987
|0.982
|0983
|0.993
|-
|RMS
|1.172
|1.093
|1.212
|0.863
|1.141
|1.141
|1.214
|0.752
|-
|GAB
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.379
|4.013
|3.119
|2.717
|3.243
|3.827
|3.123
|2.768
|-
|K
|0.927
|0.888
|0.925
|0.933
|0.932
|0.887
|0.927
|0.939
|-
|C
|4.478
|2.903
|6.169
|13.891
|19.832
|11.995
|27.429
|49.425
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.989
|0.988
|0.986
|0.992
|0.990
|0.987
|0.989
|0.996
|-
|RMS
|1.071
|0.994
|1.096
|0.759
|1.002
|0.994
|0.987
|0.584
|-
|BET
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|2.684
|2.725
|2.682
|2.284
|2.629
|3.081
|3.015
|2.405
|-
|C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|12.364
|9.582
|11.717
|27.962
|57.946
|25.719
|30.879
|81.595
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.978
|0.959
|0.988
|0.823
|0.983
|0.996
|0.989
|0.909
|-
|RMS
|0.200
|0.293
|0.144
|0.437
|0.181
|0.115
|0.179
|0.367
|-
|
|
|
|
|50  &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|
|
|
|
|-
|DLP
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.459
|3.419
|3.529
|3.024
|4.343
|4.302
|3.917
|3.666
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-4.098&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.211&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.698&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-2.636&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.952&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3180&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-5.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-3.991&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|1.320
|0.981
|0.976
|1.260
|1.092
|0.822
|1.642
|1.374
|-
|b&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.007&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.199&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|0.007
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.545&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.111&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.255&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|0.314
|0.037
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.999
|1.000
|1.000
|0.994
|0.999
|0.999
|0.984
|0.991
|-
|RMS
|0.282
|0.216
|0.166
|0.543
|0.297
|0.270
|1.193
|0.924
|-
|GAB
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.596
|2.759
|3.256
|2.440
|3.446
|2.905
|5.686
|3.513
|-
|K
|0.921
|0.947
|0.909
|0.990
|0.929
|0.944
|0.842
|0.918
|-
|C
|3.673
|7.595
|5.295
|7.612
|10.225
|19.731
|1.972
|5.796
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|1.000
|0.999
|0.999
|0.996
|1.000
|0.998
|0.987
|0.994
|-
|RMS
|0.113
|0.360
|0.321
|0.426
|0.062
|0.477
|1.100
|0.791
|-
|BET
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|M&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.516
|3.355
|2.895
|2.504
|3.352
|3.500
|2.808
|2.471
|-
|C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;
|3.253
|3.533
|5.130
|6.033
|9.583
|8.130
|17.578
|20.899
|-
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.998
|0.999
|0.998
|0.965
|1.000
|0.972
|0.992
|0.974
|-
|RMS
|0.074
|0.081
|0.074
|0.261
|0.026
|0.342
|0.162
|0.235
|-
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; |NMNFRS: Non-malted-non-fermented  rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, NMFRS:  Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean, MFRS: Malted-fermented rice + soybean, r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  = Coefficient of determination.
|}


'''GAB molar sorption enthalpies of the formulated food products'''

GAB monomolecular enthalpy (Hm) and multi-molecular enthalpy (H&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;) of sorption of malted and/or fermented rice plus soybean-based complementary foods are shown in Table 6. Irrespective of temperature or sorption mode, enthalpy values of monolayer varied from 40.947 to 64.752 kJ/mol, with NMFRS having the highest and MNFRS the lowest monolayer enthalpy of sorption at 20 and 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C respectively. Monolayer heat of sorption showed temperature dependency. GAB monolayer enthalpy of sorption mostly decreased as temperature increased except for NMFRS during adsorption (20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C). This means high temperature resulted in the weakening of monolayer molecules hence lowering of molar heat of sorption. This also matched remarkably with the effect of higher temperature on BET and GAB energy constants. So, it is in line to say molar heat of sorption decreased with decreasing binding energy. This has a physical meaning and relates to the principles of thermodynamics. The differences in the magnitude of the monolayer enthalpies of NMNFRS in the adsorption and MFRS in the desorption mode consecutively (i.e., 20 to 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C or 30 to 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C or 40 to 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) followed the same trend and also in their desorption and adsorption, respectively.

The enthalpy of sorption has been investigated by many researchers. A study on sorghum-based complementary foods by Sengev ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; found monolayer enthalpy values (50.34 to 61.37 kJ/mol at 10, 20, 30 and 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) comparable with the results obtained. But Diosady ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; found higher monolayer enthalpy of 84.112 to 84.880 kJ/mol of canola meals (at 16 to 34 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) than the enthalpy values obtained. The use of lower temperatures in their study than this current work may be the contributing factor to many differences. This is because a study conducted at 25 to 50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C by Ariahu ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; reviled similar monolayer enthalpy of sorption (Crayfish = 53.40 to 77.29 kJ/mol). All their findings also indicated temperature dependency, which is in agreement with these current findings. Other data from literature on ΔH&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; and ΔH&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; of foods, can be obtained from Kiranoudis ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; and Quirijns, ''et al''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt;. But the correlation was impossible with this study because specific enthalpy at a particular temperature has not been employed.

Multilayer heat of sorption also exhibited temperature dependency. It varied between 31.419 to 42.246 kJ/mol. At 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, sample NMFRS recorded the highest values of molar heat at desorption and the lowest at adsorption sites. The differences in the magnitude of the multilayer enthalpies of NMNFRS in the adsorption and MFRS in the desorption mode consecutively followed a similar trend and also in their desorption and adsorption modes, respectively. It follows a similar trend as the case of monolayer heat, except the magnitude of multilayer enthalpy of sorption was lower than the monolayer. As molecules of water sorb to the multilayer strength of binding energy capacity becomes weaker (less bound) thereby reducing the multilayer enthalpy. Hence lower heat of sorption is expected in multilayer because of the higher energy binding strength of monolayer. In a study conducted by Diosady ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; found slightly higher enthalpy (49.185 to 48.420 kJ/mol) of multilayer of canola meals than in this study. Study on complementary food by Sengev ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; also obtained slightly higher multilayer heat values (43.83 to 45.89 kJ/mol) as compared with this study. But a study by Ariahu ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; yielded slightly comparable results. However, in their study, some values (enthalpy of crayfish from 25.02 to 57.22 kJ/mol) were either slightly higher or lower as compared with this study.

Based on a report from the literature it was observed molar heat of sorption of water molecules may be as low as close to zero &lt;ref&gt;Figura, L. O., Teixeira, A. A. (2007): Physical Properties – Measurement and Applications. Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp. 1 - 510. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/b107120&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;. Any point where there is low molar heat of sorption is an indication of high entropy which may be accompanied by a low binding energy of water molecules according to GAB model concepts. Low heat of sorption of a product may be an added advantage for dehydration. But a disadvantage for a dehydrated product, such that infinitesimal energy would facilitate their ease to pick-up moisture from the humid environment if not properly stored. Quirijns ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; in their study found a close range of GAB molar enthalpy to net isosteric heat of sorption. Hence, GAB molar enthalpy can be employed as a useful tool for estimating the drying process and it could be used to evaluate the operating cost of dehydration for FARO 44 products.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 6. GAB isotherm molar enthalpies (kJ/mol) of  of the formulated food products''' 
|-
|Products
|20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Monolayer enthalpy of adsorption (H&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;) 
|-
|NMNFRS
|51.575
|51.145
|50.725
|50.285
|-
|MNFRS
|51.682
|51.253
|50.833
|50.793
|-
|NMFRS
|49.269
|56.839
|56.419
|55.979
|-
|MFRS
|55.676
|55.246
|54.826
|54.386
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Monolayer enthalpy of desorption (H&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;) 
|-
|NMNFRS
|53.712
|53.282
|52.862
|52.422
|-
|MNFRS
|42.237
|41.807
|41.387
|40.947
|-
|NMFRS
|64.752
|64.322
|63.902
|63.462
|-
|MFRS
|47.258
|46.838
|46.418
|45.978
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Multilayer enthalpy of adsorption (H&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;) 
|-
|NMNFRS
|42.205
|41.775
|41.355
|40.915
|-
|MNFRS
|41.805
|41.376
|40.956
|40.516
|-
|NMFRS
|31.419
|38.989
|38.569
|38.129
|-
|MFRS
|39.539
|39.109
|38.689
|38.249
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Multilayer enthalpy of desorption (H&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;) 
|-
|NMNFRS
|41.964
|41.534
|41.114
|40.674
|-
|MNFRS
|41.847
|41.417
|40.997
|40.557
|-
|NMFRS
|42.246
|41.816
|41.396
|40.956
|-
|MFRS
|41.290
|40.860
|40.440
|40.000
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS: Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented  rice + soybean, NMFRS: Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean, MFRS:  Malted-fermented rice + soybean.
|}


'''Surface area of solids of the formulated food products'''

Table 7 showed the total surface area of solids. The total surface area of FARO 44 products varied from 80.24 to 162.02 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids, with sample MNFRS recorded highest total surface area and MFRS the lowest at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C (desorption) and 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C (adsorption) respectively. The total surface area of solids mostly decreased as temperature increased up to 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C except for sample NMFRS values varied as temperature increased. Similar trends are also in agreement with the findings by Ariahu ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. In their study, the total surface area of crayfish varied from 79.7 to 128.5 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids as temperature increased (adsorption) and also decreased from 192.60 to 94.90 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids as temperature increased (desorption). However, some values were either higher or lower than the ones obtained. Igbabul ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; found apparent surface area (182.34 to 513.34 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids) of African arrowroot lily products decreased with increasing temperatures. The total surface area of solids in their study findings is much higher than the ones obtained in this study and those reported by Ariahu ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. Another much higher total surface area value of solids was obtained by Moraes ''et al.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot; /&gt; on apple Fuji (196 to 315 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids) and garlic (374.5 to 588 to m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g solids). Their findings showed decreasing of total surface area as temperature increased (50, 60 and 70 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 7. Total surface area of water binding (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/g  solid) for solids of the formulated food products'''
|-
|Adsorption
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|134.20
|144.77
|81.64
|101.28
|-
|30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|125.94
|106.23
|114.95
|110.55
|-
|40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|94.29
|95.73
|94.22
|80.24
|-
|50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|123.52
|117.86
|101.70
|87.97
|-
|Desorption
|
|
|
|
|-
|20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|140.06
|162.02
|99.56
|143.30
|-
|30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|127.24
|99.73
|109.13
|122.22
|-
|40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|92.36
|108.24
|105.92
|84.49
|-
|50 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C
|117.76
|122.96
|98.65
|86.81
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS:  Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean, MNFRS: Malted-non-fermented rice +  soybean, NMFRS: Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean, MFRS: Malted-fermented  rice + soybean.
|}


'''Net isosteric heat of sorption predicting drying characteristics of the formulated food products'''

The isosteres obtained from Clausius–Claperyon relationships between water activity and absolute temperature (Figures 4) at water contents of 2 to 12% and their respective isosteric heat of sorption are provided in Figure 5. The regression parameters are given in Tables 8 (adsorption) and 9 (desorption). The intercept which relates to the entropy of sorption ranged from - 0.745 to 0.511 (NMNFRS), 0.486 to 2.965 (MNFRS), 1.191 to 2.479 (NMFRS), 0.589 to 2.572 (MFRS) respectively. For the desorption mode, the intercept ranged from -0.931 to 0.235 (NMNFRS), 0.433 to 2.677 (MNFRS), 0.476 to 2.313 (NMFRS), and 1.245 to 3.610 (MFRS). The slopes which represent the magnitudes of net isosteric heats (ΔH&lt;sub&gt;st&lt;/sub&gt;) ranged from 0.043 to 5.695 kJ/mol (NMNFRS), 2.453 to 12.138 kJ/mol (MNFRS), 4.232 to 10.875 kJ/mol (NMFRS) and 2.685 to 11.099 kJ/mol (MFRS) respectively. Also, for the desorption mode, the net isosteric heat ranged from 0.449 to 5.363 kJ/mol (NMNFRS), 2.478 to 11.872 kJ/mol (MNFRS), 2.586 to 10.925 kJ/mol (NMFRS) and 4.490 to 14.200 kJ/mol (MFRS) respectively. The regression coefficients ranged from 0.795 to 0.991 for the adsorption plots and 0.880 to 962 for the Clausius–Claperyon desorption plots. It was observed that the data points of the second plots (i.e., from the linear regression parameters) decreased exponentially with increase in the moisture content of the food materials. Net isosteric heat of both adsorption and desorption isotherms as a function of moisture content for non-malted - non fermented rice + soybean decreased rapidly as moisture content increased. These rates of rapid decrease were observed higher in non-malted - non fermented rice + soybean, followed by malted - non fermented rice + soybean, malted – 

fermented rice + soybean and non-malted fermented rice + soybean. Maximum net isosteric heat with slight variation among formulations was observed throughout except for non-malted - non fermented rice + soybean which was much lower.

The net isosteric heat of sorption is the minimum amount of energy required to remove (desorption) or add (adsorption) a given amount of water to a hygroscopic material &lt;ref name=&quot;:31&quot;&gt;Alakali J. S. and Satimehin, A. A. (2007). Moisture adsorption characteristics of   bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) powders. ''Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal''. Manuscript FP 07 005. Vol. IX. 1 - 15.&lt;/ref&gt;. Similarly, net isosteric heat of sorption (ΔH&lt;sub&gt;st&lt;/sub&gt;) is the energy difference between total heat of sorption (H&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;) and the heat of vaporization (H&lt;sub&gt;v&lt;/sub&gt;)  . In practice during drying, small amount of heat or energy is enough to initiate drying and to remove the free water from solids, followed by a larger amount of heat application to remove the remaining strongly bound water from same solids (net isosteric heat increases with decreasing moisture, Figure 5). The resultant heats would account for the amount of heat required for drying. According to GAB model concepts, any residual moisture in the well-dried solids would account for those in the monolayer region which is difficult to be removed by ordinary drying process because of its very strongly bound nature (H-bonded water). Andrade ''et al.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot; /&gt; reported that this water is unfreeze-able and it is not available for chemical reactivity. So, it may not pose traits during storage since the moisture of the solids have reduced to monolayer. And if such drying process adequately have subjected the solids to reach level of monolayer moisture, then the product would have adequate keeping quality. As elucidates in another report, moisture contents in the monolayer are tightly bound to the solids, and so require high energy capacity to remove its water contents. As moisture content of the solids is increasing, the most active sites of solids become occupied and sorption occurs on the less active sites giving lower heat of sorption &lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt;. Application of Clausius-Clapeyron equation for determining the differential heat of sorption is an alternative economical method to the calorimetric method of determining heat of sorption. The net enthalpy required for product dehydration. Report by Raman &lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; shows Clausius-Clapeyron isosteric method of determining heat of sorption often yield nearly same result as the calorimetric method. One of the disadvantages of this method is that it cannot account for heat offered by a specific temperature (e.g., 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C) simply because of the regression analysis that often-employed range of temperatures. It can then be seen, drying is the practical application of desorption since water or moisture goes out of the solid materials of food.  

Isosteric heat applies to desorption and is being used for studying the drying characteristics of foods under law-moisture&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. The net isosteric heat of sorption is a function of moisture content as reported by Yogendrarajah ''et al.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot; /&gt; and as observed in Figures 4 and 5. The dependency of the net isosteric heat of sorption on the equilibrium moisture content was fitted with linear regression. The data points of the second plots from the linear regression parameters decreased exponentially with increase in moisture content of the food materials until it approaches the latent heat of vaporization of pure water (ΔH&lt;sub&gt;st&lt;/sub&gt; = 0 kJ/mol). A similar trend was reported in previous studies &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:31&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot; /&gt;. This could be due to the different strengths of water binding. Initial occupation of the highly active polar sites on the surface could be difficult due to high interaction energy and subsequent filling of the less active sites could become possible with low energy &lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:31&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot; /&gt;. These findings have been observed to be in harmony with many agricultural products &lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt;. The higher value of isosteric heat of sorption at values of low moisture content signifies high interactive energy between surface sites and moisture as the material approaches a monomolecular layer of water molecules &lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:31&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt;. On the other hand, it may value the spontaneity of the food system and could help to identify the physical, chemical and microbiological stability of food. 

 [[File:Figure 2. Clausius-Clapeyron relationship between water activity and temperature sorption.png|thumb|Isosteres of sorption. NMNFRS = Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS = Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted fermented rice + soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour|left]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; |'''Table 8: Linear regression parameters of  Clausius-Clapeyron adsorption temperature dependence of the formulated food  products'''
|-
|
|
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; |Moisture  content (g/100 g food)
|-
|Products
|
|2
|4
|6
|8
|10
|12
|-
|NMNFRS
|Parameters
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|Intercept
|0.511
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.364&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.745&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.652&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|
|
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-685&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-293&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-89&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-50&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|
|
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.9415
|0.974
|0.964
|0.933
|
|
|-
|MNFRS
|Intercept
|2.965
|1.515
|0.8510
|0.637
|0.543
|0.486
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-1460&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-880&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-584&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-447&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-361&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-295&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.884
|0.884
|0.870
|0.823
|0.750
|0.636
|-
|NMFRS
|Intercept
|2.479
|1.665
|1.360
|1.250
|1.210
|1.191
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-1308&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-924&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-738&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-633&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-563&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-509&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.833
|0.918
|0.974
|0.991
|0.980
|0.956
|-
|MFRS
|Intercept
|2.572
|1.210
|0.967
|0.741
|0.655
|0.589
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-1335&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-788&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-616&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-476&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-392&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-323&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.971
|0.965
|0.795
|0.991
|0.981
|0.938
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; |NMNFRS =  Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS = Malted-non fermented +  soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted fermented rice + soybean flour, MFRS =  Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = Coefficient of determination, I = Intercept coefficient.

|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; |'''Table 9: Linear regression parameters of  Clausius-Clapeyron desorption temperature dependence of the formulated food  products'''
|-
|
|
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; |Moisture  content (g/100 g food)
|-
|Products
|
|2
|4
|6
|8
|10
|12
|-
|NMNFRS
|Intercept
|0.245
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.621&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-0.931&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|
|
|
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-645&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-242&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-54&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|
|
|
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.880
|0.917
|0.900
|
|
|
|-
|MNFRS
|Intercept
|2.677
|1.114
|0.5975
|0.433
|0.436
|0.453
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-1428&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-792&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-531&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-404&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-344&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-298&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.883
|0.911
|0.876
|0.916
|0.975
|0.964
|-
|NMFRS
|Intercept
|2.313
|1.029
|0.617
|0.476
|0.490
|0.483
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-1314&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-767&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-539&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-420&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-364&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-311&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.965
|0.949
|0.907
|0.917
|0.939
|0.935
|-
|MFRS
|Intercept
|3.610
|1.921
|1.405
|1.293
|1.246
|1.245
|-
|
|Slope
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-1708&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-1036&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-776&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-666&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-591&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;nowiki&gt;-540&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|
|r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|0.909
|0.888
|0.880
|0.939
|0.962
|0.960
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; |NMNFRS =  Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS = Malted-non fermented +  soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted fermented rice + soybean flour, MFRS =  Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = Coefficient of determination, I = Intercept coefficient.

|}
[[File:Figure 3. Net isosteric heat of sorption.png|thumb|Net isosteric heat of sorption. NMNFRS = Non-malted-non-fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS = Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted fermented rice + soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour|left]]


'''Predicted shelf of the formulated food products'''

Tables 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 and 21 showed predictive shelf life of formulated food products in storage conditions of low-and high-density polyethene packages at temperatures of 20, 30 and 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and their corresponding relative humidity are 50 and 80% each. The predicted shelf life of formulated products varied irrespective of temperature, relative humidity or packaging material and also increased with an increase in temperature, relative humidity and in high-density polyethene package compared with the low-density polyethene package. The estimated shelf life of these formulated products ranged from 1059 (MFRS) to 1992523 days (NMNFRS), where their low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethene (HDPE) packages are placed within predictive storage conditions of 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% relative humidity and 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% relative humidity respectively. 

In Table 10, where formulated products are predicted in LDPE package at the storage conditions of 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and 50% relative humidity, their shelf life ranged from 52063 (NMFRS) to 195706 days (NMNFRS). These results were observed to be lower than the other ones stored at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C (Tables 11, 12 and 13) with varying conditions of storage in terms of relative humidity or polyethene packages. In Table 11, where the products stored are in HDPE packages, with storage conditions are 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and 50% relative humidity, resulted in an estimated shelf life from the range of 408841 (NMFRS) to 1536846 days (NMNFRS), which was observed to be the second highest category in terms of predicted shelf-life durations. In Table 12, the estimated shelf life of the formulated products ranged from 140053 (NMFRS) to 349959 days (MFRS), which was predicted in an adequate storage standard LDPE within the storage conditions of 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and relative humidity of 80%, was observed to be the number third position other sets with estimated higher shelf-life durations. In Table 13, the predicted shelf life of formulated products in HDPE package with the storage conditions of 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and 80% relative humidity ranged from 644411 (NMFRS) to 1992523 days (NMNFRS). It was observed that this set had the highest estimated shelf life among all the various sets. At 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, irrespective of relative humidity or packaging materials, NMNFRS had the highest estimated shelf life, followed by samples MNFRS, MFRS and NMFRS. 

At 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C storage conditions, there were new trends. In Table 14, the predicted shelf life of the formulated products in LDPE (at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% relative humidity) ranged from 23836 (MNFRS) to 45649 days (MFRS). Among those 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C sets of storage conditions (Tables 14, 15 and 16), those in LDPE packages with 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and 50% relative humidity (Table 14) had the lowest estimated shelf life, followed by those in Tables 16, 17 and 15 respectively and their corresponding shelf life ranged from 93568 (MNFRS) to 291189 days (MFRS), 111281 (MNFRS) to 349426 days (MFRS) and 226448 (MNFRS) to 433669 days (MFRS). Generally, it was observed that at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C irrespective of packaging materials and relative humidity, sample MFRS had the highest estimated shelf life, followed by samples NMFRS, NMNFRS and MNFRS. This shows that fermentation a has great advantage over the keeping-qualities of foods, especially at slightly higher temperatures above 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C.

At 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, there were also slight changes in trends. In Tables 18, 19, 20 and 21, the predicted shelf life of the formulated products ranged from 2311 (NMNFRS) to 24703 days (MFRS), 26372 (NMNFRS) to 281891 days (MFRS), 1059 (MFRS) to 6405 days (MNFRS) and 15718 (MFRS) to 95087 days (MNFRS) respectively. In Table 18, where LDPE packages are within predictive conditions of 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% relative humidity, samples MFRS had the highest estimated shelf life followed by samples MNFRS, NMFRS and NMNFRS. In Table 19, where the predictive conditions are 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% relative humidity and HDPE package usage, sample MFRS was observed to have the highest estimated shelf life, followed by samples NMFRS, MNFRS and NMNFRS. However, at the predictive conditions of 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, 80% relative humidity and the usage of LDPE packages (Table 20), showed the estimated shelf life of all the formulated products to be the lowest compared to all the various sets of conditions used for estimating their shelf life. Hence, sample MFRS was observed to be the lowest in terms of estimated shelf life, followed by samples NMNFRS, NMFRS and MNFRS. This means, storing these formulated products at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, 80% relative humidity and stipulated usage of the LDPE package at that condition would be inappropriate. Therefore, it is advisable to avoid storing low-moisture foods at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% relative humidity in the LDPE package. Alternatively, 20 to 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and low relative humidity is recommended to prevent rapid set on spoilage and avoidance of unnoticeable growth or proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms in foods which may be detrimental to the health of consumers if such foods are consumed. In Table 21 (at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% relative humidity and HDPE packaging usage), there was no change of trends as compared to the influential storage conditions in Table 20 except in terms of the magnitude of the estimated shelf life of the formulated products, where the predicted shelf life of the formulated products (Table 21) compared to those in Table 20.        

Generally, throughout the temperatures of 20 and 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, NMNFRS and MNFRS exhibited higher predicted shelf life respectively. At 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, their shelf life was observed to be higher except at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C and 80% relative humidity level in the LDPE package. Above 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C, MFRS mostly exhibited higher levels of predicted shelf life irrespective of temperatures, relative humidity and the type of packaging material, whereas NMNFRS had the highest predicted shelf life throughout the 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C set of packages.   

Packaging of food is important for preserving food quality, reducing food wastage and minimizing the use of chemical additive for food preservation. Sorption isotherms are valuable for shelf-life prediction. Shelf-life studies can provide important information to product developers to ensure that the consumer will see a high-quality product for a significant period after production. Certainly, long shelf-life studies do not fit with the speed requirement and therefore accelerated studies or computer-simulated predictions have been developed as part of innovation, which often employed complex algorithms for solutions. Also, the rate at which reactions occur in foods, the effects of temperature, moisture and the immeasurable effect of other parameters on foods have become necessary factors contributing to the science of accelerated shelf-life studies. In this study, it is evident that the rate of permeation of water vapour or moisture as confirmed through the standard (grade one) low- or high-density polyethene would not pose a significant effect on the shelf life of the formulated food products if adequately packaged in grade one polyethene and stored within the standard reference condition. It becomes obvious that quick spoilage of low-moisture foods packaged in polyethene may be due to the poor quality of the polymers itself owing to failures of polymer manufacturers adhering to production standards. Such that storing foods in such substandard polymers would not offer moisture-free environmental protection and so predisposed food to deterioration. The long-time (days) in all the predicted shelf life was characterized by the permeability characteristics together with the working linear equations of the sorption isotherms described by Sherma ''et al''. &lt;ref&gt;Sherma, S. K., Mulvaney, S. J. and Rizvi, S. S. (2000). Food Process Engineering: Theory and Laboratory Experiment, Wiley India, Pvt. Limited, Pp. 287 - 288.&lt;/ref&gt;, which means the time taken for moisture permeation through the barriers of the polyethene into the food material until an equilibrium is established between the food and the humidity of the storing environment, hence spoilage is set. Equilibrium moisture establishment between the food and the storage environment is critical for spoilage of low-moisture foods due to moisture adsorption by the food. Ideally, low-moisture foods are not expected to spoil in moisture-free environment where there are no other external conditions such as light interfering with the food.

A shelf-life study reported by Anandito ''et al.'' &lt;ref&gt;Anandito, R. B. K., Siswanti, Purnamayati, L. and Sodiq, H. (2017).Shelf-life Determination of Fish ''Koya'' using Critical Moisture. ''Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences: B. Life and Environmental Sciences'' 54 (3): 201–206.&lt;/ref&gt; reviled fish ''Koya'' packed in metalized plastic and stored at 30 °C was reduced with an increase in relative humidity (RH) and resulting in a shelf-life of fish ''Koya'' for 234 days at 75% relative humidity, 203 days at 80% relative humidity as well as 180 days at 85% relative humidity. Similarly, a study by Ekafitri ''et al.''&lt;ref&gt;Ekafitri, R., Kurniawan, Y. R.  Desnilasari, D., Surahman, D. N. Indriati, A. (2021). Shelf-life assessment  of  energy  banana  bar using  acceleration   method  with  critical  moisture   content approach'''.''' ''Food Science and Technology'', 41 (Suppl. 1): 163-168    &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.13120&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; assessed shelf-life of the banana bars under storage conditions of 30 °C with relative humidity of 80% in three types of packaging (aluma, aluminium foil, and metalized plastic) within a period of 30 days and their findings of shelf life of banana bar products in aluminium foil pack were 511.15 days and aluma pack was 458.72 days, much longer than those packaged in metalized plastic which confirmed 80.95 days shelf life which is much lower compared to this current findings. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the integrity of packing materials before commencing a shelf-life study of any food as reviled in this study. Packaging materials have a shelf-life which upon degradation or decomposition would certainly reduce the expected shelf life of the packaged food material. Hence, it is expected that when determining or predicting the shelf-life of food, the packaging materials’ shelf-life should be taken into consideration because there is no ideal package that is not prone to deterioration or other environmental hazards which may influence permeation. All packaging materials including glasses and metals which are very rigid and have high resistance to environmental conditions, do decompose over time. Evaluating the packaging integrity would help to harmonize the results of researchers’ findings and provide or establish useful information on the shelf-life of foods.   

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 10. Predicted  shelf life (at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% RH) of formulated food products in low  density polyethylene (LDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.10
|2.80
|2.25
|3.60
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|6.36
|6.48
|5.41
|7.10
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|5.25
|5.45
|3.45
|6.15
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|8.51
|7.36
|6.32
|6.99
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of LDPE at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50%  RH 
|0.0011
|0.0011
|0.0011
|0.0011
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|3.83
|3.57
|1.61
|3.50
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.34
|1.27
|1.61
|1.25
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|195706
|160417
|52063
|149954
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS = Malted-non  fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean flour,  MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 11. Predicted  shelf life (at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% RH) of formulated food products in high density  polyethylene (HDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.10
|2.80
|2.25
|3.60
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|6.36
|6.48
|5.41
|7.10
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|5.25
|5.45
|3.45
|6.15
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|8.51
|7.36
|6.32
|6.99
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of HDPE at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50%  RH 
|0.00014
|0.00014
|0.00014
|0.00014
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|3.83
|3.57
|1.61
|3.50
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.34
|1.27
|1.61
|1.25
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|1536846
|1259730
|408841
|1177561
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 12. Predicted  shelf life (at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% RH) of formulated food products in low  density polyethylene (LDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.10
|2.80
|2.25
|3.60
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|8.91
|8.69
|7.31
|9.19
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|5.25
|5.45
|3.45
|6.15
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|8.51
|7.36
|6.32
|6.99
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of LDPE at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80%  RH 
|0.00023
|0.00023
|0.00023
|0.0023
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.86
|1.82
|1.31
|1.84
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|0.62
|0.60
|0.27
|0.61
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|433043
|362443
|140053
|349959
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 13. Predicted shelf life (at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80%  RH) of formulated food products in high density polyethylene (HDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial  moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.10
|2.80
|2.25
|3.60
|-
|Equilibrium  moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|8.91
|8.69
|7.31
|9.19
|-
|Critical  moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|5.25
|5.45
|3.45
|6.15
|-
|Slope of  isotherms
|8.51
|7.36
|6.32
|6.99
|-
|Packaging  permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of HDPE at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% RH 
|0.00005
|0.00005
|0.00005
|0.00005
|-
|Packaging area  A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids  W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated  vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (mmHg) at 20 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C  
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|17.54
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.86
|1.82
|1.31
|1.84
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me –  Mc
|0.62
|0.60
|0.27
|0.61
|-
|Shelf life  (days)
|1992523
|1667674
|644411
|1610234
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non  fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS = Malted-non fermented + soybean flour,  NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented  rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 14.  Predicted shelf life (at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% RH) of formulated food products  in low density polyethylene (LDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.40
|3.00
|2.60
|2.55
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|4.35
|4.17
|4.62
|4.95
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.90
|3.90
|4.20
|4.35
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|3.9
|2.37
|4.04
|4.80
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of LDPE at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50%  RH 
|0.00016
|0.00016
|0.00016
|0.00016
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|4.35
|4.33
|4.81
|4.00
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.50
|1.47
|1.57
|1.39
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|40025
|23836
|43397
|45649
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity..
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 15. Predicted  shelf life (at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% RH) of formulated food products in high  density polyethylene (HDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.40
|3.00
|2.60
|2.55
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|4.35
|4.17
|4.62
|4.95
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.90
|3.90
|4.20
|4.35
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|3.9
|2.37
|4.04
|4.80
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of HDPE at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50%  RH 
|0.00152
|0.00152
|0.00152
|0.00152
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|4.35
|4.33
|4.81
|4.00
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.50
|1.47
|1.57
|1.39
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|380240
|226448
|412272
|433669
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity..
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 16. Predicted  shelf life (at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% RH) of formulated food products in low  density polyethylene (LDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.40
|3.00
|2.60
|2.25
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|5.52
|5.69
|5.83
|6.39
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.90
|3.90
|4.20
|4.35
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|3.90
|2.37
|4.04
|4.80
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of LDPE at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80%  RH 
|0.00108
|0.00108
|0.00108
|0.00108
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.93
|1.50
|1.98
|1.88
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|0.66
|0.41
|0.68
|0.63
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|247857
|93568
|264535
|291189
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity..
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 17. Predicted  shelf life (at 30&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% RH) of formulated food products in high  density polyethylene (HDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|2.40
|3.00
|2.60
|2.25
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|5.52
|5.69
|5.83
|6.39
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.90
|3.90
|4.20
|4.35
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|3.90
|2.37
|4.04
|4.80
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of HDPE at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80%  RH 
|0.00009
|0.00009
|0.00009
|0.00009
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 30 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|31.84
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.93
|1.50
|1.98
|1.88
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|0.66
|0.41
|0.68
|0.63
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|297428
|111281
|317441
|349426
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 18. Predicted  shelf life (at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% RH) of formulated food products in low  density polyethylene (LDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.60
|2.70
|2.60
|2.55
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.86
|4.22
|4.05
|4.67
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.80
|3.90
|2.99
|4.35
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|0.51
|3.04
|2.91
|4.24
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of LDPE at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50%  RH 
|0.00194
|0.00194
|0.00194
|0.00194
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|4.33
|4.75
|1.37
|6.63
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.47
|1.56
|0.31
|1.89
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|2311
|14619
|2781
|24703
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 19. Predicted  shelf life (at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50% RH) of formulated food products in high  density polyethylene (HDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.60
|2.70
|2.60
|2.55
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.86
|4.22
|4.05
|4.67
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.80
|3.90
|2.99
|4.35
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|0.51
|3.04
|2.91
|4.24
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of HDPE at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/50%  RH 
|0.00017
|0.00017
|0.00017
|0.00017
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|4.33
|4.75
|1.37
|6.63
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|1.47
|1.56
|0.31
|1.89
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|26372
|27986
|31733
|281891
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 20. Predicted  shelf life (at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% RH) of formulated food products in low  density polyethylene (LDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.60
|2.70
|2.90
|2.50
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|4.00
|5.13
|4.93
|2.96
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.80
|3.90
|3.75
|2.75
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|0.51
|3.04
|2.91
|0.51
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of LDPE at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80%  RH 
|0.00193
|0.00193
|0.00193
|0.00193
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|2.00
|1.98
|1.97
|1.95
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|0.69
|0.68
|0.68
|0.67
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|1090
|6405
|6131
|1059
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity.
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Table 21. Predicted  shelf life (at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80% RH) of formulated food products in high  density polyethylene (HDPE)'''
|-
|Parameter
|NMNFRS
|MNFRS
|NMFRS
|MFRS
|-
|Initial moisture content Mi (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.60
|2.70
|2.90
|2.50
|-
|Equilibrium moisture content Me (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|4.00
|5.13
|4.93
|2.96
|-
|Critical moisture content Mc (gH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/g solids)
|3.80
|3.90
|3.75
|2.75
|-
|Slope of isotherms
|0.51
|3.04
|2.91
|0.51
|-
|Packaging permeability (g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.day.mmHg) of HDPE at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C/80%  RH 
|0.00013
|0.00013
|0.00013
|0.00013
|-
|Packaging area A (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|0.0151
|-
|Weight of solids W (g)
|5
|5
|5
|5
|-
|Saturated vapour pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) of pure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  (mmHg) at 40 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C 
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|55.37
|-
|Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|2.00
|1.98
|1.97
|1.95
|-
|1n Me - Mi/Me – Mc
|0.69
|0.68
|0.68
|0.67
|-
|Shelf life (days)
|16187
|95087
|91021
|15718
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |NMNFRS = Non-malted-non fermented rice + soybean flour, MNFRS =  Malted-non fermented + soybean flour, NMFRS = Non-malted-fermented rice +  soybean flour, MFRS = Malted-fermented rice + soybean flour, RH = Relative  humidity.
|}

== Conclusion ==

BET, GAB and DLP equations were employed for the sorption study using nonlinear regression methods. Isotherms showed temperature dependency. The moisture sorption of the rice-based formulated products exhibited sigmoid-shaped isotherms (type 2). Slight hysteresis occurred. The adsorption and desorption phenomenon of the rice-based formulated food products at low water activity exhibited less sensitivity to the environmental storage conditions. NMNFRS and MNFRS are slightly more hygroscopic than NMFRS and MFRS. GAB and BET monolayer moisture contents and energy constant values mostly varied. But slightly showed temperature dependency. Molar sorption enthalpies and the apparent surface area of solids agreed with many classical findings. Sample MFRS showed the highest thermostable characteristics. The sorption parameters obtained in this study have exhibited adequate drying characteristics and hold the potential for long-keeping qualities of the new rice-based formulated food products.

===Acknowledgements===
We thank the Canadian Government, who funded our previous research through the ‘Development of new rice-based products, by the Canadian International Development Agency and Africa Rice Centre under the project ‘Enhancing food security in Africa through the Improvement of rice post-harvest handling, marketing and the development of new rice-based products. Without which, it could have been impossible for feasible transition from our previous research to current ones. We also acknowledge the National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, for providing the rice variety (FARO 44), Anaso Sunday Sigismond (Deputy Director Technologist, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Maiduguri) who supplied and prepared the sulphuric acid concentrations; and Dr. Zachary Cartwright (Lead Food Scientist, Meter Group, USA) who donated MAT 2.0.11.0 for the moisture sorption analysis.

===Competing interests===
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>c8oxkyfcts61p4t5i3q47094hcp08ye</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 04</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>320010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2717862</id>
      <parentid>2717626</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-03T14:25:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UniBambergIslamicStudies</username>
        <id>2987517</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="60005" sha1="1z4znymk8nts3gbv13cvl8t0pqxedxc" xml:space="preserve">[[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 03|3 &lt;&lt;&lt;]] — [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 05|&gt;&gt;&gt; 5]]

= The Expansion of the Islamic State and the Early Caliphate (630-656) =

The state of Yathrib (Medina) rises to become the most dominant power in Arabia. Though Muḥammad's death in 632 plunged the state into a deep crisis, this challenge was swiftly overcome. With the support of the Arab tribes, an expansionist movement was set in motion, leading to the conquest of the entire Middle East. Notable religious innovations: the reform of the calendar and the codification of the Qur’an.

== 4.1. The Final Years of the Prophet (630-632) ==
=== 4.1.1. Reconciliation with the Quraysh and the Alignment of the Arabs ===
A few days after the Muslim conquest of Mecca, a new military threat arose from the southeast. The [[w:Hawazin|Hawāzin]] and [[w:Banu_Thaqif|Thaqīf]] tribes had mobilized an army of 20,000 fighters, thereby posing a threat to Mecca. Since the Hawāzin were hostile not only toward Muḥammad and the Muslims, but also toward the Quraysh who had remained pagan, an opportunity for reconciliation arose. When Muḥammad called upon the pagan Meccans to march with him against their common enemy, approximately 2,000 of them joined him. The ensuing battle took place in the valley of [[w:Hunayn,_Saudi_Arabia|Ḥunayn]], where the outcome initially appeared uncertain (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/25/print Q 9:25f]). In the end, however, Muḥammad’s forces prevailed and captured the enemy camp. Many of Muḥammad’s former Meccan adversaries, including the sons of [[w:Abu_Sufyan_ibn_Harb|Abū Sufyān]], were brought into Islam through the generous distribution of spoils. Based on a Qur’anic verse that alludes to this event, these Meccan “late converts” are referred to  ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/60/print Q 9:60]) as ''al-muʾallafa qulūbuhum'' (“those whose hearts are to be reconciled”).
&lt;!-- linked Hawazin &amp; Banu Thaqif --&gt;

Contributing to a rapid reconciliation of interests with former opponents was Muḥammad’s confirmation of the families who had previously held Mecca’s cultic offices in those roles. He entrusted the key to the sanctuary to a member of the [[w:Banu_Abd_al-Dar|ʿAbd al-Dār family]], who had formerly held the [[w:Custodian_of_the_Kaaba|Office of Keeper of the Kaaba Key]], as a sign of his hereditary investiture with this office. The [[w:Bani_Shaiba|Banū Schaiba]], descendants of Schaiba ibn ʿUthmān of the ʿAbd al-Dār clan, have held the Office of Keeper of the Kaaba Key to this day.
&lt;!-- linked Banu Abd al-Dar, Bani Shaiba, and Custodian_of_the_Kaaba. I understand the Custodian of the Kaaba is not the exact same office today as it was, so I aligned the translation historically but linked this article as it is relevant --&gt;

[[File:Jami Masjid, Mandu - minbar 01.jpg|thumb|[[w:Minbar|Minbar]] in the [[w:Jama_Masjid,_Mandu|Friday Mosque of Mandu]], 14th century]]
Following the [[w:Battle_of_Hunayn|Battle of Ḥunayn]] in the spring of 630, the spread of the new religion into the interior of the Arabian Peninsula was rapid and far-reaching. Muḥammad dispatched letters to the tribes residing in various regions of the Arabian Peninsula, urging them to embrace Islam. In turn, tribes such as the [[w:Azd|Azd]], [[w:Kinda_(tribe)|Kinda]], and [[w:Bahila|Bāhila]] sent delegations to him, seeking inclusion in his alliance. Consequently, the year following the conquest of Mecca is referred to in Islamic historiography as the “Year of Delegations” (''ʿām al-wufūd''). In his sermons and negotiations with the delegations, the Prophet increasingly made use of the [[w:Minbar|minbar]], a wooden pulpit-like throne. Originally a symbol of authority, the minbar later became an integral element of mosque interiors, serving as the platform from which the Friday sermon was delivered.
&lt;!-- linked Battle of Hunayn
-Überwältigend: overwhelming by itself here doesn’t work well in English, especially for academic language. Alternatives: “rapid and far-reaching” or if you’d like to keep overwhelming, “was of overwhelming scope” or perhaps “gained overwhelming momentum.” --&gt;

Life grew increasingly difficult for the Prophet’s open adversaries, even outside of Mecca. They were only safe if they submitted to the Prophet and embraced Islam. For example, this was the path taken by figures such as [[w:Ikrima_ibn_Amr|ʿIkrima]], the son of [[w:Amr_ibn_Hisham|Abū Jahl]], who had fought against Muḥammad until the very end and initially fled to Yemen. [[w:Ka%27b_ibn_Zuhayr |Kaʿb ibn Zuhayr]], a poet who had attacked Muḥammad in satirical verse and was consequently marked for execution, later came to be widely known. He appeared unexpectedly in Medina during this period and publicly recited a panegyric poem addressed to the Prophet and the Quraysh. This poem, which begins with the words ''Bānat Suʿād'', later became one of the most significant religious poems in Islam, and as such, it has been frequently commented upon and ornamentally expanded.

In the autumn of 630, another internal crisis arose when Muḥammad launched a military campaign against the Byzantines and their Arab allies on the Syrian border, apparently against the will of many of his followers (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/81/print Q 9:81]). Concurrent with this [[w:Expedition_of_Tabuk|expedition to Tabūk]], some of Muḥammad’s followers broke away, established their own mosque (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/107/print Q 9:107–11]), and conspired against the Prophet. The Qur'anic verses addressing this situation instruct the Prophet to take a firm action against the group referred to as [[w:Munafiq|Munāfiqūn]] and [[w:Kafir|Kuffār]], threatening them with the punishment of hell as apostates (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/73/print  Q 9:73f]). Conversely, the believers were promised great rewards in the hereafter for their martial efforts. The relationship between their efforts and the reward in the hereafter is described in the manner of a commercial transaction with God: {{quote|Lo! Allah hath bought from the believers their lives and their wealth because the Garden will be theirs: they shall fight in the way of Allah and shall slay and be slain. It is a promise […]Who fulfill[s] His covenant better than Allah? Rejoice then in your bargain that ye have made, for that is the supreme triumph. 
[https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/111/print – Q 9:111]}}
With this verse and others of similar wording (cf. Q [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/4/verse/74/print 4:74]; [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/61/verse/10/print 61:10]), a distinctive concept of martyrdom was established in Islam: one who sacrifices himself in combat and dies on the battlefield is not a loser, but rather the “great victor”. This form of religious mobilization of the believers for combat may have played a decisive role in the rapid expansion of the Islamic state.

=== 4.1.2. Muslims and Non-Muslims ===
Acceptance of Islam now became a strict precondition for entry into the alliance with Muḥammad. Consequently, an increasing number of individuals joined him primarily for political and economic reasons, but inwardly felt little affinity with the new religion. This seems to have been particularly true of the Bedouins, as evidenced by a telling verse of the Qur’an: {{quote|The wandering Arabs (''al-Aʿrāb'') say: We believe. Say (unto them, O Muhammad): Ye believe not, but rather say “We submit,” for the faith hath not yet entered into your hearts. 
– [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/49/verse/14/print Surah 49:14] }}
As this verse indicates, submission (''islām'') to the will of God and His Messenger did not necessarily entail sincere inward acceptance of faith ([[w: Iman_(Islam)|īmān]]). However, to be acknowledged as “brothers in religion,” it was sufficient to perform the prayer ([[w:Salah|ṣalāt]]) and to pay the alms of purification ([[w:Zakat|zakat]]) (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/11/print Q 9:11]).
&lt;!-- Q 9:11: Repentance is also listed in this verse. --&gt;

Zakāt, which had been introduced as a devotional practice in the early Meccan period, had by this point evidently developed into a form of alms-tax. During this period, the Qur’an also uses the term [[w:Sadaqah|ṣadaqa]] as a synonym for ''zakāt'' (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/103/print Q 9:103]). To collect these levies and to instruct the newly converted tribes in matters of religion, Muḥammad dispatched several of his companions to various regions of the Arabian Peninsula: for instance, [[w:Abu_Hurayra|Abū Hurayra]] to Bahrain in Eastern Arabia (not to be confused with the modern state of [[w:Bahrain|Bahrain]]), [[w: Amr_ibn_al-As|ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ]] to [[w:Oman|Oman]], and [[w:Muadh_ibn_Jabal|Muʿādh ibn Jabal]] to [[w:Yemen|Yemen]]. 
After Muḥammad had severed ties with the pagans and the Jews, he appears to have continued to regard Christianity in a favorable light for some time. This is reflected in a Qur’anic passage: {{quote|[You will] find the most vehement of mankind in hostility to those who believe (to be) the Jews and the idolaters. And [you will] find the nearest of them in affection to those who believe (to be) those who say: Lo! We are Christians (''Naṣārā''). That is because there are among them priests and monks, and because they are not proud.
– [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/5/verse/82/print Q 5:82] }}
Qur’anic commentaries refer to this verse in connection with the positive experiences Muḥammad’s followers had in Christian Ethiopia. Fundamentally, however, Muḥammad held the belief that he had been foretold by Jesus as a messenger (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/61/verse/6/print Q 61:6]), and that the Qur’an served as a confirmation not only of the Torah but also of the Gospel ([[w:Gospel_in_Islam|Injīl]]) (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/3/verse/3/print Q 3:3]). Accordingly, Christians, like the Jews, were confronted with the obligation to acknowledge his religious authority and to convert to Islam. However, during negotiations with envoys of Christian communities on the Arabian Peninsula, the Prophet found that, unlike the pagan Arabs, they were not willing to accept Islam.

One particularly well-known case is that of a delegation of clergy from [[w:Najran|Najrān]], the center of South Arabian Christianity, who expressed their willingness to submit to the Prophet's political authority, but were unwilling to convert to Islam, as they considered themselves to be in possession of the true religion. Within this historical context, Islamic tradition places the Qur’anic statement that Jesus, like Adam, was created solely by God’s creative command ''kun'' (“Be!”) ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/3/verse/59/print Q 3:59]). Muḥammad is reported to have cited this Qur’anic verse in response to the Christian clergy from Najrān during a dispute over the Christians’ assertion that Jesus is the [[w:Son_of_God|Son of God]]. According to Arabic sources, he subsequently invited the clergy to invoke a divine judgment concerning the truth of the two religious positions through a mutual invocation of God’s curse ([[w:Event_of_the_mubahala|mubāhala]]) (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/3/verse/61/print Q 3:61]), an act they ultimately declined. Eventually, an agreement was reached whereby the people of Najrān would pay an annual tribute to the Prophet, who, in return, guaranteed them protection for their lives and religion.

The deterioration of relations with Christians can also be attributed to the Prophet’s growing interest in the expansion route toward Syria, which was predominantly inhabited by Christians who were unwilling to convert to Islam. The model of tribute payment was likewise applied to them. According to Arabic sources, following the [[w:Expedition_of_Tabuk|expedition to Tabūk]] in the autumn of 630, several Christian communities near the [[w:Gulf_of_Aqaba|Gulf of Aqaba]] in northwestern Arabia, including the city of [[w:Eilat|Aila]], submitted to the Prophet and agreed to pay the so-called [[w:Jizya|jizya]]. 

The Arabic term ''jizya'' fundamentally denotes the concept of “compensation” or “reparation.” Exactly what the jizya was meant to compensate remains debated. However, this tribute has a Qur’anic basis in [[w:At-Tawbah|Surah 9]], where Muslims are instructed to fight [[w:People_of_the_Book|Ahl al-Kitāb]] “until they pay jizya readily, being brought low” ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/29/print Q 9:29]). In the relevant passage, the obligation to fight Jews and Christians is linked to the fact that, according to the Qur’an, they had wrongly taken their rabbis and [[w:Monasticism|monks]] as lords beside God ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/31/print  Q 9:31]), and that they proclaimed [[w:Ezra|Ezra]] and Christ to be the sons of God, thereby imitating the speech of those who disbelieved before them ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/30/print  Q 9:30]). While these Qur’anic declarations legitimized a new, more aggressive stance towards Christians, they simultaneously afforded Jews and Christians the possibility to continue practicing their religion upon submission.
&lt;!-- Ausgleich, Kompensation: these seem to mean the same thing? I used compensation and reparation (as in compensation for a wrong or injury). I also saw recompense and reimbursement as alternative translations for jizya’s word origin 
- Q 9:29: Pickthall’s translation here is quite archaic in language here. Some alternatives: until they pay the tax, willingly submitting, fully humbled (Khattab), until they pay the tax and agree to submit (Abdel Haleem)
- zu Herren genommen hätten: I added according to the Qur’an to mirror the “hätten.”
-there is no Rabbi_(Gelehrter) article in English but only the modern rabbi one. However, would one of these fit in this context?: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism or https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannaim --&gt;

Muḥammad adopted the same stance toward [[w:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]]. Upon learning that the Zoroastrians residing in Bahrain refused to embrace Islam, he granted them religious freedom on the condition that they pay the jizya. He is said to have justified this by invoking the well-known Qur’anic verse: “[[w:Al-Baqara_256|There is no compulsion in religion]]” ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/2/verse/256/print Q 2:256]).

=== 4.1.3. Reorganization of the Pilgrimage and Calendar Reform ===
In the year of the conquest of Mecca (630), Muḥammad and his closest companions refrained from participating in the Ḥajj, which was still carried out according to the customary rites by both Muslim and non-Muslim pilgrims. In the following year (631), Muḥammad appointed his companion [[Abu_Bakr|Abū Bakr]] to lead the Ḥajj. While Abū Bakr was already in Mecca, the Prophet sent his cousin [[w:Ali|ʿAlī]] after him, who publicly proclaimed the following words in [[Mina,_Saudi_Arabia|Minā]] — words that are also part of the Qur’an:
{{quote| “And a proclamation from Allah and His messenger to all men on the day of the Greater Pilgrimage that Allah is free from obligation to the idolaters, and (so is) His messenger. So, if ye repent, it will be better for you; but if ye are averse, then know that ye cannot escape Allah. Give tidings (O Muhammad) of a painful doom to those who disbelieve.”
– [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/3/print Q 9:3] }}

Shortly thereafter, it states: 
{{quote| “Then, when the sacred months have passed, slay the [[w:Mushrikites|idolaters]] wherever [you] find them, and take them (captive), and besiege them, and prepare for them each ambush.”
– [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/5/print Q 9:5] }}
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;
|- 
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | The Islamic Months
|-
! No. !! Name 
|-
| 1
| [[w:Muharram|Muḥarram]]
|-
| 2
| [[w:Safar|Ṣafar]]
|-
| 3
| [[w:Rabi%27_al-Awwal|Rabīʿ I]] 
|-
| 4
| [[w:Rabi%27_al-Thani|Rabīʿ II]]
|-
| 5
| [[w:Jumada_al-Awwal|Jumādā I]]
|-
| 6
| [[w:Jumada_al-Thani|Jumādā II]]
|-
| 7
| [[w:Rajab|Rajab]] 
|-
| 8
| [[w:Sha%27ban|Shaʿbān]]
|-
| 9
| [[w:Ramadan|Ramaḍān]]
|-
| 10
| [[w:Shawwal|Shawwāl]]
|-
| 11
| [[w:Dhu_al-Qadah|Dhū al-Qaʿdah]]
|-
| 12
| [[w:Dhu_al-Hijjah|Dhū al-Ḥijjah]]
|}
The opening verses of Sūrah 9 very clearly illustrate the shift in the balance of power. By prohibiting the unbelievers from approaching Mecca under the gravest of threats, Muḥammad also excluded them from all economic activity in the city.

It was not until 632 that Muḥammad himself took part in the Ḥajj. On this occasion, he conducted himself differently at certain pilgrimage sites than the pagans had. For example, he shifted the procession from [[w:Mount_Arafat#Hajj|ʿArafāt]] to [[w:Muzdalifah|Muzdalifah]] to after sunset, and the procession from Muzdalifah to Minā to before sunrise, in order to remove the pagan character of sun worship from these rites. Additionally, he incorporated into the Ḥajj the pilgrimage rites that had previously been performed during the [[w:Umrah|ʿUmrah]] at the Kaaba in Mecca. The term ''Ḥajj'' then came to denote the combined pilgrimage ritual; however, the ʿUmra pilgrimage, which was specifically associated with the Meccan sanctuary, continued to exist as the “lesser pilgrimage.” Muḥammad’s pilgrimage in 632, later referred to as the [[w:Farewell_Pilgrimage|Farewell Pilgrimage]] due to his death shortly thereafter, became the permanent model for this rite. The reorganization of the Ḥajj greatly increased the significance of the Kaaba. As other sanctuaries, such as that of [[w:Demolition_of_Dhul_Khalasa|Dhū l-Khalaṣa]] in [[w:Tabalah,_Saudi_Arabia|Tabālah]], were destroyed by Muḥammad’s followers, the Kaaba attained a monopolistic position on the Arabian Peninsula.
&lt;!-- Linked Tabalah --&gt;

As part of the reorganization of the Ḥajj, the ancient Arabian lunisolar calendar —with its system of [[w:Intercalation_(timekeeping)|intercalation]] ([[w:Nasi%27|''nasīʾ'']]; see above, [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 01#1.3.3. Ancient Arabian Paganism and the Sacred Sites of Mecca|1.3.3.]])— was abolished, and a purely [[w:Lunar_calendar|lunar calendar]] with a fixed number of twelve months was introduced. The exact reasons for the calendar reform are not entirely clear, but the Qur’anic verses that address it ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/9/verse/36/print Q 9:36f]) indicate that the decisions of those responsible for inserting intercalary months and declaring certain months sacred were seen as arbitrary and had implications for the conduct of war. To emphasize that Ṣafar I was henceforth to be regarded as a sacred month, it was given the name [[w:Muharram|al-Muḥarram]] (“the Sanctified”). This new lunar year, comprising only 354 days, became the basis of the Islamic calendar and has since served to determine the timing of religious festivals. However, since this lunar year, which to a certain extent “moves backward” through the solar years, is not practical for agricultural farmers, a [[w:Solar_calendar|solar calendar]] has continued to be used alongside it in nearly all countries where Islam has taken root.
&lt;!-- Linked nasī’ --&gt;

== 4.2. Abū Bakr (632–634) – “Representative of the Messenger of God” ==
=== 4.2.1. The Events of the Saqīfa and the Beginnings of the Caliphate ===
Upon Muḥammad’s return to Medina, his health declined significantly. He passed away on 8 June 632. According to Arabic sources, this event came as a surprise to many Muslims and was a shock they struggled to comprehend. Muḥammad left no male heir. His first wife, [[w:Khadija_bint_Khuwaylid|Khadīja]], bore him four daughters — [[w:Ruqayya_bint_Muhammad|Ruqayya]], [[w:Zainab_bint_Muhammad|Zaynab]], [[w:Umm_Kulthum_bint_Muhammad|Umm Kulthūm]], and [[w:Fatima|Fāṭima]] — and two or three sons, the latter of whom all died in childhood. His adopted son, [[w:Zayd_ibn_Haritha_al-Kalbi|Zayd ibn Ḥāritha]], had been disowned in connection with the incident concerning [[w:Zaynab_bint_Jahsh|Zaynab bint Jaḥsh]]. This circumstance is believed to be referenced in Qurʾān [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/33/verse/40/print  33:40], which clarifies that Muḥammad has no sons and that his office as the Messenger of God is not hereditary; rather, he is the “[[w:Seal_of_the_Prophets|Seal of the Prophets]]” (''khātam al-nabiyyīn''). Consequently, it remained entirely unclear who would assume leadership of the [[w:Ummah|Ummah]] after Muḥammad’s death.
&lt;!-- Linked Ruqayya, Umm_Kulthum, and Seal of the Prophets. 
- im Zusammenhang mit der Affäre um Zainab: translated Affäre as incident since affair in English often implies a romantic scandal. If that was intended, affair would be the correct translation. --&gt;

At this point, serious disagreements arose between the Meccan [[w:Muhajirun|Muhājirūn]] and the Medinan [[w:Ansar_(Islam)|Anṣār]]. The Anṣār went to [[w:Saʽd_ibn_ʽUbadah|Saʿd ibn ʿUbādah]], the chief of the Medinan clan [[w:Banu_Sa%27ida|Banū Sāʿida]], and assembled at his [[w:Saqifa|Saqīfa]] (“a public assembly place”). There they put forward the demand that the Anṣār and Quraysh should separate and that each group should appoint its own commander (''amīr''). This proposal threatened to cause the Islamic community to break apart. The debate intensified as three prominent Muhājirūn — Abū Bakr, [[w:Umar|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]], and [[w:Abu_Ubayda_ibn_al-Jarrah|Abū ʿUbayda ibn al-Jarrāḥ]] — joined the gathering. ʿUmar, in particular, firmly opposed any division of the community. Abū Bakr emphasized the Quraysh tribe’s claim to primacy. In this situation, ʿUmar surprised those present by suddenly pledging [[w:Bay%27ah|bayʿah]] to Abū Bakr. Abū Bakr had already led the communal prayer while Muḥammad was on his deathbed, which conferred upon him a certain aura of prestige. Moreover, through ʿĀʾisha, he was the Prophet’s father-in-law and also among the very first believers (cf. above, [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 02#2.1.3. The New Community|2.1.3.]]). He had been present at all the major battles against the pagan Quraysh of Mecca and had supported other military campaigns with his financial resources. Thus, Abū Bakr was a suitable compromise candidate for both the Anṣār and the Muhājirūn. The unexpected arrival of the [[w:Banu_Aslam|Banū Aslam]],  a clan from the vicinity of Medina known for their particular loyalty to the Prophet,  proved decisive for the course of the gathering. They joined in large numbers and pledged allegiance to Abū Bakr.
&lt;!-- Saqīfa (&quot;offener Versammlungsplatz&quot;): translated as “a public assembly place”. I think you mean public or communal by offener? Encyclopaedia of Islam defines saqīfa as “a covered communal place appropriate for conversation and discussion/ any type of forum or public courtyard, covered.” 
-linked Saqifa, Banū Sāʿida, and Banu Aslam --&gt;

Many of the Anṣār initially refused to pledge allegiance to Abū Bakr. The [[w:Banu_Hashim|Banū Hāshim]], the Prophet’s clan, also protested at having been excluded from the succession process. At this point, some of the Anṣār put forward [[w:Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]], the Prophet’s closest relative, as an alternative to Abū Bakr. ʿAlī evidently also had the backing of the descendants of [[w:Abd_Shams_ibn_Abd_Manaf|ʿAbd Shams]]. At this point, they insisted on the political prerogatives of the descendants of [[w:Abd_Manaf_ibn_Qusai|ʿAbd Manāf]], to whom both the ʿAbd Shams and the Banū Hāshim belonged, and criticized the fact that Abū Bakr did not belong to this noble lineage.

[[File:Abu bakr2.jpg|thumb|The Prophet’s Companions Swear Allegiance to Abū Bakr, with ʿUmar Seated at His Right; Miniature from an [[w:Ottoman_Empire|Ottoman]] [[w:Siyer-i_Nebi|Siyer-i Nebī]] Work, 1596.]]
In the period that followed, ʿUmar, together with the Banū Aslam, ensured that nearly all the inhabitants of Medina pledged allegiance to Abū Bakr, possibly employing force in the process. However, Abū Bakr presented himself with modesty. He made it clear that he saw himself as a continuation of the Prophet’s mission, and by no means as an innovator. In this spirit, he endeavored to uphold and carry forward all the Prophet’s ordinances and directives. This aspiration is also reflected in the title he adopted for his office. He referred to himself as ''khalīfat rasūl Allāh'' (“Representative of the Messenger of God”). Deputies of the Messenger of God were frequently appointed during the Prophet’s lifetime: during his absences from Medina, particularly while on military campaigns, Muḥammad would appoint deputies charged with maintaining order. By selecting this title, which is conventionally rendered in English as ''caliph'', Abū Bakr made it clear that he did not seek to assert sovereign authority through his office, but solely intended to preserve the status quo within the Ummah. Higher claims to authority associated with the caliphal title developed only in later periods.
&lt;!-- Fortsetzer der Linie des Propheten: translated Linie as mission. Or should it rather mean work or legacy? 
- khalīfat rasūl Allāh (“ Representative of the Messenger of God”): this is almost always translated as successor. So I wonder if there should be a note, e.g. “Representative of the Messenger of God, often translated (incorrectly) as the Successor of the Messenger of God”?
- der im Deutschen üblicherweise mit Kalif wiedergegeben wird: translated it as “English” for the purposes of BIHI as it is also true for the English usage. 
-There are also these two articles in the English wiki; they may be helpful for readers if you’d like them linked anywhere: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad &amp; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate --&gt;

Abū Bakr’s consolidation of leadership over ʿAlī and the Banū Hāshim may also be linked to concerns among the Muhājirūn about the possible emergence of a dynasty due to ʿAlī’s marriage to the Prophet’s daughter, Fāṭima. They may have, therefore, preferred Abū Bakr, with whom such a risk did not exist. A confrontation between Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, and the Prophet’s family arose shortly thereafter over the Prophet’s estate in [[w:Fadak|Fadak]], a property in northern [[w:Hejaz|Ḥijāz]] that had been cultivated by Jews. When Fāṭima asserted her claim to the estate, the two responded that the Prophet had left all his property to the Muslim community as ṣadaqah. Since Fāṭima was unable to provide sufficient evidence that the Prophet had gifted her the estate during his lifetime, Abū Bakr confiscated it. As a result, Fāṭima broke off all contact with Abū Bakr. She passed away six months later. It was only after her death that ʿAlī pledged allegiance to the caliph, thereby bringing the question of succession to a definitive close.
&lt;!-- linked Fadak --&gt;

=== 4.2.2. The Apostasy Uprisings (''ridda'') and the Resumption of Jihād ===
[[File:Mohammad_adil-Riddah_wars.PNG|thumb|The Battle Sites of the Ridda Wars]]
Following the Prophet’s death, a widespread secession among the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula set in, which is referred to in the sources as the [[w:Ridda_Wars|Ridda Wars]]. The Quraysh’s temporary loss of power allowed factions within many tribes, long skeptical of joining the Quraysh-led state, to gain the upper hand. In some regions of Arabia, rival prophets appeared who also challenged the hegemony of Islam in the religious sphere. In Yemen, the rival prophet [[w:Al-Aswad_al-Ansi|al-Aswad]] established himself and, within a short time, brought large territories of southern Arabia under his control. He appeared in the name of Allāh, like Muḥammad, and skillfully exploited resentments over the new dependence on Medina to advance his cause. Among the [[w:Banu_Hanifa|tribe of Ḥanīfa]], who lived in the [[w:Al-Yamama|Yamāma]] region of eastern Arabia, a prophet named [[w:Musaylima|Musaylima]] emerged, whose teachings exhibited certain monotheistic tendencies, as he preached in the name of [[w:Rahmanan|al-Raḥmān]]. In the central Arabian region of [[w:Najd|Najd]], even two prophets appeared: [[w:Tulayha_ibn_Khuwaylid|Ṭulayḥa]] in the north among the Asad Bedouins, and the prophetess [[w:Sajah|Sajāḥ]] in the south among the [[w:Banu_Tamim|Tamīm]]. The fiercest opposition arose under Musaylima, and its effectiveness was further enhanced through an alliance with the prophetess Sajāḥ. In this way, an alliance of opponents emerged, capable of mobilizing a formidable army.
&lt;!-- Abfallbewegung: translated as Apostasy Uprisings. I think that is a good fit as it has both religious and political connotations, incl. armed struggle. And for Absetzbewegung, I used secession.
-linked Al-Aswad, Banu Hanifa, Banu Tamim, and Sajah --&gt;

The tribes that joined the Ridda movement refused to continue paying the zakāt, arguing that it had been part of a contract they had concluded with the Prophet, which they considered nullified by his death. Abū Bakr dispatched various armies from Mecca and Medina to reclaim the seceding tribes by force of arms. In the campaigns against the apostate tribes, two Meccans from the [[w:Banu_Makhzum|Makhzūm clan]], who had long fought Muḥammad fiercely, played a prominent role: [[w:Khalid_ibn_al-Walid|Khālid ibn al-Walīd]] and [[w:Ikrima_ibn_Amr|ʿIkrima ibn Abī Jahl]]. In the spring of 633, Khālid inflicted a [[w:Battle_of_al-Yamama|crushing defeat]] on the forces of the Banū Hanīfa, led by Musaylima, on the plain of ʿAqrabāʾ. Subsequent battles took place in Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The [[w:Kinda_(tribe)|Kinda]], under their last tribal king [[w:Al-Ash%27ath_ibn_Qays|al-Ashʿath ibn Qays]], offered particularly fierce resistance. The Ridda movement ended with the capture of the fortress of Nujair in [[w:Hadhramaut|Hadhramaut]]. Al-Ashʿath was taken to Medina in chains, where he was pardoned by Abū Bakr.
&lt;!-- linked Battle of Yamama and Hadhramaut --&gt;

[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslims Invasion of Syria.PNG|thumb| The Four Military Contingents Dispatched by Abū Bakr to Syria]]
The Ridda defensive battles in the northern Arabian Peninsula transitioned seamlessly into a campaign of conquest. Still in 633, Khālid, together with his fighters, launched raids into the regions of southern Iraq, bringing the local nomadic tribes into submission and capturing [[w:Al-Hira|al-Ḥīra]], the capital of the [[w:Lakhmid_kingdom|Lakhmid kingdom]]. According to [[w:Al-Baladhuri|al-Balādhurī]] (d. 892), the author of the [[w:Futuh_al-Buldan|principal Arabic work]] on the [[w:Futuh|futūḥ]], in the spring of 634, Abū Bakr wrote to the inhabitants of Mecca, al-Ṭāʾif, Yemen, and the Bedouins of Najd and the Hijaz, “calling them to jihād and arousing their desire in it and in the obtainable booty from the [[w:Rum_(endonym)|Rūm]].” His call was evidently a complete success; it is reported that he was able to raise three armies in Medina. Under the supreme command of [[w:Abu_Ubayda_ibn_al-Jarrah|Abū ʿUbayda ibn al-Jarrāḥ]], four military contingents advanced toward Syria. When a major confrontation with the Byzantine army appeared imminent, Abū Bakr dispatched Khālid ibn al-Walīd, then still in Iraq, to reinforce the Muslim troops in Syria. The two Arab forces joined in southern Syria and together were able to capture the city of [[w:Bosra|Buṣrā]]. In July 634, under Khālid’s supreme command, the Arabs defeated a Byzantine army that [[w:Battle_of_Ajnadayn|confronted them at Ajnādayn]] in Palestine.
&lt;!-- I used Philip Khuri Hitti’s translation for the direct quote (p.165): https://archive.org/details/originsofislamic00balarich/page/164/mode/2up I changed ‘holy war’ to jihad and Greeks to Rum to match the German version. 
- linked Futuh al-Buldan and the Battle_of_Ajnadayn --&gt;

== 4.3. ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (634–644) – “Commander of the Faithful” ==
Even prior to his death in August 634, Abū Bakr is said to have consulted key companions of the Prophet concerning the question of his successor. Only ʿUmar, from the Qurayshī [[w:Banu_Adi|clan of ʿAdī ibn Kaʿb]], was considered a potential candidate. Like Abū Bakr, he had rendered early service to Islam and was also related to the Prophet through marriage. ʿUmar was the first caliph to bear the title [[w:Amir_al-Mu%27minin|''amīr al-muʾminīn'']] (“Commander of the Faithful”). Since then, the title has been adopted by all rulers and religious authorities who have laid claim to leadership over the entire Muslim community.
&lt;!-- linked ʿAdī ibn Kaʿb clan and amīr al-muʾminīn --&gt;

=== 4.3.1 The Conquest of the Middle East ===
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslim invasion of Syria-3.PNG|thumb|The Muslim Advances in Syria, 634–636]]
The conquest movement begun under Abū Bakr continued under ʿUmar. The key stages are briefly outlined below:
#Syria and Palestine. After the Battle of Ajnādayn, the Byzantines withdrew into the Jordan Valley, but were once again defeated by the Arabs near the city of [[w:Pella,_Jordan|Pella]] in January 635 and retreated to Damascus. The Arabs were subsequently able to take control of the entire territory of present-day Jordan, including the prosperous episcopal city of [[w:Jerash|Jerash]]. By the summer of 635, [[w:Damascus|Damascus]] had already fallen, and shortly thereafter, Emesa, now known as [[w:Homs|Ḥomṣ]], also fell. The Byzantine attempt to reconquer Syria ended in failure. In August 636, the Arabs inflicted another [[w:Battle_of_the_Yarmuk|defeat]] on the reassembled Byzantine forces at [[w:Yarmuk_(river)|Yarmūk]], a left tributary of the Jordan River that today forms the border between Syria and Jordan, forcing their final withdrawal from Syria. When [[w:Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] was captured in 638, ʿUmar personally traveled there to formally take possession of the city on behalf of the Muslim community. In 640, the seaport of [[w:Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] was also taken, bringing an end to Byzantine rule in Palestine.

# &lt;li value=&quot;2&quot;&gt; Iraq. In the fall of 634, ʿUmar dispatched an army to fight the Persians in Iraq. In the south, prior to 635, the early companion of the Prophet, [[w:Utba_ibn_Ghazwan|ʿUtba ibn Ghazwān]], together with his fighters, took control of the [[w:Estuary|estuary]] region of the [[w:Euphrates|Euphrates]] and [[w:Tigris|Tigris]] rivers, including the significant port city of [[w:Al-Ubulla|al-Ubulla]]. Further north, Arab forces initially suffered a heavy defeat in the so-called [[w:Battle_of_the_Bridge|Battle of the Bridge]] but later achieved victory over the Persian army at the [[w:Battle_of_al-Qadisiyyah|Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] (between 635 and 638). [[w:Yazdegerd_II|Yazdegerd III]], the Sasanian ruler since 632, subsequently relinquished control of Iraq to the Arab forces, [[w:Siege_of_Ctesiphon_(637)|abandoned his capital Ctesiphon]], and withdrew eastward with his court. The victory at al-Qādisiyyah was, for the Muslims, a triumph comparable in magnitude to their victory over the pagan Meccans at the [[w:Battle_of_Badr|Battle of Badr]] in 624. Many believed that their victory over the Persians was due solely to divine assistance. Some even held that [[w:Khidr|al-Khiḍr]], &quot;the Green One&quot; — a quasi-angelic figure but not classified among the angels — had fought alongside the Muslims during the battle.
&lt;!-- linked Utba_ibn_Ghazwan, Al-Ubulla, and Siege_of_Ctesiphon.
-I also linked estuary for Mündungsgebiet, as it may be helpful for readers. There is also a German article. --&gt;

[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslim conquest of Egypt.PNG|thumb|[[w:Arab_conquest_of_Egypt|The Muslim conquest of Egypt]], 639–640.]]
# &lt;li value=&quot;3&quot;&gt; Egypt. In 639, [[w:Amr_ibn_al-As#Conquest_of_Egypt|ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ]] initiated what could be described as a quasi-private venture into Egypt. Following the capture of the Byzantine fortress of Babylon, near present-day Cairo, in April 641, he was able to occupy the [[w:Nile_Delta|Nile Delta]] with his army encountering virtually no resistance. Alexandria was captured in 642, followed by the conquest of [[w:Barca_(ancient_city)|Barqah]], in present-day Libya, in 643.
&lt;!-- linked Arab_conquest_of_Egypt, Amr_ibn_al-As#Conquest_of_Egypt, Nile_Delta --&gt;

# &lt;li value=&quot;4&quot;&gt; Upper Mesopotamia. The region, also known as [[w:Upper_Mesopotamia|al-Jazīrah]] (literally “the Island,” referring to the land between the [[w:Euphrates|Euphrates]] and [[w:Tigris|Tigris]]), was conquered between 639 and 641 by [[w:Iyad_ibn_Ghanm|ʿIyāḍ ibn Ghanm]] from northern Syria, during which he had already begun incursions into Armenia.
&lt;!-- linked Iyad_ibn_Ghanm --&gt;

Arab garrisons were stationed at various locations to maintain control over the conquered territories and to serve as bases for further expansion. In Syria, these comprised pre-existing locations such as [[w:Jabiyah|al-Jābiyah]], the former residence of the [[w:Ghassanids|Ghassanid]] princes, and Ḥomṣ. In other regions, new garrison towns were established, where Arab warriors were settled by tribe and clan on separate plots, and mosques modeled after the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina were constructed. The most important of these garrison towns, known as [[w:Amsar|miṣr (plural amṣār)]], were [[w:Basra|Basra]] and [[w:Kufa|Kufa]] in Iraq, both founded in 638; [[w:Mosul|Mosul]] in Upper Mesopotamia, founded in 641; and [[w:Fustat|al-Fusṭāṭ]] in Egypt, established in 643 near the former Byzantine fortress of Babylon. These garrison towns subsequently became the centers of Arab-Islamic life in the conquered territories.
&lt;!-- I added the plural of miṣr (amṣār) to make it clear to the readers, as the English article is under amsar --&gt;

From Basra and Kufa, Arab military leaders launched expeditions into Persia in the late 630s. Between 637 and 640, they [[w:Muslim_conquest_of_Khuzestan|subdued]] [[w:Khuzistan_(Sasanian_province)|Khuzistan]], located in the southwest of present-day Iran. Following the [[w:Battle_of_Nahavand|Battle of Nihāwand]] in the [[w:Zagros_Mountains|Zagros Mountains]] of western Iran, in which the Arabs dealt another defeat to the Sasanian forces, the Persian highlands lay open to them. Advancing northward from Nihāwand, they brought the [[w:Azerbaijan_(Iran)|region of Azerbaijan]] under [[w:Tribute|tributary]] status. In 644, they also succeeded in capturing the city of [[w:Isfahan|Isfahan]]. Meanwhile, the Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III fled farther east.
&lt;!-- linked Muslim_conquest_of_Khuzestan. I also linked ‘tribute’ to make its historical meaning clear --&gt;

=== 4.3.2. Factors Facilitating the Rapid Expansion of the Islamic State ===
Through his conquests and the establishment of cities, ʿUmar laid essential foundations for the Islamic civilization that would later take shape. Yet, how can the rapid progress of the conquests be explained? Several factors may be cited as causes:
# The conflict preceding the Islamic conquest between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire over hegemony in the Middle East, which had led to intense military confrontations during the lifetime of Muḥammad, had severely weakened both empires.
# Another important factor in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt was the lack of loyalty among the subjects toward their former imperial rulers. These territories had only come back under Byzantine control shortly prior to the Islamic conquest. The vast majority of the population were [[w:Monophysitism|Monophysite]] Christians, for whom the ruling [[w:Council_of_Chalcedon|Chalcedonian]] (Greek Orthodox) Byzantine imperial church was an oppressive adversary. Similarly, the Syrian Jews were favorably inclined toward the new rulers, as the Byzantines had persecuted them for centuries and had denied them access to the city of Jerusalem. In the course of the Islamic conquest of Jerusalem, the [[w:Temple_Mount|Temple Mount]], which for centuries had remained in ruins, was restored as a sacred site. When ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb took possession of Jerusalem on behalf of the Muslims in 638, he was accompanied by [[w:Ka%27b_al-Ahbar|Kaʿb al-Aḥbār]], a Yemeni Jew who had converted to Islam. He interpreted this event as the fulfillment of biblical prophecies for propagandistic purposes. These interpretations evidently fell on fertile ground among the Jews of Syria, who regarded ʿUmar as a messianic ruler. The Syriac-Aramaic term ''pārōqā'' (“redeemer”), used in this context, was rendered into Arabic as ''fārūq'', which became a commonly used epithet for ʿUmar.
# The contractual arrangements practiced by the Arabs during the transfer of power entailed no significant disadvantages for the subjects and led to what [[w:Albrecht_Noth|A. Noth]] described as a “favorable constellation of converging interests,” which may be regarded as one of the principal reasons for the success of Arab military efforts. As was customary in the Late Antique Orient, the Arabs granted a guarantee of security to the inhabitants of cities that voluntarily submitted to their rule. In Arabic sources, this is referred to as [[w:Aman_(Islam)|''amān'']]. Moreover, the Ahl al-kitāb, adherents of the monotheistic scriptural religions, were guaranteed not only the protection of their lives and property, but also the free exercise of their religion and the retention of their places of worship and religious objects. This protection was known as dhimma and constituted a legally enforceable obligation of the Islamic state toward its non-Muslim subjects; each protected person was known as a [[w:Dhimmi|dhimmi]]. In return, the [[w:Jizya|jizya]] was paid, likely in the form of a lump sum levied on the conquered city at the time of the conquest. The treaties concluded with conquered cities during this period came to serve as a model for regulating the relationship between the Islamic state and its non-Muslim subjects throughout the premodern period.
&lt;!-- linked amān.
-eine einklagbare Verpflichtung: translated as ‘a legally enforceable obligation’ --&gt;

=== 4.3.3. The Organization of State and Religion ===
[[File:Kabah Old Picture - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The covering of the Kaaba with a new [[w:Kiswah|kiswah]] has served a significant symbol of Islamic rule since the time of ʿUmar.]]
In 641, ʿUmar established a central register ([[w:Divan|dīwān]]) to ensure income for the fighters and companions of Muḥammad. This register recorded the regular state disbursements allocated to each individual.
The most important criterion for one’s placement in the register was their relationship to Islam. Accordingly, the Prophet’s own clan, the [[w:Banu_Hashim|Banū Hāshim]], was placed at the top of the register, receiving the highest disbursements. Next came other relatives, followed by the [[w:Ansar_(Islam)|Anṣār of Medina]], the veterans of [[w:Battle_of_Badr|Badr]], the survivors of [[w:Battle_of_Uhud|Uhud]], and finally the tribal warriors deployed in Syria and Iraq. Through this system, a standardized salary structure was developed, which ʿUmar financed through the three principal sources of state revenue: the jizya, the zakāt, and the land tax ([[w: Kharaj|kharāj]]). To administer revenues and expenditures, a state treasury ([[w:Bayt_al-mal|bayt al-māl]]) was established. Military commanders stationed in various regions, such as [[w:Amr_ibn_al-As|ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ]] in newly conquered Egypt, were required to contribute half of their income to this treasury.

ʿUmar granted stipends to Qurʾān reciters ([[w:Q%C4%81ri%CA%BE|qurrāʾ]]) and appointed officials bearing the title of [[w:Qadi|qāḍī]] in various cities of the empire. While the term ''qāḍī'' is commonly translated as “judge” today, during that period the office encompassed numerous additional administrative and sovereign functions, such as leading the [[w:Friday_prayer|Friday prayer]].
&lt;!-- Dotationen: The English article for Dotationen is specific to the First French Empire, so I didn’t link it. Stipend seems to be a better translation, as endowments are usually in relation with institutions. Allowances could also be an alternative. 
-hoheitliche Aufgaben: “sovereign functions” is apparently the correct term here, though it may briefly confuse readers by suggesting full sovereignty rather than duties exercised on behalf of the sovereign, as was typical for the period. Alternatives could be “state-sanctioned functions” or “state-sanctioned administrative and religious functions”. --&gt;

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''' Current date according to &lt;br /&gt; the Hijrī calendar''':
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{{#timel:xmj.}} {{#switch:{{{1|{{#timel:xmn}}}}}|1=Muḥarram|2=Ṣafar|3=Rabīʿ I|4=Rabīʿ II|5=Jumādā I|6=Jumādā II|7=Rajab|8=Shaʿbān|9=Ramaḍān|10=Shawwāl|11=Dhū al-Qaʿdah|12=Dhū al-Ḥijjah}}
{{#timel:xmY}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(= {{#timel:j. F}} {{#timel:Y}})
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|action=purge}} aktualisieren]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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Of particular importance was ʿUmar’s introduction of a new calendar system in 638, prompted by disputes among military units regarding date notation. The year of the Prophet’s [[w:Hijrah|Hijrah]] from Mecca to Medina, which commenced on 16 July 622, was designated as the first year of the new Islamic calendar. This constituted an important state measure toward standardization. Over time, the [[w:Hijri_year|Hijrī calendar]] became increasingly established throughout the Islamic realm and remains, to this day, one of the official, if not the primary, calendars in many Muslim-majority countries.

ʿUmar’s governance is well known to have relied heavily on the Qurʾānic principle of consultation ([[w:Shura|shūrā]]). While he occasionally sought advice from other circles, ʿUmar typically limited his consultations to the distinguished Meccan Companions of the Prophet. Numerous reports describe how he sought their opinions on important political and legal matters. Such a council of distinguished Meccan companions also convened after ʿUmar’s death to select his successor.

[[File:Prière de Tarawih dans la Grande Mosquée de Kairouan. Ramadan 2012.jpg|thumb|The [[w:Tarawih|Tarāwīḥ]] prayers remain an important ritual practice in [[w:Sunni_Islam|Sunni Islam]] to this day.]] In the religious sphere, a landmark measure during ʿUmar’s rule was his decision to have the cloth covering ([[w:Kiswah|Kiswa]]) of the Kaaba renewed at the expense of the state treasury, thereby transforming an originally pagan ritual into a prominent symbol of Islamic authority. The place for prayer at the Kaaba was marked by a stone, which was referred to as the [[w:Maqam_Ibrahim|Maqām Ibrāhīm]] in accordance with the “Station of Abraham” designation found in the Qurʾān ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/2/verse/125/print Q 2:125]). ʿUmar had the area surrounding the Kaaba expanded and enclosed by a wall, thereby laying the foundation for the [[w:Masjid_al-Haram|Masjid al-Ḥarām]] as an independent structure. As a new devotional practice during Ramadan, ʿUmar introduced the nightly Tarāwīḥ prayers, in which extended pauses ([[w:Tarawih|tarāwīḥ]]) are interspersed between a large number of prayer cycles. 

During ʿUmar’s caliphate, important changes were also made in the area of gender order, which continue to serve as norms to this day. For example, ʿUmar instituted death by stoning as the punishment for extramarital intercourse ([[w:Zina|zinā]]) committed by individuals who were already married. The Qurʾān prescribes, without regard to a person’s status, a punishment of one hundred lashes and exile for this offense ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/24/verse/2/print Q 24:2f]). ʿUmar justified this measure by invoking the so-called “[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinigungsvers stoning verse],” which, according to his view, had originally been part of the Qurʾān but was later removed from the text. ʿUmar also prohibited the legal institution of temporary marriage ([[w:Nikah_mut%27ah|mutʿah]]), a practice adopted from pre-Islamic Arabia that many Muslims at the time continued to use for short-term sexual relationships.
&lt;!--Linked the German article for the “Stoning Verse” as there isn’t an English version. --&gt;

=== 4.3.4. The Plurality of the Qurʾanic Text === 
A well-known report states that ʿUmar, already during Abū Bakr’s caliphate, was troubled by the fact that many [[w:Qāriʾ|qurrāʾ]] had been killed in the battle against [[w:Musaylima|Musaylima]]. The ''qurrāʾ'', that is, reciters of the Qurʾan, were those who had memorized it. Fearing that such losses might ultimately result in the loss of knowledge of the sacred text itself, he advised Abū Bakr to commission a compilation of the Qurʾan. [[w:Zayd_ibn_Thabit|Zayd ibn Thābit]], one of Muḥammad’s scribes (cf. above, [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 03#3.2.5. The Gradual Growth of the Prophet’s Authority|3.2.5.]]), was entrusted with this task. Zayd transcribed what he had collected onto sheets (''ṣuḥuf'') and handed them over to Abū Bakr. However, there is no evidence that this “collection” was recognized as authoritative at the time. Nonetheless, it appears that ʿUmar was in possession of this compilation at the beginning of his caliphate.

In addition to ʿUmar’s collection, a number of other codices were in circulation during his time, the four most prominent being those of [[w:Ubayy_ibn_Ka%27b|Ubayy ibn Kaʿb]], [[w:Abd_Allah_ibn_Mas%27ud|ʿAbdallāh ibn Masʿūd]], [[w:Abu_Musa_al-Ash%27ari|Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī]], and [[w:Miqdad_ibn_Aswad|Miqdād ibn al-Aswad]]. Like Zayd ibn Thābit, Ubayy had served as one of the Prophet’s scribes and had already transcribed his proclamations during his lifetime (cf. above, [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 03#3.2.5. The Gradual Growth of the Prophet’s Authority|3.2.5.]]). Both ʿAbdallāh ibn Masʿūd, a Bedouin, and Miqdād ibn ʿAmr were among the earliest Muslims and had memorized the Qurʾan solely through oral transmission. Miqdād was stationed in Syria during the caliphate of ʿUmar, while ʿAbdallāh ibn Masʿūd was sent by ʿUmar to Kufa in 642 to serve as ''qāḍī''. Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī, of Yemeni origin, had joined the Prophet in 628 during the siege of [[w:Khaybar|Khaybar]]. In 638, ʿUmar appointed him governor of Basra. As for the dissemination of the codices compiled by these individuals, the people of Damascus adhered to the reading of Ubayy; those of Kufa to that of Ibn Masʿūd; those of Basra to that of Abū Mūsā; and the inhabitants of Homs to that of Miqdād. The prominence of the codices of Ibn Masʿūd and Abū Mūsā in Kufa and Basra, respectively, can certainly be attributed to the fact that both men held official positions in those cities. Despite Ubayy’s residence in Medina, the use of his collection in Damascus suggests that it had attained transregional significance by that time. 
&lt;!-- linked Miqdād ibn Aswad --&gt;

The legitimacy of these various versions of the Qurʾanic text was supported by reports stating that the Prophet himself, during his lifetime, reassured companions who were concerned about the differences among the circulating versions, telling them that the Qurʾan had been revealed in seven modes ([[w:Ahruf|ʿalā sabʿati aḥruf]]). Ubayy played a key role in the transmission of these reports. In some cases, the textual differences between the various versions were considerable. For example, in [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/3/verse/19/print Surah 3:19], the collection of Ibn Masʿūd states the name of the religion not as Islam, but as ''Hanīfiyya''. 
&lt;!-- linked Ahruf --&gt;

== 4.4. ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (644–656) – “Representative of God” ==
=== 4.4.1. Nepotism and Self-Enrichment among the Umayyads ===
After ʿUmar’s death, the [[w:Election_of_Uthman#Members|consultative council]] he had established, comprising distinguished Companions of the Prophet, convened to choose his successor. It consisted of six men: [[w:Uthman|ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān]], [[w:Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]], [[w:Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Awf|ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf]], [[w:Talha_ibn_Ubayd_Allah|Ṭalḥa ibn ʿUbayd Allāh]], [[w:Zubayr_ibn_al-Awwam|al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām]], and [[w:Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas|Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ]]. Of the individuals mentioned, only ʿAlī and ʿUthmān harbored aspirations to the succession. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān withdrew his candidacy on the condition that, in the event of disagreement, the task of arbitration would be entrusted to him. Since Saʿd voted for ʿAlī and al-Zubayr for ʿUthmān, but Ṭalḥa was absent, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān assumed the role of arbitrator. After consulting with the leaders of the Qurayshite clans, he [[w:Election_of_Uthman|chose ʿUthmān]], who thereby became the new caliph. ʿUthmān belonged to the [[w:Umayyad_dynasty|Umayyads]], a family within the [[w:Banu_Abd-Shams|clan of ʿAbd Shams]]. It is likely that this ''nasab'' ultimately proved decisive in the final consensus on ʿUthmān. In any case, the elevation of the Umayyad ʿUthmān already foreshadowed what would soon become the first Islamic dynasty, which emerged from the Umayyad family.
&lt;!-- Linked Election_of_Uthman and section on committee members --&gt;

{{Anchor|Marwan}}
Shortly after assuming office, ʿUthmān began appointing his relatives to key governorships. Syria had already been under the control of the Umayyad [[w:Mu%27awiya_I|Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān]] since the caliphate of ʿUmar. He was the son of [[w:Abu_Sufyan_ibn_Harb|Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb]], a former adversary of Muḥammad. Umayyads were now also appointed as governors in Kūfa and Egypt. Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ, the founder of Kūfa, was replaced by ʿUthmān’s kinsman, [[w:Al-Walid_ibn_Uqba|al-Walīd ibn ʿUqba]]. [[w:Amr_ibn_al-As|ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ]], the conqueror of Egypt — who had successfully repelled a Byzantine attempt to reconquer the region in 645 — was replaced as governor by [[w:Abd_Allah_ibn_Sa%27d|ʿAbdallāh ibn Abī Sarḥ]], a cousin of ʿUthmān with a questionable past (see above, [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 03#3.2.3. Other Opponents of Muḥammad|3.2.3.]]). When complaints arose in 649/50 about the governor of Basra, [[w:Abu_Musa_al-Ash%27ari|Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī]], that post too was assigned to an Umayyad, namely [[w:Abd_Allah_ibn_Amir|ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿĀmir]]. [[w:Marwan_I|Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam]], also an Umayyad, rose to become the caliph’s closest advisor. This nepotistic policy led to an estrangement between the caliph and the council of the Prophet’s Companions who had appointed him to the office.
&lt;!-- Linked  al-Walīd ibn ʿUqba --&gt;

[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb| The Expansion of the Islamic Empire Toward the End of ʿUthmān’s Caliphate]]
Nevertheless, the conquests under ʿUthmān and his governors continued successfully. As early as 642, Muʿāwiya had dispatched the general [[w:Habib_ibn_Maslama_al-Fihri|Ḥabīb ibn Maslama]] from Damascus to lead a campaign in the [[w:Caucasus_Mountains|Caucasus]]. In 645, he succeeded in capturing the Georgian capital [[w:Tbilisi|Tiflis]], and by 652, he had brought Armenia under submission. Moreover, Muʿāwiya established a fleet in the Syrian port cities, seized [[w:Geography_of_Cyprus|Cyprus]] in 649, and pushed Byzantium back from the eastern Mediterranean. From [[w:Fustat|al-Fusṭāṭ]], ʿAbdallāh ibn Abī Sarḥ launched expeditions westward along the North African coast, capturing [[w:Tripolitania|Tripolitania]] in 647. In 652, he also subdued [[w:Upper_Egypt|Upper Egypt]] and brought the Kingdom of [[w:Nubia|Nubia]] into a tributary relationship with the Islamic state. To oversee Nubia’s tribute payments, a military garrison was stationed in the city of Syene (modern-day [[w:Aswan|Aswan]]). With the capture of [[w:Persepolis|Persepolis]] in 650, ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿĀmir completed the conquest of [[w:Persis|Persis]] ([[w:Fars_province|Fārs]]), and in 651/2, he occupied the northeastern Sasanian province of [[w:Greater_Khorasan|Khurāsān]], including the cities of [[w:Nishapur|Nishapur]], [[w:Merv|Merv]], [[w:Balkh|Balkh]], and [[w:Herat|Herat]]. That same year, the Sasanian ruler [[w:Yazdegerd_III|Yazdegerd III]] was assassinated in Merv, marking the definitive end of the [[w:Sasanian_Empire|Sasanian dynasty]].
&lt;!-- Linked Ḥabīb ibn Maslama --&gt;

However, ʿUthmān became increasingly unpopular for withholding a portion of the lands acquired during the futūḥ — lands that, in the view of the Muslim fighters, rightfully belonged to the entire Muslim community — and distributing them as land grants (''qaṭāʾiʿ'') among his governors and relatives. He justified this practice by invoking the Qur’anic principle of the “fifth” ([[w:Khums|khums]]; cf. Q [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/8/verse/41/print 8:41]). Even some of the Prophet’s Companions, such as Ṭalḥa, received generous land grants. One of ʿUthmān’s relatives, who served as governor in Iraq, went so far as to declare that the fertile lands of Iraq —the so-called [[w:Sawad|sawād]]— had become the “garden of the Quraysh,” in other words, effectively the property of the tribe. ʿAbdallāh ibn Abī Sarḥ, ʿUthmān’s governor in Egypt, also became known for his increasingly exploitative methods, using the wealth thus acquired to build himself a lavish palace there. This approach alone, when compared with ʿUmar’s directives on construction, marked a troubling shift.
&lt;!-- linked khums and sawād
-Landgüter (qaṭāʾiʿ): I used the translation “(land) grants” as in the Brill publication: https://brill.com/display/title/39402 --&gt;

In contrast to his predecessors, ʿUthmān claimed divine sanction for his rule. In his official documents, he no longer referred to himself as “Representative of the Messenger of God” (''khalīfat rasūl Allāh''), but instead as “Representative of God” (''khalīfat Allāh''). In doing so, he positioned himself as a successor to [[w:David_in_Islam|King David]], of whom God says in the Qurʾān ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/38/verse/26/print 38:26]) that He appointed him as His representative on earth to judge between people with truth. This model of the caliphate was later adopted by nearly all rulers who claimed this title for themselves.
&lt;!-- linked “David in Islam” instead of the main David article --&gt;

[[Category:Islamic Studies]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cray J90 (computer)</title>
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      <id>2717871</id>
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      <text bytes="17127" sha1="5jvi9fi5qcmgyn4dt4242ujbwzzir2t" xml:space="preserve">{{Under construction|This page is under construction. Content is likely to be revised significantly until September 2025}}
[[File:Cray J90 Series.jpg|thumb|right|A Cray J90 series system. The CPU/memory mainframe cabinet is at right; The IO Subsystem cabinet is at left.]]

The [[w:Cray J90|Cray J90]] series was a [[w:minisupercomputer|minisupercomputer]] manufactured by [[w:Cray|Cray Research]] from 1994 - 1998. This learning resource documents the restoration of a model J916 that was donated to the [[commons:Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island|Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island]] (RCS/RI) historic computer collection. 

These systems have multiple [[w:Scalar processor|scalar]]/[[w:Vector processor|vector]] parallel processors.  Unlike larger, more powerful, supercomputers that required [[w:Computer_cooling#Liquid_cooling|liquid cooling]], these used [[w:Computer_cooling#Air_cooling|air cooling]].

Index of Cray J90 Wikiversity subpages:
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Cray J90 (computer)/|hideredirect=1|stripprefix=1}}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== Hardware ==

[[File:Cray J90 Service WorkStation.jpg|thumb|right|The SPARCstation 5 System Workstation is the console for the Cray J90.]]
=== System WorkStation (SWS) ===

* [[w:SPARCstation 5|SPARCstation 5]] Node: &lt;code&gt;hbar&lt;/code&gt;
** [[w:SBus|SBus]]
*** 10base5 / 10base2 Ethernet
*** quad twisted pair Ethernet

=== IO Subsystem (IOS) ===

* [[w:VMEbus|VMEbus]]

# IOP - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950023
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 6B 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050023&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios0&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
#** tape drive
#** CDROM
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# EI-1 – System Ethernet 
# DC-6S - Disk Controller (SCSI) 
#* 2c x 2t x 9.11 GB (36.44 GB formatted) specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; for each disk:
#** [https://dbgweb.net/product/90360800-a2/ Interphase H4220W-005] SCSI-2 Fast Wide High Voltage Differential controller
#** [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/seagate/scsi/elite/83328860C_ST410800_Elite_9_Product_Manual_Vol_1_199409.pdf Seagate ST410800WD Elite 9] 
#** 10.8 GB unformatted capacity
#** 9.08 GB formatted capacity
#** 5,400 rpm
#** 7.2 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#** 4.2 – 6.2 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#** 1.7 – 23.5 ms access time (11.5 ms average)
#** Aggregate transfer rate capacity of controller is unknown
#** Maximum number of drives per controller is unknown
# (empty)
# (empty)
# IOP - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950078
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 9E 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050078&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios1&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# DC-5I - Disk Controller (IPI) 
#* 2c x 2t x 3.4 GB (13.6 GB unformatted) specss&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; for each disk:
#** Xylogics SV7800 IPI-2 controller
#** Seagate ST43200K Elite 3
#** 3.4 GB unformatted capacity
#** 2.75 GB formatted capacity
#** 5,400 rpm
#** 12.4 MB/s peak transfer rate (unformatted)
#** 9.5 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#** 6 - 8.5 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#** 1.7 – 24 ms access time (11.5 average)
#**  “The DC-5I disk controller is an intelligent and high-performance controller that can sustain the peak rates of four drives simultaneously to mainframe memory. You can attach up to four DD-5I drives to a DC-5I controller.”s&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;
# (empty) 
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
* Allied Telesis CentreCOM 470 MAU with 4 AUI and 1 10bse2

VME slots are labeled C1 – C20 in a 6-4-6-4 slot arrangement. Any of the four sections could be (but are not) jumpered to an adjacent section.

* VME0 C1 – C6
* VME1 C7 – C10
* VME2 C11 – C16
* VME3 C17 – C20

Note: the disk controller notation used here is [c]ontroller, SCSI [t]arget address, and [GB] capacity.

Spare FDDI VME card: Interphase H04211-004

New SCSI array: [https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19696-01/805-2624-12/805-2624-12.pdf StorEdge D1000]. (6 X 18GB)

The IOS (IO Subsystem) contains two IOPs (IO Processors, each with its own VME backplane) running the [[w:VxWorks|VxWorks]] IOS-V operating system.

Need to locate some disks and cables to connect the new disk array to the VME SCSI controller. We just need a small number of low capacity disks with a decent seek time.

Need to check the MAC addresses on the Themis IOPs to see if they match our custom config file. Also, document IP address mappings for MACs. The IOPs use the 10/8 private subnet.

[[File:Cray J90 Central Control Unit.jpg|thumb|right|A CCU showing an LED lamp test.]]

=== Central Control Unit (CCU) ===

* On the Cray Y-MP EL and EL98 the LED panel batteries take 36 hours to charge and last for 72 hours. The J90 uses four Eveready CH50 cells; these are standard D size Ni-Cd cells at 1.2 V and 1.8 Ah. These will be replaced with EBL Ni-MH cells at 1.2 V and 10.0 Ah. With these new batteries it takes about 10 hours to fully charge discharged batteries with a standard charger. There is a switch on the back of the CCU to disable the batteries to prevent them from discharging while the system is off.

=== Mainframe ===

Serial number: 9109. Node: &lt;code&gt;boson&lt;/code&gt;
# MEM0
# MEM1
# CPU0 with two Y1 channels
# CPU1
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)

[[File:Cray J90 CPU module.jpg|thumb|right|A 4 CPU scalar/vector Cray J90 processor module.]]

* Our specific model is J916/8-1024 (J90 series with a backplane that has space for eight modules. The backplane is only wired for four modules. There are two boards with a total of eight CPUs and two memory boards with a total of 1 GB RAM total. (We need to verify RAM size.) Based on the IOP JTAG boundary scan results, all of the eight processors are enabled.
* J90 Series: “The allowable backplane types are 1x1, 2x2, 4x4, and 8x8. There can be up to 8 processor modules with each module containing 4 CPUs. There can be up to 8 memory modules with a combined range of 0.25 to 4 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; It is not clear if Cray ever manufactured or sold a 1x1 J916 backplane.
* J90se series: “The Cray J90se mainframe runs the UNICOS operating system. It allows backplane types of 2x2, 4x4, or 8x8 processor modules. A Cray J98 system has up to 2 processor modules for a total of 8 CPUs. A Cray J916 system has up to 4 processor modules for a total of 16 CPUs. A Cray J932 system has up to 8 processor modules for a total of 32 CPUs. The combined memory capacity of these configurations ranges from 0.50 to 32 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; (J90se is “scaler enhanced; the scaler processors are upgraded from 100 to 200 MHz, but the vector processors are still 100 MHz.)
* &quot;Memory has a peak bandwidth of 32 words per clock period (CP) (25.6 Gbytes/s) for a 4 X 4 backplane (J916) configuration and 16 words per CP (12.8 Gbytes/s) for a 2 X 2 backplane (J98) configuration.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;
* &quot;Data travels from a peripheral device, across a data channel to the device controller and then from the device controller, across the VMEbus to the I/O buffer board (IOBB). From the IOBB, data travels to the mainframe memory through the 50-Mbyte/s data channel.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;

== Installed software ==

=== CDROM install media ===

* CrayDocs for UNICOS 8.0.3 March 1994
* J90 Console Install v 1.3 3/14/95
* UNICOS 10.0.0.5 Install May 1999
{Note: the CrayDocs and Console Install are seriously incompatible with UNICOS v. 10.}

=== Software versions ===

* SWS
** Solaris 7 / SunOS 5.7 / November 1998
** Cray console software

* IOS
** IOS-V Kernel 3.0.0.5 97/10/16 15:44:46 (installed)

* Mainframe
** UNICOS

== Installation ==

“If you need to power-cycle the machine, you must press the CPU reset button first followed by the VME reset button on the control panel. Failure to press the reset buttons in this order will cause the power-up diagnostic tests to fail.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; This is an important note that I missed.

Release contents:
* IOS tar file
* Install tar file
* Generic UNICOS file system
* Generic system files
* UNICOS binaries

Read in the files from the install CD:
* Usage of the &lt;code&gt;/src&lt;/code&gt; partition is decreasing; the &lt;code&gt;/opt&lt;/code&gt; partition is used to store the installation and IOS-related files
* The install script is &lt;code&gt;./setup&lt;/code&gt; and it asks for the four digit serial number. This can be found on a plate on the back of the mainframe cabinet. The EL series serial numbers are 5nnn. Serial numbers 9nnn are J916 backplane; serial numbers 95nn are J932 backplane. &quot;In 1996 350 Cray J90 systems where shipped the large part of the total of 415 J90 systems. Some J90 systems are being converted to SV1 chassis just to keep the records complicated.&quot;&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt; Serial numbers 3nnn are SV-1.&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt;
* There is a &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account and an &lt;code&gt;ios&lt;/code&gt; group account
* “Loads the opt. tar file from the CD into &lt;code&gt;/opt/install&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;/opt/local&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;/opt/packages&lt;/code&gt;”
* “Establishes the J90 Console script (&lt;code&gt;jcon&lt;/code&gt;) script for the master lOS”
* “Sets up the &lt;code&gt;BOOTPD&lt;/code&gt; daemon”
* “Updates the following Solaris network files in &lt;code&gt;/etc&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;code&gt;inetd.conf&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;services&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;/code&gt;hostname.le1&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;netmasks&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;hosts&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;nsswitch.conf&lt;/code&gt;”
* Reboot
* Log in with the &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account using the password of &lt;code&gt;initial0&lt;/code&gt;.

Cray Load Optional Async Product Relocatables. Versions of UNICOS 9.0 and later automatically load this optional software.
* User Exits
* Tape Daemon
* Ultra
* Kerberos / Enigma
* Secure - Id
* NQS
* Accounting user - exits

Use &lt;code&gt;fold -80 logfile | more&lt;/code&gt; to view &lt;code&gt;/opt/install/log/xxxx&lt;/code&gt;, where xxxx is the serial number. Otherwise, vi and other editors will truncate the long lines of text making it unreadable.

Right mouse click on the OpenWindows root X window will show menu options for J90 Console and J90 Install Menu.

“If you are performing an initial install starting from CD-ROM, after running the Load Binaries procedure, you must quit the J90 Install Utility and restart it before continuing the installation. This avoids an lOS reset problem between the CD-ROM version of Load Binaries and the J90 UNICOS 9.0.2 version.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; Another important note that I missed.

Configuration files containing the ASICs chip information.
&lt;pre&gt;
/sys/pm0.cfg	# Processor Module configuration
/sys/mem0.cfg	# Memory Module Configuration
&lt;/pre&gt;

The UNICOS &lt;code&gt;root&lt;/code&gt; password is &lt;code&gt;initial&lt;/code&gt;. Run &lt;code&gt;mkfs /core&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;mkdump&lt;/code&gt;. 

After installation there are two disk partitions &lt;code&gt;roota/usra/srca&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;rootb/usrb/srcb&lt;/code&gt; for both a live boot and an alternate root used for upgrade. We need to install double the original disk space to accommodate the archive of the original disk arrays and a fresh install.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Recommended minimum partition sizes
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Partition
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4k blocks
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | MB
|-
| root
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 110,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 440
|-
| usr
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 190,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 760
|-
| src
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 120,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 480
|-
| opt
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 150,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 600
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | total
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 570,000
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,280
|}

Use &lt;code&gt;CONTROL-A&lt;/code&gt; to toggle between the IOS-V and UNICOS consoles.

== Administration ==

“Device recommendations: To avoid contention, you should configure the /usr file system on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the root (/) file system resides.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“On baseline systems however, only swap is recommended as a striped disk. Striping is best used only for large I/O moves, such as swapping.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“Device recommendations: If two or more lOSs are present, to avoid contention, you should configure /tmp and /home on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the frequently accessed system file systems and logical devices reside. This file system is best handled by allocating slices from several different disks to compose the logical file system. This disk allocation strategy is called banding.””&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

Banding is concatenating a bunch of disks to create a larger logical disk. Unlike striping, the banded disks can vary in size. Striping requires disks that are closely identical in raw capacity. I’ve seen no indication that the cray can do other levels of RAID.

Banding partitions / file systems:
&lt;pre&gt;
/usr/src
/tmp
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Startup ==

Describe power up procedure

Details of SWS, IOS, and mainframe initialization and boot

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=
* &lt;ref name=admin&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Basic Administration Guide for CRAY J90 and CRAY EL Series |origyear=1994 |origmonth=March |url=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-2416_UNICOS_Basic_Administration_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_and_CRAY_EL_Series_8.0.3.2_Feb95.pdf  |accessdate=24 March 2025 |date=February 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-2416 8.0.3.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=install&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Installation Guide for Cray J90 Series |origyear=1995 |origmonth=March |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-5271_UNICOS_Installation_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_Series_9.0.2_Apr96.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1996 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-5271 9.0.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=overview&gt;{{cite book |title=CRAY J98 and CRAY J916 Systems Hardware Overview |origyear=1995 |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMM-094-A-Hardware_Overview_for_CRAY_J916_System-April_1998.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1998 |publisher=Cray Research / Silicon Graphics |id=HMM-094-B }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=faq3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://0x07bell.net/WWWMASTER/CrayWWWStuff/Cfaqp3.html#TOC3 |title=Cray Research and Cray computers FAQ Part 3 |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date=December 2003 |website=Cray Supercomputer FAQ and other documents |publisher= |access-date=28  May 2025 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==

=== Wikimedia resources ===

* [[Scientific computing]] &lt;small&gt;General info about scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Scientific computing/History]] &lt;small&gt;A brief history of scientific computing through the mid-1970s.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Cosmological simulations]] &lt;small&gt;An example of one type of scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
{{Wikipedia | lang=en |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island}}

=== Cray documentation ===

* {{cite book |title=CRAY IOS-V Commands Reference Manual |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SR-2170_CRAY_IOS-V_Commands_Reference_8.0.3.2_Mar95.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=March 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SR2170 8.0.3.2 }}
* {{cite book |title=CF77 Compiling System, Volume 3: Vectorization Guide |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/UNICOS/5.0_1989/SG-3073_5.0_CF77_Vol3_Vectorization_Guide_Aug91.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=August 1991 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG 3073 5.0 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://cray-history.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/J90_JustRightForYou.pdf |title=The CRAY J916 System - Just Right For You |date=1994 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |access-date24 May 2025= }}
* {{cite journal |last=Qualters |first=Irene M. |year=1995 |title=Cray Research Software Report |journal=CUG 1995 Spring Proceedings |url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S95PROC/3_5.PDF |accessdate=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/ |title=Index of /cray_docs/hw/j90/ |last=Tantos |first=Andras |date=2021-07-01 |website=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator |publisher=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator
 |access-date=24 May 2025 }}

=== Informational sites ===

* {{cite web |url=https://cray-history.net/cray-history-front/fom-home/cray-j90-range/ |title=Cray J90 Range |website=Cray-History.net |access-date=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://fornaxchimiae.blogspot.com/p/cray-j90.html |title=Cray Jedi |last=Umbricht |first=Michael L. |author-link=User:Mu301 |date=August 15, 2019 |website=Fornax Chimiæ |publisher=Retro-Computing Society of RI |access-date=24 May 2025 |quote=&lt;small&gt;Restoration of a Cray J90 series parallel vector processing system at RCS/RI&lt;/small&gt; }}

[[Category:Cray J90|*]]
[[Category:Retrocomputing]]
[[Category:Frequently asked questions]]
[[Category:Howtos]]</text>
      <sha1>5jvi9fi5qcmgyn4dt4242ujbwzzir2t</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2717875</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <text bytes="17215" sha1="hgl148uqht218ockrts6xlyk1wbcyan" xml:space="preserve">{{Under construction|This page is under construction. Content is likely to be revised significantly until September 2025}}
[[File:Cray J90 Series.jpg|thumb|right|A Cray J90 series system. The CPU/memory mainframe cabinet is at right; The IO Subsystem cabinet is at left.]]

The [[w:Cray J90|Cray J90]] series was a [[w:minisupercomputer|minisupercomputer]] manufactured by [[w:Cray|Cray Research]] from 1994 - 1998. This learning resource documents the restoration of a model J916 that was donated to the [[commons:Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island|Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island]] (RCS/RI) historic computer collection. 

These systems have multiple [[w:Scalar processor|scalar]]/[[w:Vector processor|vector]] parallel processors.  Unlike larger, more powerful, supercomputers that required [[w:Computer_cooling#Liquid_cooling|liquid cooling]], these used [[w:Computer_cooling#Air_cooling|air cooling]].

Index of Cray J90 Wikiversity subpages:
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Cray J90 (computer)/|hideredirect=1|stripprefix=1}}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== Hardware ==

[[File:Cray J90 Service WorkStation.jpg|thumb|right|The SPARCstation 5 System Workstation is the console for the Cray J90.]]
=== System WorkStation (SWS) ===

* [[w:SPARCstation 5|SPARCstation 5]] Node: &lt;code&gt;hbar&lt;/code&gt;
** [[w:SBus|SBus]]
*** 10base5 / 10base2 Ethernet
*** quad twisted pair Ethernet

=== IO Subsystem (IOS) ===

* [[w:VMEbus|VMEbus]]

# IOP - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950023
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 6B 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050023&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios0&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
#** tape drive
#** CDROM
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# EI-1 – System Ethernet 
# DC-6S - Disk Controller (SCSI) 
#* 2c x 2t x 9.11 GB (36.44 GB formatted) specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; for each disk:
#** [https://dbgweb.net/product/90360800-a2/ Interphase H4220W-005] SCSI-2 Fast Wide High Voltage Differential controller
#** [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/seagate/scsi/elite/83328860C_ST410800_Elite_9_Product_Manual_Vol_1_199409.pdf Seagate ST410800WD Elite 9] 
#** 10.8 GB unformatted capacity
#** 9.08 GB formatted capacity
#** 5,400 rpm
#** 7.2 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#** 4.2 – 6.2 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#** 1.7 – 23.5 ms access time (11.5 ms average)
#** Aggregate transfer rate capacity of controller is unknown
#** Maximum number of drives per controller is unknown
# (empty)
# (empty)
# IOP - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950078
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 9E 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050078&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios1&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# DC-5I - Disk Controller (IPI) 
#* 2c x 2t x 3.4 GB (13.6 GB unformatted) specss&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; for each disk:
#** Xylogics SV7800 IPI-2 controller
#** Seagate ST43200K Elite 3
#** 3.4 GB unformatted capacity
#** 2.75 GB formatted capacity
#** 5,400 rpm
#** 12.4 MB/s peak transfer rate (unformatted)
#** 9.5 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#** 6 - 8.5 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#** 1.7 – 24 ms access time (11.5 average)
#**  “The DC-5I disk controller is an intelligent and high-performance controller that can sustain the peak rates of four drives simultaneously to mainframe memory. You can attach up to four DD-5I drives to a DC-5I controller.”s&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;
# (empty) 
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
* Allied Telesis CentreCOM 470 MAU with 4 AUI and 1 10bse2

VME slots are labeled C1 – C20 in a 6-4-6-4 slot arrangement. Any of the four sections could be (but are not) jumpered to an adjacent section.

* VME0 C1 – C6
* VME1 C7 – C10
* VME2 C11 – C16
* VME3 C17 – C20

Note: the disk controller notation used here is [c]ontroller, SCSI [t]arget address, and [GB] capacity.

Spare FDDI VME card: Interphase H04211-004

New SCSI array: [https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19696-01/805-2624-12/805-2624-12.pdf Sun StorEdge D1000]. (6 X [https://www.seagate.com/support/disc/manuals/scsi/29471c.pdf Seagate ST150176LC] SE/LVD)

The IOS (IO Subsystem) contains two IOPs (IO Processors, each with its own VME backplane) running the [[w:VxWorks|VxWorks]] IOS-V operating system.

Need to locate some disks and cables to connect the new disk array to the VME SCSI controller. We just need a small number of low capacity disks with a decent seek time.

Need to check the MAC addresses on the Themis IOPs to see if they match our custom config file. Also, document IP address mappings for MACs. The IOPs use the 10/8 private subnet.

[[File:Cray J90 Central Control Unit.jpg|thumb|right|A CCU showing an LED lamp test.]]

=== Central Control Unit (CCU) ===

* On the Cray Y-MP EL and EL98 the LED panel batteries take 36 hours to charge and last for 72 hours. The J90 uses four Eveready CH50 cells; these are standard D size Ni-Cd cells at 1.2 V and 1.8 Ah. These will be replaced with EBL Ni-MH cells at 1.2 V and 10.0 Ah. With these new batteries it takes about 10 hours to fully charge discharged batteries with a standard charger. There is a switch on the back of the CCU to disable the batteries to prevent them from discharging while the system is off.

=== Mainframe ===

Serial number: 9109. Node: &lt;code&gt;boson&lt;/code&gt;
# MEM0
# MEM1
# CPU0 with two Y1 channels
# CPU1
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)

[[File:Cray J90 CPU module.jpg|thumb|right|A 4 CPU scalar/vector Cray J90 processor module.]]

* Our specific model is J916/8-1024 (J90 series with a backplane that has space for eight modules. The backplane is only wired for four modules. There are two boards with a total of eight CPUs and two memory boards with a total of 1 GB RAM total. (We need to verify RAM size.) Based on the IOP JTAG boundary scan results, all of the eight processors are enabled.
* J90 Series: “The allowable backplane types are 1x1, 2x2, 4x4, and 8x8. There can be up to 8 processor modules with each module containing 4 CPUs. There can be up to 8 memory modules with a combined range of 0.25 to 4 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; It is not clear if Cray ever manufactured or sold a 1x1 J916 backplane.
* J90se series: “The Cray J90se mainframe runs the UNICOS operating system. It allows backplane types of 2x2, 4x4, or 8x8 processor modules. A Cray J98 system has up to 2 processor modules for a total of 8 CPUs. A Cray J916 system has up to 4 processor modules for a total of 16 CPUs. A Cray J932 system has up to 8 processor modules for a total of 32 CPUs. The combined memory capacity of these configurations ranges from 0.50 to 32 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; (J90se is “scaler enhanced; the scaler processors are upgraded from 100 to 200 MHz, but the vector processors are still 100 MHz.)
* &quot;Memory has a peak bandwidth of 32 words per clock period (CP) (25.6 Gbytes/s) for a 4 X 4 backplane (J916) configuration and 16 words per CP (12.8 Gbytes/s) for a 2 X 2 backplane (J98) configuration.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;
* &quot;Data travels from a peripheral device, across a data channel to the device controller and then from the device controller, across the VMEbus to the I/O buffer board (IOBB). From the IOBB, data travels to the mainframe memory through the 50-Mbyte/s data channel.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;

== Installed software ==

=== CDROM install media ===

* CrayDocs for UNICOS 8.0.3 March 1994
* J90 Console Install v 1.3 3/14/95
* UNICOS 10.0.0.5 Install May 1999
{Note: the CrayDocs and Console Install are seriously incompatible with UNICOS v. 10.}

=== Software versions ===

* SWS
** Solaris 7 / SunOS 5.7 / November 1998
** Cray console software

* IOS
** IOS-V Kernel 3.0.0.5 97/10/16 15:44:46 (installed)

* Mainframe
** UNICOS

== Installation ==

“If you need to power-cycle the machine, you must press the CPU reset button first followed by the VME reset button on the control panel. Failure to press the reset buttons in this order will cause the power-up diagnostic tests to fail.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; This is an important note that I missed.

Release contents:
* IOS tar file
* Install tar file
* Generic UNICOS file system
* Generic system files
* UNICOS binaries

Read in the files from the install CD:
* Usage of the &lt;code&gt;/src&lt;/code&gt; partition is decreasing; the &lt;code&gt;/opt&lt;/code&gt; partition is used to store the installation and IOS-related files
* The install script is &lt;code&gt;./setup&lt;/code&gt; and it asks for the four digit serial number. This can be found on a plate on the back of the mainframe cabinet. The EL series serial numbers are 5nnn. Serial numbers 9nnn are J916 backplane; serial numbers 95nn are J932 backplane. &quot;In 1996 350 Cray J90 systems where shipped the large part of the total of 415 J90 systems. Some J90 systems are being converted to SV1 chassis just to keep the records complicated.&quot;&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt; Serial numbers 3nnn are SV-1.&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt;
* There is a &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account and an &lt;code&gt;ios&lt;/code&gt; group account
* “Loads the opt. tar file from the CD into &lt;code&gt;/opt/install&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;/opt/local&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;/opt/packages&lt;/code&gt;”
* “Establishes the J90 Console script (&lt;code&gt;jcon&lt;/code&gt;) script for the master lOS”
* “Sets up the &lt;code&gt;BOOTPD&lt;/code&gt; daemon”
* “Updates the following Solaris network files in &lt;code&gt;/etc&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;code&gt;inetd.conf&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;services&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;/code&gt;hostname.le1&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;netmasks&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;hosts&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;nsswitch.conf&lt;/code&gt;”
* Reboot
* Log in with the &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account using the password of &lt;code&gt;initial0&lt;/code&gt;.

Cray Load Optional Async Product Relocatables. Versions of UNICOS 9.0 and later automatically load this optional software.
* User Exits
* Tape Daemon
* Ultra
* Kerberos / Enigma
* Secure - Id
* NQS
* Accounting user - exits

Use &lt;code&gt;fold -80 logfile | more&lt;/code&gt; to view &lt;code&gt;/opt/install/log/xxxx&lt;/code&gt;, where xxxx is the serial number. Otherwise, vi and other editors will truncate the long lines of text making it unreadable.

Right mouse click on the OpenWindows root X window will show menu options for J90 Console and J90 Install Menu.

“If you are performing an initial install starting from CD-ROM, after running the Load Binaries procedure, you must quit the J90 Install Utility and restart it before continuing the installation. This avoids an lOS reset problem between the CD-ROM version of Load Binaries and the J90 UNICOS 9.0.2 version.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; Another important note that I missed.

Configuration files containing the ASICs chip information.
&lt;pre&gt;
/sys/pm0.cfg	# Processor Module configuration
/sys/mem0.cfg	# Memory Module Configuration
&lt;/pre&gt;

The UNICOS &lt;code&gt;root&lt;/code&gt; password is &lt;code&gt;initial&lt;/code&gt;. Run &lt;code&gt;mkfs /core&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;mkdump&lt;/code&gt;. 

After installation there are two disk partitions &lt;code&gt;roota/usra/srca&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;rootb/usrb/srcb&lt;/code&gt; for both a live boot and an alternate root used for upgrade. We need to install double the original disk space to accommodate the archive of the original disk arrays and a fresh install.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Recommended minimum partition sizes
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Partition
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4k blocks
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | MB
|-
| root
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 110,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 440
|-
| usr
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 190,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 760
|-
| src
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 120,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 480
|-
| opt
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 150,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 600
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | total
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 570,000
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,280
|}

Use &lt;code&gt;CONTROL-A&lt;/code&gt; to toggle between the IOS-V and UNICOS consoles.

== Administration ==

“Device recommendations: To avoid contention, you should configure the /usr file system on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the root (/) file system resides.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“On baseline systems however, only swap is recommended as a striped disk. Striping is best used only for large I/O moves, such as swapping.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“Device recommendations: If two or more lOSs are present, to avoid contention, you should configure /tmp and /home on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the frequently accessed system file systems and logical devices reside. This file system is best handled by allocating slices from several different disks to compose the logical file system. This disk allocation strategy is called banding.””&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

Banding is concatenating a bunch of disks to create a larger logical disk. Unlike striping, the banded disks can vary in size. Striping requires disks that are closely identical in raw capacity. I’ve seen no indication that the cray can do other levels of RAID.

Banding partitions / file systems:
&lt;pre&gt;
/usr/src
/tmp
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Startup ==

Describe power up procedure

Details of SWS, IOS, and mainframe initialization and boot

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=
* &lt;ref name=admin&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Basic Administration Guide for CRAY J90 and CRAY EL Series |origyear=1994 |origmonth=March |url=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-2416_UNICOS_Basic_Administration_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_and_CRAY_EL_Series_8.0.3.2_Feb95.pdf  |accessdate=24 March 2025 |date=February 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-2416 8.0.3.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=install&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Installation Guide for Cray J90 Series |origyear=1995 |origmonth=March |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-5271_UNICOS_Installation_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_Series_9.0.2_Apr96.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1996 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-5271 9.0.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=overview&gt;{{cite book |title=CRAY J98 and CRAY J916 Systems Hardware Overview |origyear=1995 |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMM-094-A-Hardware_Overview_for_CRAY_J916_System-April_1998.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1998 |publisher=Cray Research / Silicon Graphics |id=HMM-094-B }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=faq3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://0x07bell.net/WWWMASTER/CrayWWWStuff/Cfaqp3.html#TOC3 |title=Cray Research and Cray computers FAQ Part 3 |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date=December 2003 |website=Cray Supercomputer FAQ and other documents |publisher= |access-date=28  May 2025 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==

=== Wikimedia resources ===

* [[Scientific computing]] &lt;small&gt;General info about scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Scientific computing/History]] &lt;small&gt;A brief history of scientific computing through the mid-1970s.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Cosmological simulations]] &lt;small&gt;An example of one type of scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
{{Wikipedia | lang=en |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island}}

=== Cray documentation ===

* {{cite book |title=CRAY IOS-V Commands Reference Manual |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SR-2170_CRAY_IOS-V_Commands_Reference_8.0.3.2_Mar95.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=March 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SR2170 8.0.3.2 }}
* {{cite book |title=CF77 Compiling System, Volume 3: Vectorization Guide |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/UNICOS/5.0_1989/SG-3073_5.0_CF77_Vol3_Vectorization_Guide_Aug91.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=August 1991 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG 3073 5.0 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://cray-history.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/J90_JustRightForYou.pdf |title=The CRAY J916 System - Just Right For You |date=1994 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |access-date24 May 2025= }}
* {{cite journal |last=Qualters |first=Irene M. |year=1995 |title=Cray Research Software Report |journal=CUG 1995 Spring Proceedings |url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S95PROC/3_5.PDF |accessdate=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/ |title=Index of /cray_docs/hw/j90/ |last=Tantos |first=Andras |date=2021-07-01 |website=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator |publisher=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator
 |access-date=24 May 2025 }}

=== Informational sites ===

* {{cite web |url=https://cray-history.net/cray-history-front/fom-home/cray-j90-range/ |title=Cray J90 Range |website=Cray-History.net |access-date=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://fornaxchimiae.blogspot.com/p/cray-j90.html |title=Cray Jedi |last=Umbricht |first=Michael L. |author-link=User:Mu301 |date=August 15, 2019 |website=Fornax Chimiæ |publisher=Retro-Computing Society of RI |access-date=24 May 2025 |quote=&lt;small&gt;Restoration of a Cray J90 series parallel vector processing system at RCS/RI&lt;/small&gt; }}

[[Category:Cray J90|*]]
[[Category:Retrocomputing]]
[[Category:Frequently asked questions]]
[[Category:Howtos]]</text>
      <sha1>hgl148uqht218ockrts6xlyk1wbcyan</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cray J90 (computer)/FAQ</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>321932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2717869</id>
      <parentid>2717836</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-03T19:06:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mu301</username>
        <id>3705</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="3474" sha1="thgvenhqy8whplszzfit5jafglmjwr0" xml:space="preserve">{{Under construction|This page is under construction. Content is likely to be revised significantly until September 2025}}

These are (in)frequently asked questions and answers about the Cray J90 series along with trivia and other info.

=== J916 system specifications === 

(From the original 1994 announcement.&lt;ref name=computerworld /&gt;)
* Number of processors: 4 to 16
* Peak performance: 200 MFLOPS per CPU
* Memory capacity: 500M bytes to 4G bytes
* Memory bandwidth: 25.6G bytes per second
* Number of I/O subsystems: 1 to 16
* List price: $225,000 to $2 million

=== Software versions ===

* System WorkStation (SWS)
** Solaris 2.4 / SunOS 5.4 / November 1994
** Solaris 2.5 / SunOS 5.5 / November 1995
** Solaris 2.5.1 / SunOS 5.5.1 / May 1996
** Solaris 2.6 / SunOS 5.6 / July 1997
** Solaris 7 / SunOS 5.7 / November 1998

* Cray console software

* IO Subsystem (IOS)
** IOS-V Kernel 3.0.0.5 97/10/16 15:44:46 (VxWorks)

* Mainframe
** UNICOS 8.0.3.2J / March 1995 (initial J90 version)
** UNICOS 8.04A / June 1995
** UNICOS 8.04B / July 1995
** UNICOS 8.0.4.1 / September 1995
** UNICOS 8.0.4.2 / November 1995
** UNICOS 9.0.2 / April 1996
** UNICOS 9.2 / January 1997 (J90se and GigaRing support added)
** UNICOS 9.3 / August 1997
** UNICOS 10.0. / November 1997
** UNICOS 10.0.0.2 / May 1998 (last version to support IOS-V?)
** UNICOS 10.0.0.8 and later (SV1 support added)

== Trivia ==

The R/J98 was an 8 processor J916 backplane with two quad processor modules in a ruggedized configuration. It was produced in partnership with Rugged Digital Systems, a DmC business unit. The company was founded in 1982 and provided ruggedized computer systems based on DEC's VAX and other architectures for industrial, field, and military uses.&lt;ref name=signal /&gt;

The MARQUISE demonstration project was used to &quot;shrink a 4 processor, 1 GByte memory version of the Cray J90 supercomputer from a cabinet system down to a form factor suitable for a 19 inch rack. Weight is reduced by 75% and volume is reduced by 80%.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;embedded&quot; /&gt;

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=
* &lt;ref name=signal&gt;{{cite journal |year=1994 |month=November |title=Rugged Cray power, rugged Cray performance |journal=Signal |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=52 |issn=0037-4938 |publisher=Armed Forces Communications and Electronics Association |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Ig-AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PA52#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |accessdate=2025-05-24 |quote= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=&quot;embedded&quot;&gt;{{cite conference |url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S97PROC/AUTHORS/CULHANE/INDEX.HTM |title=MARQUISE - An Embedded High Performance Computer Demonstration |last1=Culhane |first1=Candy |last2=Boudreaux |first2=Paul J. |last3=Sienski |first3=Ken |date=September 1997 |conference=Thirty-Ninth Semi-Annual Cray User Group Meeting |conference-url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S97PROC/INDEX.HTM |editor=Bob and Karen Winget |book-title=Seismic Supercomputing |series=Cray User Group Proceedings |volume=39 |publisher=Cray User Group |location=San Jose, CA |access-date=25 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=computerworld&gt;{{cite journal |last=Stedman |first=Craig |date=October 10, 1994 |title=Raw power is lure in Cray's low-end bid |journal=Computerworld |volume=28 |issue=41 |pages=75, 77 |id= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6j1_EuYNVoC&amp;pg=PA75#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |accessdate=24 May 2025 |quote= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

[[Category:Cray J90|FAQ]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2717870</id>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-03T19:10:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mu301</username>
        <id>3705</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ce</comment>
      <origin>2717870</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3514" sha1="jqmj4f50fpyz4xogh5n9mg1jmnzfy59" xml:space="preserve">{{Under construction|This page is under construction. Content is likely to be revised significantly until September 2025}}

These are (in)frequently asked questions and answers about the Cray J90 series along with trivia and other info.

=== J916 system specifications === 

(From the original 1994 announcement.&lt;ref name=computerworld /&gt;)
* Number of processors: 4 to 16
* Peak performance: 200 MFLOPS per CPU
* Memory capacity: 500M bytes to 4G bytes
* Memory bandwidth: 25.6G bytes per second
* Number of I/O subsystems: 1 to 16
* List price: $225,000 to $2 million

=== Software versions ===

* System WorkStation (SWS)
** Solaris 2.4 / SunOS 5.4 / November 1994
** Solaris 2.5 / SunOS 5.5 / November 1995
** Solaris 2.5.1 / SunOS 5.5.1 / May 1996
** Solaris 2.6 / SunOS 5.6 / July 1997
** Solaris 7 / SunOS 5.7 / November 1998

* Cray console software

* IO Subsystem (IOS)
** IOS-V Kernel 3.0.0.5 97/10/16 15:44:46 (VxWorks)

* Mainframe
** UNICOS 8.0.3.2J / March 1995 (initial J90 version)
** UNICOS 8.04A / June 1995
** UNICOS 8.04B / July 1995
** UNICOS 8.0.4.1 / September 1995
** UNICOS 8.0.4.2 / November 1995
** UNICOS 9.0.2 / April 1996
** UNICOS 9.2 / January 1997 (J90se and GigaRing support added)
** UNICOS 9.3 / August 1997
** UNICOS 10.0. / November 1997
** UNICOS 10.0.0.2 / May 1998 (last version to support IOS-V?)
** UNICOS 10.0.0.5 / May 1999
** UNICOS 10.0.0.8 (SV1 support added)
** UNICOS 10.0.1.2 

== Trivia ==

The R/J98 was an 8 processor J916 backplane with two quad processor modules in a ruggedized configuration. It was produced in partnership with Rugged Digital Systems, a DmC business unit. The company was founded in 1982 and provided ruggedized computer systems based on DEC's VAX and other architectures for industrial, field, and military uses.&lt;ref name=signal /&gt;

The MARQUISE demonstration project was used to &quot;shrink a 4 processor, 1 GByte memory version of the Cray J90 supercomputer from a cabinet system down to a form factor suitable for a 19 inch rack. Weight is reduced by 75% and volume is reduced by 80%.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;embedded&quot; /&gt;

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=
* &lt;ref name=signal&gt;{{cite journal |year=1994 |month=November |title=Rugged Cray power, rugged Cray performance |journal=Signal |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=52 |issn=0037-4938 |publisher=Armed Forces Communications and Electronics Association |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Ig-AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PA52#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |accessdate=2025-05-24 |quote= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=&quot;embedded&quot;&gt;{{cite conference |url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S97PROC/AUTHORS/CULHANE/INDEX.HTM |title=MARQUISE - An Embedded High Performance Computer Demonstration |last1=Culhane |first1=Candy |last2=Boudreaux |first2=Paul J. |last3=Sienski |first3=Ken |date=September 1997 |conference=Thirty-Ninth Semi-Annual Cray User Group Meeting |conference-url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S97PROC/INDEX.HTM |editor=Bob and Karen Winget |book-title=Seismic Supercomputing |series=Cray User Group Proceedings |volume=39 |publisher=Cray User Group |location=San Jose, CA |access-date=25 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=computerworld&gt;{{cite journal |last=Stedman |first=Craig |date=October 10, 1994 |title=Raw power is lure in Cray's low-end bid |journal=Computerworld |volume=28 |issue=41 |pages=75, 77 |id= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6j1_EuYNVoC&amp;pg=PA75#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |accessdate=24 May 2025 |quote= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

[[Category:Cray J90|FAQ]]</text>
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    <title>Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed: Biography and Literary contribution in Islamic Sufism</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/UsmanGolra|UsmanGolra]] ([[User_talk:UsmanGolra|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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{{Infobox person
| name               = Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed
| image              = [[File:Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed crowned.jpg|thumb|Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed wearing a crown as the successor of Silsila]]
| caption            = Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed in later years
| birth_date         = {{birth date|1931|09|15}}
| birth_place        = Pakistan
| death_date         = {{death date and age|2017|09|20|1931|09|15}}
| death_place        = United Kingdom
| resting_place      = Chak 337 JB, Sahab Chak, Ada Nawan Lahore, Pakistan
| nationality        = Pakistani, British
| occupation         = Sufi poet, author, industrial engineering consultant
| known_for          = Sufi poetry, Tasawwuf teachings
| notable_works      = ''Raz-e-Dil'', ''Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf''
| education          = Industrial Engineering and Management, [[University of Strathclyde]]
}}
'''Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed''' (1931–2006) was a Pakistani-British Sufi poet, author, and industrial engineering consultant. He was affiliated with the [[wikipedia:Chishti_Order|Chishti]] Sabri order of [[wikipedia:Sufism|Sufism]] and followed the [[wikipedia:Hanafi|Hanafi]] school of Islamic jurisprudence. Alongside his professional career in industrial management, he was recognised as a spiritual teacher (Pir-e-Tariqat) and wrote on the subject of Tasawwuf (Islamic Sufism or Islamic Mysticism). 

Syyed traced his paternal lineage to [[wikipedia:Abdul_Qadir_Gilani|Abdul Qadir Jilani]] in the 27th generation, and to the Islamic prophet Muhammad through [[wikipedia:Hasan_ibn_Ali|Hasan ibn Ali]] in the 39th generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=395 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Education and Career ===
Syyed completed both his early education and higher studies in Pakistan, graduating from the University of the Punjab. He subsequently moved to the United Kingdom, where he specialised in industrial engineering and management. He earned a degree in Industrial Engineering and Management from the [[wikipedia:University_of_Strathclyde|University of Strathclyde]]. He became a Fellow of the British Institute of Management (FBIM) and of the Institute of Management Services (FMS).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Professionally, he worked in various roles in industrial engineering and management consultancy. He spent a significant portion of his career in the UK and also worked in Pakistan, including as Vice-President and Consultant for Management Services at Shakarganj Mills Ltd in Jhang.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/raz-e-dill-urdu-eng |title=Raz-e-Dil |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2018 |edition=3rd |pages=63-65 |language=ur, en |trans-title=Secret of Heart}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Sufi Teachings and Literary Works ===
In addition to his professional pursuits, he remained engaged with the spiritual teachings of the Chishti Sabri order. He studied Tasawwuf under his father, who was also his spiritual mentor, and was later appointed as his successor. He compiled and edited his father's poetry and teachings into a volume titled ''Divan'', to which he added a biographical introduction and explanatory commentary.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=1-8 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

He authored several works in Urdu and English. One of his notable books, ''Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf''&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;, explores the relationship between the Qur'an, scientific thought, and Sufi teachings. It was published in the later years of his life.

==== Poetry ====
Syyed was a multilingual poet, writing in Urdu, Punjabi, Persian, and English.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/raz-e-dill-urdu-eng |title=Raz-e-Dil |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2018 |edition=3rd |language=ur, en |trans-title=Secret of Heart}}&lt;/ref&gt;. His poetry conveyed central Sufi themes such as Divine love, Tawhid (oneness of God), the purification of the self (nafs), and the soul’s spiritual journey. He regarded poetry as a spiritual discipline and a medium for expressing esoteric teachings. The following Urdu quatrain (rubai) reflects his personal experience of “sobriety within intoxication”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chittick |first=William C. |title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2008 |isbn=9781851685479 |page=33}}&lt;/ref&gt;, a classical Sufi ideal of maintaining outward composure amid inner ecstasy: &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/raz-e-dill-urdu-eng |title=Raz-e-Dil |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2018 |edition=3rd |pages=74|language=ur, en |trans-title=Secret of Heart}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Original Urdu:
&lt;poem&gt;
حالِ وجداں میں آنا میرا دوش نہیں
ہوش بھی آئے تو لگتا مجھے ہوش نہیں
تہی پہلو جو رہے میرا آغوش نہیں
شاہ زماں ہوش میں ہوں مدہوش نہیں
&lt;/poem&gt;
Translation:
&lt;poem&gt;
Love (of God) overtakes me into a state of spiritual ecstasy
Although I look sober but I am intoxicated (with love)
I am not, at all, unaware and heedless
Shahzaman is perfectly sober while intoxicated
&lt;/poem&gt;

==== Expanding on the Doctrine of Tasawwuf ====
Syyed’s book ''Quran, Science wa Tassawwuf'' is his most comprehensive contribution to Sufi thought. It outlines key spiritual stations (''maqamat'') on the path of self-realisation and divine gnosis (''ʿirfan''), emphasising concepts such as self-negation (''fana'') and submission to the Divine will. The book presents Sufi stages with explanations and practical guidance, including tabular summaries to aid accessibility. Aimed at bridging classical Sufi teachings with modern concerns, the work remains a notable contribution to contemporary Sufi literature.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=233-237 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Concept of Servanthood (ʿAbdiyyah) ====
Syyed emphasised that ''Tasawwuf'' is firmly rooted in the Qur'an and Sunnah. He frequently cited Qur’anic verses and Hadith to support this view, highlighting servanthood (''ʿabdiyyah'') as the core of the spiritual path. Drawing on verse 3:51 of the Qur’an—“So worship Him; this is the straight path”, he interpreted true servanthood as total inner and outer submission to God. He also referenced Hadith emphasising presence of heart in prayer and the Hadith Qudsi: “When I love him, I become his hearing, his sight...”&lt;ref&gt;Al-Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail. ''Sahih al-Bukhari'', Book 76: Riqaq (Softening of the Heart), Hadith 509. Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan. Available at: https://sunnah.com/bukhari:6502&lt;/ref&gt; to underscore the spiritual intimacy between God and the devoted seeker.

In ''Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf'', Syyed outlined seven progressive stages of servanthood&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=363-375 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt;:

# '''Purification of the Soul (Tazkiyat an-Nafs):''' Transformation through repentance and moral discipline.
# '''Purification of the Heart (Tasfiyat al-Qalb):''' Attainment of sincerity (''ikhlaṣ'') through prayer, remembrance, and awareness of God's presence.
# '''Steadfastness (Istiqamah):''' Consistent obedience and spiritual perseverance.
# '''Divine Love (ʿIshq-e-Ilahi):''' Intense love for God surpassing worldly ties.
# '''Contentment (Rida-e-Ilahi):''' Acceptance of Divine will, with inner peace amid trials.
# '''Gnosis (Maʿrifah):''' Experiential knowledge of God through reflection and awareness.
# '''Constant Presence (Daʾimi Qurb):''' Continuous consciousness of the Divine, echoing the Hadith of Ihsan.&lt;ref&gt;Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. ''Sahih Muslim'', Book 1: The Book of Faith (Kitab al-Iman), Hadith 8. In this narration, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said: &quot;Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you do not see Him, know that He sees you.&quot; Available at: https://sunnah.com/muslim:8&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''The Station of Faqr''' ====
Syyed described ''Faqr'' as the highest station in Tasawwuf, defining the true ''Faqir'' as one &quot;who possesses nothing but the Love of God.&quot; He interpreted the Arabic root letters of ''Faqr:'' '''Fa (ف), Qaf (ق), and Ra (ر)'''—as symbolic of the stages of the Sufi path:

* '''Fa (ف)''' represents the transition from ''Faqa'' (detaching from the temptations of worldly desires) to ''Fana Fillah'' (annihilation in God), emphasising self-purification and the dissolution of the ego.
* '''Qaf (ق)''' signifies the journey from ''Qana’at'' (contentment) to ''Qurb-e-Ilahi'' (Divine nearness), highlighting detachment from materialism and nearness to God.
* '''Ra (ر)''' marks the path from ''Riazat'' (spiritual discipline) to ''Rida-e-Ilahi'' (Divine pleasure), culminating in full submission to the Divine will.

Syyed maintained that no Sufi can attain spiritual completion without reaching ''Rida-e-Ilahi'', in alignment with the Qur’anic verse: ''&quot;Return to your Lord, well-pleased and well-pleasing [to Him]&quot;'' (Qur’an 89:28).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=191-194 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== '''Metaphysical Cosmology''' ====
Syyed explored Sufi metaphysical cosmology in the tradition of [[wikipedia:Ibn_Arabi|Ibn Arabi]], [[wikipedia:Rumi|Rumi]], and his mentor, Syyed Muhammad Hussain. He described creation as unfolding between two stages: ''Ayyan-e-Thabita&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Chittick, William C. ''Ibn 'Arabi: Heir to the Prophets''. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2005, p. 40. [[Special:BookSources/1851683879|ISBN 1851683879]].&lt;/ref&gt;'' (Immutable or Fixed Entities), representing the universe in God's eternal knowledge, and ''Ayyan-e-Mawjuda''&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; (Manifest or Existent Entities), referring to created existence. Drawing on Qur'anic verses and classical Sufi sources, he emphasised the centrality of the human being (''Al-Insan'') as the purpose of creation, citing the Hadith &quot;I was a hidden treasure and I loved to be known, so I created the creation to be known&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I was a hidden treasure and I loved to be known, so I created the creation to be known.&quot; — Hadith Qudsi, reported by Imam al-Qushayri in *Al-Risalah* (The Epistle), and cited in various Sufi texts.&lt;/ref&gt; as a foundational principle. Syyed interpreted the cosmos as created through Divine command (''Kun Fayakun''), finalising in the creation of Adam, into whom God breathed His spirit (Qur'an 15:29), and who was blessed with vicegerency (Qur'an 2:30). The Hadith &quot;Adam is my secret and I am his&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Chittick |first=William C. |title=The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn al-Arabi's Metaphysics of Imagination |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1989 |pages=109 |quote=Adam is My secret and I am his.}}&lt;/ref&gt; affirms Adam's special status. He described the human as a microcosm (''Alam-e-Saghir'') mirroring the greater universe (''Alam-e-Kabir''), whose metaphysical dimensions unfold through spiritual realisation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

==== Visual Illustrations and Literary Contribution ====
Syyed’s use of visual diagrams and cosmological maps outline the structure of the metaphysical universe and the spiritual composition of the human being. These illustrations offer readers a clear and accessible path through traditionally abstract Sufi concepts.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=138 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=151 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Spiritual architecture of Al-Insan.png|thumb|center|400px|Spiritual architecture of ''Al-Insan'' (the human being), illustrating the human as ''Alam-e-Saghir'' (the microcosm that reflects the macrocosm of the universe).]]

[[File:Metaphysical Architecture of the Cosmos.png|thumb|center|400px|Metaphysical architecture of the cosmos as envisioned by Syyed, illustrating the stages of creation from Divine Nothingness to manifest existence.]]

=== '''Spiritual Lineage (Shajra)''' ===
Syyed was the Khalifah (spiritual successor) of his mentor and father Syyed Muhammad Hussain. He inherited a rich spiritual lineage tracing back to the Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) through the Chishtiya Sabiriya branch. This chain includes some of the most revered names in Islamic spirituality, such as Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, Khawaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti Ajmeri, Baba Farid Ganjshakar, and Alauddin Ali Ahmed Sabir Kalyari.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Syyed |first=Mohammed Shahzaman |url=https://archive.org/details/quran-science-wa-tasawwuf |title=Quran, Science wa Tasawwuf |publisher=Waqas Printing Press, Amin Pur Bazar, Faisalabad |year=2017 |edition=1st |pages=396 |language=ur}}&lt;/ref&gt;

# [[wikipedia:Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] (Peace Be Upon Him)
# [[wikipedia:Ali|Imam Ali bin Abi Talib]]
# [[wikipedia:Hasan_al-Basri|Khawaja Hasan Basri]]
# [[wikipedia:Abd_al-Wahid_ibn_Zaid|Abdul Wahid bin Zayd]]
# [[wikipedia:Al-Fudayl_ibn_Iyad|Fudhayl bin ‘Iyad]]
# [[wikipedia:Ibrahim_ibn_Adham|Ibrahim bin Adham]]
# [[wikipedia:Sadid_ad-Din_Huzaifa_al-Marashi|Khwaja Sadid ad-Din Huzaifa al-Marashi]]
# [[wikipedia:Abu_Hubayra_al-Basri|Abu Hubayra al-Basri]]
# [[wikipedia:Mumshad_Al-Dinawari|Mumshad Al-Dinawari]]
# [[wikipedia:Abu_Ishaq_Shami|Abu Ishaq Shami Chishti]]
# [[wikipedia:Abu_Aḥmad_Abdal_Chishti|Khawaja Abu Aḥmad Abdal Chishti]]
# [[wikipedia:Abu_Muḥammad_Chishti|Khawaja Abu Muhammad Chishti]]
# [[wikipedia:Abu_Yusuf_ibn_Saman|Khawaja Abu Yusuf Chishti]]
# [[wikipedia:Maudood_Chishti|Khawaja Maudood Chishti]]
# [[wikipedia:Shareef_Zandani|Haji Sharif Zindani]]
# [[wikipedia:Usman_Harooni|Khawaja Usman Harooni]]
# [[wikipedia:Mu'in_al-Din_Chishti|Khawaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti (Ajmeri)]]
# [[wikipedia:Qutbuddin_Bakhtiar_Kaki|Khawaja Qutb-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki]]
# [[wikipedia:Baba_Farid|Khawaja Baba Farid-ud-Din Mas'ud Ganjshakar]]
# [[wikipedia:Alauddin_Sabir_Kaliyari|Khawaja Alauddin Ali Ahmed Sabir Kalyari]]
# Khawaja Shams-ud-Din Turk Panipati&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi510&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=510 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Jalaluddin Kabir Auliya&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi527&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=527 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Abdul Haq Radolvi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi551&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=551 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Arif Radolvi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi585&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=585 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Muhammad bin Arif Radolvi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi591&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=591 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Abdul Quddus Gangohi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi602&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=602 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Maulana Jalal-ud-Din Thanaysari&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi673&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=673 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Khawaja Nizam-ud-Din Balkhi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi698&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=698 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shah Abu Saeed Gangohi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi729&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=729 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Sadiq Gangohi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi769&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=769 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Da’ud Gangohi&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi809&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=809 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Abdul Qadir Sanori&lt;ref name=&quot;Qudusi848&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Akram Qudusi |title=Eqtibas ul Anwar |translator=Wahid Baksh Sayal |publisher=Zia ul Quran Publications |location=Lahore |year=1993 |page=848 |language=ur |url=https://archive.org/details/eqtibas-ul-anwar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Shaykh Abu Al-Fateh Sanori
# Shaykh Syed Najm-ud-Din Sanori
# Shaykh Shahab-ud-Din Sanori
# Shaykh Syed Fateh Muhammad Sanori
# Shaykh Shah Nawaz Sanori
# Shaykh Muhammad Nazim Shah Sanori
# Shaykh Muhammad Hussain (Taj wali sarkar)
# Shaykh Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed</text>
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      <comment>/* Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed: Biography and Literary contribution in Islamic Sufism */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="622" sha1="cu66k8pkgiiuhbcn3uc61kk0ih3n5aa" xml:space="preserve">== [[Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed: Biography and Literary contribution in Islamic Sufism]] ==

Hi Usman. I added the &quot;PROD&quot; template to your page (so it's not auto-added&quot;) because the page, in its current form, does not meet Wikiversity's [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|educative objectives]]. This seems to just be a biography of an individual, which is more suitable for Wikipedia than Wikiversity. Please be sure to read [[WV:Welcome]] to see which content fits best within our community. Thanks! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:41, 3 June 2025 (UTC)</text>
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      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed: Biography and Literary contribution in Islamic Sufism */ fix</comment>
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      <text bytes="623" sha1="0p1nhm0on2iopnjm1wzadhsel0lg3p5" xml:space="preserve">== [[Mohammed Shahzaman Syyed: Biography and Literary contribution in Islamic Sufism]] ==

Hi Usman. I added the &quot;PROD&quot; template to your page (so it's not &quot;auto-added&quot;) because the page, in its current form, does not meet Wikiversity's [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|educative objectives]]. This seems to just be a biography of an individual, which is more suitable for Wikipedia than Wikiversity. Please be sure to read [[WV:Welcome]] to see which content fits best within our community. Thanks! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:41, 3 June 2025 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>0p1nhm0on2iopnjm1wzadhsel0lg3p5</sha1>
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    <redirect title="User talk:OneOldNewspaperFan" />
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-03T13:43:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>Cabayi moved page [[User talk:Chrisisreed]] to [[User talk:OneOldNewspaperFan]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/Chrisisreed|Chrisisreed]]&quot; to &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/OneOldNewspaperFan|OneOldNewspaperFan]]&quot;</comment>
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      <comment>Cabayi moved page [[User:A F K When Needed]] to [[User:Sardonism]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/A F K When Needed|A F K When Needed]]&quot; to &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/Sardonism|Sardonism]]&quot;</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:A F K When Needed</title>
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    <redirect title="User talk:Sardonism" />
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-03T13:44:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>26584</id>
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      <comment>Cabayi moved page [[User talk:A F K When Needed]] to [[User talk:Sardonism]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/A F K When Needed|A F K When Needed]]&quot; to &quot;[[Special:CentralAuth/Sardonism|Sardonism]]&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="33" sha1="siju0hatswe3r5hbjetuf1rwkx192d5" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[User talk:Sardonism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>File:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20250605.pdf</title>
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      <comment>{{Information
|Description=VLSI.Arith: Carry Lookahead Adders 1A (20250605 - 20250603)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2025-06-05
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}</comment>
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      <text bytes="282" sha1="poib9rkv9cclgyw5ogkw3ztan13uxsa" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=VLSI.Arith: Carry Lookahead Adders 1A (20250605 - 20250603)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2025-06-05
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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