Wikiversity:Colloquium

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== 'Wikidata item' link is moving, finally. ==

Hello everyone, I previously wrote on the 27th September to advise that the ''Wikidata item'' sitelink will change places in the sidebar menu, moving from the '''General''' section into the '''In Other Projects''' section. The scheduled rollout date of 04.10.2024 was delayed due to a necessary request for Mobile/MinervaNeue skin. I am happy to inform that the global rollout can now proceed and will occur later today, 22.10.2024 at 15:00 UTC-2. [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|Please let us know]] if you notice any problems or bugs after this change. There should be no need for null-edits or purging cache for the changes to occur. Kind regards, -[[m:User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 11:28, 22 October 2024 (UTC)
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:Hi @[[User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]]: I Just noticed your post above, and it is timely.
:I have been participating in the English WikiUniversity for a few years, much less often recently. I seems like something in the way the site displays is different, but I cannot put my finger on it. Your posting gave me a clue. Can you please tell me where  the link to wikidata items has moved to? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:23, 11 December 2024 (UTC)
::Hello @[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]], sure, I would be happy to. The button/sitelink name didn't change, just its position. You should find it in the sidebar-menu under the section '''In other projects''' (where the links to all other Wikimedia Projects are displayed). If you do not see it, please reach out to us on the [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|Move Wikidata item - Discussion page]]. Thank you, -[[User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User talk:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|contribs]]) 09:24, 12 December 2024 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]], thank you for responding. I intend to followup on the ''Move Wikidata item - Discussion page'' as per your post above by putting it on my ever growing todo list.
:::I don't know about others on this wiki, as I said I have not been visiting here frequently, but for me the constant changes are a big distraction. I have been around wikimedia projects since 2007, so why do I have to spend so much time learning and re-learning how to find what I came here for? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 16:41, 12 December 2024 (UTC)
::::Hi @[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]], thanks for you thoughts. Your input whether positive or critical helps us understand the impacts to editors so we welcome your further thoughts when you reach us in your To Do List :)
::::I can't speak about the other changes you've experienced here but I do hope they are made with a spirit of improvement for the community as a whole. -[[User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User talk:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|contribs]]) 10:43, 16 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::@[[User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]]: 
:::::Re: '''Your input whether positive or critical helps us understand the impacts to editors'''
:::::Today I (finally)  checked [[Move Wikidata item - Discussion page]] and discovered that it is a talkpage on META where, unfortunately, I am infinitely blocked, so cannot participate. Even so, I proceeded to try and see what others are saying and immediately came to the conclusion that the few who actually participated in that discussin viewed the change  negatively. It must be disheartening for developers to meet such a hostile attitude from the community. Please don't take it personally, this is a common phenomena in  wikimedia community wide discussions , IMIO.
:::::I further checked the [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/?project=meta.wikimedia.org&amp;platform=all-access&amp;agent=user&amp;redirects=0&amp;range=latest-90&amp;pages=Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link page view statistcics] which showed there were only  828 pageviews in the last 90 days, and what's worse [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link&amp;action=info#mw-pageinfo-watchers the page has &quot;Fewer than 30 watchers&quot;]. 
:::::Since [[META:User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|your userpage on META]] says that you are the: &quot;Community Communications Manager Wikidata Integrations Team&quot;, may I ask how this apparent apathy is being addressed by your own management?
:::::I apologize if my post is not welcome on the Wikiversity:Colloquium, as i said I am  a rather infrequent visitor to this wiki. I probably would not have followed up if you did not assure us that our feedback positive or negative is sought. Cheers, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:49, 3 January 2025 (UTC)
::::::Dear @[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]], I am so so sorry for leaving you on read for these last months, I have no excuse other than reading your comment and then getting lost before making a reply.
::::::The team I am working with, [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata for Wikimedia Projects]] is a new development team, so I think management has allowed a certain amount of elbow room or leeway for us to make small changes whilst developing our confidence tackling the MediaWiki codebase with onboarding tasks that won't 'rock the boat' too much. We certainly expected some pushback or resistance to moving the Wikidata item as editors are so used to where it previously resided. Now it has been some time and hopefully the communities have gotten used to the change.
::::::Please do not apologise, your comments are always welcome, critical or not, as a new team I think we certainly &quot;fly under the radar&quot; to an extent and I hope that changes as we continue to work on projects that deepen the integrations between Wikidata and the other sibling projects. Once again, my sincere apologies for the delay in this reply. -[[User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User talk:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|contribs]]) 13:59, 1 April 2025 (UTC)

== Wikiversity - Newsletters ==

Hello All,

I wanted to create a newsletter on Wikiversity, which would highlight what is going on in certain months and events on Wikiversity; which would bolster engagement by many people. This would be on the website and would have its dedicated 'Newsletter' tab.

I hope you acknowledge this idea. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 21:05, 8 December 2024 (UTC)

:@[[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]], What sort of things do you plan to include in your newsletter? Will they be different than what is currently in [[Main Page/News]]? Just curious.
:I am also wondering about your motive which I think is: to bolster engagement by many people. I am asking because I wonder if others who are currently active here also think this I is desirable? Have you asked them? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:34, 11 December 2024 (UTC)
::Not yet, which was why I was asking this on the colloquium. I plan to include things that many people have created on Wikiversity over the month, as it is a monthly newsletter. It would be somewhere on the website here. It will be more frequent that the ones seen on [[Main Page/News]]. We will include people's resources to essentially promote them. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 06:50, 12 December 2024 (UTC)
:::@[[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]], I Think what you are saying is that ''Main Page/News'' does not update frequently enough? 
:::If this is the reason, why not start small by simply increasing the frequency of posting news on the main page, instead of trying to start a newsletter?
:::If there is more, can you articulate what else is missing. Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 16:51, 12 December 2024 (UTC)
::::I meant going to detail into topics covered in that month, rather than just giving a few points. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 16:53, 12 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::What sort of details did you have in mind? You can pick one of the links provided in [[Main Page/News]] to illustrate. cheers, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:29, 16 December 2024 (UTC)
::::::I'm thinking of the community entering their projects, and discussing those in the newsletter. It depends on what they want, though. There would be a dedicated page for giving the information about their projects [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 17:24, 16 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::::I might start working on this soon, depending on the projects being created on Wikiversity. @[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 18:25, 17 December 2024 (UTC)
::::::::I'd recommend you start off with putting this under a userspace page (something like [[User:RockTransport/Wikiversity Newsletter]]), and drafting what you desire. Let us know once it's done, and the community can provide their input. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 18:30, 17 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::::::I will try and make one for this month. This is supposed to be a monthly newsletter, showcasing the different projects mentioned there. Users can put their projects, and we will document them on the newsletter. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 18:33, 17 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::::::I am hoping for it to be released by January 2025. There's no rush to get it done; it's still in it's planning stage. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 18:43, 17 December 2024 (UTC)
::::I '''might''' be able to icnrease the frequency there, but it doesn't go into detail about these topics. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 17:30, 18 December 2024 (UTC)
:Where you are going to get the audience for your website and Wikiversity newsletter? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:38, 18 December 2024 (UTC)
::It's on Wikiversity, not on an outside platform. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 13:51, 18 December 2024 (UTC)
::The audience will be Wikiversity contributors. There will be a dedicated page for it on Wikiversity. [[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]] ([[User talk:RockTransport|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RockTransport|contribs]]) 13:55, 18 December 2024 (UTC)
:::Hi @[[User:RockTransport|RockTransport]], Just wondering if there is a progress on the wikiversity newsletter? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 18:09, 6 January 2025 (UTC)
::::There is progress, I just need to find some topics to cover about. [[User:RockTransport|''Rock Transport'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RockTransport|Talk page]])  18:26, 6 January 2025 (UTC)
::::Also, if you wanted to see the work being done on the page, go to [[User:RockTransport/Wikiversity Newsletter|this page]]. I haven't worked on it that much lately, but I am constantly working on it. [[User:RockTransport|''Rock Transport'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RockTransport|Talk page]])  18:38, 6 January 2025 (UTC)

== &lt;s&gt;Degrees&lt;/s&gt; (Certificates (see below)) ==

Why does Wikiversity not provide degrees? I know it was a promise to the Wikimedia Foundation in the Wikiversity project proposal. But anyway, why is that? Wikiversity is about opening doors, i.e., removing obstacles. So, what kind of an obstacle was a paper? Was a certain body of knowledge that you learned well?! Because Wikiversity is not accredited for that? Yes, and do we need official US accreditation? We cannot create our system so that the learners who learn here and would like to continue their science career have a recognizable degree they can continue? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:19, 18 December 2024 (UTC)

:&quot;I know it was a promise to the Wikimedia Foundation in the Wikiversity project proposal.&quot; Was it? Becoming a degree-granting institution is an extremely high bar in the United States, but what is even the point in becoming a degree-granting institution in... Malawi? Tonga? Somewhere else where the servers aren't located or the WMF aren't incorporated? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:53, 18 December 2024 (UTC)
::I ment certificates. The question is the recognazibility of a certificate. I am not talking here about equal certification, which is provided by governmental institucians to universities, rather on Wikiversity own certification, which might may advocate itself over the time. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:05, 19 December 2024 (UTC)
::: We could issue certificates in some residing in certain jurisdictions probably (?). To my knowledge, there is no legal prohibition federally against doing this in the USA as long as no misrepresentation happens. Although some states might prohibit it (?). Degrees are likely different (at least with respect to accreditation). Please let me know if you believe I am likely incorrect in my understanding. I asked an LLM this prompt, &quot;is there any prohibition legally in USA for a DAO (decentralized autonomous organization or wiki community related to learning, teaching, and research) from issuing certifications or certificates to those who go through learning materials and educational resources that might be on a decentralized or nonprofit wiki that has an active community?&quot; (i won't post the specific result, but I wrote and engineered that prompt myself). The LLM output seemed to indicate my understanding noted here is correct, but LLM's are sometimes wrong. what do you or others think about this? [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 18:49, 25 December 2024 (UTC)
:From [https://web.archive.org/web/20170703053134/https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Meetings/November_13,_2005 the WMF Board] (repeated at [[WV:WWIN]]):
:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;[[Wikiversity:Original proposal|Wikiversity proposal]] not approved, but we will approve it if [[Wikiversity:Approved Wikiversity project proposal|some changes are made]]... The board recommend rewriting the proposal to ''exclude credentials'', exclude online-courses and clarify the concept of elearning platform.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
:That is, Wikiversity was prevented from creation until it was codified '''not''' to provide credentials. It is not just ''U.S.'' credentials, but credentials period.
:I see you were around for [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Wikimedia Ethics:Ethical Breaching Experiments|the Reckoning]], so I imagine you are aware of the potential consequences of challenging such a clear policy so explicitly. I worry the community would not withstand another round. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 19:24, 2 January 2025 (UTC)
::That said, I see nothing wrong with a cute badge of some sort (emulating barnstars) for completion of a resource (perhaps supervised/signed off by the resource creators). Even if there is no pretention of &quot;credentials&quot;, who doesn't like a trophy? [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 20:19, 2 January 2025 (UTC)
:::[[:w:Gamification|Gamification]] is quite different than granting certificates and degrees. And ''even'' if Wikiversity grants certificates, half the battle is getting others to recognize the legitimacy of the certificate. Otherwise people will just think of Wikiversity as a [[:w:diploma mill|diploma mill]] especially if this conversation steers towards purposely issuing certificates in far flung countries for the sole purpose of skirting around the rules. And that's something I don't want to be associated with if Wikiversity goes down that path. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 21:24, 2 January 2025 (UTC)

== Citation system ==

How is being maintained citation system on en.wv. I mean, is it completly the same as on English Wikipedia? Do we update it according to English Wikipedia? How we do that? Are the templates like [[Template:Cite book|Cite book]] based on Lua? I dont see any invoke word.  [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:20, 2 January 2025 (UTC)

:I was just working on references in [[WikiJournal Preprints/Mobility-aware Scheduling in Fog Computing: Analysis and Challenges]]. And I agree with you. The citation system is so outdated compared to en.wp. Just the fact that I have to do extra clicks to access {{tl|cite journal}} is bizarre. Are there efforts to sync updates to the current citation version on en.wp? [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 21:35, 2 January 2025 (UTC)
::Not mine, I am just wondering if there is an easy system how to take over citation aparatus. I havent investigated the citation system on English Wikipedia yet, but on the first glance it looks like a very complicated environment. So in the following days Ill be looking on it if its a way to overtake it or if it would be easier to create own citation system.  [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:00, 2 January 2025 (UTC)

== Proposal: citation templates for VisualEditor ==

@[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Citation system|pointed above]], that they had a hard time to create citations via VisualEditor I believe. I think its because of missing map in [[MediaWiki:Cite-tool-definition.json]] ([[phab:T219551|see also]]). And the question is, which citation templates the editor should list. So I would propose the same as on en.wp, i.e. [[Template:Cite book|Cite book]], [[Template:Cite journal|journal]], [[Template:Cite news|news]], and [[Template:Cite web|web]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:38, 3 January 2025 (UTC)

:I support those four templates (book, journal, news, web). Another part of me wonders if we should include other use cases like AV media, thesis and report. But they may have limited usage and will only clutter the screen. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 04:55, 7 January 2025 (UTC)
::Sure and thesis could be cited by Cite book. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:53, 7 January 2025 (UTC)
::[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Edit MediaWiki page|Requested Custodian action]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:01, 7 January 2025 (UTC)

== Wikiversity Newsletter - Topics? ==

Hello,
For the newsletter concept on Wikiversity, for Wikiversitans (which can be seen above), I was wondering if there were any recently added or updated resources on Wikiversity that this newsletter could add.
Kind regards,
Rock [[User:RockTransport|''Rock Transport'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RockTransport|Talk page]])  18:13, 9 January 2025 (UTC)

== Wikiversity page view statistics ==

I remember seeing [[recent topics/threads]] here wondering about page view statistics for this project. So I wonder if anyone else here is as curious as I am about the following page view which compares wikiversity to other wikimedia projects
https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/siteviews/?platform=all-access&amp;source=pageviews&amp;agent=user&amp;range=latest-30&amp;sites=all-projects
cheers, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:05, 15 January 2025 (UTC)

:It does look interesting, but I haven't viewed it in depth yet. [[User:RockTransport|''Rock Transport'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RockTransport|Talk page]])  17:24, 19 January 2025 (UTC)

== Launching! Join Us for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025! ==

Dear All,

We’re happy to announce the launch of [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]], an annual international campaign dedicated to celebrating and preserving Islamic cultures and history through the power of Wikipedia. As an active contributor to the Local Wikipedia, you are specially invited to participate in the launch. 

This year’s campaign will be launched for you to join us write, edit, and improve articles that showcase the richness and diversity of Islamic traditions, history, and culture.

* Topic: [[m:Event:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 Campaign Launch|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 Campaign Launch]]
* When: Jan 19, 2025 
* Time: 16:00 Universal Time UTC and runs throughout Ramadan (starting February 25, 2025).
* Join Zoom Meeting: https://us02web.zoom.us/j/88420056597?pwd=NdrpqIhrwAVPeWB8FNb258n7qngqqo.1 
* Zoom meeting hosted by [[m:Wikimedia Bangladesh|Wikimedia Bangladesh]]

To get started, visit the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|campaign page]] for details, resources, and guidelines: Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025.

Add [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participant|your community here]], and organized Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 in your local language.

Whether you’re a first-time editor or an experienced Wikipedian, your contributions matter. Together, we can ensure Islamic cultures and traditions are well-represented and accessible to all.

Feel free to invite your community and friends too. Kindly reach out if you have any questions or need support as you prepare to participate.

Let’s make Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 a success!

For the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Team|International Team]] 12:08, 16 January 2025 (UTC)
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== Deletion of talk pages ==

I wonder if there are any policies here that define when talkpages are deleted?

Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:30, 17 January 2025 (UTC)

:I'm not too sure if there are any topics about this. [[User:RockTransport|''Rock Transport'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RockTransport|Talk page]])  19:37, 17 January 2025 (UTC)
::Let me explain why I am asking about deletion:
::I have recently posted a question on a WV talk-page. The page was empty when I arrived, so had to be created, or recreated as it turns out because when I tried to post I received this box that said the page had been deleted by @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] as a test page. I then Went ahead and recreated the page by posting at:
::[[Wikiversity talk:Wikidebate/Guy vandegrift#Do we need dialogues?]].
::However a bit later I remembered a discussion on the English Wikiquote Village Pump which was started by a contributor who was active there a long time ago who apparently was looking for their own contributions. It turned out that the history of the contributions had disappeared when the page was deleted and then re-created by another contributor who's became, at least according to the View history, the &quot;owner&quot; of all the previous contributions. Here is the ENWQ-VP discussion: https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Wikiquote:Village_pump#Now_this_is_contrary_to_the_spirit_of_Wikipedia.
::I believe deletions of old pages that seem unimportant to new users of the English Wikversity may become problematic in the future. I know that at least one  [[User:MathXplore|new admin]] has been added in the last  couple of years, but I am not sure how  many of the experienced admins are still active, so I don't know who makes deletion decisions here.. History is crucial to maintain when people are no longeraround.
::It would be nice for the ENWV-community  to understand how and what files/contributions are deleted.
::note: @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] @[[User:Juandev|Juandev]], @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] as recent participants in the Colloquium I wonder if you have any knowledge to contribute?
::Thanks advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 16:20, 18 January 2025 (UTC)
:::This project is generally pretty policy-lite, so deleting talk pages is probably ad hoc and left to best judgement. I have personally deleted one content page here but kept the talk page to document why it was deleted (this is common on en.wikt). —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:47, 18 January 2025 (UTC)
::::I was looking up some old history (2002) on the English Wikipedia associated with a particular user (Roadrunner) and  happened to see a talk-page that was deleted in 2021 that this user had contributed content to:
::::https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3AImmediate_Action_Unit
::::This page is no longer public as a result of: 
::::https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Immediate_Action_Unit
::::So it appears that on the English Wikipedia talkpages were still being deleted along with their associated page as recently as 2021, I think? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 19:52, 31 January 2025 (UTC)
::: Please read [[Wikiversity:Deletions]] (especially [[WV:CSD]]) for the deletion of (talk) pages. No.8 of [[WV:CSD]] is specific for talk pages. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:09, 18 January 2025 (UTC)
::::@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]], I think @[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] is referring to user talk pages (correct me if I'm wrong). Do we have any policies related to this? [[User:RockTransport|''Rock Transport'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RockTransport|Talk page]])  08:02, 19 January 2025 (UTC)
::::: [[Wikiversity:Deletions]] (including [[WV:CSD]]) apply for all namespaces. Therefore, the same rule will be applied to user talk pages. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:59, 19 January 2025 (UTC)
::::::@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]], thanks for clarifying. [[User:RockTransport|''Rock Transport'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RockTransport|Talk page]])  17:28, 19 January 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], Thanks for this important tid-bit : {{green|I have personally deleted one content page here but kept the talk page to document why it was deleted (this is common on en.wikt).}}
:::This is a great habit IMIO. Do you happen to know if other WV-admins know how to not delete a talk-page when they delete its counterpart? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:05, 26 January 2025 (UTC)
::::I don't know that they do, but it's a fairly simple process when you're deleting pages. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:26, 26 January 2025 (UTC)

== Research Guidelines for the new Wiki of Government Efficiency ==

[[User:Jaredscribe/Department_of_Government_Efficiency]]

Before I move this original research project to mainspace, I invite a colloquy on my proposed
[[User:Jaredscribe/Department_of_Government_Efficiency#Research_Guidelines_and_Scholarly_Ethics|Research_Guidelines_and_Scholarly_Ethics]], and will entertain suggested improvements.

All may constructively contribute;  those who do so competently, are invited to edit after they declare and disclose.
[[User_talk:Jaredscribe/Department_of_Government_Efficiency#Declare_your_Interests_and_Disclose_Potential_Conflicts]] 


Thanks in advance for your consideration and informed opinions on how to make this work.  [[User:Jaredscribe|Jaredscribe]] ([[User talk:Jaredscribe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jaredscribe|contribs]]) 07:05, 20 January 2025 (UTC)

== Mentors ==

With respect to [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3AUsername142857&amp;diff=2692853&amp;oldid=2667985 this], may I return, and if so, could I get a mentor? [[User:Username142857|Username142857]] ([[User talk:Username142857|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Username142857|contribs]]) 17:15, 20 January 2025 (UTC)

:Hi @[[User:Username142857|Username142857]]: I am not familiar with the term &quot;mentors&quot; on WV. What did you have in mind? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:22, 22 January 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]], I believe he means getting a mentor to help him with his 'return' on Wikiversity. Please correct me if I'm wrong however @[[User:Username142857|Username142857]]. [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|''RailwayEnthusiast2025'']] 😊 ([[User_talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|Talk page]])  18:57, 23 January 2025 (UTC)
::'Mentors' are usually used to describe people on Wikiversity who mentor people for curatorship, custodianship etc. I think in this context, he might be trying to get a mentor to help him on Wikiversity. [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;'''''RailwayEnthusiast2025'''''&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|talk page]] - [[Special:Contributions/RailwayEnthusiast2025|contribs]]) 20:46, 24 January 2025 (UTC)
:::To clarify, other people have stated that I should probably leave for a while, and I'm wondering if it's safe for me to return [[User:Username142857|Username142857]] ([[User talk:Username142857|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Username142857|contribs]]) 05:51, 9 February 2025 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Username142857|Username142857]]: I think you should return whenever you feel like it, honestly. [[User:Contributor 118,784|&lt;b style=&quot;color:#070&quot;&gt;Contributor&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup style=&quot;color:#707&quot;&gt;118,784&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[User talk:Contributor 118,784|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#00F&quot;&gt;''Let's talk''&lt;/span&gt;]] 12:19, 10 February 2025 (UTC)

== Universal Code of Conduct annual review: provide your comments on the UCoC and Enforcement Guidelines ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

{{Int:Please-translate}}.

I am writing to you to let you know the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines is open now. You can make suggestions for changes through 3 February 2025. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review.
[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]].

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]].

Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate.

-- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 01:12, 24 January 2025 (UTC)
&lt;/div&gt;
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:Thanks for the link. I will have a look at it later. [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|&lt;span style=&quot;color:green;&quot;&gt;'''RailwayEnthusiast2025'''&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|talk page]]|[[Special:Contributions/RailwayEnthusiast2025|contribs]]) 08:49, 24 January 2025 (UTC)

== Subscribing to this talk-page ==

Is anyone here curious to find out what is the best method of subscribing to discussions here? Until today I did not even know one could subscribe to all new topics by clicking on  ''Subscribe'' (the second ''Action'' right after ''Move''). I will have to see if indeed I am automatically subscribed to this new thread that I am hoping  to start as soon as I hit the ''Add topic'' blue button at the bottom right hand corner.

So far I have had to resort to  clicking ''Subscribe'' individually for each topic when  I wanted to receive a notification for any new replies, but unfortunately after some items I was subscribed to have been archived on January 30, I received a message telling me I  am no longer subscribed. I guess I would have to look for any updates that took place before the archive in the archive itself?

Am I making sense at all? I have managed to confuse myself, LOL. [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:11, 30 January 2025 (UTC)

:You are not subscribed to threads once they are removed from a page (e.g. by archiving). The easiest way to subscribe is by clicking on the &quot;Subscribe&quot; button with the bell next to it that renders near the thread's title. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:44, 30 January 2025 (UTC)

== A club for Wikiversity ==

Hello there,
I would like to start a club for Wikiversity, which would be a part of outreach. Wikiversity is one of the smallest Wikimedia projects and I enjoy contributing here. How could you help me in creating a club for this?
Yours sincerely,
[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|Talk page]] - [[Special:Contributions|Contributions]]) 17:51, 31 January 2025 (UTC)

:There is a formal process for this at [[:m:Wikimedia user groups]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:18, 31 January 2025 (UTC)
::I meant like a club at an organization, school etc. Not a user group in a town or a city. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|Talk page]] - [[Special:Contributions|Contributions]]) 18:31, 31 January 2025 (UTC)
:::I wanted to do this, because I'm active here, but I don't know. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|Talk page]] - [[Special:Contributions|Contributions]]) 19:59, 12 February 2025 (UTC)
::::Dear @[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]], If you could contact any established user group in your locality. They could provide support to start a wiki club. [[User:511KeV|511KeV]] ([[User talk:511KeV|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/511KeV|contribs]]) 04:41, 28 March 2025 (UTC)
:::::Dear @[[User:511KeV|511KeV]], As said in my previous message, I wish to start a club at an organization, school etc. I wish to start a small club like this, not a user group in a town/city. I don't think you understand what I'm trying to say. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|Talk page]] - [[Special:Contributions|Contributions]]) 16:23, 28 March 2025 (UTC)
::::::@@[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]] Forming a non-affiliated club is a straightforward process. Gather a group of interested individuals and create a simple page on Meta-Wiki outlining the club’s purpose and how others can join and start editing. If your club focuses on a specific theme, such as medicine or the arts, you can mention it on the page.
::::::However, if you intend to establish a university- or school-affiliated club, you should seek permission from the institution. Start by submitting a formal application to the relevant authority at your college or university. [[User:511KeV|511KeV]] ([[User talk:511KeV|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/511KeV|contribs]]) 13:26, 29 March 2025 (UTC)
:::::::The latter is what I intend to do, and thanks for the help. I will start working on it soon. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|Talk page]] - [[Special:Contributions|Contributions]]) 14:23, 29 March 2025 (UTC)

== Global ban proposal for Shāntián Tàiláng ==

Hello. This is to notify the community that there is an ongoing global ban proposal for [[species:User:Shāntián_Tàiláng|User:Shāntián Tàiláng]] who has been active on this wiki. You are invited to participate at [[metawiki:Requests_for_comment/Global_ban_for_Shāntián_Tàiláng|m:Requests for comment/Global ban for Shāntián Tàiláng]]. [[User:Wüstenspringmaus|Wüstenspringmaus]] ([[User talk:Wüstenspringmaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wüstenspringmaus|contribs]]) 12:50, 2 February 2025 (UTC)

:Hi @[[User:Wüstenspringmaus|Wüstenspringmaus]], Looks like the RFC you started in an effort to  globally ban [[User:Shāntián Tàiláng]] has still not concluded. Forgive me, but I am indef-blocked on META so cannot ask there:
:* Is there no time limit on such nominations?
:* I am not familiar with the subject of this ban nomination, but I think there might be some unsupported allegations against them, such as harassment which is a serious issue. If I'm wrong please forgive me, I did spend a lot of time plowing through this lengthy page.
:* Many of us prefer to spend more of our time adding information to the wiki-projects that we are involved in and less  to endless discussions. The Nomination page on META is now '''43,962 bytes long''' and growing, and will require any new participant spend a great deal of unproductive time to come up to speed.
:Is it expectedad that the only people who Support or Oppose your nomination be personally familiar with the User in question? Cheers, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 23:43, 16 February 2025 (UTC)

== Reminder: first part of the annual UCoC review closes soon ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

{{Int:Please-translate}}.

This is a reminder that the first phase of the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines will be closing soon. You can make suggestions for changes through [[d:Q614092|the end of day]], 3 February 2025. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review.
[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]]. After review of the feedback, proposals for updated text will be published on Meta in March for another round of community review. 

Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate.

-- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 00:49, 3 February 2025 (UTC)
&lt;/div&gt;
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== Self-deleting pages that I nominated for deletion myself ==
In 2024, I nominated multiple pages for deletion via [[:Template:Proposed deletion]] (see also [[Special:WhatLinksHere/Template:Proposed deletion]]). The three-month protective period for most of them now expired.

Example pages: [[Astronomy outline]], [[VELS mathematics]], [[Particle mechanics]].

It would be ideal if the deleting person would be different from the nominating person. However, no one seems to be interested in deleting these pages.

Should I feel free to delete the pages I nominated myself? I think it could be okay, but I can also imagine someone being stringent about these matters and requiring the four-eye principle. One rationale for allowing deleting myself is that the English Wikiversity has only few active administrators and therefore, the four-eye principle would create too much of delay and overhead; on a more admin-populated project, the four-eye principle is more workable. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:08, 16 February 2025 (UTC)

:OK I'll bite :-)
:Looks like enwv has a different ''Proposed deletion'' notice than other wiki-projects. One thing I noticed immediately is that there is no reason or explanation required for the deletion proposal. 
:I understand that all a deletion will accomplish is to remove those articles from public view. They will still continue to exist, but only admins will see them. May I ask @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]], why do you believe these 3 articles should be deleted? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 23:08, 16 February 2025 (UTC)
:: I always provide a reason for deletion. And  thus, e.g. [[Astronomy outline]] states: &quot;The Nominator gave the following reason for their nomination:&quot;, &quot;too low quality to serve as a learning resource; most links are redlinks; no further reading&quot;. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:18, 17 February 2025 (UTC)
: I went ahead and deleted the three listed pages. I will wait a little longer before I proceed further. Most of the usual admins do not seem to be around, though, so the absence of opposition does not tell us much. And thus, I am proceeding at risk, and undo is possible by an admin or quasi-admin. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:41, 24 February 2025 (UTC)
:@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] You proposed deletion back in October. Yes, it's fine if you are now the one to delete it. Often there is only one user at a time interested in cleaning up Wikiversity. That person does it until they choose not to. Then after a while, someone else steps up. I cleaned up my own proposed deletions for years with very few complaints. If someone wants to object, they need to be willing to speak up and review your proposed deletions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:51, 26 February 2025 (UTC)
:: Thank you. I went ahead and quasi-deleted 3 more pages, this time by moving them to user space (since I could find the main creator). I will make more deletions or quasi-deletions later. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:47, 26 February 2025 (UTC)

==  Upcoming Language Community Meeting (Feb 28th, 14:00 UTC) and Newsletter ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;message&quot;/&gt;
Hello everyone!
[[File:WP20Symbols WIKI INCUBATOR.svg|right|frameless|150x150px|alt=An image symbolising multiple languages]]
We’re excited to announce that the next '''Language Community Meeting''' is happening soon, '''February 28th at 14:00 UTC'''! If you’d like to join, simply sign up on the '''[[mw:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community_meetings#28_February_2025|wiki page]]'''.

This is a participant-driven meeting where we share updates on language-related projects, discuss technical challenges in language wikis, and collaborate on solutions. In our last meeting, we covered topics like developing language keyboards, creating the Moore Wikipedia, and updates from the language support track at Wiki Indaba.

'''Got a topic to share?''' Whether it’s a technical update from your project, a challenge you need help with, or a request for interpretation support, we’d love to hear from you! Feel free to '''reply to this message''' or add agenda items to the document '''[[etherpad:p/language-community-meeting-feb-2025|here]]'''.

Also, we wanted to highlight that the sixth edition of the Language &amp; Internationalization newsletter (January 2025) is available here: [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/January|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/January]]. This newsletter provides updates from the October–December 2024 quarter on new feature development, improvements in various language-related technical projects and support efforts, details about community meetings, and ideas for contributing to projects. To stay updated, you can subscribe to the newsletter on its wiki page: [[:mw:Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter]].

We look forward to your ideas and participation at the language community meeting, see you there!
&lt;section end=&quot;message&quot;/&gt;

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]&lt;/bdi&gt; 08:29, 22 February 2025 (UTC)
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== Replicate [[c:Template:Imagestack]] ==

I find this feature on Commons quite practical, and would like to use it on Wikiversity. But just copying the content to {{tl|Imagestack}} is not enough. The example on {{tl|Imagestack/sandbox}} remains static. Does someone know how to implement the JavaScript? [[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] &lt;small&gt;([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])&lt;/small&gt; 18:31, 26 February 2025 (UTC)

:I don't know how to implement the JavaScript here. I haven't used the Imagestack feature before. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|RailwayEnthusiast2025]] ([[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|Talk page]] - [[Special:Contributions|Contributions]]) 21:11, 20 March 2025 (UTC)

== Universal Code of Conduct annual review: proposed changes are available for comment ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

{{Int:Please-translate}}.

I am writing to you to let you know that [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/Proposed_Changes|proposed changes]] to the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC) Enforcement Guidelines]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) Charter]] are open for review. '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/Proposed_Changes|You can provide feedback on suggested changes]]''' through the [[d:Q614092|end of day]] on Tuesday, 18 March 2025. This is the second step in the annual review process, the final step will be community voting on the proposed changes.
[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find relevant links about the process on the UCoC annual review page on Meta]].

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]].

Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate.

-- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] 18:52, 7 March 2025 (UTC)

&lt;/div&gt;
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== Your wiki will be in read-only soon ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;server-switch&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;

[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]

The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster.

All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2025-03-19|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2025-03-19T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2025-03-19T14:00}}]'''.

Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. 

A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. 

'''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.'''

*You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2025-03-19|en}}.
*If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case.

''Other effects'':

*Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped.
* We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards.
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes.

This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. 

'''Please share this information with your community.'''&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;server-switch&quot;/&gt;

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]&lt;/bdi&gt; 23:14, 14 March 2025 (UTC)
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== Wikidata and Sister Projects: an online event ==

Hello everyone, I’m writing to announce an upcoming event called [[wikidata:Event:Wikidata and Sister Projects|'''Wikidata and Sister Projects''']] that will be a mini online conference to highlight the different ways Wikidata can be connected and integrated with the other WM projects.

We are currently looking for session ideas and speakers for our program and wanted to reach out in case there were any editors here that might have a cool idea for a session proposal. Sessions can be found on the [[wikidata:Event talk:Wikidata and Sister Projects|'''event discussion page''']].

As previously mentioned, we would like to showcase the relationship between Wikibooks and Wikidata, such as the storing of metadata and sitelinking between books and their respective Wikidata items. Do you have an idea for a session? We'd love to hear about it!

The event is scheduled between '''May 29 - June 1st, 2025'''. If you have any questions about the event, would like more information or have a session idea to propose, please feel free to get in touch by replying to this post or writing on the event page or on my [[v:User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk page]]. Thanks for reading, - [[wikidata:User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[wikidata:User talk:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|&lt;span class=&quot;signature-talk&quot;&gt;{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}&lt;/span&gt;]]) 07:48, 1 April 2025 (UTC)

== Final proposed modifications to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter now posted ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
The proposed modifications to the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines]] and the U4C Charter [[m:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/2025/Proposed_Changes|are now on Meta-wiki for community notice]] in advance of the voting period. This final draft was developed from the previous two rounds of community review. Community members will be able to vote on these modifications starting on 17 April 2025. The vote will close on 1 May 2025, and results will be announced no later than 12 May 2025. The U4C election period, starting with a call for candidates, will open immediately following the announcement of the review results. More information will be posted on [[m:Special:MyLanguage//Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election|the wiki page for the election]] soon.

Please be advised that this process will require more messages to be sent here over the next two months. 

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]].

Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well.

-- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 02:05, 4 April 2025 (UTC)
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== Wikidata and Sister Projects: An online community event ==

''(Apologies for posting in English)''

Hello everyone, I am excited to share news of an upcoming online event called '''[[d:Event:Wikidata_and_Sister_Projects|Wikidata and Sister Projects]]''' celebrating the different ways Wikidata can be used to support or enhance with another Wikimedia project. The event takes place over 4 days between '''May 29 - June 1st, 2025'''.

We would like to invite speakers to present at this community event, to hear success stories, challenges, showcase tools or projects you may be working on, where Wikidata has been involved in Wikipedia, Commons, WikiSource and all other WM projects.

If you are interested in attending, please [[d:Special:RegisterForEvent/1291|register here]].
If you would like to speak at the event, please fill out this Session Proposal template on the [[d:Event_talk:Wikidata_and_Sister_Projects|event talk page]], where you can also ask any questions you may have. 

I hope to see you at the event, in the audience or as a speaker, - [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 09:18, 11 April 2025 (UTC)
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== Vote now on the revised UCoC Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

The voting period for the revisions to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines (&quot;UCoC EG&quot;) and the UCoC's Coordinating Committee Charter is open now through the end of 1 May (UTC) ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746162000 find in your time zone]). [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/2025/Voter_information|Read the information on how to participate and read over the proposal before voting]] on the UCoC page on Meta-wiki.

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review of the EG and Charter was planned and implemented by the U4C. Further information will be provided in the coming months about the review of the UCoC itself. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]].

Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well.

In cooperation with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 00:35, 17 April 2025 (UTC)
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== FYI: Can Citizen Science Be Trusted? New Study of Birds Shows It Can ==

https://www.ucdavis.edu/news/can-citizen-science-be-trusted-new-study-birds-shows-it-can —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:08, 23 April 2025 (UTC)

== Vote on proposed modifications to the UCoC Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
The voting period for the revisions to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter closes on 1 May 2025 at 23:59 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746162000 find in your time zone]). [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2025/Voter information|Read the information on how to participate and read over the proposal before voting]] on the UCoC page on Meta-wiki.

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]].

Please share this message with members of your community in your language, as appropriate, so they can participate as well.

In cooperation with the U4C -- &lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 03:41, 29 April 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== Question Centre ==

I have a question: 

'''1.''''Is it possible to change your username? Or is it permament? 

''Antworte zu meinem Kommentar, und Ich werde zu dir abonnieren. ''

[[User:Kumpa-pasión|Kumpa-pasión]] ([[User talk:Kumpa-pasión|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kumpa-pasión|contribs]]) 15:18, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

:Hello {{ping|Kumpa-pasión}} To change your username, you can go to [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:GlobalRenameRequest Special:GlobalRenameRequest]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:42, 2 May 2025 (UTC)

== Names of pages I am creating, one man's look at X ==
I am creating pages like [[One man's look at LibreOffice]], but I am increasingly dissatisfied with this naming scheme. It just means that &quot;One man's look at X&quot; is nothing but &quot;Dan Polansky's look at X&quot;; what is so special about Dan Polansky that he is the &quot;one man&quot;, which other people are not? I prefer &quot;X (Dan Polansky)&quot;, but that was previously rejected (I should find the discussion, but I am too lazy now). What was not rejected is &quot;X/Dan Polansky&quot; (as in [[COVID-19/Dan Polansky]]), but I find it greatly suboptimal: there is nothing in that syntax that suggests that &quot;Dan Polansky&quot; is an author name; compare a possible &quot;Philosophy/Aristotle&quot;, which would be ''about'' Aristotle and not ''by'' Aristotle.

Perhaps we can have a discussion/conversation about alternative proposals and what makes them preferable and dispreferable, desirable and undesirable? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:07, 1 May 2025 (UTC)
: If a main space page is meant only for one user's view, then perhaps that page should instead be located in that user's space. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:12, 17 May 2025 (UTC)
:: That would not work: pages in user space are not Google search indexed, from what I understand. One's spending effort to write and publish an article and then having it ignored by readers since not found via Google Search is not rewarding; I do not see why people would like to do it, and they apparently don't. Moreover, since other editors can comment on the article on the talk page, it is vital that the author does not have the right to have the article deleted on a whim; an article should be deleted only in well justified rare cases (ethical breach, etc.).
:: I think that a page being author-specific should be the usual case, not the rare case, in Wikiversity. It is the case with Wikijournal articles. It also seems to be the case with the Motivation and Emotion pages, e.g. as listed in [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024]]; and thus, e.g. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Abusive supervision]] has TJDuus as the main author as per the assignment and revision history (there are auxiliary editors, but the author seems to maintain editorial control?)
:: Since Wikiversity pages are not organized by the principle of being encyclopedic and by avoidance of original research, I do not see how the free-for-all editing of Wikipedia could possibly work here.
:: Some of the best materials I have seen in the English Wikiversity either have a single author or single main author. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:10, 17 May 2025 (UTC)

== We will be enabling the new Charts extension on your wiki soon! ==

''(Apologies for posting in English)''

Hi all! We have good news to share regarding the ongoing problem with graphs and charts affecting all wikis that use them.

As you probably know, the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph|old Graph extension]] was disabled in 2023 [[listarchive:list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/EWL4AGBEZEDMNNFTM4FRD4MHOU3CVESO/|due to security reasons]]. We’ve worked in these two years to find a solution that could replace the old extension, and provide a safer and better solution to users who wanted to showcase graphs and charts in their articles. We therefore developed the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Charts extension]], which will be replacing the old Graph extension and potentially also the [[:mw:Extension:EasyTimeline|EasyTimeline extension]].

After successfully deploying the extension on Italian, Swedish, and Hebrew Wikipedia, as well as on MediaWiki.org, as part of a pilot phase, we are now happy to announce that we are moving forward with the next phase of deployment, which will also include your wiki.

The deployment will happen in batches, and will start from '''May 6'''. Please, consult [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project#Deployment Timeline|our page on MediaWiki.org]] to discover when the new Charts extension will be deployed on your wiki. You can also [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|consult the documentation]] about the extension on MediaWiki.org.

If you have questions, need clarifications, or just want to express your opinion about it, please refer to the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension_talk:Chart/Project|project’s talk page on Mediawiki.org]], or ping me directly under this thread. If you encounter issues using Charts once it gets enabled on your wiki, please report it on the [[:mw:Extension_talk:Chart/Project|talk page]] or at [[phab:tag/charts|Phabricator]].

Thank you in advance! -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 15:07, 6 May 2025 (UTC)
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== Progressive translations ==

If you gradually translate more and more words in a text it's called &quot;progressive translation&quot; apparently. If we were doing, say, English to Hungarian it would look like &quot;I took the ''vonat'' (train) to Budapest&quot; and later on &quot;I saw the river from the ''vonat''&quot;. I want to be able to read novels and pick up vocabulary in this way, as well as make them (or rather get an AI to make them) and share them with other language learners. 

It's education so I thought you might be interested in hosting them, and maybe some people here would be interested in helping out. Thanks for any feedback [[User:Progressive translator|Progressive translator]] ([[User talk:Progressive translator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Progressive translator|contribs]]) 16:54, 6 May 2025 (UTC)

== Call for Candidates for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
The results of voting on the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) Charter is [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2025#Results|available on Meta-wiki]].

You may now [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025/Candidates|submit your candidacy to serve on the U4C]] through 29 May 2025 at 12:00 UTC. Information about [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025|eligibility, process, and the timeline are on Meta-wiki]]. Voting on candidates will open on 1 June 2025 and run for two weeks, closing on 15 June 2025 at 12:00 UTC.

If you have any questions, you can ask on [[m:Talk:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025|the discussion page for the election]]. -- in cooperation with the U4C, &lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|discuss]])&lt;/bdi&gt; 22:08, 15 May 2025 (UTC)
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== RfC ongoing regarding Abstract Wikipedia (and your project) ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
''(Apologies for posting in English, if this is not your first language)''

Hello all! We opened a discussion on Meta about a very delicate issue for the development of [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia|Abstract Wikipedia]]: where to store the abstract content that will be developed through functions from Wikifunctions and data from Wikidata. Since some of the hypothesis involve your project, we wanted to hear your thoughts too. 

We want to make the decision process clear: we do not yet know which option we want to use, which is why we are consulting here. We will take the arguments from the Wikimedia communities into account, and we want to consult with the different communities and hear arguments that will help us with the decision. The decision will be made and communicated after the consultation period by the Foundation.

You can read the various hypothesis and have your say at [[:m:Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content|Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content]]. Thank you in advance! -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|&lt;span class=&quot;signature-talk&quot;&gt;{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}&lt;/span&gt;]]) 15:27, 22 May 2025 (UTC)
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== Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees 2025 Selection &amp; Call for Questions ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
:''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Selection announcement|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Selection announcement}}&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''

Dear all,

This year, the term of 2 (two) Community- and Affiliate-selected Trustees on the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees will come to an end [1]. The Board invites the whole movement to participate in this year’s selection process and vote to fill those seats.

The Elections Committee will oversee this process with support from Foundation staff [2]. The Governance Committee, composed of trustees who are not candidates in the 2025 community-and-affiliate-selected trustee selection process (Raju Narisetti, Shani Evenstein Sigalov, Lorenzo Losa, Kathy Collins, Victoria Doronina and Esra’a Al Shafei) [3], is tasked with providing Board oversight for the 2025 trustee selection process and for keeping the Board informed. More details on the roles of the Elections Committee, Board, and staff are here [4].

Here are the key planned dates:

* May 22 – June 5: Announcement (this communication) and call for questions period [6]
* June 17 – July 1, 2025: Call for candidates
* July 2025: If needed, affiliates vote to shortlist candidates if more than 10 apply [5]
* August 2025: Campaign period
* August – September 2025: Two-week community voting period
* October – November 2025: Background check of selected candidates
* Board’s Meeting in December 2025: New trustees seated

Learn more about the 2025 selection process - including the detailed timeline, the candidacy process, the campaign rules, and the voter eligibility criteria - on this Meta-wiki page [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025|[link]]].

'''Call for Questions'''

In each selection process, the community has the opportunity to submit questions for the Board of Trustees candidates to answer. The Election Committee selects questions from the list developed by the community for the candidates to answer. Candidates must answer all the required questions in the application in order to be eligible; otherwise their application will be disqualified. This year, the Election Committee will select 5 questions for the candidates to answer. The selected questions may be a combination of what’s been submitted from the community, if they’re alike or related. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Questions_for_candidates|[link]]]

'''Election Volunteers'''

Another way to be involved with the 2025 selection process is to be an Election Volunteer. Election Volunteers are a bridge between the Elections Committee and their respective community. They help ensure their community is represented and mobilize them to vote. Learn more about the program and how to join on this Meta-wiki page [[m:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Election_volunteers|[link].]]

Thank you!

[1] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Results

[2] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Committee:Elections_Committee_Charter

[3] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Resolution:Committee_Membership,_December_2024

[4] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections_committee/Roles

[5] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/FAQ

[6] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Questions_for_candidates

Best regards,

Victoria Doronina

Board Liaison to the Elections Committee

Governance Committee&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 03:08, 28 May 2025 (UTC)
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== Vote now in the 2025 U4C Election ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

{{Int:Please-translate}}

Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2025 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2025|2025 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 17 June 2025 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1750161600 12:00 UTC].

Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 1 July 2025. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 23:01, 13 June 2025 (UTC) &lt;/div&gt;
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      <sha1>d3dcpyqyo1h8hs3gi080pcch1p5lkj3</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikineighborhoods</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>95414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2718419</id>
      <parentid>579947</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-13T13:08:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CommonsDelinker</username>
        <id>9184</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replacing 5_Boroughs_Labels_New_York_City_Map_Julius_Schorzman.png with [[File:5_Boroughs_Labels_New_York_City_Map.png]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR1|Criterion 1]] (original uploader’</comment>
      <origin>2718419</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2659" sha1="7p305dzaaauw20ayq76bazhcsf9cdgy" xml:space="preserve">[[File:5 Boroughs Labels New York City Map.png|thumb|Five Boroughs of '''Wikineighborhoods'''.]]
The '''Wikineighborhoods''' project is a [[Wikiversity:Learning projects|learning project]] at [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] to both collaboratively document the neighborhoods of [[w:New York City|New York City]], and to provide new avenues of civic cooperation and engagement for city residents.

==Partnership==
This initiative is a three-way partnership between [[meta:Wikimedia New York City|Wikimedia New York City]], [http://connectingnyc.org/ Connecting.nyc], and [http://www.isoc-ny.org/ Internet Society of New York].

This is an extension of the [http://www.coactivate.org/projects/campaign-for.nyc/traditional-neighborhood-names dotNeighborhoods] effort for the creation of viable content for future community-run websites for each of the neighborhoods of New York City, to be developed along the &quot;wiki model&quot;, as seen in Wikipedia/Wikimedia projects and [[w:city wiki|city wiki]] efforts.

Work for this project will also be done in the context of the [[meta:Wiki Center|Wiki Center]] at LaGuardia Community College Library/ CUNY.

==Process==
For this pilot project at Wikiversity we are developing community resources for 10 neighborhoods (2 for each of the five boroughs), with project planning taking place here at Wikiversity. The project implementation will take place at an independent .org domain. With a proof of concept, the WikiNeighborhoods information will move within the [[w:.nyc|.nyc]] TLD upon its activated as New York City's top-level domain.

===Suggested Names for Pilot Site===

Until the .nyc TLD becomes available, perhaps in late 2011 or more likely 2012, we need a website to branch off the various neighborhoods. A decision on this name will be made on June 23. Suggestions are welcome.

nycneighborhoods.org &lt;br&gt;
nycneighborhoods.net &lt;br&gt;
nyc-neighborhoods.net &lt;br&gt;
nyc-neighborhoods.org   

===Miscellaneous Suggestions===

Some suggestions from JZ -

Developments related to your dot + Wiki-hoods

http://blog.everyblock.com/2009/jun/30/source/
http://www.knightfoundation.org/news/press_room/knight_press_releases/detail.dot?id=349973
http://www.resourceshelf.com/2010/06/19/new-zip-code-maps-mashup/

Throw in Ushahidi.com into the mix (uses FrontlineSMS.com) and you
have mobile SMS + online mapping + zip code news feeds/feedback which
could help engage more local participation and an interesting new
world opens up...

===Pilot neighborhoods===
*[[WikiNeighborhoods/Harlem]]
*[[WikiNeighborhoods/Park Slope]]
*[[WikiNeighborhoods/Jackson Heights]]

[[Category:Learning projects]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]</text>
      <sha1>7p305dzaaauw20ayq76bazhcsf9cdgy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>139384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2718441</id>
      <parentid>2718291</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-14T03:53:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
      <origin>2718441</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3044" sha1="2py87evq5hfcckjdcg3peexvl0leelf" xml:space="preserve">
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20250612.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>2py87evq5hfcckjdcg3peexvl0leelf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2718443</id>
      <parentid>2718441</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-14T03:54:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
      <origin>2718443</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3044" sha1="tkd25vm2768kadmwkxhqqi1bnyptuc1" xml:space="preserve">
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20250613.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>tkd25vm2768kadmwkxhqqi1bnyptuc1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotion and cancer diagnosis</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>148090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2718447</id>
      <parentid>2223610</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-14T09:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <origin>2718447</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="23964" sha1="gc954j8ykvtm6ufse5qdkbux7g1qkl8" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Emotion and cancer diagnosis:&lt;br&gt;What is the emotional impact of a cancer diagnosis?}}
{{MECR|http://www.screenr.com/J36H}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==

A [[w:cancer|cancer]] diagnosis is often associated with feelings of fear, pain, hopelessness and death and therefore is always a stressful situation to the patient (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen, 2003). The emotional impact of a cancer diagnosis can be identified after the initial shock. There are many factors that can predict the impact of a cancer diagnosis on an individual. These factors include age, sex, the cancer type, how the news were told to the patient, the support network of a patient and his/her coping resources.{{fact}} But how do people cope with a traumatic event such as a cancer diagnosis? All cancer patients are individuals who have their personal ways of coping with the diagnosis. These 'ways to cope' can be predicted by one's age and sex; men are often more comfortable dealing with the disease by themselves, whereas women tend to resort to external support, such as support groups and social relationships.{{fact}} Adolescents, on the other hand, often seek support from mainly from their parents.{{fact}}

It is normal for a patient to feel shocked and upset after hearing the news, but sometimes the psychological effects can be long-term (Iwamitsu et al. 2005, Levine et al. 2007). Even though, at present, the psychological effects are well known, depression and anxiety are still under-diagnosed in cancer patients (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen 2003). One of the theories that try to explain the emotional impact of a cancer diagnosis is Snyder's hope theory (Gum &amp; Snyder 2002). This chapter will discuss the emotional impact of a cancer diagnosis on both the patient and the carers, and then consider group-specific ways to cope with the diagnosis and its adverse effects.

== The emotional impact ==

=== On the patient ===

Initial reactions to a cancer diagnosis usually include shock and fear.{{fact}} After the initial reaction, coping mechanisms surface to protect the patient from despair. Some patient experiences are listed in Table 1. The coping skills that have a positive effect on the patient's mood include adopting a personal locus of control, having a positive attitude, taking a minimising perspective, focusing on solving problems that arise, having a will to fight, and seeking social support (Rosen, Rodriguez-Wallberg &amp; Rosenzweig, 2009). Negative coping skills include avoidance and escapism, hopeful thinking, self-blame, and giving up, which all lead to a worse adaptation to the diagnosis (Rosen, Rodriguez-Wallberg &amp; Rosenzweig). Young women, especially, are vulnerable to psychological distress (Rosen, Rodriguez-Wallberg &amp; Rosenzweig). It has also been found that telling the patient to be tough and have the will to fight is not as effective as an empathetic approach (Rosen, Rodriguez-Wallberg &amp; Rosenzweig).

It is the health professional's duty to break the news in an appropriate way. A bad way to break the news (inadequate information, no empathy etc.) has been associated with a negative psychological outcome in patients, such as an increase in the amount of psychological distress, anxiety and a worse mental adaptation process (Paul at al. 2009). These outcomes are connected to a worse outcome in the patient's health and quality of life (Paul at al.). There has been some research on developing a good strategy to break the news to a patient, but the data is still inadequate. There are some issues which have been identified as important and which should be discussed with the patient during the session. For example, the patient should be able to feel like he or she is getting the best treatment available (Schofield et al. 2001). The patient usually prefers a doctor who does not try to hide the diagnosis behind words; the patient's trust seems to increase if the health professional uses the word &quot;cancer&quot; (instead of e.g. melanoma) when breaking the news (Schofield et al.). In addition, patients with different types and stages of cancer seem to have the need of different bits of information (Schofield et al.). The approach should be patient-centered instead of disease- or emotion-centered (Schmid Mast, Kindlimann &amp; Langewitz, 2005).

Social support is essential for the somatic and mental health of the patient (Iwamitsu et al. 2005). Social support has also been noted to affect the way the patient deals with his/her illness (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen 2003). Patients who express their emotions to their friends and family and who have a positive attitude, are more likely to get through the emotional impact of the diagnosis without much psychological distress. In some patients the inability to express emotions can be associated with the feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, which have been found to lead to a worse prognosis (Iwamitsu et al.). It has also been proven that the reactions are always individual, and there are many factors that contribute to the emotional impact, such as race, education, cultural values and beliefs, and personal experiences (Halbert et al. 2009).

Depression and anxiety in cancer patients are fairly common, but in carers these mental problems are even more common (Edwards &amp; Clarke, 2004). Often when a cancer patient is affected by depression, the carers get depressed as well. This indicates that the same factors are associated with both the patient's and the carers' mental status. Some of these factors include the type of cancer, physical independence, type of treatment, time passed from the diagnosis and subjective concerns (Edwards &amp; Clarke). It has been suggested that all cancer clinics should offer the patient the opportunity for counseling, psychotherapy, relaxation exercises and practical advice, without the patient asking (Soothill et al. 2003).

'''Table 1.''' Male cancer patients' experiences during the illness trajectory (reproduced from Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen 2003)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Period of illness trajectory !! Concepts !! Category
|-
| Beginning || Physical changes, loss of weight, abnormal physical signs || Suspicion on illness
|-
|   || Anticipation, hearing the diagnosis, shock, helplessness, ignorance || Encounter with cancer
|-
|   || Contact with health care system, confirmation of diagnosis, telling significant others, entering patient role || Cancer becomes reality
|-
| During treatment || Complications, loss of weight, loss of hair, nausea, loss of appetite || Changes in body image
|-
|   || Fatigue, depression, fear of the unknown, need to cope || Individual illness experiences
|-
|   || New social contacts with staff || New social roles
|-
| During convalescence || Recovery of body image, physical traces of illness || Physical restoration
|-
|   || Suspicion, uncertainty, clinical checkups || Anxiety following treatment
|-
|   || Gratitude, reflection upon meaning of cancer || Reflection
|-
|   || Relationship with partner, family ties, colleagues || Social roles in transition
|}

=== On family and friends ===

Patients who talk about their emotions are more likely to get genuine social and emotional support and feedback (Iwamitsu et al. 2005). In addition, it is beneficial for the patient if the family is able to express their feelings about the illness and the treatments (Edwards &amp; Clarke, 2004). The carers should maintain a good quality social network and avoid problems in the relationship with the patient. Some coping mechanisms that the carers use are considered negative, such as avoidance and deterioration of the relationship with the patient (Pitceathly &amp; Maguire, 2003).

For male companions, communication within the family relieves psychological distress best, whereas for female companions external support is more important (Pitceathly &amp; Maguire, 2003). Changes in lifestyle and daily routines have a larger impact on female than male carers. Interventions can be used to relieve stress in the carers, but they have been noticed to be effective only when all members are willing and co-operative (Pitceathly &amp; Maguire). Also, cancer clinics usually offer help to patients; all health professionals should be able to find solutions for practical problems, when needed (Edwards &amp; Clarke, 2004).

The majority of the carers (family and friends) manage well mentally after the initial shock, but a small minority suffer from serious psychological distress and mental disorders, such as depression and affective disorders (Pitceathly &amp; Maguire, 2003). Women, carers with psychiatric problems and carers who take a negative approach in dealing with the patient's illness and its effects, all have an increased risk of having mental problems (Pitceathly &amp; Maguire). The carers, more often than the patients, keep their emotions to themselves; only half of the carers who get psychological problems seek for help (Pitceathly &amp; Maguire). Often, the emotional distress of the carers increase when the patient's illness advances and the treatments become palliative. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in carers is 30-50% after the treatments have become palliative, whereas in the earlier stages of cancer the prevalence is 20-30% (Pitceathly &amp; Maguire).

== Group specific ways to cope ==

=== Men ===

Male cancer patients may have both physical and emotional difficulties. It is typical that male patients are more willing to fight against cancer by themselves, instead of leaning on support groups or therapy sessions (Halbert et al. 2009, Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen 2003). Men who are allowed to have a bit of control over themselves during their treatment cope better with the diagnosis than men who feel helplessness. This indicates that men have a strong need for maintaining active behaviour (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen).

Male patients complain about having fatigue more often than women do (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen 2003). Fatigue in this case may mean either physical tiredness or the lack of coping resources. Male patients often look as if they are coping really well with the cancer and its effects, but it is still very important for outsiders to offer their help and support (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen). Ways to support the patient include offering information, interactive behaviour in relationships, supporting decision-making, offering help to solve physical problems and maintaining integrity (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen). Some options for support are listed in Table 2.

If the disease is poorly processed by the patient, it can lead to a poor mental health and mental activity (Halbert et al. 2009). The most common coping mechanisms for men are avoidance and intrusive thoughts. Men, who are not open to talking to their families and friends do not process their illness as well as men who do (Halbert et al.). If the patient has a spouse, it is often beneficial for the patient to have their spouse present when meeting the health professional. In most sessions, the spouse is able to ask more questions than the patient; thus acquiring more information for the patient. (Halbert et al.)

'''Table 2.''' Options for support (based on Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen 2003 and Halbert et al. 2009)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Ways to support the patient
|-
| Increasing patient's information
|-
| Interactive behaviour towards the patient
|-
| Supporting decision-making
|-
| Offering help to solve physical problems
|-
| Maintaining integrity
|-
| Improving communication between patient and carers
|-
| Teaching the patient stress reduction techniques
|-
| Teaching the patient insecurity reduction techniques
|-
| Treating treatment-related symptoms adequately
|-
| Psychoeducation
|-
| Helping the patient identify and strengthen the most important sources of support
|}

=== Women ===

For women, external support is important. This includes social support, therapy counselling and support groups (Vaartio, Kiviniemi &amp; Suominen 2003). Similar to male patients, female patients cope with the diagnosis better if they express their feelings and are open to their family and friends (Iwamitsu et al. 2005). This also helps the patient to get better emotional and social support and to handle the negative and unfamiliar emotions. The patient has to recognise and understand her emotions to learn how to express them and how to cope with them. This is called emotional competence (Iwamitsu et al.).

Female patients who suppress their negative feelings have more emotional distress, depression and fatigue than those who do not. Psychological intervention is an effective way to treat these patients (Iwamitsu et al.).

Female patients use spirituality more than men to overcome their distress caused by the illness. It is not uncommon that after a mental trauma (such as a cancer diagnosis), the spirituality of the patient increases (Levine et al. 2007). Spirituality is usually seen as a positive coping mechanism, but in some rare cases the patient can blame a higher power for their diagnosis and become desperate (Levine et al.). Spirituality and prayer, which are directly associated with quality of life, have been used for a long time to cope with illness and misfortune. Spirituality, which is the individual's own beliefs, hopes and meaning, should not be mixed up with religiousness, which refers to the beliefs of a group (Levine et al.).

=== Adolescents and children ===

The prevalence of cancer in adolescents or children is low, but when it happens, it creates massive challenges for the whole family. When an adolescent gets cancer, it has a huge impact on the emotional and psychological development of the child. For a child, there are three important traits they need to develop during adolescence: autonomy, independence and sexuality. Cancer patients are driven to take a step back in their development when they need to rely on their parents and other people once again. This challenges their newly acquired independence. It can also have a negative impact on the adolescent's development in these areas (Abrams, Hazen &amp; Penson 2007).

For a young cancer patient (whether it's a child or an adolescent), social support is essential. This includes family, friends and usually the hospital staff. In the family, it is usually the mother who gives most support. Having friends also benefits the patient greatly. One best friend, who has known the patient long before the diagnosis, has been noticed to be better for the patient's mental well-being than many recently acquired friends (Abrams, Hazen &amp; Penson, 2007). The hospital staff often makes the patient feel supported and cared for. They can also contribute to the patient's well-being by helping the patient feel like a normal child/adolescent (Abrams, Hazen &amp; Penson).

Appearance and relationships are important for the adolescents' [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Self-esteem|self-esteem]]. Changes in the body during treatment may have a stressful impact on the patient. Being away from school and other activities can have a negative impact on relationships with friends and create a feeling of isolation. Especially for an adolescent this is hard, because these relationships are extremely important to create an identity for oneself (Abrams, Hazen &amp; Penson, 2007). Many adolescent patients also have pointed out that it is hard to create a sense of independence when the parents are overprotective during the treatment period (Abrams, Hazen &amp; Penson).

Often children cope well with the diagnosis after the initial shock, believing in their own resources and having the will to fight the disease, but, because of this, the emotional distress can sometimes go unnoticed (Abrams, Hazen &amp; Penson, 2007). A well-formed patient-doctor relationship can help to identify the distress of the patient early on, and this helps to prevent bigger problems from developing. In difficult situations the doctors can suggest treatments, such as therapy (cognitive behavioral therapy or psychotherapy), interventions (support groups, music- or art therapy, relaxation techniques, massage or acupuncture) or medications (e.g. SSRI's for difficult depression), to treat the mental difficulties of the adolescent. The patient should be given the opportunity to voice his or her opinion on the treatment suggested. Some of the adolescents want to have a part in making the decisions, whereas some want their parents to do the decisions for them (Abrams, Hazen &amp; Penson).

== Snyder's hope theory ==

One of the theories created to explain the emotional impact of a cancer diagnosis is Snyder's hope theory. The center of Snyder's hope theory are the person's cognitions about goals, based on the assumption that human behavior is goal-directed. According to Snyder's theory, the superordinate goal of a person is survival, because a person has to be alive to be able to pursue earthly goals (Gum &amp; Snyder 2002). Hope is &quot;a cognitive set that influences behavior and affective functioning&quot; (Gum &amp; Snyder). An awareness of terminal cancer has significant effects on all components of hope: the person's goals as well as the agency (goal-directed determination) and pathways (planning of ways to meet goals) used to reach those goals (Gum &amp; Snyder). The magnitude of the impact on a person depends on four factors: the importance of the goal, the number of goals blocked, the size of the blockage, and the time frame of the blockage (Gum &amp; Snyder). In this case, death is the ultimate goal blockage, as it blocks all goals permanently. This may explain why many patients with terminal cancer experience strong and numerous negative emotions. Research has shown that high-hope individuals have more coping mechanisms than low-hope individuals (Gum &amp; Snyder).

== Conclusion ==

Mental disorders are still under-diagnosed in cancer patients; therefore it is important to know how the diagnosis affects the patient's psyche. A cancer diagnosis can have both psychological and physiological impacts on both the patient and the carers. In addition, the psychological well-being of the patient seems to be connected to the psychological well-being of the carers. Social support is extremely important for both the patients and the carers; in both groups a weak social network is associated with stress, anxiety and a worse quality of life. The patient should be taught about the positive and negative ways to cope and they should be offered help dealing with mental or social problems by the health professionals. The health professional, who breaks the news to the patient, should have enough knowledge about what information to give to the patient, when to give it and how.

Male patients tend to prefer individual counseling over groups sessions. Since male cancer patients have a strong need for activity and autonomy, they should be allowed to retain some control over themselves and their surroundings during treatment. It is important for the carers to offer physical help to the male patients, even if they keep declining. Male patients should try to express their emotions to their families as much as possible.

Female patients tend to prefer support groups and social support over individual counseling. Also spirituality is more common in woman than in men. Hiding negative feelings can induce helplessness and hopelessness, which can lead to a worse prognosis. Therefore it is important for the patient to express his/her feelings. Psychological intervention is effective for female patients who have problems in expressing their feelings.

For children, and especially for adolescents, personal development is crucially important. For an adolescent, a cancer diagnosis is a big step back in terms of becoming independent and therefore it has a huge effect on not only the patient, but on the whole family. For children and adolescent patients, a strong social network (family, friends and hospital staff) is essential and good communication helps to identify problems in mental health early on. If serious mental problems arise, interventions and psychiatric treatment can be used, but only if the child is compliant with the treatment.

== Quiz ==

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which one of the following is considered to be a negative way of coping against a cancer diagnosis?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Seeking social support
- Having a will to fight
+ Hopeful thinking
- A positive attitude

{Factors such as race, education and cultural values contribute to the emotional impact of the diagnosis on the patient.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{What is the most common coping mechanism for men struggling against cancer?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoidance
- Dissociation
- Humor

{The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in carers is as high as 20-30% in the early stages of treatment.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{In general, patients who suppress their negative feelings are _________ than those who do not.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Happier
+ More depressed
- More likely to get emotional support

&lt;/quiz&gt;

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Stress and health|Stress and health]] (Book chapter, 2010)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Stress and emotional health|Stress and emotional health]]  (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Grief|Grief]]  (Book chapter, 2011)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Abrams, A.N.; Hazen, E.P., &amp; Penson, R.T. (2007). Psychosocial issues in adolescents with cancer. ''Cancer Treatment Reviews, 33''(7), 622-30.

Edwards, B. &amp; Clarke, V. (2004). The psychological impact of a cancer diagnosis on families: The influence of family functioning and patients' illness characteristics on depression and anxiety. ''Psycho-Oncology, 13''(8), 562-76.

Gum, A. &amp; Snyder C.R. (2002). Coping with terminal illness: the role of hopeful thinking. ''Journal of Palliative Medicine, 5''(6):883-94

Halbert, C.H., Wrenn, G., Weathers, B., Delmoor, E., Ten Have, T., &amp; Coyne, J.C. (2010). Sociocultural determinants of men's reactions to prostate cancer diagnosis. ''Psycho-Oncology, 19''(5), 553-60.

Iwamitsu, Y., Shimoda, K., Abe, H., Tani, T., Okawa, M., &amp; Buck, R. (2005). Anxiety, emotional suppression, and psychological distress before and after breast cancer diagnosis. ''Psychosomatics, 46''(1), 19-24.

Levine, E.G., Yoo, G., Aviv, C., Ewing, C., &amp; Au, A. (2007). Ethnicity and spirituality in breast cancer survivors. ''Journal of Cancer Survivorship, 1''(3), 212-25.

Paul, C.L., Clinton-McHarg, T., Sanson-Fisher, R.W., Douglas, H., &amp; Webb, G. (2009). Are we there yet? The state of the evidence base for guidelines on breaking bad news to cancer patients. ''European Journal of Cancer, 45''(17), 2960-6.

Pitceathly, C. &amp; Maguire, P. (2003). The psychological impact of cancer on patients' partners and other key relatives: a review. ''European Journal of Cancer, 39''(11), 1517-24.

Rosen, A., Rodriguez-Wallberg, K.A., &amp; Rosenzweig, L. (2009). Psychosocial distress in young cancer survivors. ''Seminars in Oncology Nursing, 25''(4), 268-77.

Schofield, P.E., Beeney, L.J., Thompson, J.F., Butow, P.N., Tattersall, M.H., &amp; Dunn, S.M. (2001). Hearing the bad news of a cancer diagnosis: The Australian melanoma patient's perspective. ''Annals of Oncology, 12''(3), 365-71.

Schmid Mast, M., Kindlimann, A., &amp; Langewitz, W. (2005). Recipients' perspective on breaking bad news: How you put it really makes a difference. ''Patient Education &amp; Counseling, 58''(3), 244-51.

Soothill, K., Morris, S.M., Thomas, C., Harman, J.C., Francis, B., &amp; McIllmurray, M.B. (2003). The universal, situational, and personal needs of cancer patients and their main carers. ''European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 7''(1), 5-13; discussion 14-6.

Vaartio, H., Kiviniemi, K., &amp; Suominen, T. (2003). Men's experiences and their resources from cancer diagnosis to recovery. ''European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 7''(3), 182-90.

}}

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== Overview ==
[[File:Brussels marathon 2007.jpg|thumb|center|''Figure 1.'' Exercise provides many benefits including mood enhancement]]

The effects of exercise on mood and mood disorders have long been a topic of interest and research. What are the benefits of exercise? Does it improve mood? Can it treat mood disorders? The relationship between exercise and mood is an interesting topic as numerous studies have found the more active people are, the more of a reduction in negative mood and depressive symptoms will be felt compared to those who are sedentary (Brosse, Sheets, Lett &amp; Blumenthal, 2002). Exercise has been found to enhance mood, so does this mean exercise can reduce symptoms of mood disorders? Exercise could be an alternative treatment offered to people suffering from depression and anxiety. Mood disorders, especially depression are usually poorly treated (Lawlor &amp; Hopker, 2001) because of the unpleasant side effects of pharmacological treatments as well as the low rates of compliance. Exercise could be beneficial as it's free unlike psychological and pharmacological treatments but will this work for everyone?

== Mood ==
People experience moods on a daily basis, {{grammar}} mood is an individual's affective (feeling) state, and differs from emotion as emotions are shorter and more intense (Salovey &amp; Mayer, 1989). Moods refer to changing affective states that are related to how a person feels at a particular point in time (Berger &amp; Motl, 2000). Affective states can be both positive and negative. Positive affect includes pleasurable emotions such as happiness and negative affect includes unpleasant emotions such as sadness or anger (Berger &amp; Motl, 2000). Moods are not only asserted through emotions but can be seen through body language including posture, facial expressions and tone of voice. Mood can be linked to both physical and psychological health, positive affect can reduce the risk of developing illness and disease as well as mood disorders (Berger &amp; Motl, 2000). So when a person experiences negative moods and emotions, could that mean mood disorders such as depression or anxiety have a high risk of developing?

Depressive mood or [[w:depression|depression]] according to the [http://www.psychiatry.org/dsm5 DSM-5] usually includes feelings of worthlessness, lack of energy, helplessness, irritability, changes in sleep patterns and weight gain/loss (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Another prevalent mood disorder is anxiety. There are numerous types of [[w:anxiety|anxiety]] disorders such as panic attacks, obsessive compulsive disorder, post traumatic stress disorder, generalised anxiety and so on. Generalised anxiety is characterised by excessive worry and anxiety, in which the individual cannot control as well as other symptoms such as restlessness, difficulty sleeping, irritability and trouble concentrating (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

== The impact of exercise on mood ==
Physical activity is defined as movement of the body which expends energy using skeletal muscles (Caspersen, Powel &amp; Christenson, 1985). Exercise has been said to be a category of physical activity which is structured and ongoing as a means of physical fitness (Caspersen et al., 1985). The effects of exercise have been studied due to the physical and psychological benefits it produces. Individuals engage in exercise and physical activity not only for the fitness benefit but because it is enjoyable. Exercise is enjoyable because it improves mood. When mood is measured before and after exercising, in almost all cases mood is enhanced (Salmon, 2001). When looking at the effects of exercise on mood there are three types of exercise regimes used, aerobic, muscular strength and flexibility training. Aerobic exercise uses energy and oxygen, and includes exercises such as running/jogging or swimming at a comfortable pace (Byrne &amp; Byrne, 1993). Muscular strength focuses on energy use without the use of oxygen, such as weightlifting and flexibility training aims to improve the range of motion in one's body, which can include stretching and yoga (Brosse et al., 2002). The type of exercise someone engages in determines the effect it has on their mood. Aerobic exercises produce clear mood enhancements either immediately or shortly after completing the regime, whereas muscular strength and flexibility training don't produce clear effects on mood, meaning it's difficult to determine if these exercise types effect mood at all (Salmon, 2001).

Research has compared the effects of exercise on mood with other mood regulation techniques such as relaxation and meditation. Exercise was as equally effective as relaxation techniques in the regulation of mood in the short-term and reduced feelings of anger, stress and depression (Berger &amp; Motl, 2000). Further evidence suggests that walking/running at a steady pace is linked to positive affect (Berger &amp; Motl, 2000). These findings provide evidence that exercise enhances mood and positive emotions, could this be applied to mood disorders? Exercise may prove to be an effective alternative treatment for depression and anxiety patients in aim to enhance mood and reduce symptoms. 

Table 1.&lt;br&gt;
''The effect exercise has on mood''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Why does exercise enhance mood? !! Explanation
|-
| Social Interaction || Exercising in a group environment can offer social support and interaction which can allow people suffering from mood disorders to feel less isolated.
|-
| Positive feedback || Positive feedback from others can help improve self-esteem and improve feelings of self-worth and therefore reducing depressive symptoms.
|-
| Distraction || Physical activity can be an effective way to distract people from thinking about negative memories/thought.
|-
| Physiological Effects || Exercise can regulate stress and mood, therefore decreasing negative affect, depressive and anxiety related symptoms (Ross &amp;Thomas, 2010).
|}
&lt;br&gt;
(Lawlor &amp; Hopker, 2001).
=== Exercise and mood disorders ===
Exercise is suggested to have a positive effect on mental health{{fact}}. Research suggests that individuals who are physically active are three times less likely to suffer from depression than inactive individuals (Armstrong &amp; Oomen-Early, 2009). Exercise has been compared with antidepressants as a treatment for depression{{fact}}. Clinically depressed patients were asked to exercise which included running on a treadmill three times a week for 16 weeks, another group were asked to comply with a medication program and the last group exercised and took antidepressant medication (Blumenthal et al., 1999). After the intervention all groups displayed a reduction in depressive symptoms but treatment impacted patients differently (Blumenthal et al., 1999). People with severe depression responded better to medication whereas patients with less severe depression responded quickly to the combination of exercise and medication (Blumenthal et al., 1999). This finding demonstrates that exercise has a positive impact on mood, in particular depressive symptoms, but that individual differences are apparent. Individuals each respond differently to treatment, exercise enhances mood in some but not in others. The type of exercise used in this study, like many others, is aerobic exercise which, usually improves mood. 

Salmon (2001) states that aerobic exercise indeed does significantly enhance mood as research has shown that running programs which last for about 12 weeks enhance mood more significantly than other exercise types. However muscle strengthening and flexibility training type regimes have had much less attention than aerobic exercise for improving mood.

[[File:Melancholy 2.PNG|thumb|right|''Figure 2.'' Depressive symptoms can be reduced with exercise]]

Research has suggested that exercise used as a treatment for clinically depressed patients can act as a better treatment option than psychotherapy (Klein et al., 1984). Clinically depressed patients were assigned to one of three groups, a running group, a psychotherapy group or meditation-relaxation therapy group (Klein et al., 1984). It was found that all treatment groups produced significant reductions in depressive symptoms and interestingly there were no significant differences found between groups (Klein et al., 1984). This suggests that exercise is just as effective as psychological/relaxation treatments for depression. Exercise could be an alternative treatment option as it's free and the reductions in depressive symptoms were apparent after nine months (Klein et al., 1984).

The effects of exercise on anxiety are extremely {{grammar}} less studied than depression, {{grammar}} this may be because anxiety disorders differ tremendously and results cannot be generalised to all anxiety sufferers (Ströhle, 2008). The research that has been conducted on anxiety and exercise has produced controversial conclusions. Research has found that physical activity reduces anxiety related symptoms and lowers the risk of a range of phobias (Ströhle, 2008). Reducing anxiety has been tested with all exercise types. Muscle strengthening and flexibility training have produced slight decreases in symptoms of anxiety but aerobic exercise has been the most effective in symptom reduction (Scully, Kremer, Meade, Graham &amp; Dudgeon, 1988). Although this finding is controversial, as reduction in anxiety related symptoms and reduced risk of developing anxiety is apparent in a healthy population, but not in people who have been diagnosed with anxiety (Ströhle, 2008){{grammar}}. Some studies have found that anxiety is heightened due to the exercise regime and exercise may even induce panic attacks (Ströhle, 2009). It is apparent that research on anxiety and exercise is inconclusive as there is no plausible evidence to suggest exercise does or doesn't improve mood.

Most research on exercise and mood disorders demonstrates an increase in positive affect and reduced mood-related symptoms, however limitations of these studies must be addressed. Nearly all studies examining the exercise and mood relationship used short-term exercise programs, {{grammar}} there is little evidence to suggest exercise can improve mood long-term or permanently. This provides complications for suggesting exercise as a treatment for mood disorders because it's unknown whether it would be effective long-term. Researchers haven't investigated whether exercising for differing durations such as 10 minutes, 40 minutes or an hour or different intensities effects mood or symptoms of mood disorders differently (Yeung, 1996). In real-world situations it's unrealistic that people will exercise as often as participants did in these studies, meaning these results may be biased. There is limited research and conclusions on the effects of exercise on anxiety, meaning it is difficult to draw the conclusion that exercise improves anxiety related symptoms. Further research is needed to determine if there is a connection between exercise and anxiety and whether exercise can be used as a treatment option for people suffering from anxiety.

== Case Study ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
Jane was a clinically depressed patient who failed in attempting suicide. Jane is 26 years old, overweight and has a history of self-injury in which she has received psychological and pharmacological treatment for {{grammar}} (Wallenstein &amp; Nock, 2007). In aim {{grammar}} to prevent Jane from self-injuring and attempting suicide again Mathew Wallenstein and Matthew Nock (2007) provided Jane with an exercise program to determine whether this could help her.

Jane was provided with an exercise video that ran for 60 minutes telling her how often to exercise (3 times a week) and she was instructed to exercise when she feels like self-injuring (Wallenstein &amp; Nock, 2007). In conjunction with this Jane filled out a mood and self-injury questionnaire on a daily basis (Wallenstein &amp; Nock, 2007). Jane did this routine for 8 weeks and was assessed by the researchers afterwards. 

During exercising periods self-injury urges were much lower than non-exercise periods and increase in positive mood was found after exercise compared to before exercise (Wallenstein &amp; Nock, 2007). This exercise program seemed to be effective in reducing Jane’s urges to self-injure as after she exercised she no longer felt the need to self-harm (Wallenstein &amp; Nock, 2007). This case study demonstrates that exercise can be beneficial not only for mood but it can be used to reduce self-harm and suicidal urges by enabling people to enhance their mood through exercising.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Physiological explanations ==
Why does exercise effect mood? There have been a number of explanations to explain {{rewrite}} the relationship between exercise and mood, many of which have centred around the physiological effects of exercise. Depression is related to imbalances of neurotransmitters in the brain, including serotonin, [[Dopamine|dopamine]] and norepinephrine (Ross &amp; Thomas, 2010). Neurotransmitters are chemicals that send messages within the brain (Ross &amp; Thomas, 2010). According to the monoamine hypothesis exercise can help restore balance to these neurotransmitters and therefore reduce depressive symptoms (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). Endorphins also play important role in the relationship between depression and exercise, in particular the β-endorphin. β-endorphins are endorphins that help people cope with pain, are released when pain is felt, and are also related to elevated mood (Brosse et al., 2002). Pain is felt during exercise so therefore exercise increases the release of the β-endorphins which in turn elevates mood (Brosse et al., 2002). A problem with this study and many others is that the endorphins and monoamine levels haven't been measured before and after exercise. Researchers only offer the hypotheses as explanations and don't have any real evidence to suggest they are correct. Salmon (2001) states that exercise does improve mood and offers the endorphin and monamine hypotheses to explain why but in his studies he didn't test these hypotheses. Nevertheless these hypotheses are the two main physiological mechanisms that have been said to underlie the exercise and mood relationship but it must be noted that research is needed to confirm or reject these explanations.

=== Monoamine hypothesis ===
The monoamine hypothesis proposes that exercises leads to balanced levels of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, which is important because neurotransmitters are usually imbalanced in people suffering from depression (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). Anti-depressants, medication to treat depression, are used to regulate neurotransmitters, therefore the monoamine hypothesis suggests that exercise can work in a similar way to anti-depressants. A number of studies have determined whether running or swimming affect levels of neurotransmitters within the brain. Results were mixed, {{grammar}} some studies found that exercise only slightly affected levels of neurotransmitters and other studies found no change at all (Meeusen &amp; Meirleir, 1995). Further experiments are needed to determine whether the monamine hypothesis is a plausible explanation as to why exercise impacts on mood.

=== Endorphin hypothesis ===
The endorphin hypothesis suggests that exercise can reduce depressive symptoms as it increases the release of endorphins, {{grammar}} endorphins can be associated with positive moods and therefore reduce feelings of depression (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). Research has supported the endorphin hypothesis, as it is commonly known that exercise increases the release of endorphins into the body, in particular the β-endorphin, to cope with pain produced by engaging in exercise (Brosse et al., 2002). These β-endorphins seem to be related to elevated mood, as studies have demonstrated that after exercise participants show an increase in positive mood and decreases in negative affect or depressive symptoms (Brosse et al., 2002). But do these elevated mood effects last forever? Brosse and colleagues (2002) state that endorphins only produce elevated moods in people for a short period of time and there is no evidence to suggest that endorphin release in relation to exercise can elevate mood and reduce depressive symptoms permanently. Therefore a combination of physiological and psychological explanations could demonstrate why exercise enhances mood.

== Psychological explanations ==
Psychological and physiological mechanisms of the relationship between exercise and mood have not been widely studied.  Research that has examined the role of physiological and psychological mechanisms in explaining the effect of exercise on mood has produced results that are inconclusive (Craft, 2005). One study conducted by Craft (2005) looked at whether psychological mechanisms such as distraction and self-efficacy explain why exercise influences mood. Participants in this study included two groups of women who were depressed, one group participated in exercise 3 days a week ranging from jogging, cycling, and stretching, whereas the other group did not participate in any exercise program (Craft, 2005). After nine weeks researchers found that women in the exercise group displayed reductions in depression, {{grammar}} before the experiment they were moderately depressed whereas after the intervention they were only minimally depressed (Craft, 2005). Results also showed that self-efficacy was improved as well as coping efficacy for dealing with depression, {{grammar}} exercise was a distraction for participants as women reported less negative thoughts after the intervention than before (Craft, 2005). This study demonstrated that the distraction hypothesis and self-efficacy hypothesis could be plausible explanations as to why exercise improves mood. These hypotheses will be explained in further detail.

=== Distraction hypothesis ===
Exercise can be a means of distraction, {{grammar}} distraction is especially important for people who are feeling down, showing depressive or anxiety related symptoms. The distraction hypothesis proposes that exercise distracts people from depressive thoughts, feelings, worries and fears (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). The distraction hypothesis states in relation to anxiety that exercise offers a distraction from stressful or worrying thoughts/situations which in turn leads to anxiety reduction (Petruzzello et al., 1991). When people are distracted from their moods through activities such as exercise, they will experience more positive emotions compared to people who aren't distracted (Morrow &amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990). Many researchers believe that exercise provides individuals with a distraction from distressing or sad thoughts (Morrow &amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990). Exercise can offer a distraction as people usually focus on their breathing, heart rate, sore body parts, instead of negative thoughts and feelings (Craft 2005).The distraction hypothesis can offer a reasonable explanation as to why exercise enhances mood, although some researchers ignore the physiological effects of exercise (Morrow &amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990). Morrow and Nolen-Hoeksema (1990) believe that exercise doesn't always act as a distraction and can facilitate time for thinking negative thoughts. It is apparent that research has found conflicting results regarding the distraction hypothesis, suggesting further investigation is needed to determine if this hypothesis can sufficiently explain why exercise enhances mood.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Practical Example'''

Dave had been feeling down for a few weeks and heard that exercising could be a way to feel better. Dave decided to join a jogging group which exercised four times a week around the local parks and lakes. Dave started his jogging and made some new friends within the group. While attending these jogging session Dave would catch up with his new friends have a chat about his day, as well as trying to improve his personal best jogging times. Dave realised that while he was exercising he was no longer thinking about negative things or events and he began to feel more happier. This is an example of how distraction may provide benefits for people feeling down, depressed or anxious.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Self-efficacy hypothesis ===
Self-efficacy is defined as an individual's belief in their ability to achieve a goal or perform a task (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). There is a relationship between depressive moods/depression and negative self-evaluations, including low self-efficacy (Brosse, et al., 2002). Increasing one's self-efficacy could reduce depressive symptoms. People who are 'healthy' are able to successfully regulate their feelings, moods, thoughts and goals (Bandura, 1997). Someone with low self-efficacy may be more vulnerable to feeling anxious during situations where they feel they cannot achieve the desired goal (Craft, 2005). Low self-efficacy can play a role in increasing negative thoughts and evaluations in depressed people (Craft, 2005). The self-efficacy hypothesis states that exercise can give people confidence and improved self-efficacy to cope with depression or anxiety (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). Albert Bandura (1993), proposes low self-efficacy leads to depression as well as anxiety in three ways. Firstly low self-efficacy can be due to people setting high standards that they cannot realistically fulfil, secondly low self-efficacy in relation to social relationships, as people who don't have social support are at a higher risk of negative affect and depression (Bandura, 1993). Finally low self-efficacy can be due to the individual constantly thinking negatively (Bandura, 1993). Exercise can target each of these aspects that lead to low self-efficacy and in turn depression and anxiety. Exercise can allow people to master a skill such as learning to run properly and then mastering running so running a marathon can be achieved, improving self-efficacy. According to Craft (2005) mastery of a skill or exercise seems to be the best way to improve self-efficacy, when a person feels confident they have mastered running/swimming for example they are likely to feel highly efficacious. Improving self-efficacy in relation to mastering running for example, can lead to enhanced self-efficacy in coping and overcoming depression and anxiety (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). Exercise acts as a distraction and this can prevent the individual from thinking negatively, which will increase self-efficacy. A meta-analysis has found support for the self-efficacy hypothesis, stating that after an exercising program participant's self-efficacy significantly increased (Netz, Wu, Becker &amp; Tenenbaum, 2005). This finding is exciting as higher ratings of self-efficacy could possibly help people cope with their mood disorders and also gives evidence to suggest that self-efficacy is an underlying psychological mechanism that can explain why exercise enhances mood.

== Conclusion==
There has been a large amount of research suggesting that exercise enhances mood and could possibly be used as a treatment for mood disorders such as depression and anxiety. Exercise as a treatment for regulation of mood and mood disorders have been emphasised by health professional {{grammar}} (Petruzzello et al., 1991). From the evidence, it can be concluded that exercise does enhance mood and could possibly reduce symptoms of mood disorders. More research is needed to gain clearer results on this relationship between exercise and mood. The psychological and physiological hypotheses that have been proposed have gained very little research, meaning it is difficult to determine whether they do in fact explain why exercise enhances mood. It could be a combination of both physiological and psychological mechanisms that explain why exercise enhances mood but it will remain unknown until further research is conducted. In conclusion the relationship between mood and exercise is an exciting one as exercise could possibly be an effective treatment for both depression and anxiety. It is clear that more research is needed to determine if exercise can influence mood and mood disorders in the long-term and also to determine if it can reduce depressive and anxiety related symptoms permanently. Overall exercise is beneficial for humans both psychologically and physically, and everyone should aim to exercise regularly.

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz&gt;
{How does mood differ from emotion?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Mood is more intense than emotions
+ Emotions are more intense than mood
- Mood and emotions are the same
- None of the above

{ Which of the following is a symptom of depression according to the DSM-5?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Crying
- Anger
+ Irritability

{ Which of the following is an example of aerobic exercise?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Weight lifting
+ Swimming
- Stretching

{ What type of exercise is most commonly used in mood and exercise research?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Aerobic
- muscle strengthening
- flexibility training
- All of the above

{ What are the two psychological mechanisms that explain the exercise-mood relationship?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Self-efficacy and monoamine hypothesis
+ Self-efficacy and distraction hypothesis
- Distraction and endorphin hypothesis
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Depression in athletes|Depression in athletes]]&lt;br&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Exercise and motivation|Exercise and motivation]] &lt;br&gt;
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Stress_and_health|Stress and health]] &lt;br&gt;
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Exercise|Motivation and exercise]] &lt;br&gt;
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Sport|Sport and emotion]] &lt;br&gt;
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Depression|Motivation and depression]]

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders'' (5th ed.). Washington, DC.

Armstrong, S., &amp; Oomen-Early, J. (2009). Social connectedness, self-esteem, and depression symptomatology among collegiate athletes versus nonathletes. ''Journal Of American College Health, 57'', 521-526. Retrieved from humanresourcefulness.net [[User:1Kristina1|1Kristina1]] ([[User talk:1Kristina1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/1Kristina1|contribs]])

Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. ''Educational Psychologist, 28,'' 117–148. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change. ''Psychological Review, 84,'' 191–215. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191

Berger, B. G., &amp; Motl, R. W. (2000). Exercise and mood: A selective review and synthesis of research employing the profile of mood states. ''Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12'', 69–92. doi:10.1080/10413200008404214

Blumenthal, J. A., Babyak, M. A., Moore, K. A., Craighead, W. E., Herman, S., Khatri, P., … Krishnan, K. R. (1999). Effects of exercise training on older patients with major depression. ''Arch Intern Med, 159.'' doi:10.1001/archinte.159.19.2349

Brosse, A. L., Sheets, E. S., Lett, H. S., &amp; Blumenthal, J. A. (2002). Exercise and the treatment of clinical depression in adults. ''Sports Medicine, 32'', 741–760. doi:10.2165/00007256-200232120-00001

Byrne, A., &amp; Byrne, D. G. (1993). The effect of exercise on depression, anxiety and other mood states: A review. ''Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 37,'' 565–574. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(93)90050-p

Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., &amp; Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. ''Public health reports, 100,'' 126. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1424733/pdf/pubhealthrep00100-0016.pdf

Craft, L. L. (2005). Exercise and clinical depression: examining two psychological mechanisms. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6'', 151–171. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2003.11.003

Klein, M. H., Greist, J. H., Gurman, A. S., Neimeyer, R. A., Lesser, D. P., Bushnell, N. J., &amp; Smith, R. E. (1984). A comparative outcome study of group psychotherapy vs. exercise treatments for depression. ''International Journal of Mental Health, 13,'' 148-176. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/41344367?uid=3737536&amp;uid=2&amp;uid=4&amp;sid=21104961040663

Lawlor, D. A., &amp; Hopker, S. W. (2001). The effectiveness of exercise as an intervention in the management of depression: systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''BMJ, 322,'' 763. doi: 10.1136/bmj.322.7289.763

Meeusen, R., &amp; De Meirleir, K. (1995). Exercise and brain neurotransmission. ''Sports Medicine, 20'', 160–188. doi:10.2165/00007256-199520030-00004

Morrow, J., &amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58'', 519–527. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.3.519

Netz, Y., Wu, M.-J., Becker, B. J., &amp; Tenenbaum, G. (2005). Physical activity and psychological well-being in advanced Aae: A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies. ''Psychology and Aging, 20,'' 272–284. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.2.272

Peluso, M. A. M., &amp; Andrade, L. H. S. G. de. (2005). Physical activity and mental health: the association between exercise and mood. ''Clinics, 60,'' 61–70. doi:10.1590/s1807-59322005000100012

Petruzzello, S. J., Landers, D. M., Hatfield, B. D., Kubitz, K. A., &amp; Salazar, W. (1991). A meta-analysis on the anxiety-reducing effects of acute and chronic exercise. ''Sports Medicine, 11,'' 143–182. doi:10.2165/00007256-199111030-00002

Ross, A., &amp; Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: A review of comparison studies. ''The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16'', 3–12. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0044

Salmon, P. (2001). Effects of physical exercise on anxiety, depression, and sensitivity to stress. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 21,'' 33–61. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(99)00032-x

Salovey, P., &amp; Mayer, J. D. (1989). Emotional intelligence. ''Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9,'' 185–211. doi:10.2190/dugg-p24e-52wk-6cdg

Scully, D., Kremer, J., Meade, M. M., Graham, R., &amp; Dudgeon, K. (1998). Physical exercise and psychological well being: a critical review. British ''Journal of Sports Medicine, 32'', 111–120. doi:10.1136/bjsm.32.2.111

Ströhle, A. (2008). Physical activity, exercise, depression and anxiety disorders. ''Journal of Neural Transmission, 116,'' 777–784. doi:10.1007/s00702-008-0092-x

Wallenstein, M. B., &amp; Nock, M. K. (2007). Physical exercise as a treatment for non-suicidal self-injury: evidence from a single-case study. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 164'', 350–351. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.2.350-a

Yeung, R. R. (1996). The acute effects of exercise on mood state. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 40(2), 123–141. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(95)00554-4
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[[File:Strawberry splash.jpg|700x500px|thumbnail|right|''Figure 1.'' A glass of water]]

==Overview==

This chapter will demonstrate the effect [[Wikipedia:dehydration|dehydration]] has on [[Wikipedia:mood|mood]] and why it is important to stay hydrated to ensure optimal mood to improve your life and stay healthy. As you read through the chapter be sure to check your understanding by following the learning outcomes above. Hopefully, by the end of the chapter you are able to distinguish the relationship between dehydration and mood and feel inspired to maintain a happy and healthy lifestyle using the practical tips provided in the chapter to avoid dehydration and its effects on mood. To begin the chapter take the quiz below to find out whether you are dehydrated.

==Learning outcomes==

* What is dehydration?
* What are the effects of dehydration on mood?
* Why is it important to stay hydrated?
* What can you do to optimise mood and avoid dehydration?

==Quiz: Are you dehydrated?==

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Does your mouth feel dry and sticky?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ A – Yes, quite often.
- B - Sometimes.
- C - No.

{Do you often get headaches?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ A - Yes, quite often.
- B - Sometimes.
- C - No.

{Have you noticed a lack of urination?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ A - Yes, quite often.
- B - Rarely.
- C - No.

{Do you have dry skin?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ A - Yes, quite often.
- B - Sometimes.
- C - No.

{Are you feeling;
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ A - Tired?
- B - Angry?
- C - Average?
&lt;/quiz&gt; 

If you answered mostly 'A', there is a high chance that your body is dehydrated and in need of fluid which in turn can be causing increased fatigue, read on to learn more about why you are currently, or have recently experienced these symptoms in order to prevent this in the future. If you answered mostly 'B' your body may possibly be dehydrated if you have not been consuming adequate amounts of fluid recently, or symptoms may be occurring due to an alternative explanation and you may need to seek medical advice if symptoms continue. If you answered mostly 'C' is it likely your body is receiving adequate water supply enabling it to produce enough water around your body preventing dry skin, lack of urination, a dry, sticky mouth, preventing the uncomfortable tension caused by a headache due to dehydration, as well as negative moods, Well done!

==Understanding dehydration==

Two-thirds of our bodies are made up of [[Wikipedia:Water|water]]. Humans are known to survive only three to five days without any [[Wikipedia:Fluid|fluid]] intake (Benton, 2011), therefore it is essential for our survival. Interestingly, as far back as the time when primeval species began walking the earth the major goal in order to survive has been preventing [[Wikipedia:Dehydration|dehydration]] (Popkin, D’Anci &amp; Rosenberg, 2010). Dehydration occurs when 1% or higher of body mass drops due to fluid loss. A loss of 2% or higher can lead to significant implications such as impaired cognitive function, decreases in physical performance, headaches and serious mood alterations. When a person has suffered mild dehydration (i.e. a loss of 1-2% body mass) over a specific period of time they are at risk of severe conditions such as a urinary tract infection and constipation (Gibson-Moore, 2013). In other words, dehydration occurs when a person’s total body water level falls below normal in which there is a greater loss of fluid than what is being taken in (Hope, 2013). Interestingly though, thirst is not triggered until our water volume falls by about 2% when mild dehydration has already set in at approximately 1-2% loss of water and our moods are already being affected (Gibson-Moore, 2013). There are many ways in which our bodies naturally loose water including exercise, sweat, breathing, urine, and defacing, vomiting and diarrhoea also cause a loss of water from our bodies. In contrast we receive water supply from drinking and eating (Komaroff, 2006).  Approximately 20% of water intake comes from food intake while beverages of all kinds provide the other 80% (Goldman, 2011).  Dehydration can start of mild with symptoms such as dizziness when standing up, fatigue and weakness and become more severe resulting in dangerously low blood pressure and even loss of consciousness (Komaroff, 2006). Other symptoms of dehydration include a dry, sticky mouth, thirst, fatigue, dry skin, headaches, dizziness, muscle weakness, little urination and a fever just to name a few (Jéquier &amp; Constant, 2010).Dehydration is also said to effect [[Wikipedia:Mood|mood]] in which will be explored throughout the chapter.

==Dehydration and mood==

===Understanding moods===

Reeve (2009) explains [[Wikipedia:Mood (psychology)mood|mood]] as an aftereffect feeling of a previously experienced emotional episode. There are two types of moods including [[Wikipedia:Mood (psychology)#Positive mood|Positive mood]] and [[Wikipedia:Mood (psychology)#Negative mood|Negative mood]], usually described in psychology as positive affect and negative affect. Positive affect is a person's level of enthusiasm and pleasure, when a person feels high positive affect they feel energized, alert and optimistic. In contrast, a negative affect is felt when a person experiences feelings of dissatisfaction and irritability. It is important to realise that moods are actually not the same as emotions. To learn more about the differences and similarities between mood and emotion go to the chapter [http://Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2014/Mood_and_emotion Mood and emotion]

===Dehydration effects on mood in men===

Ganio et al. (2011) conducted a study to access the effects of dehydration on mood in young males. Twenty-sex men participated in trials of exercise-induced dehydration where assessments were conducted on mood and cognitive performance. Moods were assessed using the profile of mood states (POMS) questionnaire which has the ability to detect any change in serotonergic function where it has been suggested that changes in this neurotransmitter are strongly associated with adverse effects of dehydration. The POMS questionnaire is a widely used tool which is a standardized register of mood states. The questionnaire involves a series of sixty-five mood-related describing words which participants rate on a 5-point scale in response to the question “how are you feeling right now?” the words are separated into sub-scales including tension/anxiety, depression/dejection, anger/hostility, vigour/activity, fatigue/inertia and confusion/ bewilderment. The experiment found that during rest from exercises the mood state of the men was adversely affected, in particular tension/anxiety and fatigue/inertia increasing even though there were no detectable changes in symptoms such as headache or perceived task difficulty. Interestingly, mood state was the first to be effected due to mild dehydration. Unfortunately, although mood states were adversely affected by dehydration the brain mechanism that is in control of the deterioration in mood states due to dehydration remains unknown. 

===Dehydration effects on mood in women===

Armstrong et al. (2012) conducted a study similar to Ganio et al. (2011) that produced mild dehydration through intermittent moderate exercise in order to investigate the effects of dehydration on cognitive performance and mood. Mood as well as cognitive performance and symptoms of dehydration were assessed during the experiment and at rest. It was found that dehydration does in fact have adverse effects on mood in females, consistent with previous research conducted on males{{fact}}. Profile of mood states (POMS) questionnaires were used to assess the women’s moods. The volunteers had to rate a series of 65 mood-related describing words on a five-point scale in response to the question “how are you feeling right now?” {{grammar}} the six sub scales were tension-anxiety, depression-dejection, anger-hostility, vigour-activity, fatigue-inertia, and confusion-bewilderment. The results gathered from the POMS questionnaires of the women during treadmill exercise and at rest found that when the women were dehydrated (mean loss of 1.36% body mass) vigour and fatigue were adversely affected. Like Ganio et al. (2011), Armstrong et al. (2012) also mentions that although studies have found that dehydration in both women and men have adverse effects on mood the physiological mechanism underlying the associations between dehydration and mood remain unknown. In summary, the present study found that mild dehydration has adverse effects on mood states such as vigour and fatigue in females{{fact}}.   

===Gender differences===

In conclusion from studies conducted by both Ganio et al. (2011) and Armstrong et al. (2012) it was found that there is a significant difference in mood states of dehydrated females than dehydrated males, both at rest and during exercise, where females reported more adverse effects on mood than did males. Ganio et al. (2011) explained that findings from the study conducted with men only are comparable with similar studies conducted on women. Both Ganio et al. (2011) and Armstrong et al. (2012) experiments produce near exact levels of dehydration{{grammar}};  1.39% body weight loss for men and 1.36% body weight loss for women. Experimental conditions were similar using the same exercise regimen within similar environments and the same questionnaire was used to assess mood states (POMS) in both studies. Adverse effects of dehydration on mood were substantially more significant in females than males. Adverse changes in fatigue/inertia and tension/anxiety were evident in males and females mood states of confusion/bewilderment, vigour/activity as well as their total mood disturbance worsened during rest and exercise. One possible explanation of the significant difference in altered moods of women due to dehydration may be due to women’s menstrual cycle. It was found that during menstrual cycles females are likely to be affected by modest levels of dehydration in which disrupts fluid balance and alters mood, which has been supported by Armstrong et al. (2012).

===How dehydration affects our mood===

Many studies have been conducted to find out how dehydration affects mood, similar to the above studies on women and men by Ganio et al. (2011) and Armstrong et al. (2012).  According to Gibson-Moore (2013) and many other researchers dehydration has adverse effects on mood, in particularly {{grammar}} increasing feelings of aggression and/or irritation, and fatigue. A study conducted by Pross (2012) also found that dehydration affects several mood aspects including fatigue, sleepiness and lowered alertness. Subjects in the study were also more confused, less calm and unhappy. After mood was assessed, mood impairments induced by dehydration were reversed by water intake except for fatigue, vigour and calmness. Pross (2012) study was said to be the first to find long term effects of dehydration on mood that were not able to be reversed by water intake. Interestingly it was found that mood impairments due to dehydration were observed early in the study after wakening from sleep with 12-16 hours of no fluid intake.

==== Physiological explanation ====

Armstrong et al. (2012) suggests that when initial physiological indicators of dehydration appear it is detected by hypothalamic neurons which may in fact send signals to higher-order cortical regions of the brain regulating mood which then results in adverse mood. Ganio et al. (2011) explains that, unfortunately, although mood states were adversely affected by dehydration, the brain mechanism that is in control of the deterioration in mood states due to dehydration remains unknown. Ganio et al. (2011), like Armstrong et al. (2012) suggests that because accurate regulation of electrolyte balance is vital for chemical and electrical neurotransmission, changes in the balance of electrolytes may affect higher-order brain areas. Ganio et al. (2011) explains that another explanation may be that the neurotransmitter, serotonin, which is a critical aspect of regulating some behaviour, is altered by dehydration which in turn may mediate the effects of dehydration.

====Biological explanation====

Armstrong et al. (2012) had also suggested that because dehydration was induced by thermal stress the front parietal blood oxygen level-dependent response was changed which in turn could have led to the adverse changes in mood to act as a signal that evolved to alert humans before more serious consequences occurred, including degradation in performance. If adverse effects on mood were not a signal of alertness degraded cognitive or physical performance may in turn affect chances of survival where the ability to seek out water or react towards a threat would be significantly diminished.

==Case illustration==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

Kate leads a very busy lifestyle, {{grammar}} last night she was so tired she went straight to bed without Dinner. In the morning Kate woke up and noticed her mouth felt dry and sticky. She remembered she has a friends party on at 12 pm and jumped out of bed excited for what was going to be a good day and felt like nothing could ruin her day, however she quickly had to sit back on the edge of her bed as she was feeling dizzy and light headed. She could feel a headache starting to throb behind her forehead. Kate recovers from her dizzy spell and walks out into the kitchen to find her sister had eaten all the fruit loops. Kate's elevated mood begins to deteriorate and she starts to feel irritable and annoyed. To get revenge on her Sister Kate decides to drink all of her Sisters favourite milk. Feeling good about herself Kate goes about her day. Kate's irritable mood decreases and she is feeling excited about her day again. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

According to a study conducted by D'anci et al. (2009) it was found that mood is particularly sensitive to a person's hydration state. The above case-illustration demonstrates how dehydration status can affect our moods. By the sounds of Kate's busy schedule it is likely she had not consumed adequate water intake over a period of at least 12 hours as she skipped dinner and was fasting during her sleep cycle. When Kate awoke the following morning she was showing signs of dehydration including a dry and sticky mouth, dizziness and a headache. Kate's mood was soon adversely effected by her dehydration status as she began feeling irritable. As Pross (2012) mentions mood impairments resulting from dehydration were easily reserved by fluid intake. This explains why Kate's mood elevated shortly after drinking her Sisters {{grammar}} favourite milk in which Kate believed her mood elevated because she got 'revenge' however the increase in positive mood is likely to be a result of rehydration. 

[[File: Water_drop_animation_enhanced_small.gif|thumb|''Figure 3.'' A tap dripping. Are you thirsty?]]

{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;: left; width: 50%; background-color: Inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 40%; background-color: Pink; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px; height: 10px;&quot; |
&lt;p style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; '''STOP! ARE YOU FEELING THIRSTY? GRAB A DRINK TO ENSURE OPTIMAL HYDRATION AND MOOD FOR THE REST OF THE CHAPTER'''!&lt;/p&gt;
|}

==The importance of hydration==

After reading through the research conducted on dehydration and its effects on mood as well as health, answering the question ‘why is it important to stay hydrated?’ should be relatively simple. As the theme of this chapter suggests it is important to stay hydrated to ensure optimal mood as well as health in order to live a happy, healthy life. Apart from ensuring optimal mood states through hydration, staying hydrated is also important for bodily function.  Water is essential for survival therefore our bodies cannot function to the best of its ability without adequate water intake, and without any fluid intake at all our bodies will shut down in a matter of days. Water performs numerous vital roles in the body including the transportation of nutrients and waste between major organs, regulating body temperature and lubricating our joints. Water also helps with digestion and metabolism (Gibson-Moore, 2013).  Read on for practical advice on how to stay hydrated.

==Dehydration management==
You may not realise but everyone has different needs when it comes to fluid consumption. Some populations are more at risk of dehydration than others due to factors such as age and medical condition including the elderly, children and diabetics. Diabetics, even when minimally dehydrated, can experience adverse moods (Armstrong et al., 2012).  Read on to find out how to avoid dehydration. Note: Elderly and populations with a medical condition are recommended to follow the provided guidelines below with the exception they are aware that they pose a higher risk of dehydration and therefore should maintain optimal hydration at all times to avoid detrimental health effects.

===Preventing dehydration in children===

Studies have revealed that the number of children arriving to school dehydrated is alarmingly high, some schools showing a high percentage of 60% and above{{fact}}. Children have a higher risk of dehydration than adults because they are less tolerant to heat, more physically active, have a high surface-to-body-weight ratio, limited ability to concentrate urine, little ability to express feelings of thirst and children have a high metabolic rate (Jéquier &amp; Constant, 2010). Gibson-Moore (2013) explains that children between 2 and 18 years old should be consuming between 1.3-2.5 litres/day of water. Healthy drinking behaviours are established in childhood and therefore it is essential that children are encouraged to consume enough fluid during the day in order to stay hydrated to ensure optimum health and mood. As mentioned previously food contributes to 20% of water volume and beverages make up the other 80%, Gibson-Moore (2013) suggests that foods that contain high water content such as fruit, vegetables, yogurt, soup and stews should be provided to children. Table 1. contains helpful information on the different types of fluid that prevent dehydration to ensure optimal mood and health. This table is a guide only and contains high nutritional drinks starting at the top that should be consumed regularly descending down to drinks that should only be consumed in small portions and in moderation (Gibson-Moore, 2013).

Table 1. Healthy hydration guide for children by Gibson-Moore (2013).
  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Fluid !! Explanation
|-
| Drink plenty of Water || Water is a great source of fluid to stay hydrated as it does not provide calories and does not harm the teeth.
|-
| Regularly drink milk || Milk is an excellent source of calcium, proteins, B vitamins  and nutrients. It is highly recommended that children should be given semi-skimmed milk and to avoid milk containing added sugar such as milkshakes and hot chocolates which should be consumed only occasionally.
|-
| Drink fruit juices in moderation || fruit juices contain vitamins and minerals as well as provide water. just one serving of 100% fruit juice equals one portion of a child's 5-a-day. However fruit juice does contain sugar and can harm teeth so it is recommended to be watered down and to be consumed at meal times.
|-
| Smoothies once a day || Smoothies also provide a source of water  as well as vitamins and minerals. Like fruit juices, smoothies that contain 150 ml of fruit juice and 80g of fruit (pulped or crushed) equals two serves of a child's 5-a-day! however smoothies also contain sugar and should be consumed at meal time to reduce risk of harm to teeth.
|-
| Occasionally low calorie soft drinks || Low calorie soft drinks do in fact provide water and without extra calories however these drinks can be harmful for the teeth as they contain acid. Some low calorie soft drinks also contain caffeine!
|-
| Just occasionally drink tea and coffee || As caffeine is a stimulant high amounts should be avoided for children. it is recommended that children are given decaffeinated tea and coffee with semi-skimmed milk and avoid added sugar.
|}

===Practical tips to keep children hydrated===

*Ensure your child is sent to school with a drink bottle.
*Encourage your child to drink fluid regularly (i.e. before, during and after school/playtime).
*Offer your child a drink regularly particularly in hot environments and before, during and after physical activities. 
*Provide high water content foods such as fruits and vegetables.
*Be sure to make fluids readily available such as milk and water. 
*When choosing a drink for your child, be aware of the nutritional value and provide them with a drink that won’t impact on their dental health. 
By Gibson-Moore (2013)

===Preventing dehydration in adults===

[[File:Cucumis sativus 02 ies.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 4.'' &quot;Eating a three-ounce cucumber is like drinking three ounces of water, but better,&quot; (Goldman, 2011, p.1)]]

According to Jéquier and Constant (2010) a sedentary adult (an adult doing little exercise and sitting down most of the time) loses 2 to 3 litres of water p/day. When considering how much water a person loses each day it depends on external factors such as air temperature, climate and humidity. It is estimated that a sedentary adult should consume between 2 to 3 litres of water per day depending on age, gender, climate and physical activity (Jéquier &amp; Constant, 2010). In order to prevent dehydration and affected mood, adults, much like children, are encouraged to keep their fluids up during the day, even if they are engaging in little to no exercise as your body is constantly losing water, as your body loses water your mood will be effected and it is likely you will become irritable or experience other negative decreases in mood state{{rewrite}}. To improve your life through health and happiness with a positive mood always stay hydrated. We all know how difficult it can be to consume 2-3 litres of water a day so it is recommended that along with drinking plenty of water you should also feed your body with foods high in water content and nutrients to meet your daily intake of water. Table 2. suggests fluid and foods high in nutrients, electrolytes, vitamins and water to keep hydrated and healthy.

Table 2. Foods and fluid high in water content, vitamins, electrolytes and nutrients by Goldman (2011).
  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Item !!Water source!! Description
|-
| 1 || Cantaloupe, peaches and strawberries || As potassium is an electrolyte which is lost during perspiration, these fruits contain high contents of potassium and will replace lost potassium to maintain fluid levels and aid in heartbeat regulation and circulation. 
|-|-

|-
| 2 || Vitamin C - Watermelon, kiwi, citrus || Per serving provides at least a third of your daily water needs plus they contain vitamin C which aids in joint flexibility. 
|-|-

|-
| 3 || Tomatoes and Broccoli || Ninety percent of broccoli is actually water and contains a compound called isothiocyanates which blocks defective genes that may cause cancer. Tomatoes too can reduce risk of lung, prostate, stomach, breast, colon and cervical cancer as it contains a rich antioxidant named lycopene.  
|-|-

|-
| 4 || Beans || One cup of cooked beans such as kidney and pinto equals a half a cup of water and just as much protein two eggs would provide as well as providing half your daily fibre needs
|-|-

|-
| 5 || Plain yogurt || Sweetened yogurt contains approximately four or more teaspoons of sugar whereas plain yogurt is rich in water and protein. 
|-|-

|-
| 6 || Coconut water || Provides more electrolytes than sports drinks. 
|-|-

|}

===Practical tips for adults to stay hydrated===

*Keep a water bottle with you were ever you go (i.e. work, shopping, University).
*Remember to drink fluid regularly even if you are not thirsty.
*Drink regularly in hot environments and before, during and after physical activities. 
*Consume high water content foods such as fruits and vegetables.
*Make a salad for the whole week as watermelon and kiwi stay healthy six days after being cut.
*Avoid sports drinks and energy drinks, instead drink coconut water as it provides more electrolytes than sport drinks. 

==Conclusion==

Upon reading this chapter, hopefully, you have gained a strong understanding of what dehydration is and how it can affect your mood. The research and practical tips provided aim to guide and encourage you to take the appropriate steps to a hydrated and happy life. Staying hydrated is not only important to ensure optimal mood but also to improve your well-being in order to live a long, happy and healthy life. There are additional external links provided at the bottom of the page to further expand your knowledge of dehydration and mood as well as a link to foods that will keep you hydrated. Be sure to return to the learning outcomes provided at the start of this chapter to check your understanding of the chapter content.

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Exercise and mood| Exercise and mood (2014)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Mood and emotion| Mood and emotion (2014)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Reversal theory| Reversal theory (2013)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Armstrong, L. E., Ganio, M. S., Casa, D. J., Lee, E. C., McDermott, B. P., Klau, J. F., &amp; Lieberman, H. R. (2012). Mild dehydration affects mood in healthy young women. ''Journal Of Nutrition, 142''(2), 382-388. Retrieved from http://jn.nutrition.org/content/142/2/382.full.pdf+html

Benton, D. D. (2011). Dehydration influences mood and cognition: a plausible hypothesis?. ''Nutrients, 3''(5), 555-573. Retrieved from http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/3/5/555/htm

D'anci, K. E., Vibhakar, A., Kanter, J. H., Mahoney, C. R., &amp; Taylor, H. A. (2009). Voluntary dehydration and cognitive performance in trained college athletes. ''Perceptual And Motor Skills, 109''(1), 251-269. Retrieved from http://ase.tufts.edu/psychology/spacelab/pubs/DAnciEtAlHydrationPMS_2009.pdf

Ganio, M. S., Armstrong, L. E., Casa, D. J., McDermott, B. P., Lee, E. C., Yamamoto, L. M., &amp; ... Lieberman, H. R. (2011). Mild dehydration impairs cognitive performance and mood of men. ''British Journal Of Nutrition, 106''(10), 1535-1543. doi:10.1017/S0007114511002005

Gibson-Moore, H. H. (2013). Improving hydration in children: A sensible guide. ''Nutrition Bulletin, 38''(2), 236-242. doi:10.1111/nbu.12028

Goldman, L. (2011). Eat Your Water. ''Runner's World, 46''(7), 41-43. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/ehost/detail/detail?vid=12&amp;sid=f2d81233-729f-4143-8bf1-d7a88ad08ca4%40sessionmgr4005&amp;hid=4109&amp;bdata=#db=s3h&amp;AN=62613006

Hope, E. (2013). Sweat and hydration. ''NZ Rugby World'', (160), 98-99. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=19&amp;sid=1131847e-0d26-47eb-b6c1-8300c4e0ab0c%40sessionmgr111&amp;hid=106

Jéquier, E., &amp; Constant, F. (2010). Water as an essential nutrient: the physiological basis of hydration. ''European Journal Of Clinical Nutrition, 64''(2), 115-123. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2009.111

Komaroff, A. L. (2006). How can I avoid dehydration?. ''Harvard Health Letter, 31''(9), 8. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=24&amp;sid=1131847e-0d26-47eb-b6c1-8300c4e0ab0c%40sessionmgr111&amp;hid=106

McKinley, M., &amp; Johnson, A. (2004). The physiological regulation of thirst and fluid intake. ''News In Physiological Sciences: An International Journal Of Physiology Produced Jointly By The International Union Of Physiological Sciences And The American Physiological Society, 19''1-6. Retrieved from http://physiologyonline.physiology.org/content/19/1/1

Pross, N. (2012). Effect of a 24-hour fluid deprivation on mood and physiological hydration markers in women. ''Nutrition Today, 47''(4, Suppl. 1), S35-S37. Retrieved from http://www.nursingcenter.com/lnc/JournalArticle?Article_ID=1411177

Reeve, J. (2009) ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (5th ed.) USA: John Wiley &amp; Sons Inc.
}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IAnL-Viyd5M TheDoctors YouTube video; Dehydration can cause fatigue medical course]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3bjUu_ONjc YouTube video; What happens if you go without water?]
*[http://www.health.com/health/gallery/0,,20709014,00.html 15 foods that help you stay hydrated!]

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== Overview ==

How many times have you pondered if it’s an emotion or a mood that you are feeling? You probably haven't given this that much thought, but hopefully by the time you have finished reading this chapter you will have asked yourself the question &quot;is it a mood or an emotion that I am feeling&quot;? and be able to know the difference!

The expressions of emotion and mood represent a challenge for psychologists. While the words are often used interchangeably, the majority of academics agree that the concepts they denote are closely related. Distinctions between them are clouded, in part, as an emotion and a mood may well feel very much the same from the viewpoint of an individual experiencing them (Beedie, Terry and Lane, 2010). 

== What is Emotion ==  

[[Emotion]] has many different aspects, existing as subjective, biological, purposive, and social phenomenon. Emotions are subjective feelings, as they cause us to feel a certain way, for instance anger or joy. [[Wikipedia:Emotion classification#Basic and complex emotions|Basic emotions]] are made up of fear, anger, disgust, sadness, joy and interest (Izard as cited in Reeve, 2009). 
[[[Wikipedia:Robert Plutchik|[Robert|Plutchik]]]  was a Professor Emeritus at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Adjunct Professor at the University of South Florida. Robert Plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of emotion is one of the most influential classification approaches for general emotional responses. Robert Plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of emotion is one of the most significant category approaches for general emotional responses{{repeated}}. He believed there to be eight primary {{grammar}} emotions—anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise, anticipation, trust, and joy. Plutchik suggested that these 'basic' emotions are biologically primitive and have evolved in order to increase the reproductive fitness of the animals{{fact}}. 

[[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb Plutchik-wheel]]  

Plutchik's wheel of emotion is used to show different emotions of compelling and nuanced. Plutchik first suggested his cone-shaped model (3D) or the wheel model (2D) in 1980 to explain how emotions were related.

Emotions are '''short-lived''', feeling arousal-purposive-expressive phenomena that assist us to adjust to the opportunities and challenges we face right the way through important life events{{fact}}. Emotions are also '''biological responses''', energy-mobilizing reactions that train the body for change to whatever situation one faces.  LeDoux (1995) states that emotions are physiological processes, having no alternative but to be understood fully without considering the structural and functional aspects of the physical underlying mechanisms (as cited in Cacioppo and  Gardner, 1999){{explain}}.

Lazarus believes that thought is a necessary condition of emotion and that emotions prioritise behaviour in ways to optimise adjustment to the demands we face (Reeve 2009).  Five characteristics of emotions place them at the centre of our lives. Firstly, acute emotions and other affective states, such as moods, divulge what is individually valuable to us and help as a barometer of how well or poorly we are performing in moving forward our most cherished values, goals, and beliefs{{fact}}. For example, when events go wrong, we may feel anxiety, anger, guilt, shame, envy, or jealousy, each of which reveals a different harm or threat. Secondly, emotions are among the most obvious characteristics of our ongoing relationships with family members, lovers, friends, co-workers, competitors, and even some short-term social contacts. For example, emotions have always been a key theme of literature, drama, and cinema, in the aspect of stories about people having difficulties adapting to the demands and opportunities of everyday living (Lazarus, 2006).

Thirdly, emotions enable or worsen interpersonal relationships, mainly intimate ones, as anger can challenge affection and lead to retribution. Guilt and anxiety can also cause problems where it can undermine the determination to achieve something or to assert oneself such as shame similarly can lead to anger or can mask the truth{{grammar}}. For example, there is no more useful coping skill than understanding how to deal with interpersonal relationships, particularly when these relationships are problematic{{fact}}. Fourthly, if we think we can understand what has triggered an emotion in others or ourselves, the process concerned can be obscure, particularly with regard to the emotion’s deepest and most inaccessible personal reserves. For example, while some of us are more open than others, we are usually unwilling to reveal to others our inner selves in case the truth confirms socially harmful. Lastly, emotions can be challenging to control, particularly when they are intense. Emotional control is one of the functions of coping. For example, we may know the dangers of expressing anger toward someone we care about, but when we are triggered, the immediate impulse to react to the offence may be too strong to manage, and so we attack. This can result in a mutual escalation of anger until it develops into a rage, which can proceed to long-term psychological or physical injury to one or both participants (Lazarus, 2006).

== Research - Emotion and Mood ==

=== History ===

This importance on the origins of emotions is obvious across a wide span of academic approaches to emotion. Accordingly, evolutionary theorists offer historical versions of emotion by distinguishing their own origins in functionally equivalent reactions of other species and in distinguishing how biologically based, genetically programed emotions experienced selection pressures, or threats to survival, species to the physical and social environment of human evolution. Research on emotion has increased a great deal over the years, beginning with William James’s famous essay, ``What is an emotion?’’ (1884). Since this time there has been substantial attention given to recording what emotions are, describing the appraisal and experiential processes, behaviours and action tendencies, and physiological accompanying of emotion (Cacioppo and Gardner, 1999). 

For instance, Darwin treated the emotions as separate discrete entities, or modules, such as '''anger''', '''fear''', '''disgust''', etc. and any{{huh}} different kinds of research that included neuroscience, perception and cross-cultural evidence show that Darwin's conceptualization of emotions as separate discrete entities is correct{{fact}}. Of course, each emotion also varies on attributes such as intensity or acceptability, which can be considered as dimensions that describe differences within each discrete emotion (Ekman, 1984). Whereas{{grammar}}, the German physician Wilhelm Wundt proposed an alternative view of emotion about a decade later. Wundt wrote about variations in dimensions or continua of pleasantness and activity or intensity. This very different conceptualization enjoyed popularity in twentieth-century psychology, with Schlosberg (1941) the major proponent in the mid-century, then adopted by Russell at the end of the last century (Ekman, 2009). As such the biological, biochemical, and neural substrates of emotion, as well as neuropsychological characteristics of emotional expressions, continued to be important and active areas of research (Cacioppo and  Gardner, 1999).

'''Research study''' 

Indeed, it appears likely that emotion and mood are distinct along more than one condition, and it is easy to see how a difference in their individual underlying physiological processes would lead to differences in phenomenal experience. This in turn leads to differences in expression, behaviour, and linguistic descriptions of the two states.  A considerable feature of emotion-mood differences in the literature is that none of them are by published data (Beedie, Terry &amp; Lane, 2010).

A study was conducted by Beedie, Terry and Lane who adopted a ‘folk psychology’ perspective for the purpose of investigating non-academic {{missing}} to distinguish between emotion and mood and then they compared the emergent distinctions to those previously proposed in the academic literature.  The method they used was to ask participants a question: ‘What is the difference between emotion and mood’. There were 106 participants made up of male = 55 and female = 51. The recruited participants were from a mostly educated to degree level or above. The reason for this was the researchers thought that less educated participants would not be able to provide emotion-mood distinctions 'eloquently' (Beedie, Terry &amp; Lane, 2010).

'''The results''' 

Results showed that participants described emotion and mood as distinct phenomena in expressions of how they were established in phenomenal experience, and how they influenced on behaviour. While 16 different distinctions were reported, significant agreement was evident among respondents about the nature of the differences. For example, most participants who cited controllability as a distinction agreed that emotion is less controllable than mood. Similarly, authors in the academic literature, although not agreeing on the specific criteria by which to distinguish emotion from mood, tended to agree on the direction of the various distinctions{{explain}}. Moreover, academic and non-academic views were also generally in accord about the direction of emotion-mood differences, agreeing that emotions are more intense, brief, volatile, etc. than moods. The aim of the paper was to present data that must prove useful to researcher{{grammar}} interested in progressing a distinct scientific distinction between emotion and mood than is what’s available (Beedie, Terry &amp; Lane, 2010). 

A link has been provided if you want to read more of this study: [http://www.tandfonline.com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1080/02699930541000057 Distinction between emotion and mood]

== Theories - Emotion and Mood ==

There are a large range of theories on emotion and mood. I have outlined two of the most important ones that have significantly changed the course of the psychology world. 

=== Two-factory theory ===

The [[Wikipedia:Two-factor theory of emotion|Two-factor theory of emotion]] (also referred to as the Shachter-Singer theory of emotion) was designed by researchers [[Wikipedia:Stanley Schachter|Stanley Schachter]] and [[Wikipedia:Jerome E. Singer|Jerome E. Singer]] (1962). It was named 'two-factor' because they believed that there were two factors that underscored all emotional experiences. At the time an emotion is felt, a '''physiological arousal''' becomes known and the person uses the environment to seek an emotional cue to make sense of the arousal. This can cause the person to misinterpret the emotions based on the body’s physiological state. The cognitive component comes into play when the brain does not know why it is feeling an emotion therefore it relies on external stimuli for direction on how to name that emotion (Schachter &amp; Singer, 1962).

===James-Lange Theory ===

[[[Wikipedia:James–Lange theory#cite note-2|The|James-Lange theory]]] claims that all emotion is from the presence of a stimulus, which induces a physiological response (such as muscular tension), a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of mouth. This physical arousal causes a person to feel a certain emotion. The theory explores the emotion as a secondary feeling, indirectly initiated by the primary feeling, which is the physiological response caused by the presence of a stimulus. The specific pathway involved in the experience of emotion was also described by James. He stated that an object has an effect on a [[Wikipedia:Sensory system|sense organ]], which relays the information it is receiving to the [[Wikipedia:Cerebral cortex|cerebral cortex]]. The brain then sends this information to the muscles and [[Wikipedia:Organ (anatomy)|viscera]], which causes them to respond. Finally, impulses from the muscles and viscera are sent back to the cortex, transforming the object from an &quot;object-simply apprehended&quot; to an &quot;object-emotionally felt.&quot; James explained that his theory went against common sense. For example, while most would think the order of emotional experience would be that a person sees a bear, becomes afraid, and runs away, James thought that first the person has a physiological response to the bear, such as trembling, and then becomes afraid and runs. According to James, the physiological response comes first, and it is followed by an emotion and a reaction. James believed that these responses were &quot;reflex type&quot; reactions which are built in: &quot;Instinctive reactions and emotional expressions shade imperceptibly into each other. Every object that excites an instinct excites an emotion as well.&quot;

== What is Mood ==

[[Wikipedia:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] is defined as a temporary state of mind or spirits (Oxford Dictionary, 1994). Moods can be broken down into two distinct groups:

'''Positive and negative mood.''' 
The human brain and body have been shaped by natural selection to perform this affective categorization and to respond accordingly. Affective categorizations and responses are so significant that organisms have rudimentary reflexes for categorizing and approaching or withdrawing from specific classes of stimuli and for giving metabolic support for these actions (Davis 1997, LeDoux 1995 as cited in Cacioppo &amp; Gardner, 1999).

[[Wikipedia:Mood (psychology)#Positive mood|Positive mood]]

[[Wikipedia:Mood (psychology)#Negative mood|Negative mood]]

=== Positive affect state=== 
Signifies to the everyday, low-level general state of feeling good. For example, walking through a park, listening to music, or making progress on your assignment.
Positive affect is a person’s present level of pleasure, enthusiastic and progress toward aims. People who feel high positive affect characteristically feel enthusiastic and experience energy, alertness, and optimism, where those who feel low positive affect characteristically feel lethargic and bored. Where an emotion is to capture your attention, positive affect is more subtle (Reeve, 2009){{grammar}}.

=== Negative affect state ===
Negative mood is when people feel high negative affect normally experience dissatisfaction, nervousness, and irritability, whereas those who fellow negative affect are calm and relaxed  (Reeve, 2009).

Note: Both positive and negative affect relate not only to moods but also to wide-ranging cognitive, multinational, biological and behavioural systems (Reeve, 2009).

'''Everyday mood'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! '''Positive affect''' !! '''Negative affect'''
|-
| Pleasurable engagement || Unpleasant engagement
|-
| Reward driven, appetitive motivational system || Punishment-driven aversive motivational system
|-
| Approach behaviour || Withdrawal behaviour
|-
| Dopaminergic pathways || Serotonergic &amp; noradrenergic pathways
|}
Based on Reeve, (2009), pp. 322-344)

== The difference between emotion and moods ==

Moods develop from processes that are vague and are at times unknown (Goldsmith as Cited in Reeve, 2009). Davidson (1994) believes that moods typically influence cognition and guide what the person thinks about (as cited in Reeve, 2009), whereas Ekman maintains moods emanate from mental events that last for hours or days (Ekman as cited in Reeve, 2009).

Emotions may be characterised from moods (Parkinson, Totterdell, Briner, &amp; Reynolds, 1996). One such feature is '''duration''' (Nowlis &amp; Nowlis, 1956); mood is the &quot;pervasive and sustained 'emotional climate,'&quot; and emotions are &quot;fluctuating changes in emotional 'weather'&quot;. Another feature is that emotions normally have '''exact objects''' and give rise to ‘behavioural response tendencies’ related to these objects (Frijda, 1993; lsen, 1984; Lazarus, 1991a (as cited in Frijda, 1999). By contrast, moods are more dispersed (Morris, 1989), and while they may offer rise to broad action tendencies such as approach or withdrawal (Lang, 1995), moods bias our thinking more than they bias our action (Davidson, 1994; Fiedler, 1988) (as cited in Frijda, 1999). Experiences considered to be ‘emotions’ usually involve affect. They share these qualia with other experiences not usually considered; emotions’, notably moods and particular sensory experiences, like sweet tastes and foul smells. One feature that establishes them separately is that emotions include an object. Emotions are ‘intentional states’. {{grammar}} Meaning that they are felt to be ‘about’ something, whether it is a person, objects, or an event. They also involve a certain relationship to that object. This may well be the main aspect that distinguishes emotions from moods. One may know what caused one’s mood, but feeling and behavioural impulse are not directed toward or away from the causal object. The major aspect differentiating emotions from sensory affect, and from non-emotional states, is the experience of a shift in control precedence (Frijda, 1999){{explain}}. 

Fridja (1994) claims that while both mood and emotion are sources of information to the person, they vary in what they indicate. Emotions signal responses to certain ‘affectivity’ important events, and mood being a cue to one’s current “global state of action readiness” and/or “evaluation of the life situation”. The majority of the existing efforts at differentiating between mood and emotion depend on antecedent and opinion (Frijda, 1999). An example of this is when you express a ‘pleasure of the mind to someone’, you might also refer to moods (happy vs sad) and stages of arousal (excited vs cals). Mood and levels of arousal vary from emotions in a significant way. They are not deliberate, are not concentrated on objects but moods and levels of arousal are related to emotions. Moods share at least one quality with emotions: they '''both include affect'''. Additionally, levels of arousal are inevitable consequences of moods and emotions (Frijda, 1999).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! '''Criteria''' !! '''Emotions''' !! '''Moods'''
|-
| Antecedents || Significant life events || Ill-defined
|-
| Action-specificity || Specific || Influence cognition
|-
| Time course || Short-lived || Long-lived
|}

Based on Reeve (2009, p.322)

Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4XsWQKqcahM here] to see a YouTube clip explaining the difference between moods and emotions.

== Conclusion ==

The topic &quot;what is the differences and similarities between emotion and mood&quot; has evoked a great deal of debate over the years {{grammar}} either separate topics or both. There is distinct difference in emotion and mood yet there are a lot of similarities as well.  As a result this is what we have learned:
*Emotions are short-lived. Feeling-arousal-purposive that assists us with adapting  to opportunities and challenges.
*Moods last longer and they influence behaviour and direct specific courses and action{{huh}}.

History shows that things change over time as researchers have discovered new ways study the emotions and moods of both animals and people. The biggest difference is that emotions and moods arise from different causes. Where emotion emerge from life situations, moods on the other hand arise from processes that are ill-defined.

== References ==

{{Hanging indent|1=
Beedie, C., Terry, P., Lane, A. (2005) Distinctions between emotion and mood, Cognition and Emotion, 19:6, 847-878, DOI: 10.1080/02699930541000057 

boingcd. (2012, 28 March). Moods and Emotion [Video File] Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4XsWQKqcahM

Cacioppo, J. T. Gardner. W. (1999) Emotion Annual Review. Psychol. 1999.50:191–214

Dacher Keltner &amp; James J. Gross. (1999) ''Functional Accounts of Emotions, Cognition and Emotion'', 13:5, 467-480, DOI: 10.1080/026999399379140 

Dolan, R. J. (2002). ''Emotion, Cognition, and Behavior''., Science, New Series, Vol. 298, No. 5596 (Nov. 8, 2002), pp. 1191-1194 Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science., Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3832941., 

Ekman, Paul. (2009)., Published 2 November 2009 doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0189
Philosophical. Transactions of The Royal Society Biological Sciences.,  12 December 2009 vol. 364 no. 1535

''Emotions at Work: Theory, Research and Applications for Management'' editted by Roy L. Payne, Cary L. Cooper

Frijda, N. H. (1999). ''Emotions and Hedonic Experience''. Well-being: Foundations of hedonic psychology,.

Lazarus, R. (2006)., Emotions and Interpersonal Relationships: Toward a Person-Centered Conceptualization of Emotions and Coping., 

Martin, L., Ward., Achee J. W., and Wyer, R.,Jr. (1993)., ''Mood as Input: People Have to Interpret the Motivational Implications of Their Moods''., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Date: March 1, 1993.

Reeve, J. (2009) ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (5th ed.) USA: John Wiley &amp; Sons Inc.

Sizer, L. (2000). ''Towards a computational theory of mood''. The British journal for the philosophy of science, 51(4), 743-770.

Schachter, S., &amp; Singer, J. (1962). ''Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State''. Psychological Review, 69, pp. 379–399.
}}

== External links ==

*Paul Ekman [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2781895/#RSTB20090189C1 Darwin's Contribution to our understanding of emotional expressions]
*[http://www.tandfonline.com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1080/02699930541000057#.VEzsVr4Vf8s Distinction between Emotion and Mood]
*[http://www.tandfonline.com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/doi/full/10.1080/02699931.2013.837378#.VEzs074Vf8s Gender differences in emotion recognition: Impact of sensory modality and emotional category]

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__TOC__  
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
==Overview==
This chapter focuses on the relationship that exists between the consumption of chocolate and its emotional consequences; in particular, whether it can make us happy. The chapter begins with an introduction into the composition of chocolate, and which components of chocolate have been researched to have an implication on one's emotions and mood. Following this, an exploration of various theories of happiness is presented along with a discussion in regards to physiological and biological components and processes that underlie behaviour, and how chocolate interacts with these to induce particular moods and emotions, including happiness. Finally, this chapter focuses on the present day literature into chocolate consumption, and whether it can make people happy, as well as opposing arguments and studies that disprove this notion. This chapter is accompanied by specially drawn diagrams to assist in the understanding of potentially difficult topics, along with useful concept checks to highlight the most important aspects of each section to assist with interactive learning. 
{{RoundBoxBottom|theme=13}}

==Chocolate==
===Composition===
[[w:Chocolate|Chocolate]] is a product that is made from cocoa beans, the fruit from a species of tree known as ''Theobroma cacao'' L., native to particular regions of the Americas (Rusconi &amp; Conti, 2010). Chocolate is made up from a large variety of ingredients, in addition to products extracted from cocoa beans, such as sugar, lecithin, milk, nuts and fruits (Torres-Moreno, Torrescasana, Salas-Salvado &amp; Blanch, 2015). Additionally, varying amounts of cocoa product in chocolate produces different varieties, such as dark and milk chocolate types, being why dark chocolate has been found to be beneficial for the cardiovascular system, given the variation of fats and chemical composition resulting from the amount of cocoa product that is present (Torres-Moreno et al., 2015).

===Chocolate composition and its relationship with mood===
In regards to the composition of chocolate, a number of ingredients and chemical arrangements have been found to have an impact on mood and affective behaviours in humans, and this is summarised nicely in a research paper by [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016503270600084X Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2013)], who seek to assess the current literature and findings in physiology in terms of chocolate consumption and mood (Torres-Moreno et al., 2015). Chocolate is high in energy, carbohydrates and fat, with some products consisting of up to 45% carbohydrates (Torres-Moreno et al., 2015). Carbohydrates in chocolate have been linked to depressive disorders, in that one craves chocolate and its high carbohydrate load in order to increase serotonin levels and, therefore, improve one’s mood (Parker et al., 2006). Flavonols, a type of antioxidant, which are found in high concentrations in dark chocolate, have also been linked to human emotion in that they are attracted to particular receptor sites which results in a relaxed state, just as when benzodiazepines bind to these same sites (Medine as cited in Pase et al., 2013). This indicates the potential for alterations in mood as a result of the consumption of flavanols (Sokolov et al., 2013). Dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with reward and pleasure, has also been linked to chocolate consumption in that one looks forward to eating chocolate, and receiving the positive consequences which are reinforcing and rewarding, thereby leading to an increase in dopamine levels and a successive positive mood (Parker et al., 2006). This relationship between chocolate and reward fits in with hedonism and desire theories of happiness.

==Happiness==
In psychology, there are three primary theories of [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Happiness happiness]. Hedonism, desire and objective list theories, and a fourth, authentic happiness theory, that combines the other three. In regards to the topic of chocolate consumption having an influence on one’s happiness, research almost always uses measures based on the hedonism theory of happiness as an indicator for change after chocolate consumption. 

===Hedonism theory===
According to hedonism theory, perhaps the most favoured of happiness theories amongst psychologists, [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Happiness happiness] is an emotion that comprises of two parts: eudaimonia and hedonia (Kringelbach &amp; Berridge, 2009). Hedonia is defined as the feelings of well-being and pleasure that we are consciously aware of; essentially, it is the affective component of happiness or the feelings of pleasure at a given moment (Kringelbach &amp; Berridge, 2009). Eudaimonia, on the other hand, is an individual’s sense of life satisfaction in terms of their sense of life meaning and engagement as a whole (Kringelbach &amp; Berridge, 2009).  When assessing an individual’s hedonic and eudaimonic components through self-report techniques, it is often found that scores are generally equal to one another (Kringelbach &amp; Berridge, 2008). In adopting this structure of happiness, happiness can therefore be defined as an elevated composite score of hedonic and eudaimonic ratings. On another take on this theory of happiness, Seligman &amp; Royzman (2003) agree that happiness is marked by a subjective feeling, but go forth to state that in order to have a happy life and be a happy person, maximising pleasurable feelings and minimising negative feelings are defining needs for happiness. While they do not mention eudaimism explicitly, experiencing more positive than negative life events paves the way to feeling a sense of life meaning and fulfilment (Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003). In all, happiness as according to hedonism theory, is the experience of more positive feelings than negative ones (Kringelbach &amp; Berridge, 2008; Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003).

===Desire, objective-list and authentic happiness theories===
Desire theory states that a state of happiness is a result of getting what you want or desire, in which case these wants and desires are fully subjective (Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003). This theory also assumes, unlike hedonism theory, that happiness does not depend on one’s desires being positive (Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003). For example, one may experience a negative affect, but still be considered happy, according to this theory, if s/he is often able to fulfil their desires. Objective list theory assumes that happiness results from achieving items on a list of lifetime goals and accomplishments, such as having love and education, receiving promotions and having children (Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003). Finally, authentic happiness theory, suggests that there are three types of happiness which incorporates hedonism, desire and objective list theories: pleasant life (hedonism), good life (desire) and meaningful life (objective list) (Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003). Seligman &amp; Royzman (2003) state that authentic happiness results in satisfying a full life through satisfying all types of happiness.
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|13}}}|title=Concept check}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* Hedonism theory of happiness is the most favoured theory to define what it is. It emphasises that more positive experiences than negative are evident in a happy person.
* Desire theory of happiness suggests that getting what you want leads to happiness; such wants are subjective.
* Objective list theory is broader in that happiness is experienced when an individual achieves experiences and goals in their life that are generally viewed as being a good experience, such as falling in love.
* Authentic happiness incorporates these three theories.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{robelbox/close}}

==Chocolate consumption leads to positive affect==
===Chocolate consumption and serotonin===
====Serotonin and the chemical imbalance theory====
Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytruptamine or 5-HT, is a type of neurotransmitter that is found in a number of parts of the body, and in particular, the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord (Jonassen &amp; Landro, 2014). The serotonin pathway has been implicated in the emotional and motivational aspects of behaviour (Menses &amp; Liy-Salmeron, 2012). Such a relationship became apparent after various theories uncovered correlations between abnormally functioning pathways with psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety and schizophrenia (Jonassen &amp; Landro, 2014; Meneses &amp; Liy-Salmeron, 2012). Additionally, medications such as SSRIs that work on the serotonin pathway imply a relationship between serotonin and emotional behaviours because of the change in emotion and behaviour following administration (Cherek &amp; Lane, 2001). 

Chemical imbalance theory is popular in the field of psychopathology, which suggests that disorders such as anxiety, depression and schizophrenia are caused by an imbalance of chemicals and neurotransmitters such as serotonin, in the brain (Deacon &amp; Baird, 2009). Chemical imbalance theory suggests that serotonin is directly related with mood; this is why depressive disorders may develop when serotonin levels become too low(Deacon &amp; Baird, 2009).

====Chocolate's influence on serotonin pathways====

Research has determined that it is not the chocolate itself that results in changes in serotonin levels in the body, but the carbohydrates in the chocolate, and chocolate is particularly high in its carbohydrate load (Benton, 2002; Toress-Moreno et al., 2015) Therefore, when discussing the implications on serotonin levels, the use of the wording chocolate consumption can be used interchangeably with carbohydrate consumption. Benton (2002) notes that carbohydrates are able to increase levels of serotonin because its consumption results in an increased amount of an amino acid called tryptophan also entering the body, an essential ingredient in order to synthesise serotonin (Figure 1). Therefore, when more tryptophan is available to an organism, more serotonin can be produced (Benton, 2002). 

[[File:Absorption of carbohydrates impact on serotonin release.jpeg|thumbnail|''Figure 1.'' Ingestion of carbohydrates (from chocolate) results in ingestion of tryptophan, which allows for serotonin synthesis, and therefore, level increase.]]

In a study on the influence of chocolate on serotonin release, Kim, Lien, Sun, McDermott and Owyang (2000) hypothesised that eating chocolate would help to ease gastrointestinal symptoms, such as heartburn. Researchers found that consuming chocolate lead to a release of serotonin from a specialised cell in the epithelial tissue of the intestines, which lead to activation of serotonin receptors and relaxation of muscles in the gastric system (Figure 1) (Kim et al., 2000). While this is not a demonstration of serotonin and emotion specifically, the study highlights biological mechanisms behind chocolate and serotonin, and that chocolate, and its carbohydrate load, indeed has a role in the release of serotonin (Kim et al., 2000).

====Serotonergic hypothesis====
The basis upon which the serotonergic hypothesis was built acts as further evidence that suggests that carbohydrates elevate serotonin levels. The serotonergic hypothesis is popular amongst researchers today, which circles around the notion that it describes why one self-medicates with chocolate (Parker et al., 2006). The serotonergic hypothesis proposes that those with a serotonin deficiency use chocolate and other high in carbohydrate foods as a means of self-medication, hence a craving for these foods (Parker et al., 2006). The serotonergic hypothesis is behaviourally evident in individuals during a symptomatic experience of their disorder; for example, an individual with generalised anxiety disorder will experience a craving for carbohydrates during an anxiety attack, and then experience an elevation in serotonin following this episode as evident in relevant studies (Ventura, Santander, Torres &amp; Contreras, 2014).

Given serotonin’s relationship with positive and negative affect as according to chemical imbalance theory and other findings from SSRI administration and experimental studies, if chocolate could be a key to increasing serotonin levels, it is essentially also key to increasing the occurrences of positive affect, and therefore happiness in terms of the hedonism theory of happiness.

===Chocolate consumption and dopamine===
{{expand}}

====Dopamine====
[[File:Chocolate activates reward system which leads to dopamine release.png|thumbnail|right|''Figure 2.'' Positive experience of eating chocolate activates the reward system in the brain which leads to dopamine release.]]

[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Dopamine_and_emotion Dopamine] is a neurotransmitter that is primarily involved in maintaining moods and playing a role in cognition and cognitive skills (Zhao et al., 2015). Like serotonin, dopamine is also discussed in the chemical imbalance theory in that excess and depletions of dopamine may lead to mental illness such as schizophrenia and depression (Deacon &amp; Baird, 2009; Zhao et al., 2015). Such occurrence is also supported by research studies and administration of medications on the dopamine pathway (Zhao et al., 2015). Research has not found a direct relationship between chocolate or carbohydrate consumption with altering dopamine levels, but it has instead been implicated in playing a significant role in the reward system of the brain (Wise &amp; Rompre, 1989). Studies have shown that there is a link between consuming pleasant and desired foods and alterations in mood (Wise &amp; Rompre, 1989) (see Figure 2).

====Chocolate's influence on dopamine pathways====
Brain structures involved in emotional and reward expectancies such as the prefrontal cortex and [[Wikipedia:Nucleus accumbens|nucleus accumbens]] are structures that work to [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Anticipation anticipate] and expect a reward when they consume a pleasurable meal, especially when it is high in carbohydrates and fat, such as chocolate (Angeles-Castellanos, Salgado-Delgado, Rodriguez, Buijs &amp; Escobar, 2008). As a result of this activation of particular brain structures, a change of dopamine release is often experienced; for example, an increase in dopamine will occur when an individual has been rewarded with a delicious piece of chocolate and their experience towards the food has been positive (Angeles-Castellanos et al., 2008). This hypothesis is assumed to be generalised to foods that are preferred by the individual, rather than an experience that is only met when consuming chocolate (Parker et al., 2006). This relationship between food, dopamine and elevated mood takes the desire theory of happiness on board, in that, positive experience and an elevated mood as a result of reward and dopamine release is very subjective, and may not illicit the same responses in those who see consuming chocolate as a negative experience (Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003). This effectively means that happiness levels, in terms of dopamine effects, will only rise in those who like chocolate, and not because there is a particular substrate in chocolate that induces happiness. Following the experience of reward from consuming a desired food, as described, dopamine levels will increase. This is expected as according to the chemical imbalance theory; an increased level of dopamine, as a result of reward from chocolate consumption, elevates mood, evident from studies that demonstrate that schizophrenia is related to high dopamine, while depression to low dopamine (Deacon &amp; Baird, 2009; Zhao et al., 2015). 

Essentially, when speaking about the effects on dopamine in the brain, if one was to find eating chocolate a positive experience, the reward of consuming the chocolate and the successive increase in dopamine levels is presumed to lead to an increase in positive affect, and an increase in happiness levels as according to both the hedonic and desire theories of happiness (Seligman &amp; Royzman, 2003; Zhao et al., 2015).

===Flavonols and emotion===
{{expand}}

====Flavonols====
[[Wikipedia:Flavonols|Flavonols]] are a type of polyphenols, which are essentially a group of compounds that are necessary in the human diet and are found in plants (Pase et al., 2013). Cocoa has a large amount of polyphenols, including flavanols, in it, with dark chocolate having a higher amount of cocoa than other varities of chocolate, thus the notion that dark chocolate is good for you (Pase et al., 2013; Sokolov et al., 2013)

====Flavonol's influence on emotion====
Evidence suggests that chocolate consumption has been implicated in emotional modification because of the presence of flavanols in the chocolate (Pase et al., 2013; Sokolov et al., 2013). Medina (as cited in Pase et al., 2013) stated that a number of studies have found that polyphenols such as flavonols are attracted to GABAa receptors (adenosine and benzodiazepine receptors), and just like when benzodiazepines bind with these receptors, flavonols induce a calming effect and reduced anxiety when they bind with GABAa receptors, improving the emotional state of the individual (Medine as cited in Pase et al., 2013). Research into the interaction between flavonols and emotion is seldom researched, so few pieces of literature pertaining to the topic exist.
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|13}}}|title=Concept check}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in emotion and cognition evident from correlation studies and SSRI treatment.
* Chemical imbalance theory suggests that depressed moods and psychiatric conditions result from imbalances in neurotransmitter levels; low serotonin and dopamine for sad and depressed mood.
* Carbohydrates in chocolate help the synthesis of serotonin, and therefore an elevated mood occurs. Happiness according to hedonic theory.
* Dopamine plays a role in the reward system of the brain. On receipt of award, dopamine levels increase and positive affect results (too much dopamine leads to feelings of a high such as in schizophrenia).
* Dopamine impacts mood subjectively; that is, one must find eating chocolate a positive experience in order to feel the elevated mood.
* Cocoa contains a type of compound called flavonols, which have been researched to bind to the same receptor sites that benzodiazepines bind to, leading to the same relaxing feelings. 
In this section, the chapter introduced three ways in which chocolate and its components have been researched to be involved in the alteration in mood, specifically as a positive affect. This gives a sense of understanding behind why in a physiological sense, chocolate has been researched to make a person happy, as we will discuss in the next section.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{robelbox/close}}

==Can chocolate make us happy?==
Knowing the impact that components of chocolate have on physiological processes such as on serotonin pathway and mood, studies have been performed to support these biological theories and findings in that chocolate consumption can make us feel hedonically happy, in addition to causing positive affect as described above. All of the studies that are discussed in this section, measure happiness in terms of the hedonic theory of happiness.

===Short term happiness===
Many studies report findings that suggest that the consequences of induced happiness are only short lived. Despite not referring to happiness specifically, but instead mood, a study by Macht &amp; Mueller (2007) found that chocolate did indeed induce feelings of increased mood, but these elevations in positive affect were, on average, gone after three minutes post chocolate consumption. In another study, happiness was specifically considered by Macht and Dettmer (2006) who explored how mood changed as a result of eating chocolate as many would do on an everyday basis meaning that there were no specially induced conditions that one would not experience in their home life. Happiness was measured in terms of the hedonic theory to happiness; that is, subjective feelings of happiness after eating a chocolate bar (Macht &amp; Dettmer, 2006). Amongst other foods that were tested, chocolate was the best food to have one feel happy.
 
Another study by Abdul-Aziz, Al-Mulwallad and Kader-Mansour (2011) assessed how the effects of chocolate consumption impacted non-clinical depressive symptoms in a sample of nearly 300 female university students. Greater consumption of chocolate, whether it be at once or over a period of time, was implicated as being better for mood improvement than smaller amounts of chocolate, given their findings that chocolate in general was able to have one feel happier (Abdul-Aziz et al., 2011). In other studies such as in Pase et al. (2013), similar results were uncovered despite it not being a direct report of happiness, but instead, a better mood as a result of chocolate consumption. 

Finally, in a study by Radin, Hayssen &amp; Walsh (2007), researchers aimed to find whether the belief that chocolate will help elevate mood, actually elevate mood. While researchers found that mood elevated in those consuming chocolate, it was elevated more so in those who believe it would make them feel happy (Radin et al., 2007). The take home message from this study, and evidence from the others, is that if one wishes to improve their happiness through chocolate, one must believe that it actually will make them happy, and perhaps should not read the final section in this chapter pertaining to confounding evidence that chocolate indeed does makes us happy.

===Long term happiness===
At present, it was not evident that any studies exist that look into the long term effect of consuming chocolate on food, or consuming chocolate over an extended period of time. Studies by Pase et al. (2013) and Abdul-Aziz (2011) show that when chocolate and its polyphenols and flavonols are administered over an extended period of time (up to 30 days in one study), greater increases in positive affect were evident in the gained data; however, results were not explicitly in regards to happiness, but measures of hedonic mood were still performed. Despite the studies that exist only on extended administrations rather than long term effects of a single dosage, Rodrigues-Silva (2012) suggests that the results from studies that assess short term effects cannot be used to assume the long term effects, given antidepressants still work despite after about a month or so with no short term effects, and that antidepressants work only when administration occurs over an extended period of time. Rodrigues-Silva (2012) is essentially telling their readers that first appearances of a drug, or chocolate’s workings, can be deceiving, meaning experimental studies will need to be carried out to determine exact long-term effects, rather than relying on assumptions.

===When chocolate doesn't make us happy===
Few studies have reported findings that confound many other studies in reporting that happiness does not improve happiness, or induce feelings of sadness. Despite the positive findings in Macht and Dettmer’s (2006) study that was described earlier, researchers also found that for some, feelings of guilt were present instead of positive affect, and suggested this resulted from negative cognitions about chocolate, versus reward effects in the other participants. As in Macht and Dettmer’s (2006) study, McDiarmid and Hetherington (1995) also suggested that when one experienced feelings of guilt in their study, positive affect is seldom experienced and instead, experiences of negative affect significantly increased. In both cases, chocolate resulted in a decrease in happiness in a number of participants, confounding the results from other studies that suggest chocolate causes happiness (Macht &amp; Dettmer, 2006; McDiarmid &amp; Hetherington, 1995).

==Conclusion==
This chapter has discussed the relationship that is held between chocolate and the emotion that is happiness. Taking a physiological perspective, it is clear through research that chocolate has an impact on serotonin and dopamine pathways, and flavonols in chocolate on brain receptors, which leads to a change in mood; specifically, a more positive affect. There appears to be many studies that suggest that chocolate has the capacity to change one’s mood, and even make someone happy, particularly for the short-term. Future studies are required to determine the exact efficacy of improving happiness using chocolate, and to determine the longevity of its effects as they have been disregarded in many pieces of the literature available. Overall, however, it is evident that chocolate and its properties have an impact both on affect and happiness specifically, and is supported by numerous experiments and studies focusing on the physiological underpinnings of this relationship. So perhaps, yes, chocolate can indeed make us happy.

==See also==
*[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Anticipation Anticipation]
*[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2014/Comfort_eating_and_negative_emotions Comfort eating and negative emotions]
*[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Dopamine_and_emotion Dopamine and emotion]
*[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Happiness Happiness]
*[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Happiness Happiness]
*[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2014/Happiness_and_health Happiness and health]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Abdul Aziz, N. A. H., Al-Muwallad, O. K., &amp; Kader Mansour, E. A. (2011). Neurotic depression and chocolate among female medical students at college of medicine, Taibah University Almadinah Almunawwarah, Kingdon of Saudi Arabia. ''Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 6'', 139-147. doi: 10.1016/S1658-3612(11)70175-5

Benton, D. (2002). Carbohydrate ingestion, blood glucose and mood. ''Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 26'', 293-308. 

Cherek, D. R., &amp; Lane, S. D. (2001). Acute effects of D-fenfluramine on simultaneous measures of aggressive escape and impulsive responses of adult males with and without a history of conduct disorder. ''Psychopharmacology, 157'', 221-227. doi: 10.1007/s002130100812
 
Deacon, B. J., &amp; Baird, G. L. (2009). The chemical imbalance explanation of depression: Reducing blame at what cost? ''Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28'', 415-435. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2009.28.4.415

Jonassen, R., &amp; Landro, N. I. (2014). Serotonin transporter polymorphisms (5-HTTLPR) in emotion processing: Implications for current neurobiology. ''Progress in Neurobiology, 117'', 41-53. doi: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.02.003

Kim, B. H., Lien H. C., Sun, W. M., McDermott, M., &amp; Owyang, C. (2000). Blockage of 5HT3 pathways reduces gastroesophageal reflex (GER) induced by intraduodenal chocolate. ''Gastroenterology, 118'', A884. doi: 10.1016/s0016-5085(00)85672-3

Kringelbach, M. L., &amp; Berridge, K. C. (2009). Towards a functional neuroanatomy of pleasure and happiness. ''Trends in Cognitive Science, 13'', 479-487. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2009.08.006

Macht, M., &amp; Dettmer, D. (2006). Everyday mood and emotions after eating a chocolate bar or an apple. ''Appetite, 46'', 332-336. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2006.01.014 

Macht, M., &amp; Mueller, J. (2007). Immediate effects of chocolate on experimentally induced mood states. ''Appetite, 49'', 667-674. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2007.05.004 

McDiarmid, J. I., &amp; Hetherington, M. M. (1995). Mood modulation by food: an exploration of affect and cravings in ‘chocolate addicts’. ''The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34'', 129-138.  

Meneses, A. &amp; Liy-Salmeron, G. (2012). Serotonin and emotion, learning and memory. ''Reviews in the Neurosciences, 23'', 543-553. doi: 10.1515/revneuro-2012-0060

Parker, G., Parker, I., &amp; Brotchie, H. (2006). Mood state effects of chocolate. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 92'', 149-159. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2006.02.007

Pase, M. P., Scholey, A. B., Pipingas, A., Kras, M., Nolidin, K., Gibbs, A., Wesnes, K., &amp; Stough, C. K. (2013). Cocoa polyphenols enhance positive mood states but not cognitive performance: A randomised, placebo-controlled trial. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology, 27'', 451-458. doi: 10.1177/0269881112473791

Radin, D., Hayssen, G., &amp; Walsh, J. (2007). Effects of intentionally enhanced chocolate on mood. ''Explore, 3'', 495-492. doi: 10.1016/j.explore.2007.06.004

Rodrigues-Silva, N. (2012). Chocolate: Psychopharmacological aspects, mood, and addiction. In R. R. Watson, V. R. Preedy &amp; S. Zibadi (Eds.), Chocolate in Health and Nutrition (pp. 421-436). New York, United States: Springer Science &amp; Business Media 

Seligman, M. &amp; Royzman, E. (2003). Happiness: the three traditional theories. Retrieved from http://pq.2004.tripod.com/happiness_three_traditional_theories.pdf 

Sokolov, A. N., Pavlova, M. A., Klosterhalfen, S., &amp; Enck, P. (2013). Chocolate and the brain: Neurobiological impact of cocoa flavanols on cognition and behaviour. ''Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 37'', 2445-2453. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.013

Torres-Moreno, M., Torrescasana, E., Salas-Salvado, J., &amp; Blanch, C. (2015). Nutritional composition and fatty acids profile in cocoa beans and chocolates with different geographical origin and processing conditions. ''Food Chemistry, 166'', 125-132. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.141

Ventura, T., Santander, J., Torres, R., &amp; Contreras, A. M. (2014). Neurobiologic basis of craving for carbohydrates. ''Nutrition, 30'', 252-256. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2013.06.010 

Wise, R. A., &amp; Rompre, P. P. (1989). Brain dopamine and reward. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 40'', 191-225. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.40.020189.001203

Zhao, L., Lin, Y., Lao, G., Wang, Y., Guan, L. Wei, J. … Ma, X (2015). Association study of dopamine receptor genes polymorphism with cognitive functions in bipolar I patients. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 170'', 85-90. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.039
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__TOC__

== Overview  ==
&lt;div style=&quot;background:white; border:6px MidnightBlue solid; padding:12px;&quot;&gt;
Think back over the past week and consider these questions: When were you in a bad mood? What day did you experience your best mood? Could you always explain why you were in a certain mood? Did your mood change over the week? Did the presence of others affect your mood? Can you even remember your moods, and if so, how accurate is that memory?

These are questions researchers have sought to answer, in attempt to understand and predict mood variation over the week. This chapter will discuss these questions, and hopefully provide you with a greater understanding of your own and others’ moods. 
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;border-bottom:1px solid MidnightBlue; background-color:whitesmoke; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%;&quot;&gt;'''Brenda-Ann Spencer, a 16-year-old girl, was sentenced to over 30 years in prison after conducting the Cleveland Elementary School Shooting in San Diego. This massacre was the first of its kind in American history. Spencer killed two teachers and wounded several others, including children. When asked why she did it, she replied, &lt;br&gt;'' 'I Don't Like Mondays' ''.'''&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Click [http://www.nydailynews.com/news/justice-story/justice-story-don-mondays-article-1.1504277 here] to read more, or watch a brief [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y9jnQKiLxr0 documentary] 

Is it true Monday is the worst day of the week? Whether returning to school or work, Mondays mark the end of freedom and relaxation and return of obligations and deadlines. The ‘[[w:Week|week]]’ is a culturally constructed time-measurement, imposing structure on work, recreation, and social activities. Since events associated with 'days of the week' often show a cyclical pattern, it is likely moods also conform to weekly rhythms. Research suggests two weekly mood patterns: Blue Monday Phenomenon (BMP), where Monday moods are worse than other weekdays; and Weekend Effects (WEs), where moods are more positive on weekends than weekdays (Stone, Schneider, &amp; Harter, 2012; Ryan, Bernstein &amp; Brown, 2010). This chapter will explore day of the week (DOW) mood variation and explain research discrepancies. Two theories have been proposed to explain DOW mood: [[#Circaseptan cycle|Circaseptan cycles]] and [[#Self Determination Theory|Self-determination theory]] (SDT). This chapter will provide support and criticisms for each. [[#Perfectionism|Perfectionism]], [[#Motivation|motivation]] and [[#Personality|personality]] will also be discussed as mediators of mood variation. This chapter will conclude by highlighting [[#Implications|implications]] of weekly mood patterns, and offer [[#5 tips for improving mood|suggestions]] to enhance mood and wellbeing.

=== Why we don't like Mondays: True-or-false quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=simple shuffle=none&gt;

{Incidence of heart attack is highest on Mondays 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
|| Incidence of heart attack is greater on Monday compared to any other day of the week (Spielberg, Falkenhahn, Willich, Wegscheider &amp; Voller, 1996)
- False

{More suicides occur on Mondays compared to Saturdays 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
|| Four percent more suicides occur on Mondays compared to Saturdays (Beauchamp, Ho &amp; Yin, 2014)
- False

{Majority of workers compensation claims are made on Mondays
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
|| Significantly more workers compensation claims for back-injury and sprains are made on Monday (Campolieti &amp; Hyatt, 2006)
- False

{Accident and Emergency Departments are busiest on Mondays 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
|| Accident and Emergency Departments are 9-15% busier on Mondays than other days of the week (Tsoi, Ip &amp; Poon, 2011)
- False

{Stock market returns are lowest on Mondays 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
|| Stock market returns are lowest on Mondays and highest on Fridays (Abu Bakar, Siganos &amp; Vagenas-Nanos, 2014)
- False

{Google searchers containing negative emotions are greatest on Mondays
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
|| Google searches containing words representing dysphoric affect are most common on Mondays (Stephens-Davidowitz, 2013)
- False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Defining and measuring mood==

==== How do moods and emotions differ? ====
[[File:Mr Newman - the world's saddest dog (2).jpg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Often we can be in a mood and not know why]]

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Mood|Moods]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Introduction/What is emotion?|emotions]] are related yet distinct phenomenon (Beedie, Terry &amp; Lane, 2005). These concepts diverge on several dimensions, with duration, intensity and cause most salient. Moods persist longer than emotions, and are less intense. Unlike emotions, moods are not caused by specific events, or directed at specific objects. For example, you are often aware of the event/stimuli producing fear and anger (emotions); whereas, the same causal attribution cannot be made for feeling moody, irritable or lethargic (as depicted in ''figure 1''). It was also argued emotions energise and direct behaviour, while moods influence cognitions (Beedie et al., 2005). A phrase often appearing in literature on mood is ''[[w:Affect_(psychology)|affect]]''. Affect is synonymous with mood, and these phrases will henceforth be used interchangeably. 

==== Mood measurement scales ====
Mood is conceptualised as two factors: positive and negative affect. Alertness, enthusiasm and energy characterise positive affect (PA). Negative affect (NA) is the general dimension of subjective-distress (Watson, Clark &amp; Tellegen, 1988). ''Table 1''. highlights differences between high and low positive and negative affect. PA and NA alone account for half to three-quarters of mood variance (Watson &amp; Clark, 1999). 

{{center top}}Table 1. {{center bottom}}
{{center top}}''Distinguishing between the affects'' {{center bottom}}
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
|
| '''Positive'''
| '''Negative'''
|- 
| '''High'''
| High energy, full concentration 
and pleasurable engagement
| Anger, contempt, disgust, 
guilt and nervousness
|- 
| '''Low'''
| Sadness and lethargy
| Calmness and serenity
|-
|}

Several scales assess self-reported mood. The most validated is the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The PANAS treats PA and NA as independent constructs; therefore, low, non-significant correlations exist between dimensions (Watson &amp; Clark, 1999). In the brief version, 20-items measure NA and PA. The extended form (PANAS-X) includes 60 items, and in addition to first-order dimensions (PA/NA), second-order individual-affects are included: fear, sadness, guilt, hostility (basic ''negative'' emotions); joviality, self-assurance, attentiveness (basic ''positive'' emotions); and serenity, shyness, fatigue, surprise (''other'' affective states). Both long and short-forms boast high validity and reliability (Watson &amp; Clark, 1999).

An alternative scale is the Mood Adjective Check List (MACL). The MACL argues 3 factors: hedonic tone (pleasure-displeasure), energetic arousal and tense arousal, contribute to the experience of mood. The MACL demonstrated adequate psychometric properties, and correlated positively with physiological measures of autonomic-arousal (Matthews, Jones &amp; Chamberlain, 1990). The PANAS and MACL measure slightly different aspects of mood, introducing implications when conducting and interpreting research. 

Click [http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780123745170/Chapter%203/Chapter_3_Worksheet_3.1.pdf here] to try the PANAS for yourself. 

==Empirical evidence for Blue Monday Phenomenon and Weekend Effects==

==== University students ====
Students' mood variation reflects WEs, but not BMP. Rossi and Rossi (1977) noted positive moods were higher on Friday through Sunday, and negative moods lower on Saturday and Sunday, in undergraduate women. Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter (2003) noted that students were significantly happier on Saturdays compared to Mondays, Tuesdays or Wednesdays. Similar patterns of affect-variation were obtained in Harvey et al.’s (2015) study: PA was highest on Saturday, and declined on Monday through Thursday. While research shows Monday moods are no worse relative to other weekdays, the biggest decrease occurs from Sunday to Monday. Thus, relative to pleasant moods experienced on weekends, Mondays may be perceived as the worst day. One published study found no WEs (Clark &amp; Watson, 1988). This study included a limited sample of 18 students, and data collection occurred during irregular school-schedules. Due to small sample-size this study may have had insufficient [[w:Statistical_power|power]] , and results are unlikely to represent the general student-population. Perhaps unsurprisingly, it appears that students experience most positive moods on weekends. 

==== Adults ====
Adults demonstrate WEs similar to students; however, the exact nature of the effect is unclear. Certain studies reveal moods peak on Fridays and Saturdays, and decline on Sundays (Larsen &amp; Kasimatis, 1990; Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, &amp; Ryan, 2000), whilst others suggest moods are ''not'' higher on Fridays; rather, peak on Saturdays and Sundays (Egloff, Tausch, Kohlmann, &amp; Krohne, 1995; Kennedy-Moore, Greenberg, Newman, &amp; Stone, 1992; Ryan et al., 2010; Stone, Hedges, Neale, &amp; Satin, 1985). There are several explanations for inconsistencies in research findings, which will be discussed later in this section. The main difference between student and adult samples is presence of BMP in the latter. Meta-analysis by Areni, Burger and  Zlatevska (2011) showed a small-effect for BMP. Meta-analytic tests calculate effect-sizes based on mean-difference; thus, authors were unable to account for whole-week patterns of mood variation. The small effect for BMP may have reflected weekend-weekday differences. This was the case in Stone et al.’s (2012) study, where BMP was significant only when Friday was included in the week. If Friday was excluded, BMP dissipated.

[[File:Lake Ontario - Sandbanks Provincial Park 2001.jpg|thumb|420x420px|''Figure 2.'' Weekends provide time to relax from work and engage in fun activities]]

Stone et al. (2012) conducted the largest study to date assessing DOW mood. Authors used telephone-questionnaire data from a national survey of 340,000 Americans, and found strong support for WEs. Participants reported greater positive mood and less negative mood on Fridays and weekends. This pattern emerged regardless of gender, age, work or partner-status. Ryan et al. (2010) attributed WEs to individuals experiencing less positive and more negative moods when at work compared to not-working. If work indeed does underlie DOW mood variation, WEs should disappear for retired individuals. 

==== Older adults/retirees ====
WEs are less pronounced but still apparent for retirees. While the weekend–weekday mood difference was stronger in the working population, it was also evident in retired individuals and those aged over 70 years (Stone et al., 2012). Results emphasise factors besides employment effect DOW mood. For example, WEs may result from the nature of weekend activities, or increased time with family (see ''Figure 2''). 

==== Explaining research inconsistencies ====
Research indicates WEs; however, findings are inconsistent. Inconsistencies can be attributed to research design (whether prospective or retrospective), association of work with weekdays, selection bias; cultural expectations, and the measure of affect itself (Areni et al., 2011). Mood variation was greater for retrospective mood, suggesting cultural expectations and stereotypes bias memory. Indeed, Stone et al. (1985) noted Monday moods were no different from other weekdays; however, 65% of participants remembered Monday as their worst mood-day. Areni and Burger (2008) suggested two cognitive biases maintain DOW stereotypes: accessibility of work and leisure-related activities in memory, and tendency to exaggerate event's influence on mood. People recall fun/exciting activities easier than mundane work-related tasks, and over-emphasise negative aspects of returning to work, failing to consider factors increasing mood. Thus, work and leisure are remembered as worse and better than reality.

[[File:Bartender preparing a blue blazer cocktail04.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|''Figure 3.'' Individuals working in hospitality are less likely to fit stereotypical mood patterns]]

The assumption work-days and weekdays overlap further explains discrepancies in research. For example, individuals in hospitality (working weekends with Mondays off) are less likely to conform to stereotypical patterns (see ''Figure 3''). Likewise, parents or carers may report no WE, since weekends are not associated with free-time (Areni, 2008). In addition, socially-withdrawn individuals with high job-satisfaction may experience opposite patterns, that is, ‘weekend-blues’ (Areni et al., 2011). Non-random sampling introduces [[w:Selection_bias|selection bias]], and may be falsely interpreted as mood variation. Tumen and Zeydanli (2014) found that participants interviewed on Friday or Saturday reported higher job-satisfaction compared to a random population sample, and that those interviewed on Sunday and Monday reported lower [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Happiness|happiness]]. Expectations further exaggerate DOW effects. As Croft and Walker (2001) noted, participants believing ''everyone'' experiences bad moods on Monday, did indeed experience lowest PA and highest NA on Monday. 

Measurement scales influence observed mood patterns (Kennedy-Moore et al., 1992). The MACL and PANAS produced significantly different results in two participant and procedure-matched studies (Egloff et al., 1995). When using the PANAS, PA was low on weekends; when using the MACL, PA was high. Authors attributed differences to scales emphasising distinctive aspects of PA. The PANAS represents arousal/engagement, explaining why PA was low on weekends (as less active engagement is required for leisure than work). The MACL measures pleasantness, explaining why PA was higher on weekends. Neither scale is superior; however, differences must be recognised when interpreting results.

==Theoretical explanation==
==== Circaseptan cycle ====
[[File:Blausen 0761 RedBloodCells.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Red blood cells fluctuate on a 7-day cycle]]
According to Circaseptan theory, weekly mood variation results from innate biochemical processes, which exist as adaptive responses to environmental stressors (Cornelissen et al., 2005). Several physiological processes vary over seven days, including electrolytes, [[w:Hormone|hormones]], immune response, body-temperature and red-blood-cells (see ''figure 4''). These systems are thought to influence mood via central (neurotransmitter) or peripheral (glucose-metabolism) routes (Croft &amp; Walker, 2001). For example, Fibiger, Singer, Miller, Armstrong and Datar (1984) observed associations between adrenaline and physical-fatigue, cortisol and alertness, and noradrenaline and dopamine with tenseness and irritability. Studies also demonstrate direct correlations between circadian-rhythm disruptions and mood-disorder severity (McClung, 2013). Larsen and Kasimatis (1990) superimposed a seven day [[w:Sine_wave|sine wave]] on aggregated mood data, and found it accounted for 40% of daily mood variance. 

Unlike other time-measurements (e.g., the 24-hour day or 365-day year) the seven day week does not correspond to orbital-rotation, rather, is an artificial social construction. Since seven day biological processes do not align with the calendar week, it is likely cultural and social forces influence mood fluctuation.  

==== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-determination theory|Self Determination Theory]] ====
SDT provides a psychosocial explanation for DOW mood variation. Introduced by Ryan and Deci (2000), SDT postulates three psychological needs are neccessary to maintain well-being. These are ''autonomy:'' ones actions are self-endorsed and self-congruent, ''relatedness:'' being close and connected with others, and (3) ''competence:'' effectively bringing about desired outcomes (Reis et al., 2000). Daily mood can be attributed to the degree these three needs are met. For example, autonomy was linked to greater PA, vitality, [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Self-esteem|self-esteem]] and reduced NA (Baard, Deci &amp; Ryan, 2004). 

[[File:Water gun fight.jpg|left|thumb|220x220px|''Figure 5.'' Weekends provide time with friends and family, fulfilling the need of ''relatedness'']]

[[w:Workweek_and_weekend|Weekday and weekend]] activities fulfil psychological needs differently. Individuals are more likely to experience autonomy and relatedness when activities and company are freely-chosen (Reis et al., 2000). Ryan et al. (2010) noted greater autonomy and 'closeness to others' accounted for increased mood on weekends. Work involves external-control, time-pressure and demands - undermining individual autonomy. Likewise, work provides fewer opportunities to meet relatedness needs, as individuals often work alone or with assigned colleagues. Relatedness refers to more than being around others; it is the necessity for meaningful, close relationships. Indeed, a large proportion of the WE was explained by time spent with friends/family. Halliwell and Wang (2014) noted the two additional hours spent socialising with friends/family on weekends raised happiness levels approximately 2% (see ''figure 5''). Reis et al. (2000) noticed similar weekly patterns for autonomy, relatedness and mood. Competence did not display the same pattern, suggesting work and study provide contexts for meeting competence-needs (Reis et al., 2000; see ''Figure 6''). Ryan et al. (2010) reported that the three SDT variables explained 82% and 83% of variance in the relationship between work and PA and NA, respectively. 

[[File:Defense.gov photo essay 100713-A-5170O-167.jpg|thumb|320x320px|''Figure 6.'' Work fulfils our psychological need for ''competence'']]

SDT highlights importance of free-time for satisfying psychological needs and enhancing mood. Although it appears that work negatively effects mood, Csikszentmihalyi and LeFevre (1989) noted majority of ''flow experiences'' occur while working. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Flow|Flow]] is defined as opportunity to expand capabilities, learn and increase personal complexity, which occurs when a person perceives high opportunity for action, and high ability to act (Csikszentmihalyi &amp; Hunter, 2003). It is characterised by task-absorption and loss of self-consciousness. When both skill and challenge are high, experience will be positive, regardless of whether the activity is work or leisure. Csikszentmihalyi and LeFevre (1989) suggested the obligatory nature of work overrides positive experiences. Work is often perceived as a tradeoff to acquire money or free-time. This contradicts economists' and psychologists' suggestions of work's purpose (i.e. to provide happiness; Areni &amp; Burger, 2008). One limitation of SDT in explaining mood variation is the possibility of a bi-directional relationship, where mood fluctuations alter task-engagement and social-interaction. It is important future research explores this alternative model. Work-leisure balance is important to enhance mood and well-being; as the following quote by [[w:William_Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] (cited in Weil &amp; Weil, 2007, p. 165) depicts: 

{{quote|&quot;&lt;big&gt;''If all the year were playing holidays, to sport would be as tedious as work.''&lt;/big&gt;&quot;}}

== Individual differences ==

==== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] ====
Harvey et al. (2015) distinguished self-critical from personal-standards perfectionism, highlighting the former increased and the latter reduced negative emotions toward returning to school on Mondays. Self-critical perfectionism is a maladaptive form of evaluation, characterised by negative self-appraisals and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Fear of failure|fear of failure]]. This perfectionism fosters harsh performance-judgement and is associated with poor adjustment. Personal-standards perfectionism does not involve negative evaluations, and is associated with higher self-esteem, flow experiences and adaptive coping (Harvey et al., 2015). The opposing mood pattern observed between self-critical and personal-standard perfectionists was mediated by differences in academic-goal motivation.

==== Motivation ====
[[File:County Youth Athletic meeting at Shrewsbury (7005565265).jpg|thumb|280x280px|''Figure 7.'' Autonomous motivation is important for optimising goal-achievement ]]
According to Ryan and Deci’s (2000) ''taxonomy of motivation'', several types of motivation exist, ranging from [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|intrinsically]] to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Extrinsic motivation|extrinsically]]-driven. Motives are distinguished based on reason for goal pursuance, and are categorised as autonomous or control-orientated. Autonomous includes intrinsic and identified-motivation, whereas controlled represents external-regulation and introjection (Harvey et al., 2015). ''Figure 8'' presents descriptions of each motivation. Self-critics reported more controlled reasons for pursuing goals, i.e. they felt externally-compelled to perform, and viewed school as burdensome and pressuring. Contrastingly, personal-standard perfectionists reported predominately autonomous motivation, and did not view school unpleasantly (see ''figure 7''). Harvey et al.’s (2015) study relied on self-report, and was correlational. Therefore, although significant relations exist between perfectionism, motivation and BMP, a causal link cannot be established.

[[File:Amp-55-1-68-fig1a.gif|centre|thumb|650x650px|''Figure 8.'' Ryan &amp; Deci's (2000) taxonomy of human motivation ]]

&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;background:LavenderBlush; padding:20px;&quot;&gt;[[File:Thought Bubble Comics.png|right|128px]]
=== ACTIVITY: Think about it === 
Think back to previous personal goals. Which were based on autonomous motivation? Were any pursued due to external motives (such as pressure, money, grades or another reward)? As you remember setting (and possibly achieving) these goals, what emotions do you recall experiencing? What effect do you think these goals had on your mood? 

As SDT suggests, it is likely more positive moods/emotions were associated with the autonomous goals, compared to those that were extrinsically-motivated.  
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Personality ====
One of the most studied personality dimensions is the [[w:Extraversion_and_introversion|introversion-extraversion]] distinction. Individual degree of introversion or extraversion effects the extent mood reflects a weekly-cycle (Larson &amp; Kasimatis, 1990). These bipolar traits differ in [[w:Sensation_seeking|sensation-seeking]], i.e. extraverts approach arousing-situations/activities, whereas introverts are more arousal-avoidant. Introverts have higher baseline physiological-arousal and are more reactive to environmental-stimuli. To maintain low-arousal, introverts manage unpredictable, unfamiliar situations by conforming to a weekly mood-rhythm. Indeed, Larsen &amp; Kasimatis (1990) found extraverts' mood was less entrained to a seven day cycle than introverts'. Limited research has been conducted for the role of personality in DOW mood variation. Since [[w:Neuroticism|neuroticism]] and extraversion correlate positively with NA and PA (Illies &amp; Judge, 2002), it is likely these factors influence mood. 

== Implications  ==
[[File:Beach volleyball poland1.jpg|thumb|280x280px|''Figure 9.'' Spending time with friends is important for enhancing mood throughout the week]]

Since psychological-need satisfaction predicts mood variation, workplaces offering autonomous decision-making and teamwork will produce more positive employees. This is important for individual-wellbeing and employers. George (1991) indicated workers in positive moods demonstrated more pro-social behaviours, e.g. efficient [[w:Customer_service|customer service]] and assisting colleagues. Since customer service correlates positively with sales performance, positive moods are essential for maximising profits. Additionally, when non-work environments are more conducive to PA, employees will be likely to take leave to increase mood (Ilies &amp; Judge, 2002). Autonomous goal-setting further improves mood, particularly at the beginning of the week. It is important employers provide workers with intrinsic as opposed to external motives, governed by control. To read more on fostering intrinsic motivation in others read the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013 Motivation &amp; Emotion]] book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]], or watch this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I TED Talk].  

Spending time with family and friends increases PA (Halliwell &amp; Wang, 2013). Thus, it is important workers have sufficient free-time to socialise with significant others (see ''Figure 9''). Individuals working weekends or late nights are at risk of relatedness need-deficiency, as time usually spent with family or friends is allocated to working. The more psychological needs are neglected, the more wellbeing and mood will suffer.    

&lt;/br&gt;             

&lt;div style=&quot;background:white; border:6px Aqua solid; padding:12px;&quot;&gt;
{{center top}}
 
=== 5 tips for improving mood ===
{{center bottom}}
#Make time to see family and friends 
#Set autonomous goals: i.e. those you pursue for fun and enjoyment 
#Increase opportunity to experience ''flow'' by finding tasks that challenge your ability
#Focus on positive experiences work or school provide, such as delivering a sense of competence and expanding social networks
#Remember: Mondays are no worse than other weekdays, and only appear bad if we recall them so
&lt;/div&gt;

==Conclusion==
Weekly mood patterns are apparent in students, working-adults and retirees. Effects are robust for increased positive and reduced negative moods on weekends (Ryan et al., 2010). According to SDT, mood variation results from differences between activities performed on weekends and weekdays, and the extent these meet our psychological needs. Freely-chosen activities (and company) promote better moods than tasks assigned by others, as they satisfy autonomy and relatedness. Findings discussed in this chapter provide several implications for everyday living. For example, promoting autonomy and relatedness in the workplace is important to stimulate positive moods, pro-social behaviour, and business prosperity. Individuals should strive to set autonomous-goals and make time to see family and friends throughout the week. Staying late in the office or skipping lunch with a friend may have detrimental effects on your mood and well-being.  

== See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Mood and emotion|Similarities and differences between mood and emotion]] 

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Workplace motivation|Read more on controlled and autonomous motivation in the workplace]] 

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Work motivation and work satisfaction|Read more on fostering workplace satisfaction]] 

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
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Baard, P. P., Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic need satisfaction: A motivational basis of performance and well-being in two work settings. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34''(10), 2045-2068. DOI:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02690.x

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Csikszentmihalyi, M., &amp; Hunter, J. (2003). Happiness in everyday life: The uses of experience sampling. ''Journal of Happiness Studies, 4''(2), 185-199. DOI: 10.1023/A:1024409732742

Csikszentmihalyi, M., &amp; LeFevre, J. (1989). Optimal experience in work and leisure. ''Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 56''(5), 815-822. DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.56.5.815

Egloff, B., Tausch, A., Kohlmann, C., &amp; Krohne, H. (1995). Relationships between time of day, day of the week, and positive mood: Exploring the role of the mood measure. ''Motivation and Emotion, 19''(2), 99–110. Retrieved from &lt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/225533318&gt;

Fibiger, W., Singer, G., Miller, A. J., Armstrong, S., &amp; Datar, M. (1985). Cortisol and catecholamines changes as functions of time-of-day and self-reported mood. ''Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 8''(4), 523-530. DOI: 10.1016/0149-7634(84)90009-5

George, J. M. (1991). State or trait: Effects of positive mood on prosocial behaviors at work. ''Journal of Applied Psychology, 76''(2), 299-307. DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.299

Harvey, B., Milyavskaya, M., Hope, N., Powers, T. A., Saffran, M., &amp; Koestner, R. (2015). Affect variation across days of the week: influences of perfectionism and academic motivation. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''39''(4), 521–530. DOI: 10.1007/s11031-015-9480-3 

Helliwell, J. F., &amp; Wang, S. (2014). Weekends and subjective well-being. ''Social Indicators Research, 116''(2), 389-407. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y

Ilies, R., &amp; Judge, T. A. (2002). Understanding the dynamic relationships among personality, mood, and job satisfaction: A field experience sampling study. ''Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 89''(2), 1119-1139. DOI:10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00018-3

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McClung, C. A. (2013). How might circadian rhythms control mood? Let me count the ways... ''Biological psychiatry, 74''(4), 242-249. DOI:
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Ryan, R. M., Bernstein, J. H., &amp; Brown, K. W. (2010). Weekends, work, and well-being: Psychological need satisfactions and day of the week effects on mood, vitality, and physical symptoms. ''Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29''(1), 95-122. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2010.29.1.95

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Weil, H., &amp; Weil, J. (2007). The first part of King Henry IV. Cambridge University Press.

}}

== External links ==
[http://appcrawlr.com/ios/moodlytics-the-smart-mood-track Moodlytics] a free mood-tracking app: track your daily moods to see when and why you experience certain moods

[http://moodjam.com MoodJam] allows you to visualise and express your moods artistically through colour 

[http://tedxtalks.ted.com/video/New-Tools-to-Measure-Our-Mood-a;search%3Amood Ted Talk] on novel mood measurement: using Twitter to gain insight in population moods

[https://www.ted.com/talks/nigel_marsh_how_to_make_work_life_balance_work Ted Talk] on how to create a successful work-life balance 

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__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Breast_cancer_cell_(2).jpg|right|173x173px]]

Breast Cancer. It is a sensitive topic for just about every one of us. It's a debilitating disease that according to the [http://who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/ World Health Organization] website, more than 500,000 women die from every year worldwide, making it the most common form of cancer amongst women (Baqutayan, 2012). Women are not the only ones who can develop breast cancer, as men can too. Regardless of gender, the short and long-term effects are substantial, with many patients being forced to make career and relationship sacrifices, and in some cases, the ability to have a child. Sadly, it is not only cancer that directly affects a person. The level of anxiety a patient can experience may also change the way in which they behave and react to various situations. It's something so severe that it can produce another illness on top of breast cancer, which ultimately inhibits a person's ability to function on a day-to-day basis. This chapter will include an in-depth exploration into the two illnesses and how they co-occur, with breast cancer being focused on first.

== Breast cancer ==
The breast is comprised of two types of tissue; [[w:Breast|glandular and stromal tissue]]. Glandular tissue contains the milk-producing glands and the ducts, while the stromal tissue includes the fatty and fibrous connective tissues of the breast (as cited in Baqutayan, 2012). Breast cancer develops when an abnormal cell in the glandular tissue grows uncontrollably, which can eventually spread to the underlying chest wall and other parts of the body (as cited in Baqutayan, 2012) if left untreated.  

=== Risk factors ===
[http://canceraustralia.gov.au/publications-and-resources/cancer-australia-publications/guide-women-early-breast-cancer Cancer Australia (2012)] released a document that provides information for all women with breast cancer, including the various risk factors. Being a woman, having a family history of three or more first or second-degree relatives with either ovarian or breast cancer, inheriting a defective gene and being 40yrs+ all increase the risk (Cancer Australia, 2012). There is even evidence for lesbian and bisexual women to be at an increased risk (Boehmer, Glickman &amp; Winter, 2012).&lt;gallery&gt;
[[File:Breast cancer awareness ribbons and pens.jpg|Breast cancer awareness ribbons and pens]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Breast cancer awareness ===
[[File:Breast self-exam NCI visuals online.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2.'' A 6-step self-examination|230x230px]]

Self-examination is the first step to early diagnosis. It is essential for women to regularly check their breasts every month as it increases survival rate. According to the [http://canceraustralia.gov.au/affected-cancer/cancer-types/breast-cancer/awareness/breast-changes Cancer Australia] website, the changes to look out for include unusual lumps (especially if they appear in only one breast), a change in the size of the breasts, a change in the colour of the skin, such as dimpling or redness, any nipple discharge that occurs without sneezing, a change to the nipple in terms of crusting, an inversion or an ulcer and any unusual pain that doesn't go away (see Figure 2).

Reasons for putting off self-examinations or going through with them may come down to two key theories. Rosenstark's [[w:Health_belief_model|Health Belief Model]] (as cited in Katz, Meyers &amp; Walls, 1995) and the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|Theory of Planned Behaviour]] (Ajzen, 1991) are believed to play a role in self-examination and a woman's perceived susceptibility to cancer.

== The health belief model ==
Rosenstark (as cited in Katz et al., 1995) created the Health Belief Model to explain preventive health behaviour and why people refuse to seek help in detecting a potential disease. The table below highlights the four main perceived concepts from the Health Belief Model, with two additional concepts added by Rosenstock to explain when people want to change a bad habit, i.e. smoking.

Table 1.

''Constructs from The Health Belief Model (Glanz, Marcus Lewis &amp; Rimer, 1997).''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background: #FD6C9E&quot; 
!Concept
!Definition
!Application
|-
|Perceived susceptability
|One's opinion of chances of getting a condition
|Define population(s) at risk, risk levels; personalise risk based on a person's features or behavior; heighten perceived susceptibility if too low
|-
|Perceived severity
|One's opinion of how serious a condition and its consequences are
|Specify consequences of the risk and the condition
|-
|Perceived benefits
|One's belief in the efficacy of the advised action to reduce risk or seriousness of impact
|Define action to take; how, where, when; clarify the positive effects to be expected
|-
|Perceived barriers
|One's opinion of the tangible and psychological costs of the advised action
|Identify and reduce barriers through reassurance, incentives, assistance
|-
|Cues to action
|Strategies to activate &quot;readiness&quot;
|Provide how-to information, promote awareness, reminders
|-
|Self-efficacy
|Confidence in one's ability to take action
|Provide training, guidance in performing action
|} 

In relation to breast cancer, when a woman believes she's '''susceptible''' to the disease and understands the '''severity''' of it, the '''benefit''' of determining whether she's at risk of developing breast cancer outweighs the '''barriers''' of not completing a self-examination or screening protocol, which may be because she's afraid or has no time to. When a woman has high '''self-efficacy,''' it's then that she realises she has the confidence to actually go ahead with the '''cues to action'''. 

== Theory of planned behaviour ==
[[File:Theory of planned behavior.png|left|thumb|265x265px|''Figure 3.'' Components of the Theory of Planned Behaviour]]
Formally called the Theory of Reasoned Action, the Theory of Planned Behaviour suggests that intentions to complete an action are predicted by three motivational determinants: attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control (Drossaert, Boer &amp; Seydel, 2003; Rutter, 2000). The determinants on the left relate to the benefits and limitations of performing the behaviour, approval or disapproval from others and the person's judgement of their ability to perform the behaviour (Drossaert et al., 2003). The theory is useful in predicting why patients attend and re-attend screening assessments, yet there are limited studies on why this might be (Drossaert et al., 2003). In the past, women have been more likely to get screened when their families and friends have approved of it and when they had a positive attitude (Drossaert et al., 2003; Rutter, 2000). In the studies above, re-attendance was high, with 91% of women attending the third screening session in Drossaert et al's., (2003) study and 64% compared to 14% of the control group's participants in Rutter's (2000) experiment followed up on their screening. 

Understanding what factors promote attendance is important for new beneficial health interventions to improve breast cancer screening protocols. Interventions should focus on changing women's attitudes, their perceived control over the situation and any difficulties they expect to occur when they attend, as these factors explain women's intentions and their actual behaviour (Drossaert et al., 2003).

=== Treatment  ===
Determining which stage of cancer a woman has ultimately decides which treatment is going to be the most effective. [http://canceraustralia.gov.au/publications-and-resources/cancer-australia-publications/guide-women-early-breast-cancer Cancer Australia (2012)] highlights the differences between each stage, with relevant methods of treatment. One form of treatment for women in stage I of cancer (when the tumor is &lt;2cm) is to undergo a mastectomy, in which one or both breasts are surgically removed (Maughan, Lutterbie &amp; Ham, 2010). Alternatively, in more recent years breast-conserving surgery has been an option. This method involves removing the tumor without damaging any healthy tissue (Maughan et al., 2010). Radiotherapy follows breast-conserving surgery to ensure that no part of the tumor is still hiding underneath the surface. Results from a study by Clarke et al., (as cited in Maughan et al., 2010, p. 1342) showed that radiation following surgery significantly reduced the five-year local recurrence rate.  

Following on from surgery and radiotherapy, chemotherapy is the number one form of treatment for women in stage II with tumors larger than 1-2cm (Cancer Australia, 2012; Maughan et al., 2010), although it is been shown to increase anxiety more than any other form of treatment (Lim, Devi &amp; Ang, 2011). This is likely due to side effects such as nausea, loss of hair, dry skin and fatigue (Carelle et al., 2002). According to Hortobagyi (1998), combined treatment for shorter than 3 months is much less effective than treatment for 4-6 months. [http://www.cancer.org/cancer/breastcancer/detailedguide/breast-cancer-treating-by-stage The American Cancer Society] states that chemotherapy typically lasts 3-6 months, whereas hormone therapy lasts 5-10 years. [[w:Adjuvant_therapy|Adjuvant systematic therapies]] such as endocrine therapy and tissue-targeted therapy are a few of the many options out there that utilise the use of surgery, therapy or both (Maughan et al., 2010). 

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Statistics from Cancer Australia (2012) indicate that 88% of Australian women with breast cancer are still alive five years after early diagnosis.
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== The emotional effects of breast cancer ==
When first diagnosed, women understandably tend to respond with anxiety (Stark &amp; House, 2000).{{expand}}

Many experience a sense of denial and helplessness, which explains why some cancer patients feel that they've lost their self-identity. The psychological issues that can arise from a cancer diagnosis largely depend on gender, age and the type of cancer (Rosen, Rodriguez-Wallberg &amp; Rosenzweig, 2009). For most women, losing their hair, completing regular chemotherapy, infertility and the risk of dying are all huge concerns (Rosen et al., 2009). The greatest concern that's associated with emotional distress is when women are told they have become infertile as a result of their cancer treatment. Being told such devastating news has been shown to have the same emotional impact on a woman as having a life-threatening disease, such as heart disease or AIDS (Domar, Zuttermeister &amp; Friedman, 1993).        

A vital way to reduce infertility-related anxiety and depression is for specialists and patients to maintain communication, especially in regards to other fertility options (Domar et al., 1993; Partridge et al., 2004). A number of studies have shown that other options are rarely discussed (Duffy, Allen &amp; Clark, 2005; Partridge et al., 2004; Quinn et al., 2007) which doesn't provide women with the quality of care they require. As suggested by Partridge and colleagues (2004), if there was more focus on infertility issues at diagnosis and on psychosocial and medical interventions during the treatment phase, then the impact of infertility may reduce, leaving breast cancer patients with one less thing to worry about. Other emotional factors that may upset women include the fact they can't return to work for a large period of time and have to see how their cancer affects their friends and families, which unfortunately for some women can cause significant stress when they see their loved ones are struggling.       

[[File:Breast cancer awareness ribbons and pens.jpg|thumb|''Figure 5.'' October is Breast Cancer Awareness Month|190x190px]]

== Breast cancer foundations ==
As breast cancer diagnosis rates have increased over the years, multiple foundations have been formed in support of the disease. The four major Australian breast cancer organisations are listed below. Together, they focus on establishing the &lt;u&gt;best&lt;/u&gt; care for women living with breast cancer in order to meet their individual missions.  
# [http://www.bcna.org.au Breast Cancer Network Australia]  
# [http://www.nbcf.org.au National Breast Cancer Foundation]  
# [http://www.mcgrathfoundation.com.au/ McGrath Foundation]  
# [http://www.canceraustralia.gov.au Cancer Australia]         

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{{center top}}'''&quot;I am the tightening of your chest, the snowballing worries that feel like they might become an avalanche and just bury you in an instant. I am the obsessive, and I'm the compulsive. I'm the voice, you know the one, it's always questioning questioning questioning&quot; - [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/transcripts/get-to-know-anxiety Beyond Blue]'''{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Anxiety ==
[[File:Figure 5. Anxiety can leave a person feeling extremely sad.jpg|thumb|320x320px]]

Anxiety is a serious illness in which persistent fear and/or anxiety interferes with day-to-day life. Fear is a present-oriented mood state that is associated with the &quot;fight or flight&quot; mechanism and escape behaviours, while anxiety is a future-oriented mood state that provokes muscle tension in preparation for a future threat (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/the-facts/anxiety/what-causes-anxiety Beyond Blue] are a depression and anxiety support service that say anxiety is usually triggered from a stress-induced situation, health problem, substance use or from family history. An anxiety disorder is then diagnosed when this fear or anxiety lasts beyond an acceptable time (i.e. six months or more) and when symptoms cannot be attributed to any physiological effects from some form of medication, medical disorder, or medical condition (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The six main anxiety disorders are Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD), [[w:Anxiety_disorder|Post-traumatic Disorder (PTSD),]] Specific Phobia, [[w:Anxiety_disorder|Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD),]] Social Anxiety Disorder and [[w:Anxiety_disorder|Panic Disorder]] (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  

=== Symptoms ===
According to the [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/the-facts/anxiety/signs-and-symptoms Beyond Blue] website, there are physical and psychological symptoms that aren't normally obvious, but may be apparent over time. Some of these symptoms include excessive worry, restlessness, difficulty concentrating, headaches, muscle tension, nausea, trouble falling asleep and sweating (as cited in Baqutayan, 2012). An anxiety checklist can be accessed [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/the-facts/depression/signs-and-symptoms/anxiety-and-depression-checklist-k10 here.] 

=== Epidemiology ===
The lifetime prevalence of an anxiety disorder is 17% (Somers, Goldner, Waraich &amp; Hsu, 2006), with the female to male ratio being 2:1 respectively (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Those who are more at risk are generally younger women with a lack of social support and previous psychological problems (Burgess et al., 2005). Many of the phobia disorders are diagnosed in childhood, with the median diagnosis age for GAD and Panic Disorder being early 30's (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Generally, anxiety disorders will persist for the majority of a person's life, unless adequately treated.

=== Treatment ===
There are self-help, psychological and medical treatments available. Medical treatments are usually supplied first, either alone or in-conjunction with therapy. Antidepressant medication is the most common, as it suppresses symptoms for as long as its taken, however no evidence exists for whether it reduces the underlying risk once a person discontinues their use (Hollon, Stewart &amp; Strunk, 2006). Psychological treatments involve a variety of therapies, such as [[w:Psychotherapy|Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Interpersonal Psychotherapy]] and can be as effective as antidepressant medication. Both psychotherapies address social stressors, change thought patterns and help a person manage their anxiety better, which in turn is likely to decrease the chance of relapsing (Hollon et al., 2006).  

Self-help treatment involves interventions such as exercise, yoga and a healthy diet, which are effective, but won't work alone. As for social support, it is important for those close to the person to understand the meaning attached to particular events as these are the basis for perceived threat. Education and communication are also important to recognise and respond to when someone is really struggling (Stark &amp; House, 2000).  

== Breast cancer and anxiety ==
It is normal for everybody to have anxiety-provoking thoughts at some point in their life, but at what degree is it considered a serious condition?  
  
[[File:Stress 2.gif|left|thumb|245x245px|''Figure 7.'' The effects of anxiety on the body]]

It can be difficult to determine the level of anxiety that is present in cancer patients (Stark &amp; House, 2000), especially as the diagnosis of anxiety in cancer is often a subjective judgement (Stark &amp; House, 2000) and is complex because it overlaps with other symptoms such as fatigue and pain (Baqutayan, 2012). Stressful factors such as hormonal changes, fertility fears, changes in body image, financial problems and numerous hospital visits are broadly classified into four causal categories; physical, psychological, social and environment, which inevitably makes it more difficult for professionals to determine what is a normal level of anxiety and what constitutes a disorder (Lim et al., 2011). Holland (1989) states that it is completely normal to experience anxiety for 7-10 days after receiving terrible news, although as the threat of cancer has varied over the years, it can affect the levels of what is considered to be normal anxiety as well. In a Canadian study conducted by Ashbury, Findlay, Reynolds and McKerracher (1998), 77% of patients within two years of treatment recalled experiencing anxiety. This was also found by Burgess et al., (2005) who found that 50% of women had depression, anxiety, or both in the year after diagnosis. The percentage of women experiencing anxiety is equivalent to that of the general female population (Burgess et al., 2005), meaning that although the degree of anxiety may not be enough to diagnose a breast cancer patient with an anxiety disorder as well, the severity of anxiousness is high.  

When there's little to no anxiety present in the initial stages of cancer, it can also be a reason for concern, as the main period in which anxiety is generally reduced is during the remission stage (Stark &amp; House, 2000). This point of transition is still challenging to define (Stark &amp; House, 2000), but is made easier when questionnaires such as the Responses to Stress Questionnaire (Pediatric Cancer version) are used. This questionnaire includes 12 cancer-related stressor questions (i.e. changes in personal appearance, continual hospital visits) and various coping scales to assess a range of different patients with cancer, including children and adolescents (Compas et al., 2014). When an anxiety disorder is present in a breast cancer patient, an effective treatment is mindfulness-based therapy. The use of mindfulness, yoga and other relaxation techniques has proven to reduce anxiety and improve quality of life and overall mood (Hofmann, Sawyer, Witt &amp; Oh, 2010).  

When an actual anxiety disorder is present, it can persist until five years after breast cancer diagnosis but is generally due to the patient and not the cancer (Burgess et al., 2005) which has lead researchers into determining who is primarily at risk of developing an actual anxiety disorder while having breast cancer as well.  

=== Who is at risk? ===
Specific groups of women may be more prone to developing anxiety when they have breast cancer already. One example is excessive worrying, which can act like a double edged sword. Constantly worrying about the smallest issues can produce a negative frame of mind which makes it difficult to focus on what matters and pushes loved ones further away. Yet on the other hand, more worrying can be positive in relation to screening for breast cancer in the first place. McCaul, Schroeder and Reid (1996) found that higher worry in women meant they were more likely to perform a self-examination or get a mammogram. Burgess et al., (2005) found that in the long-term, anxiety was higher in women who weren't in an intimate relationship, had severe non-cancer related difficulties, an earlier episode of anxiety, depression, or both after diagnosis and were of a younger age, which is still in line with studies conducted back in 1986 and 1994 (Burgess et al., 2005). Therefore, characteristics such as strength, hope and faith will help patients remain positive, along with social support. When these factors are present in women with severe anxiety, it can greatly increase their life expectancy (Baqutayan, 2012). 

== The financial and social costs ==
The costs of breast cancer and anxiety are substantial, but increase even more when they're both present. Discharging a patient from hospital to a general practice can be costly and difficult, which may be due to the severity of the breast cancer or reluctance from an anxious patient (Thomas, Glynne-Jones, Chait &amp; Marks, 1997). However, most of the cost goes to the professionals who care for the patient. A breast cancer patient who has anxiety as well will have a large team of people that include psychologists, general practitioners, surgeons, nurses and radiation oncologists (Cancer Australia, 2012). Most women feel they must continue working in order to pay for the care that each of these professionals provide in addition to travel and medication costs. When this isn't possible, it puts a financial strain on the patient and their family, which often sees a social disruption to social functioning and relationships according to Matthews (as cited in Raque-Bogdan et al., 2015, p. 10). The most concerning part is that the health expenditure for 2004-2005 was $331 million for women with breast cancer in Australia (Cancer Australia, 2012) and that is excluding anxiety-related costs. For these reasons, it is important to maintain a connection with loved ones and discuss insurance with the selected health fund, as well as how to manage medical costs (Cancer Australia, 2012).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Take home messages}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
# Breast cancer and anxiety are two separate, yet very connected entities
# Both illnesses have a physiological and psychological impact on a person
# Recognising the symptoms is the first step to battling cancer and anxiety
# You are never alone, there is help out there!
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

==Conclusion==


To conclude, everyone will experience anxiety to some degree in their life, but not everyone will go through what it is like to have breast cancer. The trauma of dealing with a breast cancer diagnosis leaves most women shocked, frightened and devastated which also affects those around them.  

Ways of staying positive depend on a woman's level of optimism and self-efficacy, which according to the Health Belief Model and the Theory of Planned Behaviour explain why some women handle their cancer better than others. Despite the social and economic costs, there are wonderful foundations that promote awareness and support for those in need, and with the advancement in treatment options, it might not be long before treatment is specified to each woman's individual tumor characteristics (Maughan et al., 2010), or even better, a cure for breast cancer is finally found. 

Overall, future research would benefit from focusing on models of motivation and emotion to explain health behaviour and by addressing the various psychological problems that can arise in anxious women with advanced breast cancer (Burgess et al., 2005).

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{{center top}}
[[File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.png|center|50px]] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GMx4wIxzV2M '''Click here''' to watch a&lt;br&gt; Breast Cancer survivor's 'Check Yourself' flashmob!&lt;br&gt;] 
{{center bottom}}
|}

== See also  ==
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Emotion_and_cancer_diagnosis|Cancer chapter]]
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Animals_and_anxiety|Anxiety chapter]]
* [[w:Breast|Breast]]
* [[w:Health_belief_model|Health Belief Model]]
* [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|Theory of Planned Behaviour]]
* [[w:Adjuvant_therapy|Adjuvant therapy]]
* [[w:Anxiety_disorder|Anxiety disorder]]
* [[w:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]]

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. ''Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes'', ''50''(2), 179-211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

American Cancer Society. (2015). ''Treatment of invasive breast cancer, by stage.'' Retrieved from http://www.cancer.org/cancer/breastcancer/detailedguide/breast-cancer-treating-by-stage

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders'' (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author

Ashbury, F. D., Findlay, H., Reynolds, B., &amp; McKerracher, K. (1998). A Canadian survey of cancer patients’ experiences: are their needs being met? ''Journal of Pain and Symptom Management'', ''16''(5), 298-306. doi:10.1016/S0885-3924(98)00102-X

Baqutayan, S. M. S. (2012). The effect of anxiety on breast cancer patients. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine'', ''34''(2), 119-123. doi:10.4103/0253-7176.101774

Beyond Blue. (2015). ''Get to know anxiety.'' Retrieved from Beyond Blue website: https://www.beyondblue.org.au/transcripts/get-to-know-anxiety

Boehmer, U., Glickman, M., &amp; Winter, M. (2012). Anxiety and depression in breast cancer survivors of different sexual orientations. ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology'', ''80''(3), 382-395. doi:10.1037/a0027494      

Burgess, C., Cornelius, V., Love, S., Graham, J., Richards, M., &amp; Ramirez, A. (2005). Depression and anxiety in women with early breast cancer: five year observational cohort study. ''Bmj'', ''330''(7493), 702-705. doi:10.1136/bmj.38343.670868.D3

Cancer Australia. (2015). ''Breast changes.'' Retrieved from http://canceraustralia.gov.au/affected-cancer/cancer-types/breast-cancer/awareness/breast-changes

Cancer Australia. (2012). Guide for women with early breast cancer. Retrieved from http://canceraustralia.gov.au/publications-and-resources/cancer-australia-publications/guide-women-early-breast-cancer

Carelle, N., Piotto, E., Bellanger, A., Germanaud, J., Thuillier, A., &amp; Khayat, D. (2002). Changing patient perceptions of the side effects of cancer chemotherapy. ''Cancer'', ''95''(1), 155-163. doi:10.1002/cncr.10630        

Compas, B. E., Desjardins, L., Vannatta, K., Young-Saleme, T., Rodriguez, E. M., Dunn, M., ... &amp; Gerhardt, C. A. (2014). Children and adolescents coping with cancer: Self-and parent reports of coping and anxiety/depression. ''Health Psychology'', ''33''(8), 853-861. doi:10.1037/hea0000083  

Domar, A. D., Zuttermeister, P. C., &amp; Friedman, R. (1993). The psychological impact of infertility: a comparison with patients with other medical conditions. ''Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology'', ''14'', 45-52. Retrieved from [http://www.massgeneral.org/bhi/assets/pdfs/publications/Domar1993JPsychosomObstetGynaecol.pdf http://www.massgeneral.org/bhi/assets/pdfs/publications/Domar%201993%20J%20Psychosom%20Obstet%20Gynaecol.pdf]

Drossaert, C. H. C., Boer, H., &amp; Seydel, E. R. (2003). Prospective study on the determinants of repeat attendance and attendance patterns in breast cancer screening using the theory of planned behaviour. ''Psychology and Health'', ''18''(5), 551-565. doi:10.1080/0887044031000141207

Duffy, C. M., Allen, S. M., &amp; Clark, M. A. (2005). Discussions regarding reproductive health for young women with breast cancer undergoing chemotherapy. ''Journal of Clinical Oncology'', ''23''(4), 766-773. doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.01.134                            

Glanz, K., Marcus Lewis, F. &amp; Rimer, B.K. (1997). ''Theory at a glance: a guide for health promotion practice.'' National Institute of Health

Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., &amp; Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology'', ''78''(2), 169-183. doi:10.1037/a0018555

Holland, J. C. (1989). Anxiety and cancer: The patient and the family. ''Journal of Clinical Psychiatry'', ''50''(11), 20-25. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1990-12708-001

Hollon, S. D., Stewart, M. O., &amp; Strunk, D. (2006). Enduring effects for cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of depression and anxiety. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''57'', 285-315. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190044

Hortobagyi, G. N. (1998). Treatment of breast cancer. ''New England Journal of Medicine'', ''339''(14), 974-984. doi:10.1056/NEJM199810013391407

Katz, R. C., Meyers, K., &amp; Walls, J. (1995). Cancer awareness and self-examination practices in young men and women. ''Journal of Behavioral Medicine'', ''18''(4), 377-384. doi:10.1007/BF01857661

Lim, C. C., Devi, M. K., &amp; Ang, E. (2011). Anxiety in women with breast cancer undergoing treatment: a systematic review. ''International Journal of Evidence‐Based Healthcare'', ''9''(3), 215-235. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1609.2011.00221.x

Maughan, K. L., Lutterbie, M. A., &amp; Ham, P. S. (2010). Treatment of breast cancer. ''American Family Physician'', ''81''(11), 1339-1346. Retrieved from http://www.goodsamim.com/resprog/internalmedicine/Academic%20Half%20Day/April%202013/Breast%20Cancer%20April%209%20Lecture%203.pdf

McCaul, K. D., Schroeder, D. M., &amp; Reid, P. A. (1996). Breast cancer worry and screening: some prospective data. ''Health Psychology'', ''15''(6), 430-433. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.15.6.430

Quinn, G. P., Vadaparampil, S. T., Gwede, C. K., Miree, C., King, L. M., Clayton, H. B., ... &amp; Munster, P. (2007). Discussion of fertility preservation with newly diagnosed patients: oncologists’ views. ''Journal of Cancer Survivorship'', ''1''(2), 146-155. doi:10.1007/s11764-007-0019-9

Raque-Bogdan, T. L., Hoffman, M. A., Ginter, A. C., Piontkowski, S., Schexnayder, K., &amp; White, R. (2015). The work life and career development of young breast cancer survivors. ''Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1,'' 1-15. doi:10.1037/cou0000068

Rosen, A., Rodriguez-Wallberg, K. A., &amp; Rosenzweig, L. (2009). Psychosocial distress in young cancer survivors. ''Seminars in Oncology Nursing, 25''(4), 268-277. doi:10.1016/j.soncn.2009.08.004

Rutter, D. R. (2000). Attendance and reattendance for breast cancer screening: a prospective 3-year test of the theory of planned behaviour. ''British Journal of Health Psychology'', ''5'', 1-13. doi:10.1348/135910700168720

Somers, J. M., Goldner, E. M., Waraich, P., &amp; Hsu, L. (2006). Prevalence and incidence studies of anxiety disorders: a systematic review of the literature. ''Canadian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''51''(2), 100-113. Retrieved from http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2006/february/sommers-RP.asp

Stark, D. P. H., &amp; House, A. (2000). Anxiety in cancer patients. ''British Journal of Cancer'', ''83''(10), 1261-1267. doi:10.1054/bjoc.2000.1405

Thomas, S. F., Glynne‐Jones, R., Chait, I., &amp; Marks, D. F. (1997). Anxiety in long‐term cancer survivors influences the acceptability of planned discharge from follow‐up. ''Psycho‐Oncology'', ''6''(3), 190-196. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1611(199709)6:3&lt;190::AID-PON274&gt;3.0.CO;2-0

World Health Organization. (2015). ''Cancer.'' Retrieved from World Health Organization website: http://who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/

}}

== External Links ==
For more information or assistance, visit:
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Beyond Blue]
* [http://canceraustralia.gov.au/ Cancer Australia]

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==Overview==
This chapter focuses on how chemotherapy affects patients' willingness to complete everyday tasks, such as shopping or cooking and social interactions. There are links between chemotherapy and a reduced desire to complete activities. This chapter will provide information on the motivational side effects of chemotherapy.

This chapter will:
*Define chemotherapy
*Define motivation
*Understand the effects chemotherapy have on motivation
*Understand the theories and research around chemotherapy and motivation

==Chemotherapy==
{{expand}}

===How it Works===
Chemotherapy is a drug treatment regime, used mainly for cancers, that blocks or slows down cell growth. Chemotherapy drugs can also be referred to as cytotoxics, which means poisonous (toxic) to cells (cyto). Chemotherapy is often used in conjunction with other treatments, like surgery and radiotherapy. Chemotherapy is used to either shrink a tumour or completely eradicate it, depending on the severity and size of the tumour. This works as cancer cells take longer to regenerate when compared with other cells in the body. This means between treatments the healthy cells are able to recover from the drugs but cancer cells are not, meaning more cancer cells are destroyed with each treatment session (Mothoneos, 2015). Chemotherapy is not cancer cell specific, meaning it has degenerative effect on other healthy cells in the body like [[w:white blood cells|white blood cells]] or [[w:platelets|platelets]]. Damage to these healthy cells causes a range of side effects from chemotherapy (Sugerman, 2013).

===Administration===
[[File:Blausen 0193 Catheter PICC.png|thumb|''Figure 1''. An example of a PICC, a type of CVAD.]]

Most commonly chemotherapy is administered to the patient through intravenous (IV) infusion. This is where the drug is infused directly into to the patient's veins usually through a cannula or a central venous access device (CVAD). Central venous access devices are small tubes of plastic that can remain in a vein for long periods of time, they can be externally fitted like a [[w:peripherally inserted central catheter|peripherally inserted central catheter]] (PICC) or internally fitted like a [[w:port (medical)|port]] (Montheos, 2015). Whilst PICCs are a set of tubes that protrude from the internal aspect of the upper arm, a port is fitted internally in the chest wall and is not visible. Chemotherapy drugs may also be administered orally via tablet or liquid, although this is less common. Usually chemotherapy is given to the patient at a hospital or clinic. These sessions often take anywhere from 20 minutes to several hours and, depending on the cancer type, may be administered daily, weekly, biweekly or possibly monthly with time between treatments to rest and recover (Sugerman, 2013).

==Motivation==
A person who is activated or energised to complete a task is considered motivated. Different factors affect an individuals' motivation level and orientation. Psychologists have developed two main theories regarding [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000). Both of these types of motivation can be responsible for an individuals completion of everyday tasks.

===Intrinsic===
Intrinsic motivations are motivating factors that arise from within the individual. It is completing a task purely for its inherent satisfactions rather than for a separable consequence (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000). These factors are generally more personal and the individual does not perform the action for an external reward, rather a personal gratification. Intrinsic motivation is the natural desire to engage in an activity purely because the individual gains personal satisfaction. Intrinsic motivation often depends on the person and type of activity with levels of motivation differing from person to person, task to task (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000).

===Extrinsic===
Extrinsic motivation is motivation that is driven by external entities, such as incentives, consequences and rewards. Incentives are used as an indicator before behaviour is undertaken. Incentives create an expectation of the situation, therefore past experiences or environmental factors can determine how likely the individual is going to be to proceed with the action. Similar to that of operant conditioning in which an individual undertakes behaviour to gain reinforcement or avoid punishment (Skinner, 1953), an incentive in motivation is predominately directed towards acquiring rewards. These rewards or incentives act as external positive reinforcers for an individual to perform an action (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000). External motivators are different depending on the individual, what may be an incentive for one person won’t be for another. The strength of the reinforcer also depends on the length of time between the action and the reward, {{g}} for example immediate reward or to avoid a punishment will lead to a higher rate of the action being performed. For example {{g}} cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by a parent is an immediate reward, however where when there is a longer time period between the two the quality of the reward may need to be stronger. Studying for a exam may lead to the long-term reward of good grades, therefore the external motivators need to be stronger.

==Chemotherapy Side Effects and Motivation==
The main effect of chemotherapy is to reduce tumour size through the cessation or slowing of cell growth. In doing so, chemotherapy can produce a number of side effects. These side effects can range from mild things, such as hair loss, to more severe things like [[w:haemoglobin|haemoglobin]] depletion. The severity and number of side effects experienced by the patient often differs from patient to patient and also depends on the type and dose of the chemotherapy drug administered (Sugerman, 2013). These side effects experienced by chemotherapy patients can often effect their motivation to complete their everyday tasks. Different side effects can mainly damage an individual's intrinsic motivation but can also have an effect on their extrinsic motivation{{f}}. Some of the major side effects from chemotherapy and how they affect intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are explained below.

===Mental Fatigue===
Mental fatigue and exhaustion has been marked as one of the most incapacitating side effects of chemotherapy, with 70 to 100% of people on chemotherapy experiencing fatigue (Abu-Saad, Candel, Courtens, de Jong &amp; Schouten, 2005). Mental fatigue refers to cognitive symptoms like reduced attention or having difficulty concentrating as well as slowed processing speeds. Fatigue is not only the most common side effect experienced by chemotherapy patients, it has the largest impact on motivation. Fatigue is the side effect that has the largest impact on intrinsic motivation, where the patient purely cannot find any value in completing day to day activities{{f}}. When chemotherapy is combined with surgical procedures a patients{{g}} level of mental fatigue is greater and their{{g}} motivation is reduced significantly more compared to patients only undergoing chemotherapy{{f}}.  Mental fatigue seems to remain constant despite the cancer and is not dependent the type of chemotherapy drug administered (Abu-Saad, Candel, Courtens, de Jong &amp; Schouten, 2005). There have also links between mental fatigue symptoms and increased levels of depression (Harper &amp; Littlewood, 2005).

===Nausea, Vomiting &amp; Appetite Loss===
Nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite is one of the most common side effects experienced by patients undergoing chemotherapy{{f}}. Loss of appetite is usually a result of the nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, where the patient is simply put off the thought of eating, but it can also be a result of changes in sense of taste{{f}}. Changes in taste can reduce the pleasure of consuming food. Aside from eating for survival, pleasure is a main component of our motivation to eat, so without taste and this pleasure sensation, intrinsic motivation to eat is severely reduced (Belqaid, Bernhardson, McGreevy &amp; Orrevall, 2013).  Chemotherapy patients can also develop painful mouth ulcers. These ulcers can reduce the patients{{g}} desire to eat because of the pain they can cause. These factors can affect a chemotherapy patients' intrinsic motivation when it comes not only to cooking food but purchasing groceries, as patients often suggest the thought of food makes them feel nauseous{{f}}.

===Hair Loss &amp; Skin Changes===
Of all the side effects chemotherapy can have on a patient, hair loss may cause the most stress and anxiety mainly due to the considerable speed at which hair is lost. This hair loss can include the loss of all body hair, not just scalp hair, including eyebrows. Chemotherapy also has effects on the skin causing dryness, itchiness and combined with the associated reduction in haemoglobin leaves the patient looking pale and ill. These cosmetic changes can induce extreme anxiety among people receiving treatment and has caused people to reject treatment (Botchkarev, Haslam, Paus &amp; Sharov, 2013). This also leads to changes in a patients{{g}} body image. Hair loss and changes in the skin usually lead to the patient having a more negative perception of what they look like. This can damage the person's self confidence which in turn has an effect on their intrinsic motivation to complete daily activities{{f}}. With lowered self confidence individual's are more likely to hide away and are less likely to be motivated to go out in public to complete activities of daily living or participate in social activities. Individuals are also less motivated to return to the workplace because of this anxiety about their body image (Manthey, Munstedt, Sachsse &amp; Vahrson (1997).

However, there are programs in place to help combat this reduced body image and help patients regain motivation to return to their daily activities,{{g}} 'Look Good, Feel Better' is an example of one of these programs. Look Good, Feel Better is a program dedicated to teaching cancer patients how to manage appearance related side effects of chemotherapy. This program teaches patients skin care, how to apply make up, and provides headwear demonstrations, helping to empower them and inspire self confidence.

===Haemoglobin, White Blood Cell and Platelet Depletion===
[[File:Red White Blood cells.png|thumb|''Figure 2''. Red and White Blood cells often become depleted as a side effect of chemotherapy]]

Depletion of [[w:haemoglobin|haemoglobin]] stores, or [[w:anemia|anaemia]], might have the largest impact on chemotherapy patients motivation to complete day to day tasks. Anaemia is very common among chemotherapy patients with about 67% experiencing it at some point during their treatment (Harper &amp; Littelwood, 2005). Reduced haemoglobin stores means the body has less oxygen carrying capacity, this in turn produces high levels of not physical fatigue and contributes to mental fatigue. Anaemia affects every physiological system within the body. Patients rate fatigue as having the greatest impact on their every day life because as physical and mental exhaustion increase, levels of motivation decrease (Harper &amp; Littlewood, 2005).

A reduction of [[w:white blood cell|white blood cells]] is one of the more severe side effects caused by chemotherapy. If the white blood cell count drops low enough the patient is considered [[w:neutropenia|neutropenic]] and the body's ability to fight infection is severely reduced. This impacts on the patients{{g}} intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to go out into public places, as the risk of infection and [[w:sepsis|sepsis]] is high and not worth the consequences of falling ill which can often lead to hospitalisation. Neutropenia has been linked with a reduction in social activity because of the reduced motivation of patients to present themselves in a public place and potentially expose themselves to infections which may have serious consequences. Patients have reported disturbances to their daily activities caused by the depletion of white blood cells (Beaumont, et al. 2008){{expand}}.

[[w:platelet|Platelets]] are a product of blood that stops bleeding and allows clotting to occur in the case of a cut or bruise. When these stores are depleted, chemotherapy patients are more susceptible to having a major injury from something that would be considered minor for someone without these depleted platelet stores. Even shaving can be considered a risky behaviour. This can make activities otherwise considered safe quite risky to chemotherapy patients, which in turn can effect their motivation to participate in these activities (Montheos, 2015).

===Mental Health=== 
All of the above side effects as well as the diagnosis of a serious illness, such as cancer, can have a large impact on a patients mental health. Additionally, medications used to treat cancers, such as chemotherapy, can cause the onset of depressive illness. Higher levels of depression are associated with these adverse affects of chemotherapy (Fridiksdottir, Gunnarsdottir &amp; Saevarsdottir, 2010). Depression also has links with mental fatigue, another side effect of chemotherapy (Harper &amp; Littlewood, 2005). Depression is well known for having effects on individuals intrinsic motivation, with people suffering from depression finding it harder to to motivate themselves to do many day to day activities{{f}}. The side effects of chemotherapy may not only produce higher rates of depression but anxiety also{{awkward}}. Physical changes to the body may cause patients to have increased anxiety about going out in public (Manthey, Munstedt, Sachsse &amp; Vahrson, 1997). Mental health plays an important role in intrinsic motivation, with motivation being severely hampered by the onset of these illnesses.

==Quick Quiz==
Here are some true and false revision questions - choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{A cannula is a type of CVAD
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Money incentives are a type of intrinsic motivation
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Fatigue is the chemotherapy side effect that has the biggest influence on motivation
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Most chemotherapy patients have increased intrinsic motivation
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
The side effects of chemotherapy can be detrimental to the patients{{g}} quality of life. These side effects often affect the individual's desire to complete basic everyday tasks, with fatigue having the largest effect (Abu-Saad, Candel, Courtens, de Jong &amp; Schouten, 2005). Chemotherapy mainly affects the patients{{g}} intrinsic motivation but can often affect factors of extrinsic motivation also{{awkward}}. Physical changes, such as hair loss or mouth ulcers, as well as mental changes, such loss of concentration, both have significant effects on a patient's motivation to complete everyday activities. Mental health plays an important role in a person's motivation to complete day to day tasks. The {{how}} high prevalence of mental health disorders among chemotherapy patients contributes to the lack of motivation experienced (Fridiksdottir, Gunnarsdottir &amp; Saevarsdottir, 2010). Some side effects have major impacts on motivation while others have only minor impacts. Only the main side effects are mentioned here, {{g}} it is well known that there are many more that effect patients everyday life (Koktvet, Nielson &amp; Pederson, 2012).

==See also==
* [[w:anxiety|Anxiety]]
* [[w:cancer|Cancer]]
* [[w:depression|Depression]]
* [[w:chemotherapy|Chemotherapy]]
* [[w:motivation|Motivation]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Abu-Saad, H.H., Candel, M.J.J.M., Courtens, A.M., de Jong, N., Schouten, H.C. (2005). Course of mental fatigue and motivation in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy. ''Annals of Oncology, 16,'' 372-382. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdi095

Beaumont, J.L., Calhoun, E., Cella, D., Ding, B., Malin, J., Peterman, A., Wagner, L.I. (2008). Measuring health-related quality of life and neutropenia- specific concerns among older adults undergoing chemotherapy: validation of the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy–Neutropenia (FACT-N). Support Cancer Care, 16, 47-56. doi:10.1007/s00520-007-0270-7

Belqaid, K., Bernhardson, B.M., McGreevy, J., Orrevall, Y. (2014). Reflections on the process of translation and cultural adaption of an instrument to investigate taste and smell changes in adults with cancer. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Science, 28'', 204-211. doi:10.1111/scs.12026 

Botchkarev, V.A, Haslam, I.S., Paus, R., Sharov, A.A. (2013). Pathobiology of chemotherapy induced-hair loss. ''The Lancet Oncology, 14,'' 50-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70553-3

Fridriksdottir, N., Gunnarsdottir, S., Saevarsdottir, T. (2010). Quality  of  Life  and  Symptoms  of  Anxiety
and  Depression  of  Patients  Receiving Cancer  Chemotherapy. ''Cancer Nursing, 33''. 

Harper, P., Littlewood, T. (2005). Anaemia of cancer: impact on patient fatigue and long-term outcome. ''Oncology, 69,'' 2-7. doi:10.1159/000088282

Koktved, D.P., Nielson, L.L., Pederson, B. (2012). Living with side effects from cancer treatment- a challenge to target information. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Science, 28'', 715-723. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6712.2012.01085.x

Manthey, N., Munstedt, K., Sachsse, S., Vahrson, H. (1997). Changes in self-concept and body image during alopecia induced cancer chemotherapy. ''Support Cancer Care, 5,'' 139-143. 

Montheos, J. (2015). Understanding Chemotherapy. SOS Print &amp; Media Group. 

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25'', 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Simon and Schuster.

Sugerman, D.T. (2013). Chemotherapy. ''JAMA, 310'', 218. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.5525
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au Beyond Blue]
* [http://www.cancer.org.au Cancer Council]
* [https://lgfb.org.au Look Good, Feel Better]

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__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Sound-icon.png|thumb|''Figure 1''. Image of a sound icon.|128x128px]]''Have you ever thought about the effect of different sounds on your mood?''  

''How does hearing specific sounds impact our mood?''      

''What exactly happens when we hear sounds to illicit{{sp}} an emotional response to affect our mood?''

Sounds are capable of affecting and influencing an individuals{{sp}} mood, however these effects on emotions are considerably different across individuals and situations (Quarto et al., 2017).  This chapter will explore the effect of sound on mood and how it can impact individuals well-being in everyday life.{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Key questions:}}
* What is sound? 
* What is mood and how can it be measured? 
* How does sound affect us and what is the effect of sound on mood? 
* Based on empirical research, what effect does sound have on mood? 
* How do psychological theories explain the effect of sound and mood? 
* How does the effect of sound and mood apply to everyday life in the real world?  
{{Robelbox/close}}

==What is sound?==
[[File:Sound wave.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Image of a sound wave.]]

'''There are several definitions of [[wikipedia:Sound|sound]]:''' 

Kalat (2016) states that sound waves are the periodic compressions of air, water, or other structures that varies in amplitude, frequency, pitch and timbre. 

Sound waves are vibrations of molecules, that must travel through some sort of physical medium, such as air and water (Weiten, 2013). 

Pasnau (1999) states that there are two historical views of sounds: firstly sounds are the object of hearing and secondly that sounds are properties of the mechanism instead of the object making the sound.  From typical listening environments, the ear receives compression waves from many different directions, where reverberation is a common phenomenon.  The standard view of sound is incoherent as the perception of sound is illusory: for living beings, sounds are not heard as being in the air, however sounds are heard as from the place they are generated (Pasnau, 1999). 

'''Types of sounds'''

Sounds can vary and emanate from anything such as environmental noises, music, nature, sports, travel and transportation.  The capacity of the auditory system is dependent on auditory scene, which is restricted by the fixed number of cells and intrinsic noise; this essentially limits the ability for a human or animal to discriminate between different sounds with similar spectra-temporal characteristics - however to help this issue, improvements to the discrimination ability by an encoding procedure may occur i.e. sounds reaching the cochlea for the neural spike trains produced in continuous progressive stages in response to sounds (Attias &amp; Schreiner, 2000).    

To process incoming sounds effectively, the auditory system may be adapted to the statistical structure of natural auditory scenes.  Attias and Schreiner (2000) explored the relationship between the system and the inputs with low order statistical properties in several sound collections using a filter bank analysis.  The amplitude and phase are shown in different frequency of bands, this demonstrates the simple parametric descriptions for their distribution and spectrum are effective for different types of sounds.  The findings indicate that natural sounds are greatly redundant and have potential implications to the neural code in the auditory system (Attias &amp; Schreiner, 2000).        

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Did you know?}}
Humans and animals interpret sounds differently to each other. The hearing range is defined by the range of frequencies that can be heard. Many animal species are able to hear frequencies incredibly and far beyond the human hearing range. For example, several  dolphins and bats can hear frequencies up to 100,000 Hz.
{{Robelbox/close}}Fact sited from: [[wikipedia:Hearing_range|Hearing range]]

==What is mood? ==
[[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|''Figure 3''. Listed diagram of  emotions and moods examples. ]]'''What is the difference between [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]] and [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|mood]]?'''

Emotions arise from reactions to significant life events.  When emotions are initiated; '''feelings''' are produced, the '''body''' prepares for action, '''emotional''' '''states''' are generated and recognisable '''facial''' '''expressions''' are formed (Reeve, 2015).  Emotions and moods are similar, however they differ with contrasting: antecedents, action specificity and time course.   

Both emotions and mood occur from different '''antecedent''' causes: emotions appear from significant life situations that are experienced, whereas moods appear from processes that are unclear and unknown (Reeve, 2015).  The '''action specificity''' differs as: emotions are typically influenced by behaviour and from a direct specific course of actions, comparatively moods are generally influenced by cognition and direct thoughts.  The '''time course''' differs as: emotions emerge from short lived events that may last for short periods of time (e.g. seconds or minutes), whereas moods emerge from mental events that may last for long periods of time (e.g. hours or days).  Therefore, moods more continuous and long lasting than emotions (Reeve, 2015).    

'''How are emotions and mood measured?'''

Mood can be measured from several different assessments such as; personality tests, stress scales, brain activity and facial feedback hypothesis.&amp;nbsp; Each type of tests may assess an individual’s mood in a certain way. &amp;nbsp;As mood itself has many variations, it may be treated as a personality characteristic with different points on the mood dimension and this can be measure by state mood questionnaires (Underwood &amp; Froming, 1980). &amp;nbsp;Validity and reliability can be shown through face scale studies, with a pictorial scale of mood which assesses efficiently (Lorish &amp; Maisiak, 1986). &amp;nbsp;Mood can also be measured through brain monitors such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe an individual’s mood reactions (Reeve, 2015). &amp;nbsp;The facial feedback hypothesis is another effective way at evaluating mood, by assessing the movements of the face, the changes in face temperature and the facial glandular activity (Reeve, 2015). &amp;nbsp;Essentially, facial feedback is the emotion activation which emotions can be expressed cognitively and physically.

==  Sound and mood - empirical research ==
{{expand}}

=== Covert digital manipulation of vocal emotions ===
Aucouturier et al., (2016) suggest research has shown that individuals often exert control over their emotions.&amp;nbsp; Individuals can regulate their emotional experience by modulating expressions, reappraising feelings and redirecting attention{{fact}}.&amp;nbsp; The concepts of both cognitive and emotional processes are investigated through emotional signals that are produced in a goal-directed way and monitored for errors such as intentional actions.&amp;nbsp; Aucouturier et al., (2016) experimented on how a digital audio platform can covertly modify the vocal emotional tone of participants voices; with emotions of happiness, fear and sadness.  The results revealed that audio transformations were being perceived as natural examples of the intended emotions (Aucouturier et al., 2016).  The majority of the participants remained unaware that their own voices were being manipulated.&amp;nbsp; The findings demonstrated that individuals are not meeting the predetermined emotional target of frequently monitoring&amp;nbsp;their voices.  Consequently, the individuals emotional state change in congruence with the emotion portrayed whilst listening to their own voices and this was measured through self report and skin conductance levels.&amp;nbsp; This study provided revolutionary evidence of peripheral feedback effects of emotional experience in the auditory system. &amp;nbsp;   

=== Nature sounds ===
[[File:Rocky river near Manali, India, 2014.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4''. Scenery of nature, flowing water stream. ]]

Nature sounds are interesting to explore in regards to how it effects an individual's mood and the messages we receive from certain sounds.  Sounds can have influencing factors to affect antecedents of decision making, mood, behaviour duration and perceptions or intentions (Spendrup, Hunter &amp; Isgren, 2016). &amp;nbsp;Additionally, nature sounds have a beneficial effect {{missing}} mood and stress{{expand}}. &amp;nbsp;Spendrup, Hunter and Isgren (2016) investigated how nature sounds directly or indirectly influence customers and their healthy food choices in food retailer stores.  The results revealed how nature sounds can positively and directly influence customers to purchase healthy foods; specifically, for men the results show relatively low intentions to buy (Spendrup, Hunter &amp; Isgren, 2016). The findings also indicate no evidence to support the effect of nature sounds influencing mood and individual differences between males and females. &amp;nbsp;Overall the effects from nature sounds are evident contextually by the environment in which they are experienced.

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ugTaLEBu6g8 Nature sounds youtube]

=== Transportation sounds ===
[[File:New York City at night HDR.jpg|thumb|''Figure 5''. Image of city traffic at night.]]

Loud transportation sounds that individuals are exposed to from surrounding environments may be detrimental to our health and well-being.  Erkan (2017) completed a study on horn sounds in transportation systems with cognitive perspective on the instant mood condition disorder. &amp;nbsp;The research explored how pedestrians are influenced by different and sudden sounds of horns while walking on sidewalks. &amp;nbsp;The participants brain responses were measured by electroencephalogram recordings, while five different horn sounds were virtually presented randomly, from real traffic environments (Erkan, 2017). &amp;nbsp;The findings demonstrated how trucks with a high-end horn sound, displayed significant differences in the brainwaves of participants{{explain}}. &amp;nbsp;Gender differences were varied, with males being more unresponsive to bass tones, while women present more motivated behaviour{{explain}}. &amp;nbsp;Truck horn sounds have undeniably loud bass tones which affected pedestrians negatively, in comparison to a bicycle bell ringing (Erkan, 2017). &amp;nbsp;In general, the study emphasises the importance and consideration on instant mood disorder caused by harmful noises{{explain}}. &amp;nbsp;Brain responses have shown significant and noteworthy findings with detecting physiological perceptions of pedestrians with traffic sounds.

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IN3891Aqam4 Rain and city sounds] 

===  Age differences and distracting sounds  ===
Age differences may contribute to the ability to process spoken language under conditions with numerous types of background noise (Tun &amp; Wingfield, 1999).  The type of background noise and the intensity may affect the way individuals process sounds.  Tun and Wingfield (1999) investigated the listening performance and language processing with different types of distracting sounds.  Results showed that increased intensity levels of just one speaker produced diversely greater impairment in older adults than younger adults, as well as listening performance varied between individual differences in speed processing and hearing ability (Tun &amp; Wingfield, 1999).

==The brain ==
[[File:Anatomy of the Human Ear.svg|thumb|''Figure 6''. Anatomy of the human ear. ]]Sound stimulate the ears and produces sensations in the brain (Erkan, 2017). 

{{expand}}

=== Serotonin and mood regulation ===

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that influences mood and emotion.  There are serotonin and dopamine pathways in the brain, which are fundamental to understanding emotion and the primary motivational functions that produce positive feelings, such as pleasure or reward (Reeve, 2015).  Both physiological and psychological aspects play a role in mood regulation.

=== Sound recognition and localisation ===
Maeder et al., (2001) completed a study on auditory information examined with psychophysical studies in control and brain damaged subjects with relevant localisation and recognition processes.  Using fMRI the participant’s brain activation associations with performance in sound identification and localisation was explored.&amp;nbsp; There were three different conditions: the first conditions consisted of a comparison of spatial stimuli simulated with interaural time differences, the second condition consisted of identification of environmental sounds; and the third condition was rest - the first and second conditions required acknowledgment of predefined targets by pressing a button (Maeder et al., 2001).  Each participants brain activation patterns were analysed, along with sound recognition and localisation activation, in comparison to how each participant’s brain reacted differently.  Maeder et al., (2001) found that in the first two conditions, there were differing activation patterns of the fronto-temporo-parietal convexity.  The middle temporal gyrus and posterior front gyrus areas of the brain were more activated by recognition than localisation.&amp;nbsp; The lower parts of the inferior parietal lobes and middle inferior gyri were more activated bilaterally by localisation rather than recognition.  There were regions selectively activated by sound recognition, significantly larger in women which was selectively activated by localisation.&amp;nbsp; The passive listening concept revealed segregated pathways on superior temporal gyrus and inferior parietal lobe.  The findings suggest that distinct networks are involved in sound recognition and sound localisation in the brain.

=== Sound environment on mood and emotion  ===
As sounds are accountable for affecting an individual's moods and emotions, they can also be variable across different genetic backgrounds. &amp;nbsp;Sounds, in particularly music, are associated with potential mechanisms which modify mood state and emotion processing, which relies on dopamine signals.&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Quarto et al., (2017) investigated the interaction between functional polymorphism of the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2 rs1076560, G &gt; T genes) and sound environment on mood and emotion related brain activity. &amp;nbsp;Individual differences of mood induction were measured prior and subsequently from the tasks. &amp;nbsp;For this study, participants were genotyped for DRD2 and undertook fMRI throughout an implicit emotion-processing task whilst listening to noise or music. &amp;nbsp;The findings presented mood improvement in DRD2GG participants after music exposure and mood deterioration after noise exposure to GT subjects; and furthermore, music in comparison to noise environment decreased striatal activity of GT subjects in addition to prefrontal activity of GG subjects while processing emotional faces (Quarto et al., 2017). &amp;nbsp;Overall Quarto et al., (2017) study proposes the genetic variability of dopamine receptors affecting sound environment variations of mood and emotion processing{{gr}}.

== Music ==
[[File:Musical notes.svg|thumb|''Figure 7''. Image of music notes. ]] 

There is a common fascination for music and how it creates emotional rewards for those who listen to music.  Around the world music is existent in many cultures and a part of individuals everyday lives (Zentner, Grandjean &amp; Scherer, 2008).&amp;nbsp; Even if you are not intentionally listening to music on your phone, you may hear and listen to music on the radio or by walking past department stores in the shopping mall.  Music has the possibility of altering an individual's mood, emotion, and psychological well-being. 

=== Emotions from different music sounds ===
Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008) investigated how the sound of music can evoke emotions with characterisation, classification and measurement. &amp;nbsp;In four related studies, music induced emotions were considered, the first two studies examined the perceived emotions; with a list of music relevant emotional terms and distinct&amp;nbsp;music preferences.  The findings from Study 1 and Study 2 presented that emotional responses varied greatly according to the music genre, the type of response and how the participants felt and experienced perceptions (Zentner, Grandjean &amp; Scherer, 2008). &amp;nbsp;For Study 3 a music festival was examined through a field study and structure of music induced emotions by a positive factor analysis of mood emotion ratings. &amp;nbsp;In Study 4 the model was duplicated from Study 3 and looked at music elicited emotions better than basic emotions and dimensional emotion models (Zentner, Grandjean &amp; Scherer, 2008). &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The Geneva Emotional Music scale, a domain specific device to measure musically induced emotions{{gr}}.  The overall findings revealed that individuals experience different emotional states whilst listening to music.&amp;nbsp; For the general results in response to music, negative emotions are experienced infrequently. &amp;nbsp;Whereas positive emotions varied, and were determined by the type of music{{vague}}.  The differences between felt and perceived emotions, indicated that emotions were less frequently felt in response to music, compared to when they were perceived as expressive properties to music (Zentner, Grandjean &amp; Scherer, 2008).  From the studies, it was also found that individuals who listened to actual music and live music performances appeared to converge with music relevant emotion{{explain}}. &amp;nbsp;The overall goal of these studies was to understand how the sound of music affect emotions - on a theoretical level the findings show that music evoked emotions goes past the emotions typically experienced {{vague}}{{example}}
 (Zentner, Grandjean &amp; Scherer, 2008). 

=== Happy and sad music - emotional perceptions ===
'''Detriments, immediacy and isolation'''  

Emotional responses to music were examined with individuals who exhibited severe deficits in music processing after brain damage (Peretz, Gagnon &amp; Bouchard, 1998).&amp;nbsp; Six studies were devised to investigate the perceptual base of emotional judgement in music, with the use of classical music that were used to convey either happy or sad tones. &amp;nbsp;In the first three studies, participants were required to identify whether the excerpts were happy or sad, on a 10-point scale.  The findings demonstrated how emotional judgements are highly consistent across participants along with those resistant to brain damage, determined by musical structure and immediate {{missing}} (Peretz, Gagnon &amp; Bouchard, 1998). &amp;nbsp;In last three studies, participants were assessed on emotional and non-emotional perceptions through the operations of a perceptual analysis system.  The overall results found the emotional and non-emotional judgements are the product of distinct pathways that are consistent and reliable across subjects. &amp;nbsp;Individuals cultures may play a role, although emotional responses are extremely variable across individuals (Peretz, Gagnon &amp; Bouchard, 1998). &amp;nbsp;Additional investigations in neuropsychology may help in furthering the understanding of music, perception and individuals with brain damage. 

'''Psychophysiological differentiation of happy and sad music - the role of tempo'''

Comparatively, Khalfa, Roy, Rainville, Dalla Bella &amp; Peretz, (2008) investigated the differentiation between happy and sad music.&amp;nbsp; The respiration rate was an entrainment to measure the emotions, through the rhythm and tempo of the music. &amp;nbsp;The study aimed to test whether fast or slow rhythm/tempo music was enough to produce differential physiological effects. &amp;nbsp;This was measured by the participants' physiological responses such as facial muscle activity, blood pressure and heart rate when listening to fast or slow music (Khalfa et al., 2008). &amp;nbsp;The findings revealed that there were significant differentiations between happy and sad music, by diastolic blood pressure, electrodermal activity, and zygomatic activity, in comparison to fast and slow music which did not elicit differentiations (Khalfa et al., 2008). &amp;nbsp;In general this study explored the tonal variations of happy, sad, fast and slow music, with the effect of psychophysiological responses. 

=== Sad music and mood regulation ===
The debate over whether sad music is beneficial is a controversial topic.  Several argue that sad music can increase and improve mood, rather than worsening mood. &amp;nbsp;Some report that sad music genuinely makes them feel sad, while others report a positive affect outcome from sad music (Huron, 2011).  The following studies will discuss the sad music and the effects it has on mood. 

Garrido and Schubert (2013) explored the paradox on the maladaptive effect of how listening to sad music could make people happier and improve mood. &amp;nbsp;The study investigated participant moods before and after listening to self-selected music. &amp;nbsp;Measurements of psychometric scales, absorption, personality and reflectiveness were used. &amp;nbsp;The findings revealed that participants significantly increased depression after listening to self-selected sad music. &amp;nbsp;The limitations of the study may include the experiment design and listening instructions, as well as future implications for music in therapy, enhancing mood regulation and other health benefits from music (Garrido &amp; Schubert 2013). &amp;nbsp;

'''Sad music and prolactin'''  

Listening to sad music has been suggested to elicit the combination of cognitive rumination, empathetic responses and learned associations (Huron, 2011).  The levels of the hormone prolactin, located in the pituitary gland of the brain, increases when individuals experience sad emotions, and this calming psychological effect is indicative of homeostatic function.  Huron (2011) examines the proposed concept of high prolactin to be associated with enjoyable music induced sadness and low prolactin associated with unpleasant music induced sadness.  The findings revealed certain individual differences, where females are more empathetically aware of the emotional state of others and consequently some females may be moved by sad music and likely to experience sad emotions (Huron, 2011).  Also, cultural differences may factor for some individuals and they may have stronger learned associations and be more susceptible to association induced sadness whilst listening to music.   

Essentially, music can significantly affect an individual's mood.  Depending on the present state of mood, music can positively influence an individual by lifting the current state of emotions which can result in improvements in mood, however music can also negatively influence an individual's mood by decreasing or possibly worsening the current state of emotions.  There are both positive and negative aspects with how music affects our mood. 

'''The positive effects of music'''

Happy music in comparison to sad music has shown differences and improvements across individuals.  Where positive emotions varied in Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008) with emotions felt and perceived from the music listened to{{gr}}.  Peretz, Gagnon and Bouchard (1998) also found consistent results with emotional judgements across participants.  The physiology of participants was investigated by Khalfa et al., (2008) with happy and fast music.  Music can possibly help individuals in the in the fields of music therapy, comfort, relaxation, positive mental health and well-being.  

'''The negative effects of music'''

Despite the suggestions that sad music can improve mood, Garrido and Schubert (2013) found that listening to sad music can significantly increase depression.  Individuals differences of gender Huron (2011) explains how females are more empathetic and more likely to be moved by sad music, this associated with stronger learned associations{{rewrite}}.  Overall the research finding postulates that listening to sad music may negatively affect mood, emotions, the cognition and possibly worsen psychological states.       

== Theoretical explanations  ==
[[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|''Figure 8''. Robert Plutchik's flower diagram of emotions. ]]

=== Plutchik's theory of emotion ===
[[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]] theory of emotion is a highly influential classification approach for general emotional responses, where emphasis is on emotions the emotional process; a chain of events that are combined into a complex feedback system (Reeve, 2015).  Plutchik's feedback loop consists of cognition, arousal, feelings, preparation for action, expressions and over behaviour, this occurs with significant life events that results with emotion (Reeve, 2015).  From a biological perspective, Plutchik lists eight universal emotions which are anger, sadness, disgust, surprise, fear, acceptance, anticipation and joy.  These eight emotions are the basic emotions that exist, universal to humans and animals, and the primary emotions that are the product of biology and evolution (Reeve, 2015).  

=== Mood management theory  ===
[[wikipedia:Mood_management_theory|Mood management theory]] is based on the principle that individuals make continuous efforts at improving affective and emotional experience, this theory postulates that individuals tend to arrange their stimulus environments to increase the likelihood that good moods are increased and prolonged, whereas bad moods are short-lived and experienced in different intensities (Zillmann, 2000){{gr}}.  Primarily, this theory states that conveyed messages are efficient by changing our mood states and specific messages can contribute as regulation of certain mood states.  Zillmann (2000), explored mood management in context of exposure theory, with concepts such as; communication choices, interactions with gender and personality, information utility and selective exposure and motivation.               

==Conclusion==
There are many factors regarding how sound can affect our mood{{vague}}.  Understanding the effect of nature, transportation, vocalisations, distracting sounds, and music can assist us in gaining our understanding on how sound affects mood.  Overall, with several individual differences considered, sound can both effectively alter our mood, by either positive improvements or negative impairments{{vague}}.  There are numerous research articles on different types of sounds also to be considered and further research would be required to extensively understand the topic{{vague}}. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Misophonia|Misophonia]] (Book chapter, 2017)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Sad music and emotion|Sad music and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2017)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Attias, H., &amp; Schreiner, C. (2000). Temporal Low-Order Statistics of Natural Sounds. Sloan Center For Theoretical Neurobiology And W.M. Keck Foundation Center For Integrative Neuroscience.

Aucouturier, J., Johansson, P., Hall, L., Segnini, R., Mercadié, L., &amp; Watanabe, K. (2016). Covert digital manipulation of vocal emotion alter speakers’ emotional states in a congruent direction.&amp;nbsp;Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences,&amp;nbsp;113(4), 948-953. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1506552113

Erkan, İ. (2017). Horn Sounds in Transportation Systems and a Cognitive Perspective on the Instant Mood-Condition Disorder.&amp;nbsp;Procedia Engineering, 187, pp.387-394.

Garrido, S., &amp; Schubert, E. (2013). Moody melodies: Do they cheer us up? A study of the effect of sad music on mood.&amp;nbsp;Psychology Of Music,&amp;nbsp;43(2), 244-261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735613501938

Huron, D. (2011). Why is sad music pleasurable? A possible role for prolactin.&amp;nbsp;Musicae Scientiae,&amp;nbsp;15(2), 146-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1029864911401171

Kalat, J. (2016).&amp;nbsp;Biological psychology. 12th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Khalfa, S., Roy, M., Rainville, P., Dalla Bella, S., &amp; Peretz, I. (2008). Role of tempo entrainment in psychophysiological differentiation of happy and sad music?.&amp;nbsp;International Journal Of Psychophysiology,&amp;nbsp;68(1), 17-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2007.12.001

Lorish, C., &amp; Maisiak, R. (1986). The face scale: A brief, nonverbal method for assessing patient mood. Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism, 29(7), 906-909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.1780290714

Maeder, P., Meuli, R., Adriani, M., Bellmann, A., Fornari, E., &amp; Thiran, J. et al. (2001). Distinct Pathways Involved in Sound Recognition and Localization: A Human fMRI Study.&amp;nbsp;Neuroimage,&amp;nbsp;14(4), 802-816. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0888

Pasnau, R. (1999). What is Sound.&amp;nbsp;The Philosophical Quarterly, 49(196), pp.309-324.

Peretz, I., Gagnon, L., &amp; Bouchard, B. (1998). Music and emotion: perceptual determinants, immediacy, and isolation after brain damage.&amp;nbsp;Cognition,&amp;nbsp;68(2), 111-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00043-2

Quarto, T., Fasano, M., Taurisano, P., Fazio, L., Antonucci, L., Gelao, B., Romano, R., Mancini, M., Porcelli, A., Masellis, R., Pallesen, K., Bertolino, A., Blasi, G. and Brattico, E. (2017).&amp;nbsp;Interaction between DRD2 variation and sound environment on mood and emotion-related brain activity. Science Direct.

Reeve, J. (2014).&amp;nbsp;Understanding Motivation and Emotion, 6th Edition. 6th ed. John Wiley &amp; Sons.

Spendrup, S., Hunter, E., &amp; Isgren, E. (2016). Exploring the relationship between nature sounds, connectedness to nature, mood and willingness to buy sustainable food: A retail field experiment.&amp;nbsp;Appetite,&amp;nbsp;100, 133-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.02.007

Tun, P., &amp; Wingfield, A. (1999). One Voice Too Many: Adult Age Differences in Language Processing With Different Types of Distracting Sounds. The Journals Of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences And Social Sciences, 54B(5), P317-P327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/54b.5.p317

Underwood, B., &amp; Froming, W. (1980). The Mood Survey: A Personality Measure of Happy and Sad Moods. Journal Of Personality Assessment, 44(4), 404-414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4404_11

Weiten, W. (2013).&amp;nbsp;Psychology Themes and Variations. 9th ed. [S.l.]: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, pp.159-162.

Zentner, M., Grandjean, D., &amp; Scherer, K. (2008). Emotions evoked by the sound of music: Characterization, classification, and measurement.&amp;nbsp;Emotion,&amp;nbsp;8(4), 494-521. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.4.494

Zillmann, D. (2000). Mood Management in the Context of Selective Exposure Theory. Annals Of The International Communication Association, 23(1), 103-123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2000.11678971
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_the_4_ways_sound_affects_us TED Talk on the 4 ways sound affects us] - by Julian Treasure (ted.com) 
 

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
&quot;''She is cold today''&quot;. What comes into your mind when you hear or read this sentence? Normally, people arrive at two types of interpretations. First, it could be the person is feeling cold due to lower body temperature that is caused by an illness or the person is not in the mood to mingle with friends and is rather aloof and withdrawn. Whatever your inference, you can't go wrong because temperature and mood are correlated. This chapter focuses on the effect of temperature on mood, allowing us to understand our own mood through the lens of temperature dynamics.

&lt;table style=&quot;border-style:outset; border-color:#007390&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#c9c9c9&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#d9c8e4&quot;&gt;
'''Key goals of this chapter'''
# Define temperature and mood, and describe how they are associated to each other 
# Explain the effect of temperature on mood
# Understand what we can do about it 
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Temperature and mood ==
When you exercise or are exposed to warm environments, your body temperature rises. This is because temperature is not constant. For humans, both our body and brain temperature are affected by what we do, what we eat and where we at{{vague}}. By the time our temperature changes, our mood changes too. After exercising a hot environment, we may feel particularly tired and irritated because temperature and mood are connected. 

=== Human body temperature   ===
The normal [[w:human body temperature|human body temperature]] is in the range of 36.5 to  37.5 °C. It is maintained within this range by a process called [[w:Thermoregulation|thermoregulation]] despite changes in the environment (Blatteis, 2001). However, this scale is sometimes not sustained by the body. Human body temperature varies during the day. A healthy person reaches the lowest level of body temperature at around 6 o’clock in the morning while the highest is at around 6 o’clock in the afternoon (Pusnik &amp; Miklavec, 2009). However, this is not definitive as our body temperature is affected by many factors. 

It is usually noticeable when our body increases or decreases its temperature. We may feel hot or cold, and this is due to several factors (Pusnik &amp; Miklavec, 2009), including:&amp;nbsp;
* Infection
* Cancer diseases
* Allergic reactions
* Hormone disorders
* Autoimmune diseases
* Excessive physical activity, especially in a hot climate
* Excessive exposure to the sun
* Medicine intake
* Hypothalamus injury
* Nutrition, alcohol intake and smoking

=== Brain temperature ===
The average [[w:brain temperature|brain temperature]] of humans is less than 1°C higher than body temperature (Wang et al., 2014). Brain temperature homeostasis is determined by in-brain heat production and dissipation by cerebral flow. It is also affected by the person's metabolism and the efficiency of heat dissipation to the external environment via skin and lung surfaces (Kiyatkin, 2007). However, just like body temperature, brain temperature is affected by physical activity and the external environment. Increased physical activity could increase core body temperature which then increases brain temperature (Nybo, 2012). Similarly, hot and humid conditions result in progressive accumulation of heat in the body and brain (Kiyatkin, 2007). It is, therefore, hypothesised that environmental challenges are a major cause of brain and body temperature fluctuations (Kiyatkin, 2010).

These changes in the temperature of the brain could affect several neural process and functions (Kiyatkin, 2010; Kiyatkin, 2007).&amp;nbsp;[[w:Synaptic transmission|Synaptic transmission]] is temperature-dependent (Katz &amp; Miledi, 1965). Thus brain functions are altered by brain temperature. This shows an empirical evidence of the relationship of brain temperature and brain activity and function.

=== Mood  ===
[[w:Mood|Mood]] is significantly associated with brain temperature. Lithium, some neuroleptics and single [[w:Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)|Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)]], for instance, reduce brain temperature and at the same time reduce mania. While chronic administration of antidepressant medications and long term ECT tend to produce heat, eventually improving depression (Salerian, Salerian, &amp; Saleri, 2008){{gr}}.  

But what exactly is mood? When we say that the weather makes us depressed we are saying that we are in a depressed mood. That is, the world looks grey and uninteresting rather than saying that you are sad about a particular event.&amp;nbsp; It is because mood does not have specific intentional object as it is about everything in general unlike emotion. Being sad about someone's death is showing the emotion of sadness while saying that reading old letters makes you sad means it is causing you sad mood (Wong, 2016; Sizer, 2000).&amp;nbsp;Therefore, mood is more general while emotion is more specific. Being a functional state that affects how we represent the world, moods are able to facilitate different thoughts, judgments, or emotions by affecting different faculties of our functional architecture such as judgments, processing styles, memories, and creativity (Wong, 2016).  &amp;nbsp;

Mood is a mental state that monitors our bodily condition. According to Morris (2000), there is some evidence that normal and disordered moods are affected by biological processes that are related to energy such as exercise, food intake, illness processes, [[w:Circadian rhythms|circadian rhythms]], and brain and body temperature fluctuations. Therefore, mood, similar to human body temperature and brain temperature, is a variable that is highly influenced by both biological processes and the physical environment.

==Does seasonal change affect our mood? ==
[[File:Summer fun 5373.jpg|center|thumb|350x350px|''Figure 1.'' The girl's mood is just as perfect as the weather.]]

There is a belief that weather or season is associated with mood. According to Yang (1997), there are clear relations between affective disorder and seasonal change. But there is also evidence that there are no consistent effects of weather on mood (Ciucci et al., 2011; Denissen et al., 2008; Keller et al., 2005). The  presence or absence of sunlight determines the weather's temperature (Denissen, Butalid, Penke &amp; van Akenm 2008) which gradually increases body's temperature (Pusnik &amp; Miklavec 2009). Yet, the impact also seems to vary between days and seasons due to the activities that one performs. Despite some contradictory results, the following trends are evident.

==== Summer heat ====
* Spending more time outside during summer days can result in decreased mood (Kelly et al., 2005).
* Sunlight has a significant effect on tiredness{{explain}} (Denissen et al., 2008). 
* Mania attack is high (Yang, 1997) 

==== Cold winter  ====
* Sunny winter days make children more cheerful (Ciucci et al., 2011). 
* Depression mostly occurs during winter (Rosenthal et al., 1984)
* Depressive attack is high from autumn to winter (Yang, 1997). 

==== Spring days ====
* On spring days, when people stays outside for a long time, mood was found to be positively associated with air temperature (Kelly et al., 2005). 
* Mania attack is high, too, just like during the summer (Yang, 1997).

== The rising temperature of the world ==
&lt;div style=&quot;width: 80%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding: 4px; border: 2px solid #FF0000; background-color: #FFDDDD; text-align: centre;&quot;&gt;
&quot;All around the world across different societies in the modern world as well as throughout history, we find that human conflict seems to be linked to changes in climate,&quot; says Hsiang, Burke and Miguel (2013).
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Temperature Anomaly 1880-now NL.svg|thumb|300x300px|''Figure 3.'' Global temperature anomaly, difference from the average or normal temperature]]

Drawing from archaeology, criminology, economics, geography, history, political science, and psychology, the authors assemble and analyse the 60 most rigorous quantitative studies and document about influence of climate on human conflict, for the first time, a striking convergence of results (Hsiang et al., 2013).

Three of the distinct qualities of climate change are rising temperature, drought and heavy rainfall. But rising temperature, especially, has the greatest effect on human conflict. The equivalent of a five degree Fahrenheit increase in an average USA county over a month could raise the odds of personal violence such as assault, murder and domestic violence by 4%, and the risk of civil war, riots or ethnic violence by 14% (Hsiang et al., 2013). The result of the study showed that the relationship between climate change and conflict is both substantial and highly statistically significant. Thus, warmer temperatures or extremes of rainfall can be causally associated with increases in interpersonal violence and civil war. 

With the rising temperature known to be a factor of conflict, it is not a surprise as to why studies such as Wei and Cau (2005) and Holland et al. (1985) concluded high temperature to cause irritability and aggressiveness. These two types of mood reinforce violence and conflict. 

== Activity I - ''Let's rehearse'' ==
Match the image with its corresponding word/s. Write the letter of your answer in the box, once completed, click 'Submit'. (''All 3'' ''pictures are equivalent to 1 point, so make sure to match up all pictures and words correctly.'')  

A. moods

B. sadness

C. increased body temperature

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}

[[Image:Windbuchencom.jpg|left|100px]] { B (i) }
[[Image:Running.gif|left|100px]] { C (i) }
[[Image:Moods.jpg|left|100px]] { A (i) }
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Temperature on mood ==
Research in psychology has shown that temperature affects mood significantly (Cao &amp; Wei, 2005; Holland, Sayers, Keatinge, Davis, &amp; Peswani, 1985). Thus, attracting massive attention for further investigation which led to some important knowledge about the influence of temperature towards mood{{gr}}. These studies include the work of Holland et al. (1985), Cao and Wei (2005) and Bullock, Murray and Meyer (2017). Holland et al.(1985) conducted an experiment that had immersed subjects (volunteers) into 41°C water, increasing their core body temperature to 38.80 - 39.05°C. Volunteers reported that they found a significant decrease in alertness and increase in irritability. The authors concluded that temperature has an effect on mood.    

Cao and Wei (2005) investigated whether stock market returns are related to temperature, they have scientifically proven that temperature has an impact on mood{{gr}}. The study suggests that lower temperature can lead to aggression. This explains the higher stock returns during the time that the temperature is low{{how}}. But when the temperature is high, apathy and aggression correlates to lower and higher stock returns{{explain}}. Although mostly, apathy dominates aggression when it is cold{{gr}}. This mood changes, influenced by the temperature, result to how people behave in the stock market{{gr}}. The result of the two experiments (Cao &amp; Wei, 2005; Holland et al.,1985) support each other.

The set of information specifying the effect of temperature on mood is truly convincing given the scientific and empirical evidences. However, when we talk about evidence, there is another study that proves that mood is influences changes in body temperature, contrary to the hypothesis that temperature affects mood. In a series of five experiments, it was found that emotional feelings are associated with discrete, yet partially overlapping maps of bodily sensations, which could be at the core of the emotional experience (Nummenmaa, Glerean, Hari &amp; Hietanen 2014). Different emotions were consistently associated with statistically separable bodily sensation maps. These bodily sensations could either make temperature of specific body regions go up or down due to changes in physiological activities caused by different emotions. Does this study prove the phrase &quot;hot under the collar&quot; and &quot;hot headed&quot; to be physiologically accurate?{{expand}}

Table 1.   

''This chart shows the body region temperature which increased (red shade) or decreased (blue shade) when feeling each emotion according to Nummenmaa et al. (2014).''   
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5;&quot;
|- 
! Emotions
! head
! throat 
! chest
! shoulder
! upper limbs
! abdomen
! hip
! lower limbs

|- 
| Anger
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
|
|
|- 
| fear
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| 
|
|
|
|- 
| disgust
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| 
| 
| 
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| 
|

|- 
| Happiness
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|- 
| sadness
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
| 
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; | 
| 
| 
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; | 
|- 
| surprise
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; | 
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; | 
| 
| 
| 
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; |
|- 
| Anxiety
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| 
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| 
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; | 
|- 
| love
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| 
|- 
| depression
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; | 
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; | 
|
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; | 
|
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; |
|- 
| contempt
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- 
| pride
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
|
|
|- 
| shame
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| 
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; |
|-
| envy
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
| bgcolor=&quot;IndianRed&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
| bgcolor=&quot;SteelBlue&quot; |
|} 

But a recent study by Bullock, Murray and Meyer (2017) further supported the effect of temperature on mood (Cao &amp; Wei, 2005; Holland et al.,1985). They examined meteorological factors, such as atmospheric pressure, hours of sunshine, relative humidity, and daily maximum and minimum temperatures as more proximal predictors of self-reported daily mood change in people diagnosed with bipolar disorder. The results showed that daily maximum temperature was the only meteorological variable to predict clinically-relevant mood change, with increases in temperature associated with greater odds of a transition into manic mood states. Hence, instead of saying that the weather affects our mood, it is more accurate to say, the temperature which is a fragment of weather influence our mood.     

The effect of temperature on mood can be explained further by looking through the perspectives of biological and evolutionary psychology.    

===  Biological perspective ===
There is a fundamental understanding of temperature dynamics in the brain and the&amp;nbsp;interactions&amp;nbsp;between temperature, cerebral blood flow (CBF), regional brain activity and neuronal viability (Wang et al, 2014). In fact, it has been reported that cerebral functional activities are temperature-dependent and brain temperature alone may act as an active and dynamic factor with the capacity to regulate brain activity and function. For example, 70% of information that is normally retained during memory encoding is lost at approximately 34-35°C body temperature. In addition, synaptic transmission is also proven to be temperature-dependent (Katz &amp; Miledi, 1965). More importantly, some biogenic amines are directly involved in thermoregulation (Jonc &amp; Murphy, 1993). During temperature fluctuations,&amp;nbsp; production of neurotransmitters and hormones like serotonin and melatonin in the body is altered (Abbas, Khan &amp; Helaluddin, 2011). Hence, changes in brain temperature influence the mental states of a person (Jonc &amp; Murphy, 1993). It suggests the interaction between temperature, brain activities and emotional-related neurotransmitters and hormones. 

==== Serotonin  ====
[[File:Serotonin 27feb.gif|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Serotonin neurotransmitter that regulates mood.]]

According to Abbas et al. (2011), the effect of photoperiod and temperature can alter the production of [[w:Serotonin|serotonin]] in body. Serotonin&amp;nbsp;is a neurotransmitter released in the brain and gastrointestinal tract.&amp;nbsp;It regulates functions in the body such as mood, sleep, appetite, temperature regulation, perception of pain regulation of blood pressure and vomiting. Serotonin is implicated with depression (Abbas et al., 2011), which is characterised with sad moods caused by low serotonin levels.&amp;nbsp;[[w:Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI|Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI]]) are a class of drugs used to treat depression. They aim to increase the availability of the neurotransmitter Serotonin.&amp;nbsp; 

According to Abbas et al. (2011), mood can be seasonal according to temperature and season we experience. Depression increases as temperature decreases and serotonin plays a vital role{{fact}}. Exposure to sun increases human body temperature (Pusnik &amp; Miklavec, 2009; Denissen et al., 2008) and brain temperature (Kiyatkin, 2007). Thus, the lack thereof means the tendency of a decreased temperature of both body and brain{{explain}}. This could significantly affect how brain functions.  During winter, people experience short days and long nights with extreme cold temperature. This is the time of the year when the turnover of serotonin in our body is the lowest and the feeling of being depressed increases. This proves the idea that the production of serotonin that is affecting people's mood was directly related to duration of sunlight and temperature. Furthermore, there&amp;nbsp;is an emerging evidence that serotonin functions in positive affective responses to warm temperature (Raison et al., 2014){{explain}}. This implies that serotonin plays a significant role in the relationship between temperature and moods.

====  Thermoregulation and thermosensation processes ====
Thermoregulatory and [[w:thermosensation|thermosensory processes]] meaningfully contribute to the affective experiences of humans (Raison et al., 2014). Depressed patients have high core body temperature but do not sweat. It may be because they experience irregular thermoregulation processes. According to the study, flawed thermoregulation contributes to depression. This shows that the relationship between physical temperature and affect{{gr}}{{rewrite}}. The {{which}} team discovered that the neural pathway of thermoregulation and depression is the same{{explain}}. This explains the reason regarding the increased activation of the region of the brain that is related to emotional processing during warm stimulation (Sung et al., 2007).

Information about skin temperature reaches the brain through specific pathways. For patients with mood disorders, their brain regions that is involved with registering and reacting to thermal signals has been found to function abnormally{{fact}}. It is therefore concluded that dysregulation of thermosensory pathways is associated with affective disorder (Raison et al., 2014).&amp;nbsp;

Williams and Bargh (1998) found that when a person is&amp;nbsp;exposed to a physically warm object, he/she tends to be warm in their perception too because exposure to physically warm stimuli tends to activate the concept of &quot;warmth&quot; in working memory. It simply activates linked concepts, feelings, and action tendencies. When such information is active in working memory, it is likely to shape people's judgments, feelings, and behaviours (Raison et al., 2014).

Thus, Raison et al. (2014) put forward three main arguments. First, thermosensory pathways interact with brain systems that control affective function, second, these pathways are dysregulated in affective disorders, and third, activating warm thermosensory pathways promotes a sense of well-being and has therapeutic potential in the treatment of affective disorders.

=== Evolutionary perspectives ===
There is a consensus that affect, emotion and mood were shaped by [[w:Natural selection|natural selection]]{{fact}}. Mood, for example, resulted from situations that either offer opportunity or threat (Nesse &amp; Ellsworth, 2009). Thus, increased, decreased or normal temperature lead to changes in mood {{huh}}. It is our way of adapting to the environment in order for us to survive and reproduce. For example, aggressiveness is assumed to be a solution to defending against attacks and negotiating power and status hierarchies amid conflict (Buss &amp; Shackelford, 1997). Further, low mood, in particular, is most generally associated with loss (Nesse &amp; Ellsworth, 2009). It can be about temperature and sunlight knowing that decreased temperature and low exposure to sunlight could result to low mood. Low mood arises when desires cannot be satisfied (Nesse &amp; Ellsworth, 2009). These desires could include normal temperature and opportunity to perform activities outside. Thus, due to low temperature on winter days, people would feel more sad throughout the day, preventing them to stay outside for a long time and from acquiring [[w:Hypothermia|hypothermia]]. The adaptive function of mood is to integrate information about the recent state of the environment and current physical condition of the organism to fine-tune its decisions about the allocation of behavioural effort (Nettle &amp; Bateson, 2012). Furthermore, there is a strong evidence that the capacity for mood is an adaptation to other less tangible stimuli (Nesse &amp; Ellsworth, 2009), such as sunlight and wind. 

Evolutionary views on the effect of temperature on mood state that some clinical depression arises from abnormal brain mechanisms, and most arises from interactions of brain variations with environ­mental situations (Nesse &amp; Ellsworth, 2009).&amp;nbsp;This {{what}} hypothesis is parallel to that of biological perspective.

==Activity II - ''Let's rehearse''==
Here are some quiz questions - choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{If a person is immersed in {{how}} warm water, what mood would that person be typically in?}
- increased annoyance and sadness
+ decreased alertness and increased irritability 
- frustrated and mad
- increased restlessness and irritability
- decreased sadness and and decreases alertness

{Which statement best describes a person with flawed thermoregulation according to Raison et al. (2014).}
+Depressed patients have high core body temperature but do not sweat
- Persons with elevated mood have low core body temperature and do not sweat
- Depressed patients have high core body temperature and sweat a lot.
- Depressed patients have low core body temperature and do not sweat.
- Patients with elevated mood have high core body temperature but do not sweat.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What can we do? ==
Temperature is scientifically proven to have a significant effect on mood{{fact}}. Thus, as a human being, we could maintain a positive mood through different ways. First, it is important to ensure that our core body temperature is within normal range.  Activities that are physical and expose you to sun must not be overdone as it could increase body temperature rapidly. While infections, diseases, allergic reactions and medicinal intake must be closely monitored as it could result to conditions like hyperthermia and hypothermia{{gr}}.    

Second, despite heterogenous results of the investigation about the relationship between weather and mood, it is still empirical to protect ourselves from {{what}} bad weather (Denissen, Butalid, Penke, &amp; Van Aken, 2008). Temperature, as one of the most important component of weather, along with humidity and sunlight, were found to directly affect our mood{{fact}}. Thus, during cold days, it is important to wear clothing such as jackets, hats, gloves, boots and others, enough to make yourself warm to avoid having low mood. In contrast, in summer season, light clothing is recommended. Cotton-made clothes, sleeveless shirts and shorts are helpful to keep your body fresh and cool under the scorching sun.

For long-term interventions, it is recommended to formulate plans to help prevent climate change. Following the proposition of Hsiang et al. (2013), climate change is linked to conflict. This is especially in relation to the rising of temperature. Policy support and risk perception over climate change are strongly influenced by experiential factors, including affect, imagery, and values (Leiserowitz, 2006). Therefore, it will be beneficial to provide awareness to all people and this could begin at homes and schools. This will help create a better understanding of social responsibility at individual and community level.   

==Conclusion==
* Temperature and mood are associated with each other and are affected by bodily responses and environmental challenges. 
* Weather is not directly associated with mood. However, temperature, a fundamental feature of weather, is proven to affect mood. An increase in temperature can cause aggressiveness and irritability while a decrease in temperature leads to depression or low moods.
* Mood is our response to our bodily condition and adaptation that is challenged by temperature.
* There are certain measures that we can perform to sustain positive mood{{vague}}.

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Season and emotion|Season and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2015))
* [[wikipedia:Human_body_temperature|Human body temperature]]  (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|Mood (psychology)]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Abbas, S. A., Khan, U. A., &amp; Helaluddin, A. B. M. (2011). Seasonal changes effects on the serotonin and melatonin transmission. &lt;i&gt;Canadian Journal of Applied Sciences, 1&lt;/i&gt;(2), 1-9.

Blatteis, Clark M, ed. (2001) [First published 1998]. &lt;i&gt;Physiology and Pathophysiology of Temperature Regulation&lt;/i&gt;. Singapore &amp; River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publishing Co.

Bullock, B., Murray, G., &amp; Meyer, D. (2017). Highs and lows, ups and downs: Meteorology and mood in bipolar disorder. &lt;i&gt;PloS one&lt;/i&gt;, 12(3), e0173431

Buss, D. M., &amp; Shackelford, T. K. (1997). Human aggression in evolutionary psychological perspective. &lt;i&gt;Clinical psychology review, 17&lt;/i&gt;(6), 605-619.

Cao, M., &amp; Wei, J. (2005). Stock market returns: A note on temperature anomaly. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Banking &amp; Finance, 29&lt;/i&gt;(6), 1559-1573.

Ciucci, E., Calussi, P., Menesini, E., Mattei, A., Petralli, M., &amp; Orlandini, S. (2011). Weather daily variation in winter and its effect on behavior and affective states in day-care children. &lt;i&gt;International Journal of Biometeorology, 55&lt;/i&gt;(3), 327-337. doi:10.1007/s00484-010-0340-2

Denissen, J. J., Butalid, L., Penke, L., &amp; Van Aken, M. A. (2008). The effects of weather on daily mood: A multilevel approach. &lt;i&gt;Emotion, 8&lt;/i&gt;(5), 662.

Holland, R. L., Sayers, J. A., Keatinge, W. R., Davis, H. M., &amp; Peswani, R. (1985). Effects of raised body temperature on reasoning, memory, and mood. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Applied Physiology, 59&lt;/i&gt;(6), 1823.

Hsiang, S. M., Burke, M., &amp; Miguel, E. (2013). Quantifying the Influence of Climate on Human Conflict. &lt;i&gt;Science, 341&lt;/i&gt;(6151), 1212.

JONC, R., &amp; MURPHY, S. T. (1993). &lt;i&gt;Brain temperature and subjective emotional experience.&lt;/i&gt;

Katz, B., &amp; Miledi, R. (1965). The measurement of synaptic delay, and the time course of acetylcholine release at the neuromuscular junction. &lt;i&gt;Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 161&lt;/i&gt;(985), 483-495.

Kiyatkin, E. A. (2010). Brain temperature homeostasis: Physiological fluctuations and pathological shifts. &lt;i&gt;Frontiers in bioscience: a journal and virtual library, 15&lt;/i&gt;, 73.

Kiyatkin, E. A. (2007). Brain temperature fluctuations during physiological and pathological conditions. &lt;i&gt;European Journal of Applied Physiology, 101&lt;/i&gt;(1), 3-17. doi:10.1007/s00421-007-0450-7

Leiserowitz, A. (2006). Climate change risk perception and policy preferences: The role of affect, imagery, and values. &lt;i&gt;Climatic change, 77&lt;/i&gt;(1), 45-72.

Morris, W. (2000). Some thoughts about mood and its regulation. &lt;i&gt;Psychological Inquiry, 11&lt;/i&gt;,
200 – 202.

Nesse, R. M., &amp; Ellsworth, P. C. (2009). Evolution, emotions, and emotional disorders. &lt;i&gt;American Psychologist, 64&lt;/i&gt;(2), 129.

Nettle, D., &amp; Bateson, M. (2012). The evolutionary origins of mood and its disorders. &lt;i&gt;Current Biology, 22&lt;/i&gt;(17), R712-R721.

Nummenmaa, L., Glerean, E., Hari, R., &amp; Hietanen, J. K. (2014). Bodily maps of emotions. &lt;i&gt;Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America, 111&lt;/i&gt;(2), 646-651. doi:10.1073/pnas.1321664111

Nybo, L. (2012). Brain temperature and exercise performance. &lt;i&gt;Experimental Physiology, 97,&lt;/i&gt;(3), 333-339. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2011.062273

Raison, C. L., Hale, M. W., Williams, L. E., Wager, T. D., &amp; Lowry, C. A. (2014). Somatic influences on subjective well-being and affective disorders: The convergence of thermosensory and central serotonergic systems. &lt;i&gt;Frontiers in psychology&lt;/i&gt;, 5.

Rosenthal, N. E., Sack, D. A., Gillin, J. C., Lewy, A. J., Goodwin, F. K., Davenport, Y., ... &amp; Wehr, T. A. (1984). Seasonal affective disorder: a description of the syndrome and preliminary findings with light therapy. &lt;i&gt;Archives of general psychiatry, 41&lt;/i&gt;(1), 72-80.

Pusnik, I.,  &amp; Miklavec, A. (2009). Dilemmas in measurement of human body temperature. &lt;i&gt;Instrumentation Science and Techonlogy, 37&lt;/i&gt;, 516-530. doi:10.1080/10739140903149061.

Salerian, J. A., Salerian, A. J., &amp; Saleri, N. G. (2008). Brain temperature may influence mood: A hypothesis. &lt;i&gt;Medical Hypotheses, 70&lt;/i&gt;(3), 497-500. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2007.06.032.

Sizer, L. (2000). Toward a computational theory of mood. &lt;i&gt;British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,
51&lt;/i&gt;, 743–769.

Sung, E. J., Yoo, S. S., Yoon, H. W., Oh, S. S., Han, Y., &amp; Park, H. W. (2007). Brain activation related to affective dimension during thermal stimulation in humans: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study.&amp;nbsp;&lt;i&gt;International Journal of Neuroscience, 117&lt;/i&gt;(7), 1011–1027.

Wang, H., Wang, B., Normoyle, K. P., Jackson, K., Spitler, K., Sharrock, M. F., ... &amp; Du, R. (2014). Brain temperature and its fundamental properties: A review for clinical neuroscientists. &lt;i&gt;Frontiers in neuroscience, 8 &lt;/i&gt;(307). doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00307

Williams L. E., Bargh J. A. (2008). Experiencing physical warmth promotes interpersonal warmth. &lt;i&gt;Science, 322&lt;/i&gt;, 606–607. doi:10.1126/science.1162548 

Yang H.D. (1997). Seasonal change and affective disorder. &lt;i&gt;Bio Psychiatry 42&lt;/i&gt;(1), 253S}}

==External links==
* [https://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2014/08/29/can-weather-affect-your-mood/ Can weather affect your mood?] (psychcentral.com)
* [https://uanews.arizona.edu/story/turn-up-the-heat-to-turn-down-depression Turn up the heat to turn down depression?] (uanews.arizona.edu)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1JryKWSCL1E&amp;spfreload=5 Why you're sad in the winter?] (youtube.com)
* [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/feeling-hot-can-fuel-rage/ Feeling hot can fuel rage] (scientificamerican.com)

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]]</text>
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    <title>Seeking True Beliefs</title>
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      <text bytes="135071" sha1="b5hb4yf0pewfdx4wer274hjenudzieg" xml:space="preserve">—Excellence in the Quest for Knowledge

==Introduction==
[[File:Seeking True Beliefs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|True beliefs are a subset of reality. Intellectual virtues are motivations toward true beliefs. Skills and faculties assist us in acting on virtuous motives and seeking true beliefs.]]
{{TOC right | limit|limit=2}}
How important is it to you to hold beliefs that are true rather than beliefs that are false? How do you choose what knowledge is important for you to acquire and understand? Do you take personal responsibility for the truth of your own beliefs?  Can you handle the truth?&lt;ref&gt;The accusation “You can’t handle the truth!” was made famous by the 1992 film A Few Good Men. See the Wikiquote entry for A [[q:A_Few_Good_Men|Few Good Men]]. &lt;/ref&gt;  Are you more interested in attaining true beliefs than in: wielding power, winning an argument, adhering to an ideology, social conformity, respect for authority, loyalty, pride, comfort, or ambivalence? 

History shows us the dangers of holding false beliefs such as: [[w:Human_sacrifice|human sacrifice]], [[w:Quackery|quackery]], [[w:Slavery|slavery]], [[w:Mass_suicide|mass suicides]], [[w:Inquisition|the inquisition]], [[w:Moral_panic|moral panic]], specious arguments, [[w:Genocide|genocide]], and [[w:Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. True beliefs, on the other hand, have brought us: indoor plumbing, sanitary systems, medical advances, agricultural advances, labor saving machines, photography, electric lighting, telephones, radio, trains, automobiles, air travel, calculators, liberty, and [[Assessing Human Rights|human rights]].

Beliefs that are true are those that correspond to [[w:Reality|reality]]. Because each of us is able to choose our own beliefs, we can decide to choose true beliefs. ''Intellectual virtues'', the primary topic of this course, are motivations toward true beliefs. Intellectual virtues are the ''character traits'' of a good thinker or learner.&lt;ref name=&quot;Baehr&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues}}&lt;/ref&gt; In this course, we’ll be looking at the virtues of: love of knowledge, firmness, courage and caution, humility, autonomy, perseverance, generosity, insightfulness, and practical wisdom. Each of these virtues is an intention toward attaining true beliefs.

[[File:Seeking True Beliefs Audio Dialogue.wav|thumb|Seeking True Beliefs Audio Dialogue]]

However, intention is not enough. Motivations toward true beliefs need to be coupled with various skills that enable us to assess whether these beliefs correspond with reality. These skills include: reading, observing, fact finding, evaluating evidence, investigation skills, dialogue, sound reasoning, mathematical reasoning, and many others. Attaining true beliefs is as much a matter of ''will'' as it is of ''skill''.

The diagram on the right provides a conceptual overview of the structure of this course. In the diagram, true beliefs are shown as a [[w:Subset|subset]] of reality using a [[w:Venn_diagram|Venn diagram]] representation—true beliefs accurately describe some portion of reality. Intellectual virtues are illustrated at the apex of a pyramid directed toward true beliefs. Below these in the pyramid are the techniques, methods and practices that are useful for assessing our beliefs. These skills in turn rely on various ''faculties''—natural abilities—that are so basic to being human they may be taken for granted. 

These faculties include our senses, such as acute eyesight and attuned hearing, reliable memory, language, inference, and others. 

The intellectual virtues are acts of will that engage and amplify our ''faculties'' while overcoming—or at least diminishing—our ''frailties'' in pursuit of true beliefs.

In this course, we will look at how to develop motivations toward true beliefs—our ''intellectual virtues''—and some of the techniques, methods and practices that are useful for assessing our beliefs.

Exercising the ''moral virtues'' results in actions for the good. Similarly, exercising the ''intellectual virtues'' results in true beliefs.

==Objectives==
{{100%done}}{{By|lbeaumont}}
The objectives of this course are to help you to:
*Improve your own practice of the intellectual virtues,
*Explore your motivations toward true beliefs,
*Learn how to learn,
*Increase your cognitive contact with reality,
*Attain a firm basis for evaluating beliefs, 
*Take personal responsibility for the beliefs you hold,
*Attain true beliefs,
*Dismiss untrue beliefs,
*Embrace reality as our common ground.

The topic of this course is traditionally known to philosophers as the study of ''[[w:Intellectual_virtue|intellectual virtues]]'', ''[[w:Epistemic_virtue|epistemic virtue]]'', or ''virtue epistemology''&lt;ref&gt;See: Turri, John, Alfano, Mark and Greco, John, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/epistemology-virtue Virtue Epistemology]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), &lt;/ref&gt;.  I often use the term ''seeking true beliefs'' throughout this course with the intent of making the material more accessible to a wider audience.

Philosopher Jason Baehr compares the values pursued by the intellectual virtues to those of moral virtues: “However, these values are ‘intellectual’ in nature. They include things like knowledge, understanding, thinking, reasoning, wondering, being open to experience, acknowledging one’s intellectual limitations, embracing intellectual challenge and struggle, and so on.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues}} Page 50&lt;/ref&gt;

All students are welcome and there are no prerequisites to this course. If you are having difficulty with any of the material, it may be beneficial to begin your studies at the beginning of the [[Deductive Logic/Clear Thinking curriculum|Clear Thinking curriculum]]. Students interested in learning more about the moral virtues may be interested in the Wikiversity course on [[virtues]]. 

The course contains many [[w:Hyperlink|hyperlinks]] to further information. Use your judgment and these [[What Matters/link following guidelines|link following guidelines]] to decide when to follow a link, and when to skip over it.

This course is part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom curriculum]] and of the [[Deductive Logic/Clear Thinking curriculum|Clear Thinking curriculum]].

If you wish to contact the instructor, please [[Special:EmailUser/Lbeaumont|click here to send me an email]] or leave a comment or question on the [[Talk:Seeking True Beliefs|discussion page]].

This [[/Quick Reference/]] on the intellectual virtues may provide a helpful summary and reference.

OK, let’s begin seeking true beliefs!

==Choosing Your Beliefs==
A [[w:Belief|belief]] is a state of mind in which you hold something to be true.&lt;ref&gt;Schwitzgebel, Eric, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/belief Belief]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)&lt;/ref&gt;  Beliefs may range from true to false, spanning various degrees of likelihood, doubt, indifference, or unawareness. ''True beliefs'' correspond to [[ w:Reality|reality]]. We are influenced by many factors that ripple through our minds as our beliefs form, evolve, and may eventually change.

[[File:Shepards Table Illusion.jpg|left|thumb|Which table is longer?]]
To what extent do you choose your beliefs? To find out, please try this experiment.
Look at the two tables shown in the diagram on the left. (This is known as the [[w:Shepard_tables|Shepard’s Tables]] illusion.&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: [http://www.psychologyconcepts.com/shepards-tables-illusion/ Shepard’s Tables Illusion], Psychology Concepts&lt;/ref&gt;)

Do you believe:
#The table on the left is longer than the table on the right?
#The table on the right is longer than the table on the left?
#The two tables are the same size?

Now use a ruler to carefully measure the size of each table. Based on this measurement, reconsider your belief about the relative size of the two tables.

Did you choose what to believe before measuring the tables?

Do you choose what to believe now that you’ve measured the tables?

In his book ''[[w:Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow|Thinking Fast and Slow]]'', [[w:Daniel_Kahneman|Daniel Kahneman]] describes a dichotomy between two distinct modes of thinking. These modes of thought are briefly described as: 
*&quot;System 1&quot;—fast, automatic, frequent, emotional, stereotypic, and subconscious; 
*&quot;System 2&quot;—slow, effortful, infrequent, logical, calculating, and conscious. 

In the experiment above, it is likely that you first engaged system 1 thinking to immediately conclude the table on the left was longer. After reconsideration, you engaged system 2 thinking, deliberately measured the images, and concluded the two tables are the same size.

Beliefs are ''voluntary'' when we have an opportunity to engage conscious thought—system 2 thinking, reflective access, or [[w:Awareness|awareness]]—in forming those beliefs. We choose beliefs when we have an opportunity to reflect on those beliefs.
===Reasons to Believe===
[[File:Ripples of influence.jpg|thumb|300px |We are influenced by many factors that ripple through our minds as our beliefs form, evolve, and may eventually change.]]
Carefully evaluating evidence is the most reliable approach for choosing true beliefs. Evidence informs true beliefs. In his 1877 paper “The Ethics of Belief” philosopher [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|William Clifford]] strongly advocated a philosophy now known as [[w:Evidentialism|evidentialism]] with the statement:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
([[w:Clifford's_principle|Clifford's Principle]]) “It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone to believe anything on insufficient evidence.”&lt;ref&gt;Chignell, Andrew, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/ethics-belief/ The Ethics of Belief]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 
And then, in a somewhat softer statement:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
(Clifford's Other Principle) “It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone to ignore evidence that is relevant to his beliefs, or to dismiss relevant evidence in a facile way.” &lt;ref&gt;Chignell, Andrew, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/ethics-belief/ The Ethics of Belief]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Attributed to Van Inwagen, Peter, 1996, in J. Jordan and D. Howard-Snyder (eds.), ''Faith, freedom and rationality'', Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 137–153&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;  
In support of this view, the [[w:Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy|Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] entry on The Ethics of Belief states:

“Evidentialism of some sort is far and away the dominant ethic of belief among early modern and contemporary philosophers alike. The central principle, [of Evidentialism], is that one ought only to base one's beliefs on relevant evidence (i.e. evidence that bears on the truth of the proposition) that is in one's possession.” The entry elaborates: “Many Evidentialists ([[w:John_Locke|Locke]], [[w:David_Hume|Hume]], and [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]], for example) add the condition that the amount of evidence in one's possession must be proportioned to one's degree of belief, and that one should only firmly believe on the basis of “sufficient” evidence (where “sufficient” involves the evidence being strong enough for the belief to count as knowledge if true).”&lt;ref&gt;Chignell, Andrew, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/ethics-belief/ The Ethics of Belief]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)&lt;/ref&gt; 

Our beliefs may be true or false. True beliefs correspond to reality. Because we can choose to form beliefs using reliable processes rather than unreliable processes “…we are responsible for our own habits of forming beliefs… .”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 681 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt; 

We often conceive of and state beliefs in ways that are too vague to be evaluated as true or false. We may say “I believe in freedom “, or “I believe in fairness” or “I believe in patriotism” or “I believe in marriage.” But each of these concepts is so complex that the stated belief is not clear. When a person states “I believe in freedom” are they describing freedom for themselves, freedom for a few others, or freedom for everyone? Is this freedom unlimited? Does this include the freedom to harm others? What limits on freedom might they have in mind? 

People may state their beliefs in terms of some probability or likelihood. For example “I believe it is likely that life exists on other planets” or “I believe it may rain today.” Although it may be true or false that this person believes it may rain, the stated belief is true regardless of the weather outcome because it is so vaguely stated. 

Ideally, for a belief to be assessed as either true or false, the statement of belief must be precise enough to be [[w:Falsifiability|falsifiable]]. When a statement is falsifiable it is possible to conceive of an observation or an argument which can negate the claim.
====Assignment====
#Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Evaluating Evidence]].
#Choose your beliefs based on careful evaluation of evidence.
#Complete the Wikiversity course [[Evaluating Information]].
#Choose your beliefs based on reliable information.

===Real Hope Yields to Evidence===
We often form beliefs even when clear evidence is lacking, insufficient, or ambiguous. In cases of inconclusive evidence we may be able to suspend judgement, accommodate the ambiguity, or choose some belief that seems advantageous to us. This weakly founded belief may be chosen to give us comfort, inspire our hope, feed our optimism, satisfy some moral principle, or for some other practical reason. It is important, however, to remain flexible in changing this belief as more evidence becomes available. 

If you are diagnosed with cancer and told you have only a 10% chance of living, it is probably helpful for you to believe you will be one of the survivors. Optimism is often helpful, but hope must yield to reality.

Admiral [[w:James_Stockdale|James Stockdale]] was the highest ranking US military officer in the [[w:Hoa Loa_Prison|Hoa Loa prisoner-of-war camp]] during the Vietnam War. He was brutally tortured more than twenty times over the eight years he was imprisoned from 1965 to 1973. During that time he dedicated himself to helping the other soldiers survive the ordeal. [[w:James_C._Collins|Jim Collins]], author of the book ''[[w:Good_to_Great|Good to Great]]'', asked Stockdale how he endured, and who in the camp failed to endure. In answering Stockdale said: “This is a very important lesson. You must never confuse faith that you will prevail in the end—which you cannot afford to lose—with the discipline to confront the most brutal facts of your current reality, whatever that may be.”

Jim Collins summarizes this wisdom as the “Stockdale Paradox”:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
'''Retain faith that you will prevail in the end, regardless of the difficulties'''&lt;br&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;
'''and at the same time'''&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
'''Confront the most brutal facts of your current reality, whatever they may be.'''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Optimism ''and'' reality combine for ''real'' hope. Hope must yield to evidence. Hope must yield to reality.
====Assignment====
#Consider some belief you hold that is primarily supported by hope.
#What contrary evidence, if any, are you avoiding, discounting, denying, or distorting to sustain that hope?
#Are you “confronting the most brutal facts of your current reality, whatever they may be”?
#If you objectively and fairly evaluate the evidence, must your hope yield to that evidence? Why or why not?
#Do you now choose to change some belief based on this reevaluation? 
#Reflect on this question: are you seeking true beliefs?

===Willing to Believe===
Because we are able to choose our own beliefs, choosing ''true'' beliefs is a matter of [[w:Will_(philosophy)|will]]—your ability to choose deliberately, intentionally, and voluntarily.

In ''[[w:Pensees|Pensées]]'', [[w:Blaise_Pascal|Blaise Pascal]] wrote:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
“The will is one of the chief organs of belief, not that it creates belief, but because thinking things are true or false according to the aspect by which we judge them. When the will likes one aspect more than another, it deflects the mind from considering the qualities of the one it does not care to see. Thus the mind, keeping in step with the will, remains looking at the aspect preferred by the will and so judges by what it see there.“
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
In her book ''Virtues of the Mind'', [[w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski|Linda Zagzebski]] makes the strong case that intellectual virtues—the willful decision to choose true beliefs—are not just analogous to moral virtues, but indeed are moral virtues. 

She gives several examples:
*the intellectual vice of conformity is as voluntary as the moral vice of greed, 
*the lack of will demonstrated by the prideful person who dismisses fair criticism of his positions is comparable to the vengeful person who retaliates in a business deal,
*Intellectual prejudice is no easier to overcome than ethical prejudices. 

Agreeing with Pascal and others regarding the role of ''will'', Linda Zagzebski takes the position that beliefs, like acts, arrange themselves on a continuum of degrees of voluntariness, ranging from quite a bit to none at all.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 215 of 1227, Section 4.2&lt;/ref&gt;

Roberts and Wood agree when they propose “that the will is a central epistemic faculty, and that its proper formation is crucial to intellectual character.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 218 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

Because beliefs are attained voluntarily, we choose our beliefs. Therefore we are responsible for the beliefs we hold. 

Carefully attained true beliefs are more valuable than arbitrarily obtained beliefs. If person “A” holds a particular belief based on a conscientious examination of representative evidence from reliable sources, and person “B” holds a contrary belief based on a whim, the two conditions are not comparable. To claim that “each person is equally entitled to his or her own belief” is a [[w:False_equivalence|false equivalency]] based on a [[w:Argument_from_analogy#False_analogy|false analogy]] that ignores essential differences in the intent and skill exercised by the two people in choosing their beliefs. 
====Assignment====
Consider a variety of beliefs you currently hold.
#Scan your beliefs to identify some belief you currently hold that you did not choose to hold.
#How did you form that belief? Why do you still retain that belief?
#Do you hold yourself responsible for the beliefs you hold? If not, why not? What beliefs do you currently hold that you do not hold yourself responsible for? Do you hold beliefs that you know are not true?
#Do you hold yourself responsible for the truth—correspondence with reality—of the beliefs you hold?
#Consider these [[/Reasons to seek true beliefs/|additional reasons to seek true beliefs]].
#Reflect on this question: are you seeking ''true'' beliefs?

===Summary===
The following statements summarize this section on choosing your beliefs:
#We are able to choose our beliefs.
#Therefore personally responsible people willingly and willfully choose their beliefs.
#Therefore we are personally responsible for the beliefs we hold.
#Therefore we are [[w:Moral_responsibility|morally responsible]] for the beliefs we hold. 
#Therefore we can choose to seek ''true'' beliefs.
#Therefore we are ''morally'' responsible for the truth of the beliefs we hold. Holding true beliefs is morally praiseworthy. Holding untrue beliefs is morally blameworthy. 
#We have the justified opportunity to hold others accountable for their beliefs.

==Knowledge==
===Valuing Knowledge===
It is generally recognized that knowledge is good, and humans have an intrinsic motivation to acquire knowledge.  For example, Aristotle begins the ''[[w:Metaphysics_(Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'' with the declaration, “All men by nature desire to know.”&lt;ref&gt;See: http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.1.i.html&lt;/ref&gt; 

Agreeing with [[w:John_Locke|John Locke]]&lt;ref&gt;For example: Locke says: “… 'tis the Knowledge of Things that is only to be priz'd; 'tis this alone gives a Value to our Reasonings, and Preference to one Man's Knowledge over another's, that is of Things as they really are, and of Dreams and Fancies.&quot; from [[w:An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding#Book_IV|Book IV, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]], by John Locke. &lt;/ref&gt;, Linda Zagzebski states: “the motivation for knowledge is an intrinsic good that is not derivative from the value of the possession of knowledge.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 673 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;  Simply stated, people seek knowledge because seeking knowledge is good.

The goal to seek ''widespread significant knowledge without widespread significant error motivates'' epistemic [[w:Evidentialism|evidentialism]].&lt;ref&gt;Chignell, Andrew, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/ethics-belief The Ethics of Belief]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)&lt;/ref&gt;  In other words, an evidentialist evaluates methods of knowing based on the accuracy of those methods. Methods that result more often in true beliefs are superior to methods that are more likely to result in false beliefs.
===Defining Knowledge===
Although it is widely held that knowledge is good, there is less agreement on what knowledge is, and what knowledge is most important to acquire.

The traditional definition of [[w:Knowledge|knowledge]] as “[[w:Belief#Justified_true_belief|justified true belief]]” is difficult to defend rigorously, and alternative conceptions of knowledge continue to be sought. To solve various problems with this traditional definition of knowledge, various philosophers have recently turned to the intellectual virtues in search of a more satisfactory definition.

Linda Zagzebski proposes this alternative definition of knowledge: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Knowledge is a state of belief arising out of acts of intellectual virtue.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 917 of 1227 and also Greco, John and Turri, John, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/epistemology-virtue/ Virtue Epistemology]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 
Basically this is stating that knowledge is what a skillful person motivated toward true beliefs will choose to believe.
===Forms of Knowledge===
Knowledge exists in several forms, including propositional knowledge, acquaintance, and understanding. 
*'''Propositional knowledge'''—&quot;Knowing that...&quot;—is the type of knowledge that is, by its very nature, expressed in declarative sentences or indicative propositions.&lt;ref&gt;Fantl, Jeremy, &quot;[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/knowledge-how/ Knowledge How]&quot;, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)&lt;/ref&gt; These are facts and figures you can recall. For example: the earth is nearly spherical, Paris is the capital of France, air is approximately 78% nitrogen, the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, whales are mammals, etc.
*'''Acquaintance'''—is experiencing for oneself.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 186 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  Knowledge by acquaintance is obtained through a direct experience-based interaction between a person and the object that person is perceiving. This is your firsthand experience with something. For example, you are acquainted with the taste of coffee, or feeling chilled on a very cold day, or the pain of a headache, or the effort of running a marathon. Roberts, and Wood provide these characterizations: “Sensory experience is a necessary condition of some kinds of knowing. It is hard to see how one could know what coffee tastes like without tasting some…”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 187 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  “So acquaintance is a kind of knowledge that typically involves understanding, and does not necessarily involve belief, even when it is propositional.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 189 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 
*'''Understanding'''—is grasping the complexity, interconnection, causality, or other structure of something. For example, you might understand why the sun (appears to) rise each morning, what causes earthquakes, what causes the tides, how a gyroscope works, or how to predict the weather. Explaining something requires understanding. Roberts, and Wood provide these characterizations: “Understanding often emerges only with concerted intellectual activities like exploration, testing, dialectical interchange, probing, comparing, writing, and reflecting.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 182 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; “The central feature of understanding is the grasping of coherence in something complex…”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 206 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

In addition to these forms of knowledge there is also [[w:Procedural_knowledge|procedural knowledge]]—knowing how to perform some task—for example knowing how to tie your shoes or how to ride a bike or juggle. Procedural knowledge does not entail beliefs; instead it is acquired by doing. Procedural knowledge may also be called non-propositional knowledge.

Throughout this course we mean ''knowledge'' to express a richly intertwined bundle of understanding, acquaintance, and propositional knowledge.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 536 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; Roberts and Wood use the phrase “intellectual goods” roughly meaning important knowledge, understanding, or acquaintance. In their terminology, intellectual goods consist of some excellent grasp of important knowledge.
====Assignment====
#List examples of your own ''propositional'' knowledge.
#List examples of your own knowledge from ''acquaintance''.
#List examples of something you ''understand'' well enough to explain in detail.
#Find examples where you have propositional, acquaintance, and understanding. For example, perhaps you can recite facts about the sunrise, have enjoyed seeing a sunrise, and can explain what causes the sun to (appear to) rise.

==Virtues==
[[Virtues#What_is_Virtue.3F|''Virtue'' is excellence]], and human virtue is excellence in being human. 

There are many ways in which a person can be excellent, including:
*'''Performance excellence'''—doing things right.—A physically strong person with an excellent memory can use those assets for good or for evil. Certain virtues, such as having a good memory or being physically strong are certainly valuable, but they lack any particular disposition toward the good. These performance virtues are distinct from moral virtues because moral virtues are concerned with the good.
*'''Moral excellence'''—doing the right thing, taking good actions. Often when the word virtue is used alone it is intended to refer to moral virtue. The [[Virtues|Wikiversity course on Virtues]] focuses on the moral virtues.
*'''Intellectual excellence'''—seeking true beliefs. This course focuses primarily on these intellectual virtues.

Commonly identified human virtues include: wisdom, courage, benevolence, justice, honesty, generosity, compassion, mercy, gratitude, humility, tolerance, and others. While these virtues are often thought of as [[Virtues|moral virtues]], they are also important ''intellectual'' virtues.

Because virtue is an excellence of the person it is connected directly with the idea of ''good''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 317 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;   A virtue is an ''acquired human'' excellence.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 354 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;  A virtuous person is someone who not only has a good heart—intends to do good—but is also successful in making the world a place where people with a good heart want to be.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 347 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt; 

These ideas are captured in these more formal definitions of virtue.  
Roberts and Wood propose that:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
“in general a human virtue is an acquired base of excellent functioning in some generically human sphere of activity that is challenging and important.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 214 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;  
In her book Virtues of the Mind, Linda Zagzebski defines a virtue as:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
“A deep and enduring acquired excellence of a person, involving a characteristic motivation to produce a certain desired end and reliable success in bringing about that end.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 459 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;    
These definitions capture several important features of a virtue:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} beginning @ 453  of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;
#A virtue is an ''acquired excellence'' of the person in a deep and lasting sense. Virtues are salient and excellent elements of a person’s character. Virtues have many features of habits in that they develop over a long period of time.  ''Virtue'' is contrasted with [[w:Vice|''vice'']], which is an acquired defect of a person’s character. We may often describe a person in terms of the virtues (or vices) that most often characterize them. 
#A person must deliberately ''devote time and effort'' toward developing virtues. Because of the time and effort required, virtues attain a deep and lasting quality that begins to make the virtue part of the person’s identity. 
#A virtue has a deeper intrinsic value than a ''skill''.
#A virtue is a ''motivation'' that directs actions toward an ''identifiable end''. [[w:Motivation|Motives]] are intentional. 
#Virtue is ''oriented toward success''. A person only possesses a virtue if they reliably attain the goal of the virtue’s motivation. For example, we only praise a person for being fair (having the virtue of fairness) if the actions of that person reliably result in outcomes that are recognized as being fair. 

Zagzebski argues that intellectual virtues are best viewed as forms of moral virtue, and deliberately forms her definition in a way that includes both the traditional moral virtues and the intellectual virtues.  In the same way that moral virtues are motivations toward good acts, intellectual virtues are motivations toward true beliefs. 

Roberts and Wood agree when they say: “We find it unhelpful to try to draw a strict line between the intellectual and the moral virtues.”

How people learn to believe in the way they should rather than in the way they want parallels how they lean how to act in the way they should rather than the way they want.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 914 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;  As examples consider how the virtues of: honesty, courage, generosity, tolerance, humility, and perseverance contribute to both moral excellence and intellectual excellence.

Because true beliefs are aligned with reality, Zagzebski observes that “All intellectual virtues have a motivational component that aims at cognitive contact with reality.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 551  of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;  The motivational basis of intellectual virtue needs to be described as the motivation for truth or cognitive contact with reality, where that is understood to include contact that is high quality and nonpropositional.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 555 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;
===Virtue Overcomes Vice===
[[File:Frailties breed false beleifs.jpg|thumb|300px|Human frailties breed false beliefs.]]
A virtue is an acquired excellence; however a vice is an acquired defect&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 395 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt; that exposes many human frailties. 

While humans are endowed with many ''facilities'', we are also susceptible to many ''frailties''. Willfully and deliberately exercising the virtues helps us overcome these frailties. Many human frailties are inclinations toward false beliefs, as illustrated in the diagram to the right.

Common human frailties including: [[w:Confirmation_bias|confirmation bias]], [[w:Prejudice|prejudice]], [[w:Motivated_reasoning|motivated reasoning]],  wishful thinking, selfishness, egocentrism, fear, vanity, envy, jealousy, hate, revenge, laziness, impatience, boredom, distraction, cowardice, social pressures, arrogance, rigidity, obstinacy, need-to-be right, carelessness, illusion, superstitions, gullibility, deceit, malice, negligence, apathy, ignorance, obtuseness, and others naturally, effortlessly, and often unknowingly influence the beliefs we form. This often leads to false beliefs. 

We willfully and effortfully exercise our virtues to overcome our natural inclination to succumb to our vices. True beliefs arise when our intellectual virtues overcome our vices. False beliefs arise when our intellectual virtues are overcome by our vices.

===Assignment===
#Identify several virtues that you have attained or that you aspire to.
#Classify each as being a performance virtue, a moral virtue, an intellectual virtue, or some combination of these.
#Identify several vices you are susceptible to. What virtue, if any, typically prevails over each vice? 
==The Intellectual Virtues==
The intellectual virtues are motivations toward true beliefs.  Various researchers have identified a variety of intellectual virtues.

The central focus of Loraine Code’s approach&lt;ref&gt;''Epistemic Responsibility'', by  Loraine Code&lt;/ref&gt; is the notion of ''epistemic responsibility'', arguing that an epistemically responsible person is especially likely to succeed in the most important areas of the cognitive life—seeking true beliefs. She claims epistemic responsibility is the virtue &quot;from which other virtues radiate&quot;. Some of these associated virtues are open-mindedness, intellectual openness, honesty, and integrity.&lt;ref&gt;See The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Virtue Epistemology, Virtue Responsibilism, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/virtueep Key Figures].  &lt;/ref&gt;

James Montmarquet identifies the chief intellectual virtue as epistemic conscientiousness, which he characterizes as a desire to achieve the proper ends of the intellectual life, especially the desire for truth and the avoidance of error.”&lt;ref&gt;See: [http://www.iep.utm.edu/virtueep/#H3 Virtue Epistemology], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy  &lt;/ref&gt; 

Linda Zagzebski&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 387 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt; identifies several virtues including: recognizing salient facts, sensitivity to detail, open-mindedness in collecting and appraising evidence, fairness, intellectual humility, perseverance, diligence, care, thoroughness, adaptability, recognizing reliable authority; insight into people, problems and theories, and the teaching virtues including candor. 

Jason Baehr&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} chapter 4&lt;/ref&gt;  focuses on the nine intellectual virtues of: curiosity, intellectual autonomy, intellectual humility, attentiveness, intellectual carefulness, intellectual thoroughness, open-mindedness, intellectual courage, and intellectual tenacity. 

Roberts and Wood identify: love of knowledge, firmness, courage and caution, humility, autonomy, perseverance, generosity, insightfulness, and practical wisdom. Because of its generality and scope, we use their framework as the headings for the following sections. 
===Love of Knowledge===
Love of knowledge is a motivation to pursue true beliefs regarding important knowledge.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 262  of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  

People who love knowledge are intrinsically motivated to gain a deep understanding of important knowledge. They seek to learn what is important, what is true, they weigh evidence for and against various beliefs, and they seek coherence in their set of beliefs. They can recognize salient facts and pay attention to relevant details. They are skilled at evaluating the reliability of authorities, experts, and other sources.

Roberts and Wood characterize a person who exemplifies the virtue of love of knowledge as wanting significant rather than trivial, relevant rather than irrelevant, knowledge. They want knowledge that ennobles human life and promotes human well-being rather than knowledge that degrades and destroys. They want true beliefs, not false ones.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 541 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;

Love of knowledge is a matter of intent.
*If your goal is to win the argument you are choosing love of winning over love of knowledge. 
*If your goal is to exert power you are choosing love of power over love of knowledge. 
*If your goal is to promote an ideology you are choosing love of ideology over love of knowledge. 
* If your goal is to demonstrate tribal loyalty, you are choosing tribal loyalty over love of knowledge.
*If your goal is to conform socially you are choosing love of social conformity over love of knowledge. 
*If your goal is to obey authority you are choosing love of authority over love of knowledge. 
*If your goal is [[w:Face_(sociological_concept)|saving face]] you are choosing to save face over love of knowledge. 
*If your goal is to sooth your [[w:Self-concept|ego]]  you are choosing love of self over love of knowledge. 
*If your goal is to remain comfortable you are choosing love of comfort over love of knowledge. 
====Coherence====
People who love knowledge recognize that [[w:Consilience|reality is coherent]]; however our understanding is always incomplete and evolving.&lt;ref&gt;The Wikiversity course [[Facing Facts]] explores the coherence of reality and the unity of knowledge in more depth.&lt;/ref&gt; This can be illustrated using our [[w:Timeline_of_cosmological_theories|evolving understanding of cosmology]] as an example.&lt;ref&gt;''Seven Brief Lessons on Physics'', Carolo Rovelli, “The Architecture of the Cosmos”&lt;/ref&gt; 

In ancient times the cosmos was understood as consisting simply of the earth below with the sky above. This was sufficient to explain simple observations made when standing on the earth and seeing the sky, however it was insufficient to explain how the sun, moon, and stars appear to move.

In approximately 500 BC the Greek philosopher [[w:Anaximander#Cosmology|Anaximander]] conceived a mechanical model of the world with the earth unsupported at the center and the stars, moon, and sun revolving around the earth. This helps to explain basic celestial motions, while failing to explain how the earth is held in place. Details of celestial motions are also inconsistent with this simple model. [[Image:Anaximander cosmology-en.svg|thumb|280px|Map of Anaximander's universe]]

Aristotle and others taught that [[w:Celestial_spheres|celestial spheres]] were the fundamental entities of the cosmos. In the 2nd century AD, the astronomer [[w:Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] standardized a [[w:Geocentric_model|geocentric model]] of the cosmos. This earth-centered model was remarkably accurate in describing the observed motions of the sun, stars, moon, and planets.

In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge when [[w:Nicolaus_Copernicus|Nicolaus Copernicus]] published [[w:De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium|''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'']] (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), which posited a [[w:Heliocentric|heliocentric]] model where the Earth and the other planets revolved around the Sun.

When this model was proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus it was based on little more than speculation until the careful astronomical observations by [[w:Tycho_Brahe|Tyco Brahe]], laws of planetary motions developed by [[w:Johannes_Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], observations of the moon, the phases of Venus, and the moons of Jupiter by  [[w:Galileo_Galilei|Galileo Galilei]], and the law of universal gravity developed by  [[w:Isaac_Newton|Isaac Newton]], gave us a more complete understanding.

The heliocentric model of the universe described by Isaac Newton in 1687 and explained by his [[w:Newtons_laws_of_motion|laws of motion]] and [[w:Newtons_law_of_universal_gravitation|law of universal gravitation]] proved to be very accurate. Discrepancies between this model and careful observations lead to the [[w:Discovery_of_Neptune|discovery of the planet Neptune]]. This provided further [[w:Corroborating_evidence|corroboration]] of the Newtonian model.  A discrepancy regarding the [[w:Tests_of_general_relativity#Perihelion_precession_of_Mercury|perihelion precession of the planet Mercury]] demonstrated limitations of the Newtonian model and remained unexplained until this anomaly in Newton’s model corroborated Einstein’s theory of [[w:General_relativity|General Relativity]].

Current theories of the cosmos seek to explain the size and extent of the universe, the formation of stars, galaxies, and planets, the dynamics of the universe, the origins of chemical elements, and many other mysteries that arise as the cycle of exploration, explanation, anomalies, [[w:Paradigm_shift|paradigm shift]], and further exploration continues.

Other examples where evolving theories reveal coherence include: 1) the [[w:Germ_theory_of_disease|germ theory of disease]], 2) the theory of [[w:Evolution|biological evolution]], 3) [[w:Plate_tectonics|plate tectonics]], 4) the [[w:Special_relativity|special theory of relativity]], 5) the [[w:General_relativity|general theory of relativity]], 6) [[w:Quantum_mechanics|quantum mechanics]], 7) and the [[w:Standard_Model|standard model]] of particle physics. In each case existing observations are explained by a theory which is eventually [[w:The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions|superseded by a more general]] and accurate theory providing greater [[w:Explanatory_power|explanatory power]]. 

While the lover of knowledge seeks coherence among her beliefs, the mature lover of knowledge will tolerate inevitable inconsistencies while seeking a structure with greater explanatory power. Rejecting simplistic, superficial, and often false explanations, people motivated toward true beliefs seek an elegant yet comprehensive and accurate explanatory framework. As the examples above illustrate, this is often revealed as an elegant simplicity that is only reached after slogging through a messy and complex series of preliminary and partial understanding.

Roberts and Woods provide guidance on when incoherence can be tolerated and when it is a cause for concern. Use good judgements regarding which apparent incoherencies are ''important'', and about whether they are important for oneself, and about whether now is the time to be concerned about them.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 149 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; “High intellectual functioning sometimes requires living for periods of time with what appears to be incoherent set of important beliefs. So intellectual virtue includes the ability to live with the discomfort of puzzlement…”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 150 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;

This essay describing how [[/Science is like a living tree/]] provides a useful way to understand how coherence is increased as exploration and discovery continue to evolve.

====Important Knowledge====
Because “discrimination among epistemic goods&lt;ref&gt;Roberts and Wood use the phrase “epistemic goods” to refer to a deep understanding of or acquaintance with important knowledge.&lt;/ref&gt; is essential to the virtue that consists in loving them”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 546 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; the lover of knowledge seeks out important information and avoids wasting time on trivia. Three primary criteria identify important knowledge. 

Important knowledge is:
*'''Significant'''—knowledge is significant when it forms the basis for other important knowledge. To assess the significance a particular belief, consider what other beliefs depend on this belief. “Beliefs can gain in value by being supports for other beliefs.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 547 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  Knowledge is trivial and unimportant unless other knowledge depends on it. “The gawker’s desire and delight are going nowhere”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 548 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  because nothing important depends on this information. Memorizing page 550 of the Wichita phone book is not generally useful. “The fact and extent of some of knowledge’s bearing an epistemic load is thus one of the criteria by which the lover of knowledge discriminates in her appetite for knowledge.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 550 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;
*'''Worthy'''—knowledge that promotes human well-being is worthy. Worthy information has a bearing on human flourishing and the intrinsic importance of their objects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 551 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 
*'''Relevant'''—This knowledge is useful because it helps to solve important problems. “The intellectually virtuous person is acutely circumspect—that is, has a strong and sharp sense of the relevance of the parts of his knowledge to his current circumstances and his finitude—and his appetite for knowledge will be governed, in part, by his sense of relevance”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 561 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  People who love knowledge also enjoy solving problems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 564 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;

====Communication====
“The two main kinds of social roles people occupy with respect to [knowledge] are those of ''acquiring'' it from others and ''purveying'' it to others.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 574 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

People who love knowledge not only enjoy acquiring knowledge, they also enjoy sharing knowledge with others. As knowledge is shared, take care to ensure the accuracy and clarity of your communications. Be impeccable with your word.&lt;ref&gt;''[[w:Don_Miguel_Ruiz#The_Four_Agreements|The Four Agreements]]'', by Don Miguel Ruiz&lt;/ref&gt;  Advance no falsehoods. Be careful to identify and clear up any actual or potential misunderstandings. Be clear about your own depth of understanding of the knowledge you are sharing. Describe your own uncertainties and doubts about the reliability of the information you are sharing. Distinguish among fact, controversy, opinion, and taste. Identify the sources used to attain the knowledge you are sharing. Discuss the reliability of those sources. Include a discussion of relevant and responsible competing viewpoints. Seek [[w:Objectivity_(science)|objectivity]] and disclose any sources of bias that may prevent you from being totally objective. Be candid about any vices that may be occluding or diminishing your [[w:Perspicacity|perspicacity]]—your perceptual and cognitive clarity, discernment, and accurate insight.
====Intellectual integrity====
Exercising [[w:Integrity|integrity]] requires being honest and having strong moral principles; being morally upright. Integrity is generally a personal choice to hold oneself to consistent moral and ethical standards. Intellectual integrity is the will to uphold the highest standards of inquiry, fair-mindedness, accuracy, perseverance, and honesty in seeking true beliefs. Intellectual integrity is the pursuit of deep understanding of important knowledge. Intellectual integrity requires fair-mindedness and freedom from bias or prejudice. Intellectual integrity avoids [[w:Motivated_reasoning|''motivated reasoning'']] and [[w:Confirmation_bias|''confirmation bias'']]. 

[[Intellectual honesty]] characterized by an unbiased, honest attitude, is a close synonym for intellectual integrity. Harvard ethicist Louis M. Guenin describes the &quot;kernel&quot; of intellectual honesty to be &quot;a virtuous disposition to eschew deception when given an incentive for deception.&quot; Don’t convey a false message even when using literal truths.&lt;ref&gt;“Bill and I were in a race the other day. I came in second, but Bill came in next to last.” The statement is literally true; however because there were only two people in the race it is very misleading. It is clearer and more honest to state Bill came in first and I came in last.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Several vices can tempt us to compromise our intellectual integrity. Roberts and Wood describe several faults of epistemic will&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 592 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; that are evidence of immaturity and vice. These are: 
#'''Failures of concern to know'''—people succumb to this lack of intellectual integrity when they avoid an opportunity to test their most closely held beliefs, or they engage such an opportunity too casually, or they offer weak defenses of their own beliefs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 594 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; Other examples include passing up opportunities to gain a deeper understanding of some important knowledge, a fear of paradoxes, or a lack of interest in them,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 600 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; and overlooking anomalies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 599 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  
#'''Unvirtuous concerns to know'''—seeking knowledge so it can be used for some cruel or mischievous purpose is a lapse of intellectual integrity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 609 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; “Another perversion of the love of knowledge is that of being a willing purveyor or consumer of [[w:Gossip|gossip]].”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 610 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  [[w:Voyeurism|Voyeurism]] is a vice and must not be mistaken for a love of knowledge. Allowing your attention to be drawn toward bright and shiny objects may be fun, but it distracts you from acquiring more important knowledge.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 615 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 
#'''Failures of concern not to know'''—Cleary state “you don’t want to know” when offered gossip, or the opportunity to eavesdrop or invade privacy. An appetite for gathering illicit or salacious knowledge, or a thirst for gaining knowledge that can only be used for evil demonstrates a lack of intellectual integrity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 626 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 
#'''Unvirtuous concerns not to know'''—avoiding inconvenient truths, such as the low balance in your bank account, evidence that your child is using drugs,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 628 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; or evidence contrary to your political or religious beliefs are all failures of intellectual integrity. “When other motives conflict with the concern for truth, these defective individuals tend to forsake truth to satisfy other motives.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 595 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  Better choices can be made using accurate and complete information, even if gaining this information is emotionally difficult.

====Curiosity====
[[w:Curiosity|Curiosity]] is the virtue of wanting to understand.

Love of knowledge is often apparent as a curiosity focused on understanding important knowledge. [[Fostering Curiosity|Curiosity]] is a fundamental ''motivating'' virtue.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 59&lt;/ref&gt;  Curiosity results in asking good questions motivated by genuine understanding.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 61&lt;/ref&gt;  

Curiosity can take the forms of awe, wonder, and inquisitiveness.

“The virtue of curiosity aims at understanding ‘significant’ rather than trivial or salacious subject matters.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 62&lt;/ref&gt;  Curiosity is also directed at understanding various anomalies. Does the anomaly represent a random outlier, or is it evidence of some basic lack of understanding, as in the mismatch between a geocentric model of the solar system and careful astronomical observations?

Unbridled curiosity is not a love of learning.  “Unfettered curiosity is wonderful; unchanneled curiosity is not.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Ian |date=December 1, 2015 |title=Curious: The Desire to Know and Why Your Future Depends On It |publisher=Basic Books |pages=256 |isbn=978-0465097623 }} @ 41 of 539 &lt;/ref&gt;  An attraction to everything novel is called ''diversive'' curiosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Ian |date=December 1, 2015 |title=Curious: The Desire to Know and Why Your Future Depends On It |publisher=Basic Books |pages=256 |isbn=978-0465097623 }} @ 40 of 539&lt;/ref&gt;  In contrast, ''epistemic'' curiosity is a deeper, more disciplined effortful curiosity in pursuit of deep understating of important knowledge.

Research by [[w:George_Loewenstein|George Loewenstein]] characterizes curiosity as a response to an ''information gap''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Ian |date=December 1, 2015 |title=Curious: The Desire to Know and Why Your Future Depends On It |publisher=Basic Books |pages=256 |isbn=978-0465097623 }} @ 126 of 539&lt;/ref&gt;  Curiosity is elicited when there is a gap between what we know and what we want to know. Questions are formed with the intent of obtaining the information needed to close the gap. What is in the box? Why is she so sad? Who is knocking on the door? Why does the sun rise each morning? 
====Assignment====
#Select a work from the following list to study for this assignment. 
#*The book ''[[w:Paul_de_Kruif#Microbe_Hunters|Microbe Hunters]]'' portrays several microbiologists as they pursue their love of knowledge. It is available free on-line at: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.109987 Note that it is more of a dramatization than a fully accurate history.
#*The book “[[w:All_the_President's_Men|All the President’s Men]]” and the film adaptation “[[w:All_the_President's_Men_(film)|All the President’s Men]]” portray investigative journalists seeking the true story of the Watergate break-in during the Nixon presidency.
#*The film “[[w:Spotlight_(film)|Spotlight]]” portrays [[w:Investigative_journalism|investigative journalists]] seeking the true story of child sex abuse in the Boston area by numerous Roman Catholic priests.
#*The film “[[w:Concussion_(2015_film)|Concussion]]” portrays Dr. Bennet Omalu, a forensic pathologist who fights against the National Football League trying to suppress his research on chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) brain degeneration suffered by professional football players.
#*Other examples of investigative journalism are identified at:  http://www.thedailybeast.com/shoe-leather-heroes-9-investigative-journalism-triumphs 
#*Study the work of some investigative reporter who has been awarded a [[w:Pulitzer_Prize_for_Investigative_Reporting|Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting]].
#*Consider various documentaries by [[w:Errol_Morris|Errol Morris]], especially “[[w:The_Thin_Blue_Line_(1988_film)|The Thin Blue Line]]”.
#*The [[w:Kon-Tiki_expedition|1947 Kon-Tiki expedition]] popularized a hypothesis proposed at that time that the people of Easter Island were migrants from Peru. Later [[w:Kon-Tiki_expedition#Anthropology|DNA evidence supported]] the traditional hypothesis that they were Polynesian descendants. Study both efforts and describe the various motivations and their orientation toward truth-seeking of the explorers and investigators.
#*Choose some other book or film that accurately portrays someone who exemplifies the love of knowledge. 
#Read the book or watch the movie you have selected to study.
#Identify and describe instances where ''love of knowledge'' was the primary motivation of the people portrayed.
#Identify motives of others who obstructed the various investigations or resisted adopting the various true beliefs being uncovered or communicated.
#How did a commitment to ''love of knowledge'' help each of these people overcome difficulties and other influences? What, if any, true beliefs resulted?

===Firmness===
How do we decide how strongly to hold onto each of our current beliefs? How do we decide when to change our beliefs?

People seeking true beliefs choose their beliefs based on an integrated assessment of the available relevant and reliable evidence. Their beliefs are based on a deep understanding of each belief, in combination with an assessment of the correspondence of their beliefs with reality and the coherence with other beliefs. They understand evidence and arguments for and against each belief. When seeking true beliefs, hold firmly to well-founded beliefs. Change your beliefs if reliable new evidence becomes available but always [[Knowing How You Know|know how you know]]. Knowing how you know is the knowledge equivalent of “[[w:Caveat_emptor|let the buyer beware]]”. Acquiring knowledge requires holding on to our beliefs but also on adjusting them as we acquire evidence for or against them.

When you know how you know, you can be intellectually firm. When you don’t know how you know, and your beliefs are challenged, there is no basis for any deeper consideration of your beliefs. You may become obstinate and simply reassert your beliefs without giving any justification. Alternatively you may simply change your beliefs arbitrarily, because they have not basis. 

[[w:John_Maynard_Keynes|John Maynard Keynes]] expressed the concept of firmness well when he said “When the facts change, I change my mind. What do you do, sir?”&lt;ref&gt;As reported in the Wikiquote entry on [[q:John Maynard Keynes|John Maynard Keynes]].&lt;/ref&gt; Firmness is the thoughtful position between ''flaccidity''—changing beliefs indiscriminately—and ''rigidity''—failing to change beliefs despite reliable contrary evidence.

People can be firm in their beliefs when those beliefs are based on sound reasoning. If new information provides a new basis for reason, then the beliefs can change. If no better information is presented, then there is no reason to change beliefs.

The firmness with which we hold any particular belief must be guided by our motivation toward true beliefs. If our current belief is judged to be more likely the true belief, then we hold onto it. If some new belief is judged to be more likely true, then we adopt that new belief. A person who holds firm beliefs is always ready to ask “What can I learn here?” rather than “How can I squash every objection?”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 724 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

Our current beliefs are anchored by our current world view. We may resist changing our beliefs, even in the face of clear evidence, because of attachments we have to our current world view. [[Exploring Worldviews|Exploring our worldviews]], and our reasons for holding those views, can help us become more objective.
[[File:Spheres of Evidence.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Available evidence is filtered through our confirmation biases and interpreted through our worldview.]]

There are important analogies between the intellectual virtue of firmness, and the moral [[Virtues/Tolerance|virtue of tolerance]]. Both virtues require a careful assessment of when to hold firm and when to yield to the views of others. 
====Flaccidity====
People who lack a firm foundation for their beliefs find it is easier to fall for anything than to stand for something.&lt;ref&gt;Quote Investigator, [https://quoteinvestigator.com/2014/02/18/stand-fall/ If You Don’t Stand for Something, You’ll Fall for Anything.]&lt;/ref&gt;  Their beliefs are tossed about by whatever they encounter most recently. They agree with ideas indiscriminately as they soak up gossip, embrace every fad, seek to please every acquaintance, and change their mind to embrace every opinion as they hear it. They disregard any considerations of: consistency, insight, understanding, integration of ideas, or basis in fact or reliable sources.

Rather than holding firmly to beliefs based on a deep understanding, such a belief system is weak and flaccid, allowing loosely held beliefs to flap around easily.

====Rigidity====
Whenever a belief is not based on [[w:Reason|reason]], reason becomes irrelevant. People who hold beliefs on some non-rational basis are often rigid in those beliefs. Arguments based on reason are ineffective in altering rigidly held beliefs because reasonable arguments do not address the unreasonable basis for the belief. When people become rigid in some belief they are often accurately described as being ''unreasonable''. 

If a belief is based on respect for authority&lt;ref&gt;Consider this quote from Albert Einstein “Unthinking respect for authority is the greatest enemy of truth”. See the [[q:Albert_Einstein|Wikiquote entry on Albert Einstein]].&lt;/ref&gt;, obedience, loyalty, tradition, hope, or preserving some sunk cost, then reason becomes irrelevant.  Beliefs become rigidly held when the motivation toward true belief is lost or superseded.

Roberts and Woods consider five kinds of rigidity: dogmatism, doxastic complacency, stolid perseverance, perceptual rigidity, and comprehensional rigidity.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 681 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 
*'''Dogmatism'''—is when people base their beliefs on some doctrine. Doctrines include fundamentalism of various kinds including political, social, economic, and especially religious.  Because the beliefs are codified into a coherent, yet isolated, body of instructions, appeals to reason outside that body of instruction become irrelevant. Dogmatism is a hardened position that is irrationally resistant to criticism. As a result, and somewhat paradoxically, dogmatic people do not know very clearly what it is they believe.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 695 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 
*'''Doxastic complacency'''—is laziness in forming beliefs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 695 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  When a person has formed some belief long ago, has not recently thought about the basis for this belief, and has forgotten any rational basis for the belief, they cannot be bothered to engage in reasonable reconsideration of this belief. Furthermore, because a particular belief has been adopted long ago, many other beliefs may now depend on it. Changing one belief risks having to change many beliefs, and the [[w:House_of_cards|house of cards]] may come tumbling down if its shaky foundation is disturbed. It is easier and more comfortable to decline to examine such long-held beliefs.
*'''Stolid perseverance'''—is stubbornly holding fast to some ideal hypothesis or explanatory structure—your [[w:Theory_of_everything_(philosophy)|theory of everything]]—despite a chronic lack of evidence. This is a well-intended perseverance that has become foolish. This is tricky because some of the most significant breakthroughs begin as ideas that seemed foolish when first proposed.
*'''Perceptual rigidity'''—is the inability to perceive or assimilate new information because it does not fit into the customarily understood categories. For example a [[w:Racism|racist]] might deny the validity of some excellent achievement by someone in the disparaged group because it conflicts with his racist worldview.
*'''Comprehensional rigidity'''—is the inability to comprehend ideas that fall outside of some narrowly defined discipline or conceptual framework. It is the inability to attain a viewpoint from some alternative framework. When a [[w:Hominidae|hominid]] scull was discovered that provided important evidence challenging a widely accepted hypothesis of human evolution, one paleontologist responded with glee excited to learn more, and another with distain, remarking “They ought to put it back in the ground”&lt;ref&gt;Reported in {{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 722 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  because it did not fit within his existing conceptual framework for human evolution.

Determining the specific cause of rigidity in each case can provide some insight into how to dislodge that rigidity.

====Open-mindedness====
[[w:Open-mindedness|Open-mindedness]] is a virtue closely related to intellectual firmness.&lt;ref&gt;Explicating Curiosity via Uncertainty and Interest, Augmented with Open-Mindedness, Ali Far, GSTF Journal of General Philosophy (JPhilo) Vol.1 No.2, March 2015&lt;/ref&gt; 

Because no one fully grasps the full extent of reality, we need to be willing and able to consider alternative standpoints, to give them a fair and honest hearing, and to revise our own standpoint or beliefs accordingly.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 126&lt;/ref&gt; Unless we can be certain from the outset that our own beliefs are entirely correct, that they are without even the possibility of any kind of error, we need open-mindedness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 126&lt;/ref&gt;

The real intention of being open-minded requires giving the object of interest a fair, honest, and objective hearing.&lt;ref&gt;Explicating Curiosity via Uncertainty and Interest, Augmented with Open-Mindedness, Ali Far, GSTF Journal of General Philosophy (JPhilo) Vol.1 No.2, March 2015&lt;/ref&gt;  Intellectual humility is a kind of precondition for open-mindedness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 130&lt;/ref&gt;  Only by considering the possibility that you may not be entirely correct can you genuinely embrace alternative points of view.  One reason open-mindedness is so important is that it serves to combat or mitigate a deeply felt and widely shared need to be right. [[w:Confirmation_bias|Open-mindedness]] is a powerful antidote to confirmation bias.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 128&lt;/ref&gt;

Open-mindedness brings us closer to true beliefs when we:
*explore and examine our own beliefs,
*identify gaps or inconsistencies in our understanding,
*examine the evidence for and contrary to our beliefs, 
*consider new evidence, 
*explore our various doubts,
*learn from others,
*challenge our own beliefs, 
*examine the basis for the beliefs we currently hold, and
*gain a deeper understanding of the topic at hand.

Because closed minded people fail to explore their own beliefs as described above, they tend to be stuck not in truth, but in falsehood.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 617 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;

Jason Baehr offers this formal characterization of an open-minded person:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
An open-minded person is characteristically:  willing and (within limits) able to transcend a default cognitive standpoint in order to take up or take seriously the merits of a distinct cognitive standpoint.&lt;ref&gt;Baehr, Jason. “The Structure of Open-Mindedness.” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 41 (2011): 191-213. Print.&lt;/ref&gt; 
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 
This definition characterizes open-mindedness as a willful choice to think beyond the viewpoint you have become comfortable with because you are motivated by the sincere intent of understanding an alternative point-of-view.

Because we are considering open-mindedness in the context of intellectual firmness “Don’t be so open-minded that your brains fall out.”&lt;ref&gt;Baehr, Jason. “The Structure of Open-Mindedness.” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 41 (2011): 191-213. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;  Open mindedness is not gullibility; firm conviction and open-mindedness can coexist.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 127&lt;/ref&gt; 

Jason Baehr offers guidance on when we should exercise open-mindedness rather than intellectual tenacity or intellectual courage:&lt;ref&gt;See discussion at {{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 133&lt;/ref&gt;  
#If you are in danger of being intellectually rigid for any of the reasons cited in the section on “rigidity” then it is helpful to participate with an open-mind and seriously consider alternative points of view,
#If you can learn more, strengthen your understanding, or increase the accuracy of your beliefs, then it is best to proceed with an open mind.

Open your mind with the motivation toward attaining true beliefs. Exercising your open mind is more beneficial in the company of people who are also motivated toward true beliefs than it is with people who have some other motivation. There is little benefit to indulging [[w:Charlatan|charlatans]]. Consider this analogy: if you dialogue with each of the six [[w:Blind_men_and_an_elephant|blind men describing the elephant]], and you are able to adopt and integrate each of their viewpoints, perhaps you can come to an integrated and unified representation of an elephant. The various viewpoints all converge toward reality. However, if you are also including charlatans in the discussions who insist on describing a [[w:Unicorn|unicorn]] as if it is real and you do not distinguish this [[w:Falsity|falsehood]] from the true representation of the elephant, you cannot come to a unified reconciliation of the information being provided.

====Assignment====
Complete this assignment to better understand the virtue of ''intellectual firmness''. 
#Watch any performance of the drama [[w:Twelve_Angry_Men|Twelve Angry Men]].
#Notice who is ''firm'', who is ''rigid'', and who is ''flaccid'' during the jury deliberations.
#Notice when various jurors become ''open-minded'' and when they are closed minded. 
#Notice as each juror changes their disposition and beliefs as the drama unfolds.
#What conditions cause each juror to change their minds? Was it information, evidence, understanding, viewpoint, empathy, interest, charisma, fear, coercion, fatigue, appeasement, accommodation, loyalty, engagement, or some other factor?

===Courage and Caution===
''[[w:Courage|Moral courage]]'' is the decision to do the right thing despite dangers, fears, or hardships. Intellectual courage is an ability to perform intellectual tasks well despite significant threats.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 272 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

Throughout history brave people have taken great risks to acquire important knowledge. [[w:Exploration|Exploration]] to discover new information began in ancient times and now extends beyond earth as modern [[w:Space_exploration|space exploration]].  [[w:War_correspondent|War correspondents]] take great risks to get close enough to combat action to provide written accounts, photos, or film footage. [[w:Investigative_journalism|Investigative journalists]] often take significant personal and professional risks to uncover important information. [[w:Self-experimentation_in_medicine|Several medical pioneers]] have volunteered themselves as the first to test new medical procedures. For example, [[w:Jesse_William_Lazear|Jesse William Lazear]] deliberately allowed a mosquito known to be infected with yellow fever to bite him in order to study the disease. [[w:Jane_Goodall|Jane Goodall]] lived in jungle environments for many years to better understand primate behavior.

Brave people have taken great risks to share knowledge that threatens the status quo. In 1632 Galileo published his ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'', which implicitly defended heliocentrism. Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the [[w:Galileo_affair|Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633]] and found him &quot;vehemently suspect of heresy&quot;, sentencing him to indefinite imprisonment. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642. Charles Darwin proceeded to research, write, and publish his book ''[[w:Reactions_to_On_the_Origin_of_Species|The Origin of the Species]]'' despite criticism and strong opposition to the ideas he presented.  Rachel Carson’s book [[w:Silent_Spring|''Silent Spring'']] was met with fierce opposition by chemical companies, but it spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy, led to a nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural uses, and inspired an environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. During the Vietnam War, Walter Cronkite and Earnest Leiser travelled to Vietnam to cover the aftermath of the Tet Offensive. Upon return Cronkite published an [[w:Walter_Cronkite#Vietnam_War|editorial report]] critical of the war saying in part: “We have been too often disappointed by the optimism of the American leaders, both in Vietnam and Washington, to have faith any longer in the silver linings they find in the darkest clouds.” Several weeks later President [[w:Lyndon_B._Johnson|Lyndon Johnson]] announced he would not seek reelection. 

[[w:Albert_Einstein|Albert Einstein]] had the courage to imagine a very different structure to the universe when he developed, described, and published his [[w:History_of_special_relativity|special theory of relativity]] and his [[w:General_relativity|general theory of relativity]].

While we may never rise to these levels of intellectual courage, we often have the opportunity to ask questions that may be provocative, or explore topics that traditions or ideologies consider to be out of bounds.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 140&lt;/ref&gt;  We can decide to face inconvenient truths and probe taboos.  Everyday acts of courage may be speaking one’s mind, continuing one’s research, publishing one’s ideas, thinking carefully, and refusing to suppress data and arguments.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 272 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

Courage is not recklessness; sometimes caution is the prudent choice. “Intellectual caution is wise fearing in cognitive matters.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 824 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  “…caution is the disposition to fear the right things, at the right times, for the right reasons, and in the right degree.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 770 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

Intellectual courage is wisely balanced by intellectual caution. 

We exercise ''intellectual caution'' whenever we are careful in our work. When we are diligent in rechecking our work, consulting additional references, regarding rumors with skepticism, engaging in critical thinking, and asking others to check our work we are exercising the care that caution demands. 

Cautious investigators are careful to check their preliminary findings to avoid advancing falsehoods. In 2011 an experiment [[w:Faster-than-light_neutrino_anomaly|mistakenly observed neutrinos appearing to travel faster than light]]. Even before the mistake was discovered, the result was considered anomalous because speeds higher than that of light in a vacuum are generally thought to violate special relativity, a cornerstone of the modern understanding of physics for over a century. These cautious scientists announced the results of the experiment in September 2011 with the stated intent of promoting further inquiry and debate. Later the team reported two flaws in their equipment set-up that had caused errors far outside their original confidence interval.

Careless researchers can cause significant harm. In 1998 [[w:MMR_vaccine_controversy|a fraudulent research paper]] which claimed autism spectrum disorders are linked to certain vaccines was published in the respected medical journal ''The Lancet''. In 2011, this paper was described as &quot;perhaps, the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years&quot; because of the harmful impact this disinformation has had on understanding autism, and by casting unfounded doubts on the safety of vaccines. It is careless to form our beliefs without sufficient evidence.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 813 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;  Carelessness is compounded when unfounded beliefs are advanced as if they are fact. This is the origin of [[w:Conspiracy_theory|conspiracy theories]], [[w:Pseudoscience|pseudoscience]], [[w:Quackery|quackery]], failed ideologies, and [[w:Cult|cults]].
====Assignment====
Complete this assignment to better understand the virtues of ''intellectual courage and caution''.
#Complete the Wikiversity module on moral [[w:Virtues/Courage|Courage]].
#Recall a time when fear prevented you from pursuing some true belief or acquiring important knowledge. Describe the internal struggle and self-dialogue that allowed your values to prevail over your fears or other difficulties.
#Recall a time when insufficient caution allowed you to attain or advance some untrue belief. Describe the internal struggle and self-dialogue that allowed you to subordinate your values in the face of fears or other difficulties.

===Humility===
Humility is admitting your limitations. Humility is the realization that although we are each very special, we are nobody special. At its core, humility is openness to learning based on knowledge of your own ignorance.&lt;ref&gt;[http://westsidetoastmasters.com/resources/thinking_tools/ch03lev1sec3.html Intellectual Humility:] Having Knowledge of Ignorance, Thinking Tools, West Side Toast Masters.&lt;/ref&gt;  Intellectual humility is deciding that facts are more real and more important than ego. It is the opposite of ego involvement. Because arrogance sustains ignorance, humility is a prerequisite to learning. 

The book ''The Power of Humility'' identifies these twelve characteristics of humility:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Power of Humility: Choosing Peace over Conflict in Relationships |last1=Whitfield |first1=Charles |last2=Whitfield |first2=Barbara | first3=Russell | last3=Park| first4=Jeneane | last4=Prevett |year=2006 |publisher=HCI |isbn=978-0757303999 |pages=180}} &lt;/ref&gt;
*'''Openness'''—poised to learn more about ourselves, others, and the world we live in. Receptive to understanding [[Facing Facts|''what is'']]. Willing to change beliefs, opinions, and attitudes as new information is assimilated. Willingness to ask ‘what can I learn here?’
*'''An attitude of “I don’t know”'''—if you wish to see the truth, then hold no opinions for or against anything. [[Practicing Dialogue|Suspend judgment]] while you continue to learn. 
*'''Curiosity'''—wanting to discover what is not known. Exploring more deeply, wanting to learn more.
*'''Innocence'''—we never see what does not exist and we always see what does. We are free of our (non-existent) [http://emotionalcompetency.com/self.htm#Detaching egos].
*'''A childlike nature'''—a combination of enthusiasm, openness, innocence, and curiosity,
*'''Spontaneity'''—living authentically in this moment.
*'''Spirituality'''—connecting with all that is beyond ourselves,
*'''[[Virtues/Tolerance|Tolerance]]'''—respecting the beliefs, customs, and practices of ourselves and others. Asking ‘what can I learn from you?’
*'''Patience'''—tolerant of delay, annoyance, tedium, or other hardship without complaint.
*'''Integrity'''—wholeness; integrating virtue throughout our character. Integrating our actions and our character. Living as our authentic selves.
*'''Detachment'''—separating from distractions that compromise our own integrity, and
*'''Letting go'''—dismissing our [http://emotionalcompetency.com/self.htm#Detaching ego involvement]. Knowing that we [[Virtues/How can you change another person?|cannot fix anyone else]]. Detaching from all that we [[What you can change and what you cannot|cannot change]].

Intellectual humility requires motivations toward true belief which exceed any motivations toward social status. 

Baehr notes “To the extent that an intellectually humble person can do something to improve or rectify her intellectual limitations, weaknesses, or mistakes, she’ll be inclined to do so; but to the extent that these things are fixed or unavoidable, she’ll simply do her best to come to terms with or accept them. She won’t become preoccupied with or be overly self-conscious about them.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues | URL=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2/   }} Page 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Roberts and Wood characterize intellectual humility as opposite to a number of vices including:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 827 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;

*[[w:Hubris|arrogance]]—foolish pride or dangerous overconfidence
*vanity—excessive belief in one's own abilities or attractiveness to others
*conceit—excessively favorable opinion of one's own ability, importance, wit, etc.
*egoism—selfishness, valuing everything only in reference to one's personal interest
*hyper-autonomy—failing to acknowledge your dependence on others and accept their help
*[[w:Grandiosity|grandiosity]]—an unrealistic sense of superiority
*pretentiousness—an exaggerated or undeserved sense of importance
*[[w:Snob|snobbishness]]—assessing human worth based on  social status
*impertinence (presumption)—irrelevant intrusion or rudeness
*haughtiness—arrogant, vain, snobbish
*[[w:Self-righteousness|self-righteousness]]—an attitude of moral superiority
*[[w:Dominance_(ethology)|domination]]—power based on the ability to do harm
*selfish ambition—advancing your interests to the detriment of others
*self-complacency—approving your abilities and accomplishments without due criticism.

They then focus on the contrast of intellectual humility with the vices of ''[[w:Vanity|vanity]]'' and ''[[w:Hubris|arrogance]]''. 

It is difficult to identify well-known exemplars of intellectual humility, perhaps because such people are ''actually'' humble. Incidents where Abraham Lincoln acted humbly have been cited,&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ravenfoundation.org/lincoln-as-a-model-of-humility/ Lincoln As A Model of Humility], Raven Foundation, January 11, 2010 &lt;/ref&gt;  the humility of Socrates has been debated,&lt;ref&gt;[https://philosophynow.org/issues/53/Socratic_Humility Socratic Humility], Philosophy Now&lt;/ref&gt;  and the life of Nobel Prize winning Geneticist [[w:Barbara_McClintock|Barbara McClintock]] has been mentioned as an example. The virtue is [[w:Caricature|caricatured]] by the unassuming police detective [[w:Columbo|Columbo]] who wore disheveled clothing and was constantly underestimated by his suspects as he shrewdly gathered the information needed to solve each case.  
====Assignment====
'''Part 1:'''
#Recall an occasion when your vanity or arrogance prevented you from seeking true beliefs.
#What caused your motivations toward ego preservation to exceed your motivations toward true belief in that occasion?

'''Part 2:'''
#Watch [https://www.ted.com/talks/megan_phelps_roper_i_grew_up_in_the_westboro_baptist_church_here_s_why_i_left Megan Phelps-Roper in this TED talk] describe how she grew up in the [[w:Westboro_Baptist_Church|Westboro Baptist Church]] and explain why she left. 
#What role did ''intellectual humility'' play in transforming her beliefs?

===Autonomy===
Before each US Air Force flight takes off, one of the pilots is assigned the role of “Aircraft Commander”. When critical decisions need to be made quickly to ensure the safety of the crew and completion of the mission, the Aircraft Commander asks for advice from each crew member and other informative professionals as time permits, relies on her own training and experience, and then makes the decision. The process is inclusive because each crew member has an opportunity to contribute ideas, opinions, and suggestions, however because the final decision is made by the Aircraft Commander, the commander acts autonomously.

In a similar way the intellectually autonomous person works as her own “Belief Commander”. She seeks knowledge, ideas, advice, and opinions from many sources, integrates this with her own experience, and then decides for herself what to believe.

Intellectual autonomy requires that motivations toward true belief exceed any motivations toward affiliations. 
====Rely on your Theory of Knowledge====
[[File:Knowing how you Know.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Each of us uses some ''theory of knowledge'' to assess the cacophony of raw stimulus we are constantly exposed to and decide what it is we believe.]]
The intellectually autonomous person relies on her well-developed ''[[Knowing_How_You_Know#What_is_a_Theory_of_Knowledge.3F|theory of knowledge]]'' as her approach to deciding what she believes. Our world is full of various stimuli that contend for our attention and masquerade as the truth. Unfortunately much of the information we are exposed to is unreliable and misleading. The diagram on the right illustrates our need to filter the raw stimuli we are exposed to in the world to arrive at our own beliefs. Our theory of knowledge is the process we use to analyze and integrate raw information sources into our beliefs about what is true, what is false, what we are unsure of, and what we are unaware of.

Your theory of knowledge is the set of rules you follow to decide what to believe. Since you have chosen your beliefs, you must have some theory of knowledge in some form, however it is unlikely you have given it much thought, written it down, tested it, refined it, or applied it conscientiously to evaluating your own beliefs.
A well-developed theory of knowledge allows intellectually autonomous people to think independently, after integrating information gathered from many diverse sources.
Intellectual autonomy is exemplified in the student or researcher who is able to work on her own, where working on her own involves a wise dependence, a willingness and ability to tap the intelligence and knowledge of others as needed; but it also means an intelligent ability to stand one’s own ground against bullying, as well as gentler forms of pressure to conform.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 903 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;
====Interdependence====
Intellectual autonomy also involves knowing when to call on help.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 923 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; 

Intellectual autonomy is not independence. Instead it is a thoughtful interdependence. It requires establishing good working relationships with trusted colleagues who you can share ideas with and learn from. It requires your genuine consideration of alternative points of view provided by people from other disciplines and with other interests, experiences, and insights. It also requires listening carefully to critics and detractors so you can decide if they have a deeper understanding of the issue or new sources of information that can provide you with new insights.

[[w:Nicolaus_Copernicus|Nicolaus Copernicus]] exercised intellectual autonomy as he developed and described a [[w:Heliocentrism|heliocentric]]—sun centered—model for the universe. The publication of Copernicus' model in his book ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) in 1543 was a major event in the history of science, making an important contribution to the Scientific Revolution.

At that time, the [[w:Geocentric_model#Ptolemaic_model|Ptolemaic system]], standardized geocentrism and allowed this earth-centered model of the universe to dominate thinking until at least the 17th century. Copernicus needed to fully understand the strengths and weaknesses of this Ptolemaic system and then think independently to imagine, explain, and defend his heliocentric model. He delayed in publishing his views not wishing—as he confessed—to risk the scorn &quot;to which he would expose himself on account of the novelty and incomprehensibility of his theses.&quot; Ultimately Copernicus trusted his own analysis and evidence, acted autonomously, and published his model.

====Assignment====
'''Part 1:'''

#Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Knowing How You Know]].
#Combine deep understanding with your theory of knowledge to make autonomous decisions on what to believe.

'''Part 2:'''
#If you notice yourself drifting from firmness toward rigidity, examine any lingering attachments to friends or acquaintances with unfounded opinions and beliefs or a lapse toward the comfort of traditional thinking causing this rigidity.
#If you notice yourself drifting from firmness toward flaccidly, examine any lack of understanding that may be causing this vacillation.

===Perseverance===
Several exemplars of perseverance have greatly advanced our knowledge. 

In 1902 [[w:Marie_Curie|Marie Curie]] refined a ton of pitchblende to obtain one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride. She persevered in her work and in 1910 isolated pure radium metal. She discovered two new chemical elements and was awarded two Nobel prizes for pioneering radiation research. 

Upon returning to his lab on September 3, 1928 [[w:Alexander_Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] noticed that one bacterial culture was contaminated with a fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal. He famously remarked &quot;That's funny&quot;, persevered in investigating this anomaly further, and went on to [[w:History_of_penicillin|discover penicillin]]. Penicillin became a widely used antibiotic and Fleming was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work. 

While wondering how a Gecko sticks to the ceiling, [[w:Jeffrey_Karp|Jeffery Karp]] persevered to solve this mystery, study the stickiness of slugs, and develop glue that seals tiny holes in the heart.&lt;ref&gt;Innovation Hub, [http://blogs.wgbh.org/innovation-hub/2017/7/6/what-nature-can-teach-science/ What Nature can Teach Science], July 6, 2017&lt;/ref&gt; 

The virtue of intellectual perseverance is a combination of diligence, care, thoroughness, attentiveness, tenacity, and intellectual sobriety in pursuit of true beliefs. Intellectual persistence requires not only stamina, but attentiveness, a special care in looking and listening. Attentiveness combines three ingredients:  being present, listening, and sustained attention to important details.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |url=http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} Page 95&lt;/ref&gt;

We persevere when motivations to solve a particular mystery exceed any motivations toward idleness or distraction. 

Highlighting a distinction between [[w:Puzzle|''puzzles'']] and ''mysteries'' helps us to better understand the virtue of perseverance. Puzzles have definite answers, however mysteries are more complex.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Ian |date=December 1, 2015 |title=Curious: The Desire to Know and Why Your Future Depends On It |publisher=Basic Books |pages=256 |isbn=978-0465097623 }} @ 154 of 542 &lt;/ref&gt;  Puzzles ask questions about ''who, what, where'', or ''how many''. Mysteries keep asking ''why'' or ''how'' until all the relevant observations are coherently explained. Each new answer often reveals a deeper mystery and motivates the next question. Intellectual perseverance is a motivation to solve important mysteries. 
====Assignment====
#Recall an occasion when you stopped looking or failed to dig deeper and settled for an incomplete or inaccurate understanding of some mystery.
#What prevented you from persevering on that occasion?

===Generosity===
Medical researcher [[w:Jonas_Salk|Jonas Salk]] discovered and developed one of the first successful polio vaccines. It is difficult to overstate the benefits of his work. When news of the vaccine's success was made public on April 12, 1955, Salk was hailed as a &quot;miracle worker&quot; and the day almost became a national holiday. Around the world, an immediate rush to vaccinate began, using Salk's vaccine.

Jonas Salk was generous. When broadcast journalist Edward Murrow asked him, &quot;Who owns this patent?” Salk replied, &quot;Well, the people I would say. There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?&quot; The vaccine is estimated to be worth $7 billion had it been patented.
We are intellectually generous when motivations to share what we have learned—whether material goods, knowledge, time or energy—exceed any selfish motivations. 

There are a variety of claims authors and artists can make to the [[w:Intellectual_property|intellectual property]] they create. Authors often use a [[w:Copyright|copyright]] to secure the creator of original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. A relatively recent and generous alternative to copyright is the [[w:Creative_Commons_license|Creative Commons license]]. A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that they have created. This is one example of [[w:Open_collaboration|open collaboration]] where participates share products they create. [[Wikiversity]] is an example of an open collaboration. The [[w:PLOS|Public Library of Science]] is one of many [[w:Open_access|open-access]] publishers.

Intellectual generosity moves us toward true beliefs in several ways. Sharing general knowledge widely helps people become factually informed. Sharing research results quickly allows more people to move forward based on these findings so that they, in turn, might build on this knowledge and share their own findings. Generously sharing credit for work done by colleagues encourages teamwork and a collegiate environment for learning, discovery explorations, and researching. 
====Assignment====
#Recall an occasion when you failed to give credit to someone who assisted you in gaining a deeper understanding of something.
#Recall an occasion when you failed to share some important knowledge with others who could have benefitted from that sharing.
#What motivated your lack of generosity in these instances?

===Insightfulness===
[[File:Archimedes bath.jpg|thumb|right|A 16th century woodcut of Archimedes' eureka moment]]
Several exemplars illustrate the virtue of insightfulness. 

[[w:Archimedes|Archimedes]] famously proclaimed “Eureka” when while taking a bath, he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this [[w:Archimedes#Archimedes.27_principle|effect could be used to determine the volume]] of the king’s crown he was asked to [[w:Assay|assay]].

In 1666 Isaac Newton was reflecting on the motions of the planets when [[w:Isaac_Newton#Apple_incident|he saw an apple fall from a tree]] and the notion of gravitation came into his mind. He asked himself “Why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground?” and quickly realized the same force that pulled the apple toward the center of the earth also kept the moon in orbit around the earth, and the planets in orbit around the sun. Newton’s insight soon developed into his [[s:Newton's_law_of_universal_gravitation|law of universal gravitation]].

[[w:Insight|Insight]] is the understanding of a specific cause and effect within a specific context. A sudden insight might be described as an [[w:Epiphany_(feeling)|epiphany]], ‘Aha!’ moment, or [[w:Eureka_effect|a eureka moment]]. 

Insight generally provides a new understanding that provides greater explanatory power. 

Insightfulness is the motivation to continue exploring, studying, reflecting on, and understanding some topic until a deeper understanding with greater [[w:Explanatory_power|explanatory power]] becomes apparent. 

Insight into people, problems, and theories requires originality, creativity, inventiveness, and discernment. The skills of a detective to propose coherent explanations of the facts and an [[w:Inductive_reasoning_aptitude|aptitude for inductive reasoning]] are useful.

Creative, off-beat, and inventive explanations often turn out to be wrong, however creativity and inventiveness are the adventuresome members of the truth-seeking virtues. “They operate on the borders of knowledge and lead to the discovery of new truths for the human race.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 624 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;  Creativity is the adventurer of the intellectual virtues. 
====Assignment====
#Recall some occasion when you enjoyed some flash of insight that helped you solve a problem, illuminate a mystery, or provided some new and useful point of view.
#What prepared you to attain that insight? Was it working long and hard on the problem, letting go of the problem, engaging in some creative endeavor, or something else that allowed you to see a new solutions to a difficult problem?

===Practical Wisdom===
Aristotle defined the virtue of [[w:Phronesis|''phronesis'']], or practical wisdom as:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
“a truth-attaining intellectual quality concerned with doing and with the things that are good for human beings.”&lt;ref&gt;[https://archive.org/details/cu31924091301162 Aristotle Nichomachean ethics]. Book six, with essays, notes, and translation&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Virtues often come into conflict. The moral virtues of justice and mercy must both be considered when a judge sentences a criminal. Similarly, the intellectual virtues of humility, autonomy, and courage must all be considered when deciding to advance a bold new theory or defend an inconvenient truth. 

Linda Zagzebski argues that “we ought to consider the virtue of ''phronesis'', or practical wisdom, as a higher-order virtue that governs the entire range of moral and intellectual virtues.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 745 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;  She goes on to say: “A ''justified belief'', all things considered, is what a person with phronesis might believe in like circumstances.” &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }} @ 796 of 1227&lt;/ref&gt;

Roberts and Wood agree when they state “Practical wisdom, too, is involved in every virtue, as constituting the good judgement without which no human virtue could be exemplified in action, emotion, or judgement.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 1074 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;

Roberts and Wood continue to describe practical wisdom as the virtue of integrating each of the individual intellectual virtues “Intellectual practical wisdom is in a sense the whole of intellectual virtue—not a specialized part, like courage.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 1091 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; “… we have argued that intellectual practical wisdom is the power of good perception and judgment that an agent needs to exemplify the particular intellectual virtues in the contexts of intellectual practices.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 1142 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;

Practical wisdom is the motivation to apply each of the intellectual virtues in a well balanced approach to seeking true beliefs.
====Assignment====
#Consider previously cited examples of discovery, including Microbe hunters, investigative journalists, documentary film makers, explorers, medical pioneers, Rachel Carson, Walter Cronkite, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Darwin, Alexander Fleming, Jonas Salk, and Albert Einstein. 
#Choose one example to consider for this assignment. 
#How might a concern for humility conflict with autonomy and a resolve toward courage in the example you have chosen to study? How does each pioneer resolve that conflict?

==Skills==
The intellectual virtues described in the previous section are applied through a variety of techniques, methods, and practices we call skills. Skills are neutral in their intent. Skills can be exercised to advance some virtue, or to advance some vice. For example, skills such as keen observation or explanatory skills can be used to seek true beliefs, to bolster arguments in defense of a failed ideology, or to defend a despicable criminal. 

The list of skills that are useful in seeking true beliefs is extensive. Important skills are listed below and only briefly described. The list is incomplete because there are an unlimited number of useful skills. Please develop these skills and apply them carefully as you seek true beliefs.&lt;ref&gt;It will be better when Wikiversity includes excellent courses to help students develop each of these skills. I encourage subsequent editors to develop such courses and link them here. &lt;/ref&gt;   
===Acquiring Information===
What information can be discovered and collected?
*[[w:Exploration|'''Exploration''']]—searching for information sources. This may be as accessible as an Internet search, as effective as a library visit, as personal as a conversation or interview, or as adventuresome as travel to far away and exotic places.
*[[w:Observation|'''Observational skills''']] direct and focus attention to acquire information from primary sources. 
*[[w:Listening|'''Listening''']] helps us to explore, observe, and learn from our environment by paying careful attention to sounds, including human speech.
*[[w:Interview|'''Interviewing''']] to gather information from other people.
*[[w:Reading_(process)|'''Reading''']] and other forms of [[w:literacy|literacy]] are basic skills for learning from written information.
*'''Mechanical skills''' and techniques required to operate tools or equipment such as a microscope, telescope or other equipment such as laboratory equipment, office equipment, computer equipment or other devices required for the tasks you are performing. 
*[[w:Research|'''Research skills''']]—A wide variety of skills are used to increase our stock of knowledge.  Research is used to confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field.

===Assessing Information===
How accurately does each piece of information represent reality? How is it relevant? What is the context? What is the importance of each clue?
*'''Identifying reliable information sources'''—[[w:Source_criticism|information evaluation]], also known as source criticism, is the process of evaluating an information source such as a document, a person, a speech, a fingerprint, a photo, an observation or anything used to obtain knowledge. In relation to a given purpose, a given information source may be more or less valid, reliable or relevant. Broadly, &quot;source criticism&quot; is the interdisciplinary study of how information sources are evaluated for given tasks. The Wikipedia project provides useful guidance in [[w:Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources|identifying reliable sources]]. 
*[[Evaluating Evidence|'''Evaluating evidence''']]— As we go about our lives we inevitably encounter clues that tell us something about the world we live in. Each of these clues is a piece of evidence that provides some glimpse of reality, however it is up to us to assess the quality of that evidence, to interpret that evidence, and to constantly assemble a lifetime of evidence gathering into a coherent description of our world.
*[[Thinking Scientifically|'''Thinking Scientifically''']]— Scientific methods provide powerful techniques for disproving conjectures. Specific skills include: wonder, curiosity, open-mindedness, exploration, [[w:Learning_through_play|learning through play]], observation, discovery, gathering and evaluating evidence, humility, investigation, [[w:Experiment|experimentation]], a [[w:Skepticism|skeptical stance]], applying the [[w:Law_of_noncontradiction|law of non-contradiction]], understanding and valuing consilience, understanding and valuing coherence, [[w:Insight|insight]], learning, understanding and seeking [[w:Causality|causal mechanisms]], valid [[Deductive Logic|deductive reasoning]], understanding [[w:Inductive_reasoning_aptitude|inductive reasoning]], understanding [[w:Falsifiability|falsifiability]], valuing [[w:Transparency_(behavior)|transparency]], [[w:Open_research|open research]], valuing [[w:Reproducibility|reproducibility]], engaging in [[w:Peer_review|peer review]], and understanding and valuing [[w:Occam's_razor|parsimony]]. There are several related skills:
**Understanding and applying the [[w:Scientific_method|Scientific method]],
**[[w:Scientific_method#Hypothesis_development|Forming hypotheses]], 
**[[w:Design_of_experiments|Design of experiments]], 
**[[w:Statistical_hypothesis_testing|Testing hypothesis]], and
**Recognizing [[w:Pseudoscience|pseudoscience]].
*[[Knowing How You Know|'''Knowing how you know''']]— Developing and applying your own theory of knowledge.
*[[w:Fact_checking|'''Fact checking''']]—checking factual claims to determine their veracity and correctness.
*[[w:Fact-finding|'''Fact finding skills''']]—determining what really happened requires the investigative skills of a [[w:Detective|detective]], [[w:Journalist|journalist]], [[w:Archaeology|archeologist]], [[w:Historian|historian]], [[w:Forensic_science|forensic scientist]], or other investigator.
*'''[[Practicing Dialogue]]'''—seeking insight while learning together.

===Analyzing Information===
How does each piece of information fit together with all that is known?
*[[w:Logic|'''Logic skills''']]—forming, understanding, and analyzing valid arguments requires several skills, including: understanding [[Deductive Logic|deductive logic]], [[Recognizing Fallacies|recognizing fallacies]], identifying [[w:Counterexample|counter examples]], and [[w:Critical_thinking|critical thinking]].
*[[w:Numeracy|'''Numeracy''']]—the ability to reason and apply numerical concepts requires several related skills, including:  counting, arithmetic, computation skills, measurement skills, geometry, graphing, probability, and statistics.
*[[w:Systems_theory|'''System thinking skills''']] consider the interactions of many interrelated elements to analyze the resulting behavior. 
*[[Global Perspective|'''Adopting a global perspective''']]—understand the full extent of effects and the many causes of problems, examine interconnections, and design solutions considering a broad perspective.
*[[w:Critical_thinking|'''Critical Thinking''']]—objectively analyzing information to form a judgement.

===Synthesizing Information===
How does all that is known fit together into a consistent and coherent paradigm? What are the consistent and coherent interconnections? How can this be understood in the context of all we know? 
*[[w:Puzzle|'''Puzzle solving skills''']]
*[[w:Problem_solving|'''Problem solving skills''']]
*[[w:Spatial_visualization_ability|'''Spatial visualization abilities''']]—allow us to imagine and manipulate images in our heads.
*[[w:Insight|'''Gaining insight''']]—understanding relevant cause and effect.
*[[w:Contemplation|'''Contemplation''']] allows us to reflect on the various information we have and often results in a new understanding of the problem we are addressing.

===Expressing Ideas===
How can others best understand our ideas?
*[[w:Communication|'''Communication skills''']]—communicating meaning to others through the use of language or images requires use of several related skills. These include: [[w:language|language]] skills, [[w:listening|listening]], [[w:Composition_(language)|composition]], writing, typing, word processor usage, [[w:Illustration|illustration]], [[w:Presentation|presentation]] skills, [[w:Explanation|explanatory]] skills, [[w:Persuasion|persuasion]], [[w:Rhetoric|rhetoric]], [[Socratic methods]], [[w:Negotiation|negotiation]], [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]], and [[w:Interview|interviewing]] skills.
*[[w:Trivium|'''Trivium''']] including grammar, logic, and rhetoric are basic skills.
*[[w:Teaching_method|'''Teaching skills''']]—assisting learners requires use of several related skills. These include lecturing, demonstrating, collaborating, posing questions, assessing understanding, explaining, and clarifying.

===Assignment===
#Develop the skills you need to seek true beliefs.
#Notice as you apply your skills if you are using them toward true beliefs, or for some other purpose. 
==Faculties==
Humans have many natural abilities—such as eyesight, the acuity of other senses, and memory—that we call ''faculties''. These various faculties are powers that are natural to us as human beings, and although they are not acquired through practice,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 303 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt; it is possible to develop them and take steps to prevent them from deteriorating. We are equipped with faculties for knowing things, and we pursue knowledge by various means using these faculties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }} @ 311 of 1329&lt;/ref&gt;

Various researchers&lt;ref&gt;See, for example Roberts and Wood @ 307 of 1329, Zagzebski @ 55 of 1227, the [[w:Mind#Mental_faculties|Wikipedia article on the Mind]], and the work of [[w:Thomas_Reid_(humanist)|Thomas Reid]]. &lt;/ref&gt;  have identified several faculties, including:
*The [[w:Sense|senses]], including eyesight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell that inform our perceptions.
*[[w:Stimulus_modality|Sensory modalities]], including temperature sensitivity, kinesthetic sense ([[w:proprioception|proprioception]]), pain, balance, vibration, and various internal stimuli such as the sense of hunger.
*[[w:Memory|Memory]]—the ability to preserve, retain, and subsequently recall knowledge, information, or experience.
*[[w:Thought|Thinking]]—allows humans to make sense of the things in the world. 
*[[w:Imagination|Imagination]]—the creative ability to form images, ideas, and sensations in the mind without any immediate input of the senses
*[[w:Consciousness|Consciousness]]—being aware of an external object or something within oneself. 
*[[w:Introspection|Introspection]]—the ability to know directly that one exists, who one is, and some of one’s own state of mind
*[[w:Inductive_reasoning|Inference]]—the ability to logically derive one thought from another
*Induction—the ability to generalize from specific cases
*Language readiness—the ability to learn and understand languages
*Coherence seeking—the disposition to demand consistency and mutual support among one’s beliefs.

These faculties form the foundation for developing the various skills identified in the previous section. For example, we rely on the ''faculty'' of sight to develop the ''skills'' of observation and reading. We then rely on various ''intellectual virtues'' to apply our skills toward seeking true beliefs. 

Some faculties, such as the ability to [[w:Pattern_recognition_(psychology)|recognize patterns]], are often very helpful but can also [[w:Apophenia|cause illusions]] and may not be oriented toward attaining true beliefs. 

In addition to the ''faculties'' listed here, humans have several ''frailties'', such as [[w:Confirmation_bias|confirmation bias]], prejudice, wishful thinking, selfishness, fear, vanity, and laziness. These are the origins of the various ''vices'' identified in an earlier section. 

The intellectual virtues are acts of will that engage and amplify our ''faculties'' while overcoming—or at least diminishing—our ''frailties'', in pursuit of true beliefs. 
===Assignment===
#Choose one ''faculty'' from the above list to focus on for this assignment.
#Identify various ''skills'' that rely on that faculty that you have developed.
#Choose one ''frailty'' to study for this assignment.
#How do you use your ''intellectual virtue''s to motivate use of your skills to overcome frailty and seek true belief? 
==Conclusions==
Reality is vast and nearly unlimited. True beliefs correspond to reality. Untrue beliefs are inconsistent with reality, conflict with reality, and are not based in reality. True beliefs are the portion of reality we are able to experience, learn about, and understand. ''Intellectual virtues'', the primary topic of this course, are ''motivations'' toward true beliefs.

Because we choose our beliefs we are personally responsible for the beliefs we hold. We are morally responsible for our beliefs and we have a moral obligation to choose true beliefs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://philosophyasawayoflife.medium.com/the-ethics-of-belief-f1d459c572e3|title=The ethics (or lack thereof) of belief|last=Life|first=Philosophy as a Way of|date=2022-08-31|website=Medium|language=en|access-date=2022-09-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

A ''virtue'' is a deep and lasting acquired excellence that has been ''deliberately'' developed over time. Virtues have intrinsic value, they are motivations toward an identifiable end, and are oriented toward success.
[[File:Intellectual Virtues Overcome Vices.jpg|thumb|Intellectual virtues work to overcome various vices as we pursue true beliefs.]]
Virtues are willful efforts to overcome naturally occurring frailties we call vices. The intellectual virtues are acts of will that engage and amplify our skills and faculties while overcoming—or at least diminishing—our frailties in pursuit of true beliefs. 

Assimilate these key lessons into your daily life:
*Attaining true beliefs is as much a matter of ''will'' as it is of ''skill''.
*Maintain your motivation toward true beliefs as your primary epistemological motive—your way of knowing. 
*Important knowledge is significant, worthy, and relevant. Seek to understand important knowledge. 
*Develop and exercise your intellectual virtues of: the love of knowledge, firmness, courage and caution, humility, autonomy, perseverance, generosity, insightfulness, and practical wisdom.
*Develop and exercise your skills in service to your intellectual virtues. 
*[[Facing Facts/Reality is our common ground|Reality is our common ground]]. Seek true beliefs to better understand our common ground. 
===Assignment===
Exercise your intellectual virtues as follows:
#Seek true beliefs.
#Dismiss untrue beliefs.
#Dispel unfounded beliefs.
#[[Living Wisely/Advance no falsehoods|Advance no falsehoods]]. Be impeccable with your word. As you communicate, represent only true beliefs as being true.
#[[Practicing Dialogue|Practice dialogue]].
#Embrace [[Facing Facts/Reality is our common ground|reality as our common ground]].

==Further Reading==
Students who are interested in learning more about the intellectual virtues may wish to read these books: 
*{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert C. |last2=Wood |first2=W. Jay |date=2007 |title=Intellectual Virtues: An Essay in Regulative Epistemology|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=352 |isbn=978-0199575701 }}
*{{cite book |last=Zagzebski |first=Linda Trinkaus |date=September 13, 1996 |title=Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=384 |isbn=978-0521578264 |author-link=w:Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski }}
*{{cite book |last=Baehr |first=Jason |date=2015 |title=Cultivating Good Minds: A Philosophical &amp; Practical Guide to Educating for Intellectual Virtues  }} See: http://intellectualvirtues.org/why-should-we-educate-for-intellectual-virtues-2-2/
*{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Ian |date=December 1, 2015 |title=Curious: The Desire to Know and Why Your Future Depends On It |publisher=Basic Books |pages=256 |isbn=978-0465097623 }}
*{{cite book |last=Ariely |first=Dan |author-link=w:Dan_Ariely |date=September 17, 2024 |title=Misbelief: What Makes Rational People Believe Irrational Things |publisher=Harper Perennial  |pages=320 |isbn=978-0063280434}}
*{{cite book |last=Pinker |first= Steven |author-link=w:Steven_Pinker|date= September 28, 2021  |title=[[w:Rationality_(book)| Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters]]| publisher= Viking |pages=432 |isbn= 978-0525561996 }}
*{{cite book |last=Kashdan |first=Todd B. |date=December 7, 2010 |title=Curious?: Discover the Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=336 |isbn=978-0061661198 }}
*{{cite book |last=Chalmers |first=Alan F. |date=September 15, 2013 |title=What Is This Thing Called Science? |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. |pages=304 |isbn=978-1624660382 |author-link=w:Alan_Chalmers }}
*{{cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas S. |date=April 30, 2012 |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University Of Chicago Press |pages=264  |isbn=978-0226458120 |author-link=w:Thomas_Kuhn }}
*{{cite book |last=Gimbel |first=Steven |date=April 15, 2011 |title=Exploring the Scientific Method: Cases and Questions |publisher=University Of Chicago Press |pages=424 |isbn= 978-0226294834 }}
*{{cite book |last=Dennett |first=Daniel C. |date=May 5, 2014 |title=Intuition Pumps And Other Tools for Thinking |publisher=W. W. Norton &amp; Company |pages=512 |isbn=978-0393348781 |author-link=w:Daniel_Dennett }}
*{{cite book |last=Kahneman |first=Daniel |date=April 2, 2013 |title=Thinking, Fast and Slow |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |pages=499 |isbn=978-0374533557 |author-link=w:Daniel_Kahneman }}
*{{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Alec |date=October 25, 2004 |title=The Logic of Real Arguments |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
*{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Robert A. |date=March 17, 2009 |title=On Being Certain: Believing You Are Right Even When You're Not |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |pages=272 |isbn=978-0312541521}}
*[https://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/630/things-i-mean-to-know Things I Mean to Know], This American Life podcast, October 27
* {{cite book |last=Caulfield |first=Michael A.  |title= Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers |publisher=BCcampus OpenEd |pages=127 }} See: https://open.bccampus.ca/find-open-textbooks/?uuid=ccbb4e77-b20f-4dec-8a9f-67ccc9bc774b&amp;contributor=&amp;keyword=&amp;subject=
*{{cite book |last=Andersen |first=Kurt |date=September 5, 2017 |title=Fantasyland: How America Went Haywire: A 500-Year History |publisher=Random House |pages=480 |isbn=978-1400067213 |author-link=w:Kurt_Andersen }}
*{{cite book |last=Gray |first=Dave |author-link= |date=September 14, 2016 |title=Liminal Thinking: Create the Change You Want by Changing the Way You Think  |publisher=Two Waves Books |pages=184 |isbn=978-1933820460}}
*{{cite book |last=Schulz |first=Kathryn |author-link=w:Kathryn_Schulz |date=June 8, 2010 |title=Being Wrong: Adventures in the Margin of Error |publisher=Ecco |pages=416 |isbn=0061176044}}

I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research.
*''Epistemic Responsibility'', by  Loraine Code
*''Epistemic Virtue and Doxastic Responsibility'', by James Montmarquet
*''The Concept of the Mind'', by Gilbert Ryle
*''Rational Belief: Structure, Grounds, and Intellectual Virtue'', by Robert Audi
*''Intellectual Character: What It Is, Why It Matters, and How Get It'', by Ron Ritchhart
*''Mastermind: How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes'', by Maria Konnikova
*''Believing is Seeing: Observations on the Mysteries of Photography'', by Errol Morris
*''The Master and His Emissary'', by Iain McGilchrist
*''Quackery: A Brief History of the Worst Ways to Cure Everything'', by Lydia Kang and Nate Pedersen
*''Overload: Finding the Truth in Today's Deluge of News'', by Bob Schieffer
*''The Truth-Seeker’s Handbook: A Science-Based Guide'', by Gleb Tsipursky
*''The Constitution of Knowledge: A Defense of Truth'', by Jonathan Rauch
*''Proof: The Art and Science of Certainty'', by  Adam Kucharski

==References==
Note that many references are to electronic versions of the books cited. The traditional concept of page numbers is not relevant to an electric book. Therefore, this course uses the convention of @ nnn of mmm to denote the citation is located at information position nnn when viewing the electronic book at a font size that results in a total of mmm information locations. 

&lt;references/&gt;

[[Category:Life skills]]
[[Category:Applied Wisdom]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Clear Thinking]]
[[Category:Reality]]
[[Category:Courses]]
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==Overview==
[[File:Shiva Bangalore.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Shiva, God of Yoga.]]

[[wikipedia:Yoga|Yoga]], according to [[wikipedia:Main_Page|Wikipedia]], is is a group of [[wikipedia:Human_body|physical]], [[wikipedia:Mind|mental]], and [[wikipedia:Spirituality|spiritual]] practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India, around 5000 BCE (McCall, 2014). Another way of putting the description of yoga into words is that it is a system created for greater physical and mental clarity with a goal to transcend the limited concepts of self we have acquired through society (Douglass, 2007), and even to attain [[wikipedia:Enlightenment_(spiritual)|enlightenment]].

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Yoga and emotion|Yoga and emotion]] present a strong, significant relationship, showing that regular practice improves physical and emotional well-being. As will be explained throughout this page, yoga has great outcomes [[wikipedia:Anatomy|anatomically]], but it is highly important to understand the origins of the practice of yoga and the many aspects of it, and use that to appropriately guide our individual practice.

For the purpose of this book chapter, the word 'yoga' will be used to encompass the &quot;original&quot; yoga as well as the modern, physical postures (''[[wikipedia:Asana|asanas]]''), breathing exercises and techniques (''[[wikipedia:Pranayama|pranayama]]'') and [[wikipedia:Meditation|meditation]] as these are the forms of yoga used throughout the studies that will be mentioned.

== Biological effects of yoga ==
[[File:Yoga prayer by the Sea.jpg|thumb|alt=|''Figure 2''. Calmness brought by yoga practice.|left]]

Conditions of [[wikipedia:Psychological_stress|stress]] create imbalances in the [[wikipedia:Autonomic_nervous_system|autonomic nervous system]] , which comprises the [[wikipedia:Sympathetic_nervous_system|sympathetic nervous system]]  and the [[wikipedia:Parasympathetic_nervous_system|parasympathetic nervous system]] (Streeter, Gerbarg, Saper, Ciraulo &amp; Brown, 2012). Stress decreases activity in the parasympathetic nervous system, which is commonly known to be responsible for the &quot;rest and digest&quot; functions in the body, and increased activity in the sympathetic nervous system, which in turn is known for its &quot;fight or flight&quot; reactions (Streeter et al., 2012).       

[[wikipedia:Ujjayi_breath|Ujjayi breath]] is a type of yogic breathing technique employed in practice, usually done hand in hand with asana practice. Many forms of yogic breathing have shown significant positive cardiovascular and respiratory outcomes, among them ujjayi breath showing the greatest improvement (Mason et al., 2013).       

{{Roundboxtop|theme=6}}
&lt;b&gt;Breathing exercise to activate the parasympathetic nervous system&lt;/b&gt;
Regardless of where you are or what you are doing, this is a breathing exercise that you can use to relax your body and bring your mind back to the present moment. 

Close your eyes if that is comfortable to you. Consciously release tension from your shoulders, your arms, your stomach, your legs and your feet. Relax your forehead, your eyelids, your nose, cheeks, lips and chin. Unclench your jaw and release your tongue from the roof of your mouth. Let go of all tension that no longer serves you. Now bring your awareness to your breathing. We're going to breathe in for a certain count, hold for one and breathe out for double the breath in. Breathe in for 3 counts, hold for 1, and breathe out for 6. Now breathe in for 4 counts, hold for 1 and breathe out for 8. Repeat the same pattern, or increase the counts it if it feels right. Continue doing so as long as needed; the parasympathetic nervous system will activate and your mind will bring you back to the here-and-now.
{{Roundboxbottom}}

The GABA ([[wikipedia:Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid|gamma-aminobutyric acid]]) system is crucial in the brain for regulating emotion and threat perception as well as stress reactivity (Streeter et al., 2012; Streeter et al., 2010). Numerous studies have concluded that yoga regulated levels of GABA in the brain, leading to improved mood (Streeter et al., 2012; Streeter et al., 2010) 

{{Roundboxtop|theme=7}}
&lt;b&gt;Does yoga increase GABA system activity or is it exercise in general?&lt;/b&gt; 
Streeter and colleagues (2010) created a study to understand whether it was yoga specifically that increased the GABA system activity, or if it was exercise in general. The researchers found that, compared to walking, yoga results in a greater increase in the parasympathetic nervous system, there were increased [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamic]] GABA levels, which in turn are associated with a reduction of anxiety and better mood.
{{Roundboxbottom}}    

==Yoga and mood disorders==

=== Major Depressive Disorder ===
Criteria for [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|Major Depressive Disorder]] includes experiencing a depressed mood for more than 2 weeks, [[wikipedia:Anhedonia|anhedonia]], changes in weight, appetite and energy levels, [[wikipedia:Psychomotor_retardation|psychomotor retardation]] and [[wikipedia:Psychomotor_agitation|agitation]], diminished [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognitive]] ability and [[wikipedia:Suicidal_ideation|suicidal ideation]] (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). According to the [[wikipedia:DSM-5|DSM-5]], these symptoms cause significant distress in a person's social, occupational and general functioning life (APA, 2013).  

Stress has been found to heighten symptoms in certain disorders, including depression, as it is associated an increased [[wikipedia:Allostatic_load|allostatic load]], an underactive parasympathetic nervous system and with low levels of GABA activity (Streeter et al., 2012; Streeter et al., 2010). Yoga has shown therapeutic effects in this sense as it has proven to increase activity in both the parasympathetic nervous system and the GABA system (Streeter et al., 2012; Streeter et al., 2010). The effect of yoga on mood is immediate, this was confirmed in a study assessing mood states in patients with depression before and after a yoga class, showing significant reductions for depression, neurotic symptoms, anger and anxiety (Shapiro et al., 2007){{expand}}. In addition to mood improvement, executive functioning has also been shown to be enhanced with the practice of yoga{{fact}}. In addition to conventional [[wikipedia:Antidepressant|anti-depressants]], yoga can significantly improve [[wikipedia:Working_memory|verbal working memory]], attention span and visuo-motor speeds (Sharma, Mondal, Goswami &amp; Gandhi, 2006){{expand}}.

=== Bipolar Disorder ===
[[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar Disorders]] encompass [[wikipedia:Bipolar_I_disorder|Bipolar I]], [[wikipedia:Bipolar_II_disorder|Bipolar II]] and [[wikipedia:Cyclothymia|Cyclothymia]]. According to the [[wikipedia:DSM-5|DSM-5]], bipolar I criteria consists of one or more episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]], and a [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_episode|major depressive episode]] may be present. Bipolar II criteria consists of at least one major depressive episode, at least one episode of [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and a manic episode has never occurred. Cyclothymia is a more chronic, but less severe version of Bipolar I and II.   

Surprisingly, there is little to no research on the impact of yoga on bipolar disorders (Da Silva, Ravindran &amp; Ravindran, 2009). There is a study that looked at the impact of a mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MCBT) in patients with bipolar and unipolar disorder with a history of suicidal ideation or behaviour{{fact}}. This study found that MCBT results in significant effects in terms of reducing anxiety as well as depressive symptoms in patients with bipolar disorder (Williams et al., 2008). This is one relatively small study that only recruited people with suicidal ideation or behaviour, while informative, cannot be relied on on its own or generalised to this topic of yoga's effect on bipolar{{gr}}.     

===Other illnesses===
Aside from mood disorders, yoga has also demonstrated strong benefits for other DSM-5 classified mental disorders. Yoga interventions have shown decrease in anxiety; which has also been mentioned in studies looking at patients with bipolar and depression (Shapiro et al., 2007; Streeter et al., 2010; Williams et al., 2008; Woodyard, 2011). In terms of eating disorders, lower body dissatisfaction, lower drive for thinness, decrease in bulimic behaviours and decrease in preoccupation over food were associated with yoga interventions (Klein &amp; Cook-Cottone, 2013).  

==== Implementation ====
A recent study supported the use of an online yoga program, tailored to treat mood disorders, as an effective intervention in decreasing the negative effect of mood disorders (Uebelacker, et al, 2018).  

Yoga is seen as a promising intervention for depressive disorder as it is low on cost and easy to implement (Shapiro et al., 2007), it is seen as highly effective alongside mainstream treatment, but hasn't yet been proven to be a curative treatment on its own (Büssing, Michalsen, Khalsa, Telles &amp; Sherman, 2012).  

== Theories of emotion ==
{{expand}}

==== Distraction hypothesis ====
The distraction hypothesis states that exercise distracts the mind from negative thoughts and feelings, and when distracted from such intrusive sentiments, there is a reduction in anxiety (Peluso &amp; Andrade, 2005). During exercise, people tend to switch their attention to the present moment, their physiological state (Craft 2005), which is especially true in yoga, where the conscious mind is brought to the awareness of the body.   

==== Flow theory ====
A [[wikipedia:Holism|holistic]] sensation is felt when an act is carried out with complete focus and intrinsic enjoyment, it is a state of absolute concentration, enjoyment and low self-awareness (Csikszentmihalyi &amp; LeFevre, 1989; Ullén et al., 2012, Teng, 2011). This sensation and state of being is defined as flow. Flow occurs when performing an enjoyable, yet slightly challenging activity (Ullén et al., 2012) and can be strongly related to yoga in different ways. Firstly, the word &quot;flow&quot; is one that is regularly used in the practice of yoga as yoga does not try to force, but let happen as is. Yoga practice can be as challenging as one decides to make it; it is completely up to the individual how difficult the practice is. Finally, it is a time of low self-awareness as the intention of yoga is to release any sense of ego and be the purest form one can be{{fact}}.

{{Roundboxtop|theme=2}}&lt;b&gt;Case Study&lt;/b&gt;   

Allegra is a 19 year old that{{gr}} has struggled with major depression for as long as she can remember. She has been prescribed a wide array of medication over the years, with nothing helping long-term. She joined a gym as she heard that exercise has been proven to alleviate symptoms, and found that they offered yoga, so she decided to try out a class. The teacher made Allegra feel very at ease as she repeated that yoga wasn't about the poses or the flexibility, and Allegra found herself losing herself in the flow of the class. She wasn't focused on what she couldn't do - instead she just allowed her body to move in a way that felt good. Allegra has been hooked ever since, and has found that whenever she finishes yoga she feels very relaxed, in a better mood and as though she has a clear mind. Allegra, through conversing with her teacher, gradually learnt more and more about the roots of yoga, which drew her into the practice and the lifestyle. Although Allegra acknowledges that her depression hasn't disappeared, she continues to follow her journey with yoga and its teachings and feels as though she is coming to peace with who she is more and more as time passes.
{{Roundboxbottom}}

Further research is needed to focus on theories directly related to yoga and emotion, rather than general exercise.

[[File:Mr-yoga-half-cammel.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Ardha ustrasana (half camel pose).]]

[[File:Jitendra Singh performing Yoga, on the occasion of the 4th International Day of Yoga 2018, in Jammu (2).JPG|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Ustrasana (camel pose).|alt=]]

==Conclusion==
If you were to experience a yoga class today in the [[wikipedia:Western_world|western world]], you would find that the majority of people attend for the health benefits, including [[wikipedia:Physical_strength|strength]] and [[wikipedia:Flexibility_(anatomy)|flexibility]]. The physical level of [[wikipedia:Asana|asana]] alone is not yoga and will do little to develop spiritual growth. 

Vast amounts of research have shown the benefits of yoga on disorders, especially in the field of depression and anxiety. The practice of yoga, which includes yoga poses, breathing techniques, meditation and chanting, among others, has proved to positively impact the parasympathetic nervous system and the GABA system in the brain, which result in improved moods and reduced anxiety. The change in mood states are immediate when practicing yoga, and it is an easily implemented and cost effective way to aid treatment for multiple disorders. Although proved to be highly effective, it is not yet proved to be a curative treatment on its own, without other more conventional and mainstream treatments, such as therapy and antidepressants. More research is needed in the area of bipolar disorders, but other research also shows strong effects of yoga on other DSM-5 disorders.  

Finally, although this chapter has outlined to many anatomical benefits of yoga, it is important to note that yoga holds the core value that a soul has no bad; it is divine as it is and does not need to be fixed or changed. In today's age there is a strong emphasis on needing to change, fix, improve and understand. When approaching the practice of yoga, these limiting beliefs are not of service.{{fact}}

{{quote|text =The soul always knows what to do to heal itself. The challenge is to silence the mind.|author= 
 Caroline Myss}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Mood|Emotion and mood]] (Book chapter, 2010){{expand}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders'' (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Büssing, A., Michalsen, A., Khalsa, S. B. S., Telles, S., &amp; Sherman, K. J. (2012). Effects of yoga on mental and physical health: a short summary of reviews. ''Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'', 2012.

Craft, L. L. (2005). Exercise and clinical depression: examining two psychological mechanisms. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''6'', 151–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2003.11.003

Csikszentmihalyi, M., &amp; LeFevre, J. (1989). Optimal experience in work and leisure. ''Journal of personality and social psychology'', 56(5), 815.

Da Silva, T. L., Ravindran, L. N., &amp; Ravindran, A. V. (2009). Yoga in the treatment of mood and anxiety disorders: A review. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''2'', 6-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2008.12.002

Douglass, L. (2007). How did we get here? A history of yoga in America, 1800-1970. ''International Journal of Yoga Therapy'', 17(1), 35-42.

Klein, J., &amp; Cook-Cottone, C. (2013). The effects of yoga on eating disorder symptoms and correlates: A review. ''International Journal of Yoga Therapy'', ''23'', 41-50. http://www.iayt.org/?page=AboutIJYT

Mason, H., Vandoni, M., Debarbieri, G., Codrons, E., Ugargol, V., &amp; Bernardi, L. (2013). Cardiovascular and respiratory effect of yogic slow breathing in the yoga beginner: what is the best approach?. ''Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'', 2013.

McCall, M. C. (2014). In search of yoga: Research trends in a western medical database. ''International Journal of Yoga'', 7(1), 4.

Peluso, M. A. M., &amp; Andrade, L. H. S. G. D. (2005). Physical activity and mental health: the association between exercise and mood. ''Clinics'', ''60'', 61-70. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1807-59322005000100012

Shapiro, D., Cook, I. A., Davydov, D. M., Ottaviani, C., Leuchter, A. F., &amp; Abrams, M. (2007). Yoga as a complementary treatment of depression: effects of traits and moods on treatment outcome. ''Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine'', 4(4), 493-502.

Sharma, V. K., Das, S., Mondal, S., Goswami, U., &amp; Gandhi, A. (2006). Effect of Sahaj Yoga on neuro-cognitive functions in patients suffering from major depression. ''Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology'', 50(4), 375.

Streeter, C. C., Gerbarg, P. L., Saper, R. B., Ciraulo, D. A., &amp; Brown, R. P. (2012). Effects of yoga on the autonomic nervous system, gamma-aminobutyric-acid, and allostasis in epilepsy, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Medical hypotheses'', ''78'', 571-579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2012.01.021

Streeter, C. C., Jensen, J. E., Perlmutter, R. M., Cabral, H. J., Tian, H., Terhune, D. B., ... &amp; Renshaw, P. F. (2007). Yoga Asana sessions increase brain GABA levels: a pilot study. ''The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine'', ''13'', 419-426. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2007.6338

Streeter, C. C., Whitfield, T. H., Owen, L., Rein, T., Karri, S. K., Yakhkind, A., Perlmutter, A., Prescott, A., Renshaw, P. F., Ciraulo, D. A. &amp; Jensen, J. E. (2010). Effects of yoga versus walking on mood, anxiety, and brain GABA levels: a randomized controlled MRS study. ''The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine'', ''16'', 1145-1152. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2010.0007

Teng, C. I. (2011). Who are likely to experience flow? Impact of temperament and character on flow. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 50(6), 863-868.

Uebelacker, L., Dufour, S.C., Dinerman, J.G., Walsh, S. L., Hearing, C.,  Gillette, L.T., Deckersbach, T., Nierenberg, A.A., Weinstock, L., Sylvia, L. G. (2018) Examining the Feasibility and Acceptability of an Online Yoga Class for Mood Disorders: A Mood Network Study. ''Journal of Psychiatric Practice'', ''24'', 60–67.https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000286

Ullén, F., de Manzano, Ö., Almeida, R., Magnusson, P. K., Pedersen, N. L., Nakamura, J., ... &amp; Madison, G. (2012). Proneness for psychological flow in everyday life: Associations with personality and intelligence. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 52(2), 167-172.

Williams, J. M. G., Alatiq, Y., Crane, C., Barnhofer, T., Fennell, M. J., Duggan, D. S., ... &amp; Goodwin, G. M. (2008). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) in bipolar disorder: Preliminary evaluation of immediate effects on between-episode functioning. ''Journal of affective disorders'', ''107'', 275-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2007.08.022

Woodyard, C. (2011). Exploring the therapeutic effects of yoga and its ability to increase quality of life. ''International Journal of Yoga'', ''4'', 49. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F0973-6131.85485

}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJJWArRfKa0&amp;frags=pl%2Cwn Yoga for Anxiety: A 20 minute flow] (Youtube video)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUXdY8mKGEA The Science of Yoga (Part 2- Posture)] (Youtube video)
*[https://worldreligionnews.wordpress.com/2013/12/12/exploitation-of-yoga-by-the-west/ Exploitation of Yoga by the West] (Article)

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==Overview==
Ever since the discovery of cancer in 1775, society’s knowledge and treatments have advanced significantly. However, the threat of cancer is still extremely relevant as, in 2018, cancer was the second leading cause of death across the globe{{fact}}. One of the best ways to prevent mortality in cancer is early detection, which can be achieved through education and cancer screening. Unfortunately, while education in most cultures is quite high, cancer screening rates are still very low{{fact}}. There are multiple motivational reasons that could explain why individuals may choose to either participate or avoid cancer screening examinations. The top three investigated in this book chapter are emotional factors, perceptions and beliefs and finally demographics. By investigating these factor researchers are hoping to identify ways in which to turn any motivational barriers into facilitators of cancer screening.

== Cancer ==
[[File:201711_CancerCell.svg|thumb|''Figure 1:'' Artistic representation of a cancer cell]]

Before going into motivational influencers of cancer screening decisions it is important to have a basic understanding of cancer. Cancer is a complex and diverse disease that comes in [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer many different forms]{{ic|user peer-reviewed academic sources for citations}}. It occurs when cells within the human body do not undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) and continue to grow. These cells then create a mass which is commonly referred to as a tumour. Unfortunately cancer is not a new disease, there has been mentions of cancer from as early as [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/history-of-cancer/what-is-cancer.html 3000 BC]. In 2018, the [https://gco.iarc.fr/today/data/factsheets/cancers/39-All-cancers-fact-sheet.pdf International Agency of Research on Cancer] reported over 233, 773 individuals within Australia and New Zealand, 3, 679, 584 individuals in America, and 4, 229, 662 in Europe living with cancer.Regrettably, at this current time there is no hard and fast cure for cancer. However, this does not mean it is not treatable. There are many forms of treatments available that have varying rates of success depending on the development and location of the cancer. The three most common include Chemotherapy (the removal of cancer cells using anti-cancer drugs), Radiation therapy (the use of x-rays to damage or destroy cancer cells) and Surgery. Other less common treatments include; Complementary therapy, Hormone therapy, Immunotherapy and Palliative care. To this day as our knowledge and understanding of cancer grows so do our treatment methods. If these treatments pass through all the legal and ethical boards then they to what is known as [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/treatment/clinical-trials clinical trials]. These trials allow researchers to test the effectiveness of the treatment.Due to the lack of cure, one of the most crucial techniques to decreasing mortality rates of cancer, is early detection! The later the cancer is detected the harder it is to treat as the mass typically is bigger and spread out across the body.&amp;nbsp; Two of the major components of early detection are education and cancer screening. Though educational events and programs provided by general public health organizations, such as the World Health Organisation (WHO), people are provided with the necessary knowledge that they would need to identify cancer symptoms early. This allows them to be proactive and seek out assistance if they believe that they are experiencing any potential symptoms. Education also brings awareness to proactive health actions that are available to the general public. Which lead to the second key component of early detection, cancer screening. [https://www.who.int/cancer/detection/variouscancer/en/ Cancer screening] is a specific but simple test that allows for the early detection of any cancerous cells or potential future risks{{gr}}. Regrettably, as cancer is such a multifarious disease, at this current time there is no universal test. However, there are screening options for various specific types of cancer including but not limited to: breast cancer, bowel cancer, and colorectal cancer. Despite the increase in screening options available to the general public, the percentage of those undergoing a screening test remains low.

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Case Study}}
Sally is a 30-year-old Caucasian female, who has just been diagnosed with cancer. Unfortunately, the mass is large and primarily located in her breast. Specialists have advised that she seeks immediate treatment. To remove the cancerous cells, she will have to undergo intensive chemotherapy, with the potential need for surgery.

Outside of being diagnosed with cancer, Sally lives a very healthy lifestyle that includes frequent exercise, a balanced diet and the avoidance of cancer risk behaviours such as smoking and prolonged time in the sun. Sally works 8 hour days 5 days a week in a sedentary office job. She also volunteers for the RSPCA at her local shelter between 8 and 12 on Saturday and coordinates a million paws walk in May each year. Once a year, her workplace offers free cancer screening for all employees. Every year, Sally chooses not to partake in these test as she believes that she is far too busy to participate . Furthermore, when Sally was in her early teens, she was in a server{{sp}} car accident which resulted in extensive scarring along her ribs. Sally has stated that she tends to avoid situations in which her scars may be view by others. No one in Sally’s immediate family or peer group has cancer. She has had little interest in furthering her knowledge, instead she prefers to read about animals.
{{Robelbox/close}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
Pondering
*What do you think were some of the barriers that prevented Sally from accessing the free cancer screening provided by her workplace?
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Motivational influences ==
Despite the increase in screening options available to the general public, the percentage of those undergoing a screening test remains low. In 2020 Ampofo and colleagues, conducted a study to try and identify the barriers that prevent women in the Ashanti Region of Ghana from participating in cervical cancer screening. Their results showed that only 3% of those who participated in the study had partook in a cervical cancer screening test. While this shows an increase in tests taken by women in Ghana since 2014 (Nancy Innocentia Ebu, 2014), this is still very low. Furthermore, in 2006 researchers in Hong Kong conducted a telephone survey to identify factors linked with an increase of colorectal cancer (CRC) screening. Of the 1,004 participants, aged between 30 and 65  years, only 10% reported going for a CRC screening test (Joseph J. Y. Sung, 2008). These statistics suggest that while there has been some success with cancer screening there is still room for improvement.When investigating how to improve participation in cancer screening test, the first and probably most important question to ask is what prevents people from engaging in cancer screening? It is also important to consider what would enable individuals to access cancer screening services. Current research has identified a multitude of reasons why people might chose{{gr}} not to undergo a cancer screening test{{fact}}. These factors tend to fall into one of three categories; emotional factors, perceptions and beliefs and last but not least demographics. All three factors individually have been found to influence the likelihood of an individual seeking out preventive health behaviours{{fact}}. However, like most things in life, it is not as cut and dry as it may appear, as these factors often tend to interact and influence each other.

=== Emotional Factors ===
When making important decisions, it is ideal to think through the situation rationally and with little emotional input. Regrettably, emotions are not easy to disregard and often have an influence over an individual’s choices. According to Loewenstein and Lerner{{fact}}, emotions can be divided into two categories when making a decision; Anticipated emotions and Immediate emotions. Anticipated emotions are defined as the expectation of a future emotion and is often viewed in terms of gains and losses (Lowenstein, 2003). Whereas immediate emotions (Han, 2009) (otherwise known as true emotions) are the emotions experienced at the time of decision making{{gr}}.In relation to cancer screening, the top two emotions that typically act as barriers are fear (anticipated emotion) and embarrassment (immediate emotion){{fact}}. When thinking about personal risk of cancer, fear is often generated as a response to the potential threat to one’s life{{fact}}. This often leads to an avoidance of preventive behaviours such as cancer screening, as people are trying to prevent a potential emotional upset caused by a confirmed diagnosis (Philippa J. Murphy, 2018). In 2010, Jones and colleagues found that of the 660 participants 74% reported fear as the biggest barrier to bowel cancer screening. Additionally, one study conducted by Reynolds and colleagues (2018) found those who delayed cancer screening tests for bowel cancer typically had a higher level of knowledge and fear for a negative outcome (e.g. a diagnosis). They also identified that this avoidance was lower in those who had discussed their risks with their doctor. From their results, Reynolds and colleagues suggested that an important aspect of facilitating cancer screening is to understand how emotions, particularly fear, embarrassment and disgust, impact screening decisions. To do this further research is required.Cancer screening involves discussions about intimate and embarrassing topics. This embarrassment can lead to the avoidance of cancer screening. In 2018, researchers, Naomi N Modeste, Malcolm Cort and Janice E McLean, conducted a study to examine the potential factors associated with early detection of prostate cancer in men living in Guyana. Among other findings they identified embarrassment as a potential influencer for participation or recommendation for cancer screening. Another thing to consider when looking at participant embarrassment, is the type of cancer screening. In 2010, it was identified that, in Australia, bowel cancer screening rates are lower than that of breast and prostate cancer (Yip, 2010). Furthermore, multiple studies have been conducted, that explore the impact embarrassment has on colorectal cancer screening rates. During a colorectal cancer examination, embarrassment can be triggered by undesired intimacy during examinations and faecal/rectal embarrassment (Nathan S. Consedine I. L., 2010). Having said this, in a separate study, Consedine and colleagues (2011) individuals are less likely to experience embarrassment and intimacy concerns when their physician is of the same gender.  As emotions, such as embarrassment, are internal phenomena it is difficult to pinpoint key influencers that will decrease their impact on cancer screening rates. However, with further research, the scope for what caused embarrassment during cancer screening examinations can be reduced and hopefully methods to facilitate participation in cancer screening, despite any emotional turmoil, will be developed.

=== Perceptions and Beliefs ===
When examining how perceptions and beliefs can affect an individual’s motivation to engage in health related behaviours, it is almost impossible not to discuss the Health Belief Model (HBM). The HBM was first proposed in the 1950’s{{gr}} and is still prevalent today. It proposes that individuals engage, and change health behaviours based on their perception of the following factors: susceptibility to the threat, the seriousness of the threat, the benefits and barriers of the protective behaviour, cues to action on the protective behaviour and their self-efficacy. A large portion of current research into barriers and facilitators of cancer screening often use the HBM as the theoretical basis for their research. One such study conducted in the United States found that, of the 202 Korean American immigrant women that participated,  those who perceived their risk for developing breast cancer as high where more likely to undergo breast cancer screening than the individuals with a low risk perception (Hee Yun Lee, 2015) . This is reflected in Roth and colleagues’ study in 2018. Roth and colleagues found that in a community setting, an individual’s motivation to undergo lung cancer screening is determined by their perceptions of the benefit of early detection and risk to their safety, as well as any personal relationships. Furthermore, in 2002, LaToya T. Austin and Farah Ahmad conducted a literature review that explored current research on breast and cervical cancer screening in Hispanic women and the HBM. From their research they found that of the five factors in the HBM, perceived susceptibility was the biggest barrier for cancer screening among older Hispanic women and as respect of authority is a highly held value within the Hispanic culture, if properly implemented, the construct cues to action could be a major facilitator for cancer screening (LaToya T. Austin, 2002){{ic|overly long sentence}}. Unfortunately, according to LaToya T. Austin and Farah Ahmad there is very limited research into the constructs, perceived seriousness and self-efficacy. They propose that this may be because self-efficacy was, at the time, relatively new as it was only added in to the HBM in 1988 and that majority of women perceive breast and cervical cancer as a serious disease.

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Sally and the HBM}}
When examining Sally’s case using the HBM, three out of the five constructs stand out. These are perception of susceptibility, perception of seriousness and barriers and benefits. As Sally lives a very healthy lifestyle with limited exposure to cancer (e.g. she is the first in her family and social group to be diagnosed with cancer) there is limited reason for her to believe that she is anything but healthy. Furthermore, as she tends to focus more on animals, her understanding of the seriousness of cancer may be limited thus causing her to underestimate her vulnerability to cancer. Finally, when combined with the factor that Sally is quite busy, Sally’s lack of exposure could also mean that the benefits of cancer screening are outweighed by the disadvantages (e.g. loss of time).

However, while in Sally’s case these constructs act as barriers for cancer screening, this is not always the case. For those who have lost someone to cancer or who engages in cancer risk behaviours, such as smoking,  may have a deeper understanding of the risks and seriousness of cancer. As a result, those individuals are more likely to engage in cancer screening if the opportunity arrives (Joshua A. Roth, 2018) (Hee Yun Lee, 2015). Additionally, if those of authority, such as doctors, encourage individuals to consider undergoing a cancer screening test then they are more likely to seek it out (LaToya T. Austin, 2002).
{{Robelbox/close}}

=== Demographic Factors ===
{{expand}}

====Culture====
Unfortunately, cancer screening availability is not universal and as such participation rates of cancer screening varies across cultures. One of the main components that explains the differences in cancer screening across cultures is education rates. At this current time, policies for early detection vary country to country (World Health Organisation, 2020) and as such the amount of education available also varies. One systematic literature search in 2009 found that one of the major barriers to cancer screening among the African American and Hispanic cultures was the lack of education provided (Idris Guessous, 2009). However, within the Hispanic culture this barrier can be counterbalanced by cues to action, including discussions with familiar doctors (LaToya T. Austin, 2002). Furthermore, as mentioned above different cultures put emphases{{sp}} on different types of cancer and as such their cancer screening rates often reflect this. One such example is Australia, as bowel cancer screening rates are lower than that of breast and prostate cancer (Yip, 2010) which suggests that in Australia there is more emphasis on breast and prostate cancer.

====Gender====
[[File:Gender symbols side by side (bold).svg|thumb|''Figure 2:'' Symbolic representation of gender]]

As identified in emotional factors, an individual's gender can also have an impact on their willingness to participate in cancer screening. In 2005, J. Wardle, A. Miles, and W. Atkin conducted a study examining the impact that gender difference has on participation in colorectal cancer screening. The results from this study suggested that men were more likely to undergo colorectal cancer examinations than women(J Wardle, 2005). Wardle and colleagues, proposed that this may be due to socioeconomic and attitudinal differences between the genders. Furthermore, Ritvo and colleagues found that women tended to display higher stress levels while males typically demonstrated procrastination behaviors. This is further supported by a study conducted by Wong and colleagues in 2013, as the results it was indicated that Asian women held higher concerns for a positive diagnosis. Both studies suggested that this worry can be lowered if personalized approaches for women are implemented. Additionally, Ritvo and colleagues suggested that further research is needed to identify methods in which to limit procrastination behaviours exhibited male populace.

== Conclusion ==
Despite cancer being the second highest cause of death in 2018{{fact}}, there is still no cure. At this current time the best method to reduce mortality rate is early detection{{fact}}. This can be achieved through cancer screening tests{{fact}}. Unfortunately, cancer screening rates are still quite low{{fact}}. Current research has suggested various explanations as to why this may be. When exploring cancer screening rates in terms of motivation, people tend to be influenced by one of three categories: perceptions and beliefs, emotional factors and demographics. These three categories have been found to act as barriers to cancer screening however, research has found that these factors could also act as facilitators if the correct processes are put into place{{fact}}. Currently there is no universal approach to creating processes to encourage cancer screening processes. Yet, scientist{{gr}} still strive to raise cancer screening rate and hopefully with further research discover a cure.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
Pondering
*From the readings what would you do think could be done to encouraged individuals like Sally to participating in the cancer screening?
*Are there any barriers preventing you from participating in a cancer screening test? If so, what are they?
*What would enable you to participate in cancer screening?
{{Robelbox/close}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Breast cancer and anxiety in women|Breast cancer and anxiety]] (Book chapter,  2015)
* [[Cancer treatment|Cancer]]  (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Chemotherapy effects on motivation|Chemotherapy and its effects on motivation:]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[wikipedia:Emotions_in_decision-making#cite_note-4|Emotions in decision making]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Protection motivation and health|Protection motivation and health]] (Book chapter, 2013)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Ama G. Ampofo, A. D.-N. (2020). A cross-sectional study of barriers to cervical cancer screening uptake in Ghana: An application of the health belief model. ''PLOS ONE'', 1-16.

Han, S. a. (2009). Decision making. ''Oxford companion to emotion and the affective sciences'', 111-113.

Hee Yun Lee, M. J. (2015). Breast Cancer Screening Behaviors Among Korean American Immigrant Women: Findings From the Health Belief Model. ''Journal of Transcultural Nursing'', 450–457.

Idris Guessous, C. D. (2009). Colorectal cancer screening barriers and facilitators in older persons. ''Preventive Medicine'', 3-10.

J Wardle, A. M. (2005). Gender differences in utilization of colorectal cancer screening. ''Journal of Medical Screening'', 20–27.

Joseph J. Y. Sung, S. Y. (2008). Obstacles to Colorectal Cancer Screening in Chinese: A Study Based on the Health Belief Model. ''American Journal of Gastroenterology'', 974–981.

Joshua A. Roth, L. C.-H. (2018). A qualitative study exploring patient motivations for screening for lung cancer. ''PLOS ONE''.

LaToya T. Austin, F. A.-J. (2002). Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening in Hispanic Women: A Literature Review using the Health Belief Model. ''Women's Health Issues'', 122-128.

Lisa M. Reynolds, I. P. (2018). Emotional predictors of bowel screening the avoidance-promoting role of fear embarrassment, and disgust. ''BMC Cancer'', 518.

Lowenstein, G. a. (2003). ''The role of affect in decision making.'' New York: Oxford University Press.

Nancy Innocentia Ebu, S. C. (2014). Knowledge, practice, and barriers toward cervical cancer screening in Elmina, Southern Ghana. ''International Journal of Women’s Health'', 31-39.

Naomi N Modeste, M. C. (2018). The protection motivation theory and its impact on prostate cancer screening in Guyana. ''Interational Public Health Journal'', 181-187.

Nathan S. Consedine, I. L. (2010). The many faeces of colorectal cancer screening embarrassment: Preliminary psychometric development and links to screening outcome. ''The British Psychological Society'', 559–579.

Nathan S. Consedine, M. K. (2011). Gender and Ethnic Differences in Colorectal Cancer Screening Embarrassment and Physician Gender Preferences . ''Oncology Nursing Forum'' , 409-417.

Paul Ritvo, R. E. (2013). Gender differences in attitudes impeding colorectal cancer screening. ''BMC Public Health''.

}}

== External Links ==
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/david_asch_why_it_s_so_hard_to_make_healthy_decisions#t-12759 David Asch: Why it's so hard to make healthy decisions?]  (TED ideas worth spreading)
* [https://www.ted.com/playlists/63/a_cure_for_cancer How we're fighting cancer?] (TED ideas worth spreading Playlist)
* [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information Cancer council]
* [https://www.cancer.org/ American Cancer Society:] [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics.html Cancer Basics] and [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/history-of-cancer.html History]
* [https://gco.iarc.fr/today/home International Agency for Research on Cancer]
* [https://www.who.int/cancer/detection/en/ The World Health Organisation (WHO) : Cancer]

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      <text bytes="23149" sha1="p24mb39fotiuog1e5tw1akjl2b3ei1a" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Cancer screening motivation:&lt;br&gt;What are the motivational facilitators and barriers to participation in cancer screening programs?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aHCck5e51yQ}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Ever since the discovery of cancer in 1775, society’s knowledge and treatments have advanced significantly. However, the threat of cancer is still extremely relevant as, in 2018, cancer was the second leading cause of death across the globe{{fact}}. One of the best ways to prevent mortality in cancer is early detection, which can be achieved through education and cancer screening. Unfortunately, while education in most cultures is quite high, cancer screening rates are still very low{{fact}}. There are multiple motivational reasons that could explain why individuals may choose to either participate or avoid cancer screening examinations. The top three investigated in this book chapter are emotional factors, perceptions and beliefs and finally demographics. By investigating these factor researchers are hoping to identify ways in which to turn any motivational barriers into facilitators of cancer screening.

== Cancer ==
[[File:201711_CancerCell.svg|thumb|''Figure 1:'' Artistic representation of a cancer cell]]

Before going into motivational influencers of cancer screening decisions it is important to have a basic understanding of cancer. Cancer is a complex and diverse disease that comes in [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer many different forms]{{ic|user peer-reviewed academic sources for citations}}. It occurs when cells within the human body do not undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) and continue to grow. These cells then create a mass which is commonly referred to as a tumour. Unfortunately cancer is not a new disease, there has been mentions of cancer from as early as [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/history-of-cancer/what-is-cancer.html 3000 BC]. In 2018, the [https://gco.iarc.fr/today/data/factsheets/cancers/39-All-cancers-fact-sheet.pdf International Agency of Research on Cancer] reported over 233, 773 individuals within Australia and New Zealand, 3, 679, 584 individuals in America, and 4, 229, 662 in Europe living with cancer.Regrettably, at this current time there is no hard and fast cure for cancer. However, this does not mean it is not treatable. There are many forms of treatments available that have varying rates of success depending on the development and location of the cancer. The three most common include Chemotherapy (the removal of cancer cells using anti-cancer drugs), Radiation therapy (the use of x-rays to damage or destroy cancer cells) and Surgery. Other less common treatments include; Complementary therapy, Hormone therapy, Immunotherapy and Palliative care. To this day as our knowledge and understanding of cancer grows so do our treatment methods. If these treatments pass through all the legal and ethical boards then they to what is known as [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/treatment/clinical-trials clinical trials]. These trials allow researchers to test the effectiveness of the treatment.Due to the lack of cure, one of the most crucial techniques to decreasing mortality rates of cancer, is early detection! The later the cancer is detected the harder it is to treat as the mass typically is bigger and spread out across the body.&amp;nbsp; Two of the major components of early detection are education and cancer screening. Though educational events and programs provided by general public health organizations, such as the World Health Organisation (WHO), people are provided with the necessary knowledge that they would need to identify cancer symptoms early. This allows them to be proactive and seek out assistance if they believe that they are experiencing any potential symptoms. Education also brings awareness to proactive health actions that are available to the general public. Which lead to the second key component of early detection, cancer screening. [https://www.who.int/cancer/detection/variouscancer/en/ Cancer screening] is a specific but simple test that allows for the early detection of any cancerous cells or potential future risks{{gr}}. Regrettably, as cancer is such a multifarious disease, at this current time there is no universal test. However, there are screening options for various specific types of cancer including but not limited to: breast cancer, bowel cancer, and colorectal cancer. Despite the increase in screening options available to the general public, the percentage of those undergoing a screening test remains low.

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Case Study}}
Sally is a 30-year-old Caucasian female, who has just been diagnosed with cancer. Unfortunately, the mass is large and primarily located in her breast. Specialists have advised that she seeks immediate treatment. To remove the cancerous cells, she will have to undergo intensive chemotherapy, with the potential need for surgery.

Outside of being diagnosed with cancer, Sally lives a very healthy lifestyle that includes frequent exercise, a balanced diet and the avoidance of cancer risk behaviours such as smoking and prolonged time in the sun. Sally works 8 hour days 5 days a week in a sedentary office job. She also volunteers for the RSPCA at her local shelter between 8 and 12 on Saturday and coordinates a million paws walk in May each year. Once a year, her workplace offers free cancer screening for all employees. Every year, Sally chooses not to partake in these test as she believes that she is far too busy to participate . Furthermore, when Sally was in her early teens, she was in a server{{sp}} car accident which resulted in extensive scarring along her ribs. Sally has stated that she tends to avoid situations in which her scars may be view by others. No one in Sally’s immediate family or peer group has cancer. She has had little interest in furthering her knowledge, instead she prefers to read about animals.
{{Robelbox/close}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
Pondering
*What do you think were some of the barriers that prevented Sally from accessing the free cancer screening provided by her workplace?
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Motivational influences ==
Despite the increase in screening options available to the general public, the percentage of those undergoing a screening test remains low. In 2020 Ampofo and colleagues, conducted a study to try and identify the barriers that prevent women in the Ashanti Region of Ghana from participating in cervical cancer screening. Their results showed that only 3% of those who participated in the study had partook in a cervical cancer screening test. While this shows an increase in tests taken by women in Ghana since 2014 (Nancy Innocentia Ebu, 2014), this is still very low. Furthermore, in 2006 researchers in Hong Kong conducted a telephone survey to identify factors linked with an increase of colorectal cancer (CRC) screening. Of the 1,004 participants, aged between 30 and 65  years, only 10% reported going for a CRC screening test (Joseph J. Y. Sung, 2008). These statistics suggest that while there has been some success with cancer screening there is still room for improvement.When investigating how to improve participation in cancer screening test, the first and probably most important question to ask is what prevents people from engaging in cancer screening? It is also important to consider what would enable individuals to access cancer screening services. Current research has identified a multitude of reasons why people might chose{{gr}} not to undergo a cancer screening test{{fact}}. These factors tend to fall into one of three categories; emotional factors, perceptions and beliefs and last but not least demographics. All three factors individually have been found to influence the likelihood of an individual seeking out preventive health behaviours{{fact}}. However, like most things in life, it is not as cut and dry as it may appear, as these factors often tend to interact and influence each other.

=== Emotional factors ===
When making important decisions, it is ideal to think through the situation rationally and with little emotional input. Regrettably, emotions are not easy to disregard and often have an influence over an individual’s choices. According to Loewenstein and Lerner{{fact}}, emotions can be divided into two categories when making a decision; Anticipated emotions and Immediate emotions. Anticipated emotions are defined as the expectation of a future emotion and is often viewed in terms of gains and losses (Lowenstein, 2003). Whereas immediate emotions (Han, 2009) (otherwise known as true emotions) are the emotions experienced at the time of decision making{{gr}}.In relation to cancer screening, the top two emotions that typically act as barriers are fear (anticipated emotion) and embarrassment (immediate emotion){{fact}}. When thinking about personal risk of cancer, fear is often generated as a response to the potential threat to one’s life{{fact}}. This often leads to an avoidance of preventive behaviours such as cancer screening, as people are trying to prevent a potential emotional upset caused by a confirmed diagnosis (Philippa J. Murphy, 2018). In 2010, Jones and colleagues found that of the 660 participants 74% reported fear as the biggest barrier to bowel cancer screening. Additionally, one study conducted by Reynolds and colleagues (2018) found those who delayed cancer screening tests for bowel cancer typically had a higher level of knowledge and fear for a negative outcome (e.g. a diagnosis). They also identified that this avoidance was lower in those who had discussed their risks with their doctor. From their results, Reynolds and colleagues suggested that an important aspect of facilitating cancer screening is to understand how emotions, particularly fear, embarrassment and disgust, impact screening decisions. To do this further research is required.Cancer screening involves discussions about intimate and embarrassing topics. This embarrassment can lead to the avoidance of cancer screening. In 2018, researchers, Naomi N Modeste, Malcolm Cort and Janice E McLean, conducted a study to examine the potential factors associated with early detection of prostate cancer in men living in Guyana. Among other findings they identified embarrassment as a potential influencer for participation or recommendation for cancer screening. Another thing to consider when looking at participant embarrassment, is the type of cancer screening. In 2010, it was identified that, in Australia, bowel cancer screening rates are lower than that of breast and prostate cancer (Yip, 2010). Furthermore, multiple studies have been conducted, that explore the impact embarrassment has on colorectal cancer screening rates. During a colorectal cancer examination, embarrassment can be triggered by undesired intimacy during examinations and faecal/rectal embarrassment (Nathan S. Consedine I. L., 2010). Having said this, in a separate study, Consedine and colleagues (2011) individuals are less likely to experience embarrassment and intimacy concerns when their physician is of the same gender.  As emotions, such as embarrassment, are internal phenomena it is difficult to pinpoint key influencers that will decrease their impact on cancer screening rates. However, with further research, the scope for what caused embarrassment during cancer screening examinations can be reduced and hopefully methods to facilitate participation in cancer screening, despite any emotional turmoil, will be developed.

=== Perceptions and beliefs ===
When examining how perceptions and beliefs can affect an individual’s motivation to engage in health related behaviours, it is almost impossible not to discuss the Health Belief Model (HBM). The HBM was first proposed in the 1950’s{{gr}} and is still prevalent today. It proposes that individuals engage, and change health behaviours based on their perception of the following factors: susceptibility to the threat, the seriousness of the threat, the benefits and barriers of the protective behaviour, cues to action on the protective behaviour and their self-efficacy. A large portion of current research into barriers and facilitators of cancer screening often use the HBM as the theoretical basis for their research. One such study conducted in the United States found that, of the 202 Korean American immigrant women that participated,  those who perceived their risk for developing breast cancer as high where more likely to undergo breast cancer screening than the individuals with a low risk perception (Hee Yun Lee, 2015) . This is reflected in Roth and colleagues’ study in 2018. Roth and colleagues found that in a community setting, an individual’s motivation to undergo lung cancer screening is determined by their perceptions of the benefit of early detection and risk to their safety, as well as any personal relationships. Furthermore, in 2002, LaToya T. Austin and Farah Ahmad conducted a literature review that explored current research on breast and cervical cancer screening in Hispanic women and the HBM. From their research they found that of the five factors in the HBM, perceived susceptibility was the biggest barrier for cancer screening among older Hispanic women and as respect of authority is a highly held value within the Hispanic culture, if properly implemented, the construct cues to action could be a major facilitator for cancer screening (LaToya T. Austin, 2002){{ic|overly long sentence}}. Unfortunately, according to LaToya T. Austin and Farah Ahmad there is very limited research into the constructs, perceived seriousness and self-efficacy. They propose that this may be because self-efficacy was, at the time, relatively new as it was only added in to the HBM in 1988 and that majority of women perceive breast and cervical cancer as a serious disease.

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Sally and the HBM}}
When examining Sally’s case using the HBM, three out of the five constructs stand out. These are perception of susceptibility, perception of seriousness and barriers and benefits. As Sally lives a very healthy lifestyle with limited exposure to cancer (e.g. she is the first in her family and social group to be diagnosed with cancer) there is limited reason for her to believe that she is anything but healthy. Furthermore, as she tends to focus more on animals, her understanding of the seriousness of cancer may be limited thus causing her to underestimate her vulnerability to cancer. Finally, when combined with the factor that Sally is quite busy, Sally’s lack of exposure could also mean that the benefits of cancer screening are outweighed by the disadvantages (e.g. loss of time).

However, while in Sally’s case these constructs act as barriers for cancer screening, this is not always the case. For those who have lost someone to cancer or who engages in cancer risk behaviours, such as smoking,  may have a deeper understanding of the risks and seriousness of cancer. As a result, those individuals are more likely to engage in cancer screening if the opportunity arrives (Joshua A. Roth, 2018) (Hee Yun Lee, 2015). Additionally, if those of authority, such as doctors, encourage individuals to consider undergoing a cancer screening test then they are more likely to seek it out (LaToya T. Austin, 2002).
{{Robelbox/close}}

=== Demographic factors ===
{{expand}}

====Culture====
Unfortunately, cancer screening availability is not universal and as such participation rates of cancer screening varies across cultures. One of the main components that explains the differences in cancer screening across cultures is education rates. At this current time, policies for early detection vary country to country (World Health Organisation, 2020) and as such the amount of education available also varies. One systematic literature search in 2009 found that one of the major barriers to cancer screening among the African American and Hispanic cultures was the lack of education provided (Idris Guessous, 2009). However, within the Hispanic culture this barrier can be counterbalanced by cues to action, including discussions with familiar doctors (LaToya T. Austin, 2002). Furthermore, as mentioned above different cultures put emphases{{sp}} on different types of cancer and as such their cancer screening rates often reflect this. One such example is Australia, as bowel cancer screening rates are lower than that of breast and prostate cancer (Yip, 2010) which suggests that in Australia there is more emphasis on breast and prostate cancer.

====Gender====
[[File:Gender symbols side by side (bold).svg|thumb|''Figure 2:'' Symbolic representation of gender]]

As identified in emotional factors, an individual's gender can also have an impact on their willingness to participate in cancer screening. In 2005, J. Wardle, A. Miles, and W. Atkin conducted a study examining the impact that gender difference has on participation in colorectal cancer screening. The results from this study suggested that men were more likely to undergo colorectal cancer examinations than women(J Wardle, 2005). Wardle and colleagues, proposed that this may be due to socioeconomic and attitudinal differences between the genders. Furthermore, Ritvo and colleagues found that women tended to display higher stress levels while males typically demonstrated procrastination behaviors. This is further supported by a study conducted by Wong and colleagues in 2013, as the results it was indicated that Asian women held higher concerns for a positive diagnosis. Both studies suggested that this worry can be lowered if personalized approaches for women are implemented. Additionally, Ritvo and colleagues suggested that further research is needed to identify methods in which to limit procrastination behaviours exhibited male populace.

== Conclusion ==
Despite cancer being the second highest cause of death in 2018{{fact}}, there is still no cure. At this current time the best method to reduce mortality rate is early detection{{fact}}. This can be achieved through cancer screening tests{{fact}}. Unfortunately, cancer screening rates are still quite low{{fact}}. Current research has suggested various explanations as to why this may be. When exploring cancer screening rates in terms of motivation, people tend to be influenced by one of three categories: perceptions and beliefs, emotional factors and demographics. These three categories have been found to act as barriers to cancer screening however, research has found that these factors could also act as facilitators if the correct processes are put into place{{fact}}. Currently there is no universal approach to creating processes to encourage cancer screening processes. Yet, scientist{{gr}} still strive to raise cancer screening rate and hopefully with further research discover a cure.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
Pondering
*From the readings what would you do think could be done to encouraged individuals like Sally to participating in the cancer screening?
*Are there any barriers preventing you from participating in a cancer screening test? If so, what are they?
*What would enable you to participate in cancer screening?
{{Robelbox/close}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Breast cancer and anxiety in women|Breast cancer and anxiety]] (Book chapter,  2015)
* [[Cancer treatment|Cancer]]  (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Chemotherapy effects on motivation|Chemotherapy and its effects on motivation:]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[wikipedia:Emotions_in_decision-making#cite_note-4|Emotions in decision making]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Protection motivation and health|Protection motivation and health]] (Book chapter, 2013)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Ama G. Ampofo, A. D.-N. (2020). A cross-sectional study of barriers to cervical cancer screening uptake in Ghana: An application of the health belief model. ''PLOS ONE'', 1-16.

Han, S. a. (2009). Decision making. ''Oxford companion to emotion and the affective sciences'', 111-113.

Hee Yun Lee, M. J. (2015). Breast Cancer Screening Behaviors Among Korean American Immigrant Women: Findings From the Health Belief Model. ''Journal of Transcultural Nursing'', 450–457.

Idris Guessous, C. D. (2009). Colorectal cancer screening barriers and facilitators in older persons. ''Preventive Medicine'', 3-10.

J Wardle, A. M. (2005). Gender differences in utilization of colorectal cancer screening. ''Journal of Medical Screening'', 20–27.

Joseph J. Y. Sung, S. Y. (2008). Obstacles to Colorectal Cancer Screening in Chinese: A Study Based on the Health Belief Model. ''American Journal of Gastroenterology'', 974–981.

Joshua A. Roth, L. C.-H. (2018). A qualitative study exploring patient motivations for screening for lung cancer. ''PLOS ONE''.

LaToya T. Austin, F. A.-J. (2002). Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening in Hispanic Women: A Literature Review using the Health Belief Model. ''Women's Health Issues'', 122-128.

Lisa M. Reynolds, I. P. (2018). Emotional predictors of bowel screening the avoidance-promoting role of fear embarrassment, and disgust. ''BMC Cancer'', 518.

Lowenstein, G. a. (2003). ''The role of affect in decision making.'' New York: Oxford University Press.

Nancy Innocentia Ebu, S. C. (2014). Knowledge, practice, and barriers toward cervical cancer screening in Elmina, Southern Ghana. ''International Journal of Women’s Health'', 31-39.

Naomi N Modeste, M. C. (2018). The protection motivation theory and its impact on prostate cancer screening in Guyana. ''Interational Public Health Journal'', 181-187.

Nathan S. Consedine, I. L. (2010). The many faeces of colorectal cancer screening embarrassment: Preliminary psychometric development and links to screening outcome. ''The British Psychological Society'', 559–579.

Nathan S. Consedine, M. K. (2011). Gender and Ethnic Differences in Colorectal Cancer Screening Embarrassment and Physician Gender Preferences . ''Oncology Nursing Forum'' , 409-417.

Paul Ritvo, R. E. (2013). Gender differences in attitudes impeding colorectal cancer screening. ''BMC Public Health''.

}}

== External Links ==
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/david_asch_why_it_s_so_hard_to_make_healthy_decisions#t-12759 David Asch: Why it's so hard to make healthy decisions?]  (TED ideas worth spreading)
* [https://www.ted.com/playlists/63/a_cure_for_cancer How we're fighting cancer?] (TED ideas worth spreading Playlist)
* [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information Cancer council]
* [https://www.cancer.org/ American Cancer Society:] [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics.html Cancer Basics] and [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/history-of-cancer.html History]
* [https://gco.iarc.fr/today/home International Agency for Research on Cancer]
* [https://www.who.int/cancer/detection/en/ The World Health Organisation (WHO) : Cancer]

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! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Year
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Motivation&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Emotion&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | M &amp; E&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Total
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|2024]]
|TBA
|TBA
|TBA
|TBA
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|2023]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 60
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 68
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 134
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 140
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021|2021]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 77
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 143
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020|2020]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 79
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 138
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019|2019]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 66
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 81
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 149
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018|2018]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 52
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 95
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017|2017]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 38
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 101
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016|2016]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 62
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 116
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015|2015]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 69
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 72
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 141
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014|2014]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 133
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 48
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 75
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 123
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011|2011]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 44
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 46
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0 
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 90
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook|2010]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 23
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
|-
|Total
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 737
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 811
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 22
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1570
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Year]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-14T10:27:26Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
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      <comment>Update for 2024</comment>
      <origin>2718469</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2942" sha1="m33y850ovobzgqylc7s4ih0ahrmsve7" xml:space="preserve">{{Title|Chapters by year}}
&lt;div p align = &quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Year
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Motivation&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Emotion&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | M &amp; E&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Total
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|2024]]
|74
|65
|11
|150
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|2023]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 60
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 68
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 134
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 140
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021|2021]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 77
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 143
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020|2020]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 79
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 138
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019|2019]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 66
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 81
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 149
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018|2018]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 52
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 95
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017|2017]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 38
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 101
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016|2016]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 62
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 116
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015|2015]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 69
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 72
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 141
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014|2014]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 133
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 48
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 75
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 123
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011|2011]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 44
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 46
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0 
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 90
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook|2010]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 23
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
|-
|Total
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 811
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 876
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 33
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1720
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Year]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2718470</id>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-14T10:28:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <minor />
      <origin>2718470</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3247" sha1="b6s5qjonkl4vcn88lpdblzl51ht19a0" xml:space="preserve">{{Title|Chapters by year}}
&lt;div p align = &quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Year
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Motivation&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Emotion&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | M &amp; E&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Total|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2025]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|2024]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 74
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 11
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 150
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|2023]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 60
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 68
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 134
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 140
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021|2021]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 77
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 143
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020|2020]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 79
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 138
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019|2019]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 66
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 81
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 149
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018|2018]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 52
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 95
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017|2017]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 38
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 101
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016|2016]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 62
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 116
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015|2015]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 69
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 72
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 141
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014|2014]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 133
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 48
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 75
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 123
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011|2011]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 44
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 46
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0 
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 90
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook|2010]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 23
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
|-
|Total
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 811
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 876
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 33
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1720
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Year]]</text>
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    <revision>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <minor />
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3248" sha1="frklmk32uodwdb1wv7lzar6zyeetuy0" xml:space="preserve">{{Title|Chapters by year}}
&lt;div p align = &quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Year
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Motivation&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Emotion&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | M &amp; E&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt;
! style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | Total
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2025]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | TBA
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|2024]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 74
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 11
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 150
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|2023]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 60
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 68
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 134
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 140
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021|2021]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 77
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 143
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020|2020]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 79
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 138
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019|2019]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 66
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 81
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 149
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018|2018]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 52
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 95
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017|2017]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 38
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 101
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016|2016]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 62
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 116
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015|2015]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 69
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 72
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 141
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014|2014]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 63
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 133
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013|2013]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 48
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 75
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 123
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011|2011]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 44
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 46
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0 
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 90
|-
|[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook|2010]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 42
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 23
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 65
|-
|Total
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 811
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 876
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 33
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | 1720
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Year]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Social Victorians/Terminology</title>
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      <text bytes="186735" sha1="95sc04gbk4c62q2fai5ciq53276fzd1" xml:space="preserve">Especially with respect to fashion, the newspapers at the end of the 19th century in the UK often used specialized terminology. The definitions on this page are to provide a sense of what someone in the late 19th century might have meant by the term rather than a definition of what we might mean by it today. In the absence of a specialized glossary from the end of the 19th century in the U.K., we use the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' because the senses of a word are illustrated with examples that have dates so we can be sure that the senses we pick are appropriate for when they are used in the quotations we have.

We also sometimes use the French ''Wikipédia'' to define a word because many technical terms of fashion were borrowings from the French. Also, often the French ''Wikipédia'' provides historical context for the uses of a word similar to the way the OED does.

== Articles or Parts of Clothing: Men's ==
[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Military|Men's military uniforms]] are discussed below.

=== À la Romaine ===
[[File:Johann Baptist Straub - Mars um 1772-1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Old and damaged marble statue of a Roman god of war with flowing cloak, big helmet with a plume on top, and armor|Johann Baptist Straub's 1772 ''à la romaine'' ''Mars'']]
A few people who attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball in 1897]] personated Roman gods or people. They were dressed not as Romans, however, but ''à la romaine'', which was a standardized style of depicting Roman figures that was used in paintings, sculpture and the theatre for historical dress from the 17th until the 20th century. The codification of the style was developed in France in the 17th century for theatre and ballet, when it became popular for masked balls.

Women as well as men could be dressed ''à la romaine'', but much sculpture, portraiture and theatre offered opportunities for men to dress in Roman style — with armor and helmets — and so it was most common for men. In large part because of the codification of the style as well as the painting and sculpture, the style persisted and remained influential into the 20th century and can be found in museums and galleries and on monuments.

For example, Johann Baptist Straub's 1772 statue of Mars (left), now in the Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich, missing part of an arm, shows Mars ''à la romaine''. In London, an early 17th-century example of a figure of Mars ''à la romaine'', with a helmet, '''was''' &quot;at the foot of the Buckingham tomb in Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster Abbey.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Webb, Geoffrey. “Notes on Hubert Le Sueur-II.” ''The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs'' 52, no. 299 (1928): 81–89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/863535.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|81, Col. 2c}}

[[File:Sir-Anthony-van-Dyck-Lord-John-Stuart-and-His-Brother-Lord-Bernard-Stuart.jpg|thumb|alt=Old painting of 2 men flamboyantly and stylishly dressed in colorful silk, with white lace, high-heeled boots and long hair|Van Dyck's c. 1638 painting of cavaliers Lord John Stuart and his brother Lord Bernard Stuart]]
[[File:Frans_Hals_-_The_Meagre_Company_(detail)_-_WGA11119.jpg|thumb|Frans Hals - The Meagre Company (detail) - WGA11119.jpg]]

=== Cavalier ===
As a signifier in the form of clothing of a royalist political and social ideology begun in France in the early 17th century, the cavalier style established France as the leader in fashion and taste. Adopted by [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Military|wealthy royalist British military officers]] during the time of the Restoration, the style signified a political and social position, both because of the loyalty to Charles I and II as well the wealth required to achieve the cavalier look. The style spread beyond the political, however, to become associated generally with dress as well as a style of poetry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-04-25|title=Cavalier poet|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cavalier_poet&amp;oldid=1151690299|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier_poet.&lt;/ref&gt;

Van Dyck's 1638 painting of two brothers (right) emphasizes the cavalier style of dress.

=== Coats ===

==== Doublet ====
* In the 19th-century newspaper accounts we have seen that use this word, doublet seems always to refer to a garment worn by a man, but historically women may have worn doublets. In fact, a doublet worn by Queen Elizabeth I exists and '''is somewhere'''.
* Technically doublets were long sleeved, although we cannot be certain what this or that Victorian tailor would have done for a costume. For example, the [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Duke of Devonshire's costume as Charles V]] shows long sleeves that may be part of the surcoat but should be the long sleeves of the doublet.

==== Pourpoint ====
A padded doublet worn under armor to protect the warrior from the metal chafing. A pourpoint could also be worn without the armor.

==== Surcoat ====
Sometimes just called ''coat''.

[[File:Oscar Wilde by Sarony 1882 18.jpg|thumb|alt=Old photograph of a young man wearing a velvet jacket, knee breeches, silk hose and shiny pointed shoes with bows, seated on a sofa and leaning on his left hand and holding a book in his right| Oscar Wilde, 1882, by Napoleon Sarony]]
=== Hose, Stockings and Tights ===
Newspaper accounts from the late 19th century of men's clothing use the term ''hose'' for what we might call stockings or tights.

In fact, the terminology is specific. ''Stockings'' is the more general term and could refer to hose or tights. With knee breeches men wore hose, which ended above the knee, and women wore hose under their dresses.

The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defines tights as &quot;Tight-fitting breeches, worn by men in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and still forming part of court-dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Tights, N.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, July 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2693287467.&lt;/ref&gt; By 1897, the term was in use for women's stockings, which may have come up only to the knee. Tights were also worn by dancers and acrobats. This general sense of ''tights'' does not assume that they were knitted.

''Clocking'' is decorative embroidery on hose, usually, at the ankles on either the inside or the outside of the leg. It started at the ankle and went up the leg, sometimes as far as the knee. On women's hose, the clocking could be quite colorful and elaborate, while the clocking on men's hose was more inconspicuous.

In many photographs men's hose are wrinkled, especially at the ankles and the knees, because they were shaped from woven fabric. Silk hose were knitted instead of woven, which gave them elasticity and reduced the wrinkling.

The famous Sarony carte de visite photograph of Oscar Wilde (right) shows him in 1882 wearing knee breeches and silk hose, which are shiny and quite smoothly fitted although they show a few wrinkles at the ankles and knees. In the portraits of people in costume at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the men's hose are sometimes quite smooth, which means they were made of knitted silk and may have been smoothed for the portrait.

In painted portraits the hose are almost always depicted as smooth, part of the artist's improvement of the appearance of the subject.

=== Shoes and Boots ===

== Articles or Parts of Clothing: Women's ==

=== '''Chérusque''' ===
According to the French ''Wikipedia'', ''chérusque'' is a 19th-century term for the kind of standing collar like the ones worn by ladies in the Renaissance.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-06-26|title=Collerette (costume)|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collerette_(costume)&amp;oldid=184136746|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collerette_(costume)#Au+xixe+siècle+:+la+Chérusque.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Corsage ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the corsage is the &quot;'body' of a woman's dress; a bodice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;corsage, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/42056. Accessed 7 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; This sense is well documented in the ''OED'' for the mid and late 19th-century, used this way in fiction as well as in a publication like ''Godey's Lady's Book'', which would be expected to use appropriate terminology associated with fashion and dress making.

The sense of &quot;a bouquet worn on the bodice&quot; is, according to the ''OED'', American.

=== Décolletage ===

=== Girdle ===

=== Mancheron ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', a ''mancheron'' is a &quot;historical&quot; word for &quot;A piece of trimming on the upper part of a sleeve on a woman's dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;mancheron, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/113251. Accessed 17 April 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; At the present, in French, a ''mancheron'' is a cap sleeve &quot;cut directly on the bodice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-11-28|title=Manche (vêtement)|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manche_(v%C3%AAtement)&amp;oldid=199054843|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manche_(v%C3%AAtement).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Petticoat ===

According to the ''O.E.D.'', a petticoat is a &lt;blockquote&gt;skirt, as distinguished from a bodice, worn either externally or showing beneath a dress as part of the costume (often trimmed or ornamented); an outer skirt; a decorative underskirt. Frequently in ''plural'': a woman's or girl's upper skirts and underskirts collectively. Now ''archaic'' or ''historical''.&lt;ref&gt;“petticoat, n., sense 2.b”.  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press,  September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1021034245&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;This sense is, according to the ''O.E.D.'', &quot;The usual sense between the 17th and 19th centuries.&quot; However, while petticoats belong in both outer- and undergarments — that is, meant to be seen or hidden, like underwear — they were always under another garment, for example, underneath an open overskirt. The primary sense seems to have shifted through the 19th century so that, by the end, petticoats were underwear and the term ''underskirt'' was used to describe what showed under an open overskirt. 

In the 19th century, women wore their chemises, bloomers and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hoops|hoops]] under their petticoats. 

=== Stomacher ===
According to the ''O.E.D.'', a stomacher is &quot;An ornamental covering for the chest (often covered with jewels) worn by women under the lacing of the bodice,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“stomacher, n.¹, sense 3.a”. ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1169498955&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; although by the end of the 19th century, the bodice did not often have visible laces. Some stomachers were so decorated that they were thought of as part of the jewelry.

=== Train ===
A train is

The Length of the Train

'''For the monarch [or a royal?]'''

According to Debrett's,&lt;blockquote&gt;A peeress's coronation robe is a long-trained crimson velvet mantle, edged with miniver pure, with a miniver pure cape. The length of the train varies with the rank of the wearer:

* Duchess: for rows of ermine; train to be six feet
* Marchioness: three and a half rows of ermine; train to be three and three-quarters feet
* Countess: three rows of ermine; train to be three and a half feet
* Viscountess: two and a half rows of ermine; train to be three and a quarter feet
* Baroness: two rows of ermine; train to be three feet&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://debretts.com/royal-family/dress-codes/|title=Dress Codes|website=debretts.com|language=en-US|access-date=2023-07-27}} https://debretts.com/royal-family/dress-codes/.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;The pattern on the coronet worn was also quite specific, similar but not exactly the same for peers and peeresses. Debrett's also distinguishes between coronets and tiaras, which were classified more like jewelry, which was regulated only in very general terms.

Peeresses put on their coronets after the Queen or Queen Consort has been crowned. ['''peers?''']

== Hats, Bonnets and Headwear ==

=== Women's ===

==== Fontanges ====
Another fontange:
[[File:Madame de Ludre en Stenkerke et falbala - (estampe) (2e état) - N. arnoult fec - btv1b53265886c.jpg|none|thumb|Madame de Ludre en Stenkerke et falbala - (estampe) (2e état) - N. arnoult fec - btv1b53265886c.jpg]]
[[File:Recueil de modes - Tome 4 - cent-quatre-vingt-cinq planches - estampes - btv1b105296325 (083 of 195).jpg|none|thumb|Recueil de modes - Tome 4 - cent-quatre-vingt-cinq planches - estampes - btv1b105296325 (083 of 195).jpg]]

=== Men's ===

== Cinque Cento ==
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''Cinque Cento'' is a shortening of ''mil cinque cento'', or 1500.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;cinquecento, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/33143. Accessed 7 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; The term, then would refer, perhaps informally, to the sixteenth century.

== Corset ==
[[File:Corset - MET 1972.209.49a, b.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of an old silk corset on a mannequin, showing the closure down the front, similar to a button, and channels in the fabric for the boning. It is wider at the top and bottom, creating smooth curves from the bust to the compressed waist to the hips, with a long point below the waist in front.|French 1890s corset, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NYC]]
The understructure of Victorian women's clothing is what makes the costumes worn by the women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] so distinctly Victorian in appearance. An example of a corset that has the kind of structure often worn by fashionably dressed women in 1897 is the one at right. 

This corset exaggerated the shape of the women's bodies and made possible a bodice that looked and was fitted in the way that is so distinctive of the time — very controlled and smooth. And, as a structural element, this foundation garment carried the weight of all those layers and all that fabric and decoration on the gowns, trains and mantles. (The trains and mantles could be attached directly to the corset itself.)

* This foundation emphasizes the waist and the bust in particular, in part because of the contrast between the very small waist and the rounded fullness of the bust and hips.
* The idealized waist is defined by its small span and the sexualizing point at the center-bottom of the bodice, which directs the eye downwards. Interestingly, the pointed waistline worn by Elizabethan men has become level in the Victorian age. Highly fashionable Victorian women wearing the traditional style, however, had extremely pointed waists.
* The busk (a kind of boning in the front of a corset that is less flexible than the rest) smoothed the bodice, flattened the abdomen and prevented the point on the bodice from curling up.
* The sharp definition of the waist was caused by
** length of the corset (especially on the sides)
** the stiffness of the boning
** the layers of fabric
** the lacing (especially if the woman used tightlacing)
** the over-all shape, which was so much wider at the top and the bottom
** the contrast between the waist and the wider top and bottom
* The late-19th-century corset was long, ending below the waist even on the sides and back.
* The boning and the top edge of the late 19th-century fashion corset pushed up the bust, rounding (rather than flattening, as in earlier styles) the breasts, drawing attention to their exposed curves and creating cleavage.
* The exaggerated bust was larger than the hips, whenever possible, an impression reinforced by the A-line of the skirt and the inverted Vs in the decorative trim near the waist and on the skirt.
* This corset made the bodice very smooth with a very precise fit, that had no wrinkles, folds or loose drapery. The bodice was also trimmed or decorated, but the base was always a smooth bodice. More formal gowns would still have the fitted bodice and more elaborate trim made from lace, embroidery, appliqué, beading and possibly even jewels.
The advantages and disadvantages of corseting and especially tight lacing were the subject of thousands of articles and opinions in the periodical press for a great part of the century, but the fetishistic and politicized tight lacing was practiced by very few women. And no single approach to corsetry was practiced by all women all the time. Most of the women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 ball]] were not tightly laced, but the progressive style does not dominate either, even though all the costumes are technically historical dress. Part of what gives most of the costumes their distinctive 19th-century &quot;look&quot; is the more traditional corset beneath them. Even though this highly fashionable look was widely present in the historical costumes at the ball, some women's waists were obviously very small and others were hardly '''emphasized''' at all. Women's waists are never mentioned in the newspaper coverage of the ball — or, indeed, of any of the social events attended by the network at the ball — so it is only in photographs that we can see the effects of how they used their corsets.

==== Things To Add ====
[[File:Woman's Corset LACMA M.2007.211.353.jpg|thumb|Woman's Corset LACMA M.2007.211.353.jpg|none]]

* Corset as an outer garment, 18th century, in place of a stomacher&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; (419)
* Corsets could be laced in front or back
* Methods for making the holes for the laces and the development of the grommet (in the 1830s)

== Court Dress ==
Also Levee and drawing-room

== Crevé ==
''Creve'', without the accent, is an old word in English (c. 1450) for burst or split.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;creve, v.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/44339. Accessed 8 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; ['''With the acute accent, it looks like a past participle in French.''']

== Elaborations ==
In her 1973 ''The Best Circles: Society, Etiquette and the Season'', Leonore Davidoff notes that women’s status was indicated by dress and especially ornament: “Every cap, bow, streamer, ruffle, fringe, bustle, glove and other elaboration,” she says, “symbolised some status category for the female wearer.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Davidoff, Leonore. ''The Best Circles: Society Etiquette and the Season''. Intro., Victoria Glendinning. The Cressett Library (Century Hutchinson), 1986 (orig 1973).&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|93}}

Looking at these elaborations as meaningful rather than dismissing them as failed attempts at &quot;historical accuracy&quot; reveals a great deal about the individual women who wore or carried them — and about the society women and political hostesses in their roles as managers of the social world. In her review of ''The House of Worth: Portrait of an Archive'', Mary Frances Gormally says,&lt;blockquote&gt;In a socially regulated year, garments custom made with a Worth label provided women with total reassurance, whatever the season, time of day or occasion, setting them apart as members of the “Best Circles” dressed in luxurious, fashionable and always appropriate attire (Davidoff 1973). The woman with a Worth wardrobe was a woman of elegance, lineage, status, extreme wealth and faultless taste.&lt;ref&gt;Gormally, Mary Frances. Review essay of ''The House of Worth: Portrait of an Archive'', by Amy de la Haye and Valerie D. Mendes (V&amp;A Publishing, 2014). ''Fashion Theory'' 2017 (21, 1): 109–126. DOI: 10.1080/1362704X.2016.1179400.&lt;/ref&gt; (117)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[File:Aglets from Spanish portraits - collage by shakko.jpg|thumb|alt=A collage of 12 different ornaments typically worn by elite people from Spain in the 1500s and later|Aglets — Detail from Spanish Portraits]]
=== Aglet, Aiglet ===
Historically, an aglet is a &quot;point or metal piece that capped a string [or ribbon] used to attach two pieces of the garment together, i.e., sleeve and bodice.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|4}} Although they were decorative, they were not always visible on the outside of the clothing. They were often stuffed inside the layers at the waist (for example, attaching the bodice to a skirt or breeches).

Alonso Sánchez Coello's c. 1584 (316) portrait (above right, in the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#16th Century|Hoops section]]) shows infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia wearing a vertugado, with its &quot;typically Spanish smooth cone-shaped contour,&quot; with &quot;handsome aiglets cascad[ing] down center front.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper &amp; Row, 1965.&lt;/ref&gt; (315)

=== Frou-frou ===
In French, ''frou-frou'' or, spelled as ''froufrou'', is the sound of the rustling of silk or sometimes of fabrics in general.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-07-25|title=frou-frou|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=frou-frou&amp;oldid=32508509|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/frou-frou.&lt;/ref&gt; The first use the French ''Wiktionnaire'' lists is Honoré Balzac, ''La Cousine Bette'', 1846.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-06-03|title=froufrou|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=froufrou&amp;oldid=32330124|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/froufrou.&lt;/ref&gt;

''Frou-frou'' is a term clothing historians use to describe decorative additions to an article of clothing; often the term has a slight negative connotation, suggesting that the additions are superficial and, perhaps, excessive.

=== Plastics ===
Small poufs of fabric connected in a strip in the 18th century, Rococo styles.

=== Pouf, Puff, Poof ===
According to the French ''Wikipédia'', a pouf was, beginning in 1744, a &quot;kind of women's hairstyle&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;The hairstyle in question, known as the “pouf”, had launched the reputation of the enterprising Rose Bertin, owner of the Grand Mogol, a very prominent fashion accessories boutique on Rue Saint-Honoré in Paris in 1774. Created in collaboration with the famous hairdresser, Monsieur Léonard, the pouf was built on a scaffolding of wire, fabric, gauze, horsehair, fake hair, and the client's own hair held up in an almost vertical position. — (Marie-Antoinette, ''Queen of Fashion'', translated from the American by Sylvie Lévy, in ''The Rules of the Game'', n° 40, 2009)&lt;/blockquote&gt;''Puff'' and ''poof'' are used to describe clothing.

=== Shirring ===
''Shirring'' is the gathering of fabric to make poufs or puffs. The 19th century is known for its use of this decorative technique. Even men's clothing had shirring: at the shoulder seam.

=== Sequins ===
Sequins, paillettes, spangles

Sequins — or paillettes — are &quot;small, scalelike glittering disks.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;(216) The French ''Wiktionnaire'' defines ''paillette'' as &quot;Lamelle de métal, brillante, mince, percée au milieu, ordinairement ronde, et qu’on applique sur une étoffe pour l’orner [A strip of metal, shiny, thin, pierced in the middle, usually round, and which is applied to a fabric in order to decorate it.]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-03-18|title=paillette|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=paillette&amp;oldid=33809572|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/paillette.&lt;/ref&gt;

According to the ''OED'', the use of ''sequin'' as a decorative device for clothing (as opposed to gold coins minted and used for international trade) goes back to the 1850s.&lt;ref&gt;“Sequin, N.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, September 2023,  https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/4074851670.&lt;/ref&gt; The first instance of ''spangle'' as &quot;A small round thin piece of glittering metal (usually brass) with a hole in the centre to pass a thread through, used for the decoration of textile fabrics and other materials of various sorts&quot; is from c. 1420.&lt;ref&gt;“Spangle, N. (1).” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, July 2023,  https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/4727197141.&lt;/ref&gt; The first use of ''paillette'' listed in the French ''Wiktionnaire'' is in Jules Verne in 1873 to describe colored spots on icy walls.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

Currently many distinguish between sequins (which are smaller) and paillettes (which are larger).

Before the 20th century, sequins were metal discs or foil leaves, and so of course if they were silver or copper, they tarnished. It is not until well into the 20th century that plastics were invented and used for sequins.

=== Trim and Lace ===
''A History of Feminine Fashion'', published sometime before 1927 and probably commissioned by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Worth, of Paris|the Maison Worth]], describes Charles Frederick Worth's contributions to the development of embroidery and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Passementerie|passementerie]] (trim) from about the middle of the 19th century:&lt;blockquote&gt;For it must be remembered that one of M. Worth's most important and lasting contributions to the prosperity of those who cater for women's needs, as well as to the variety and elegance of his clients' garments, was his insistence on new fabrics, new trimmings, new materials of every description. In his endeavours to restore in Paris the splendours of the days of La Pompadour, and of Marie Antoinette, he found himself confronted at the outset with a grave difficulty, which would have proved unsurmountable to a man of less energy, resource and initiative. The magnificent materials of those days were no longer to be had! The Revolution had destroyed the market for beautiful materials of this, type, and the Restoration and regime of Louis Philippe had left a dour aspect in the City of Light. ... On parallel lines [to his development of better [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Satin|satin]]], [Worth] stimulated also the manufacture of embroidery and ''passementerie''. It was he who first started the manufacture of laces copied from the designs of the real old laces. He was the / first dressmaker to use fur in the trimming of light materials — but he employed only the richer furs, such as sable and ermine, and had no use whatever for the inferior varieties of skins.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;[Worth, House of.] {{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfFeminineFashion|title=A History Of Feminine Fashion (1800s to 1920s)}} Before 1927. [Likely commissioned by Worth. Link is to Archive.org; info from Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worth_Biarritz_salon.jpg.]&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|6–7}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Gold and Silver Fabric and Lace ====

The ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (9th edition) has an article on gold and silver fabric, threads and lace attached to the article on gold. (This article is based on knowledge that would have been available toward the end of the 19th century and does not, obviously, reflect current knowledge or ways of talking.)&lt;blockquote&gt;GOLD AND SILVER LACE. Under this heading a general account may be given of the use of the precious metals in textiles of all descriptions into which they enter. That these metals were used largely in the sumptuous textiles of the earliest periods of civilization there is abundant testimony; and to this day, in the Oriental centres whence a knowledge and the use of fabrics inwoven, ornamented, and embroidered with gold and silver first spread, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still most strongly and generally prevalent. The earliest mention of the use of gold in a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod made for Aaron (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3) — &quot;And he made the ephod of gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen. And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires (strips), to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work.&quot; In both the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' distinct allusion is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden textiles. Many circumstances point to the conclusion that the art of weaving and embroidering with gold and silver originated in India, where it is still principally prosecuted, and that from one great city to another the practice travelled westward, — Babylon, Tarsus, Baghdad, Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily, Con- / stantinople and Venice, all in the process of time becoming famous centres of these much prized manufactures. Alexander the Great found Indian kings and princes arrayed in robes of gold and purple; and the Persian monarch Darius, we are told, wore a war mantle of cloth of gold, on which were figured two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. There is reason, according to Josephus, to believe that the “royal apparel&quot; worn by Herod on the day of his death (Acts xii. 21) was a tissue of silver. Agrippina, the wife of the emperor Claudius, had a robe woven entirely of gold, and from that period downwards royal personages and high ecclesiastical dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver for their state and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings and decorations. In England, at different periods, various names were applied to cloths of gold, as ciclatoun, tartarium, naques or nac, baudekiu or baldachin, Cyprus damask, and twssewys or tissue. The thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper, is so called because it originally was placed between the folds of gold &quot;tissue&quot; to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each other. At what time the drawing of gold wire for the preparation of these textiles was first practised is not accurately known. The art was probably introduced and applied in different localities at widely different dates, but down till mediaeval times the method graphically described in the Pentateuch continued to be practised with both gold and silver.

Fabrics woven with gold and silver continue to be used on the largest scale to this day in India; and there the preparation of the varieties of wire, and the working of the various forms of lace, brocade, and embroidery, is at once an important and peculiar art. The basis of all modern fabrics of this kind is wire, the &quot;gold wire&quot; of the manufacturer being in all cases silver gilt wire, and silver wire being, of course, composed of pure silver. In India the wire is drawn by means of simple draw-plates, with rude and simple appliances, from rounded bars of silver, or gold-plated silver, as the case may be. The wire is flattened into the strip or ribbon-like form it generally assumes by passing it, fourteen or fifteen strands simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil, and beating it as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly convex surface. From wire so flattened there is made in India soniri, a tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp being composed entirely of golden strips, and ruperi, a similar tissue of silver. Gold lace is also made on a warp of thick yellow silk with a weft of flat wire, and in the case of ribbons the warp or web is composed of the metal. The flattened wires are twisted around orange (in the case of silver, white) coloured silk thread, so as completely to cover the thread and present the appearance of a continuous wire; and in this form it is chiefly employed for weaving into the rich brocades known as kincobs or kinkhábs. Wires flattened, or partially flattened, are also twisted into exceedingly fine spirals, and in this form they are the basis of numerous ornamental applications. Such spirals drawn out till they present a waved appearance, and in that state flattened, are much used for rich heavy embroideries termed karchobs. Spangles for embroideries, &amp;c., are made from spirals of comparatively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer flattening it out into a thin round disk with a slit extending from the centre to one edge. Fine spirals are also used for general embroidery purposes. The demand for various kinds of loom-woven and embroidered gold and silver work in India is immense; and the variety of textiles so ornamented is also very great. &quot;Gold and silver,&quot; says Dr Birdwood in his ''Handbook to the British-Indian Section, Paris Exhibition'', 1878, &quot;are worked into the decoration of all the more costly loom-made garments and Indian piece goods, either on the borders only, or in stripes throughout, or in diapered figures. The gold-bordered loom embroideries are made chiefly at Sattara, and the gold or silver striped at Tanjore; the gold figured ''mashrus'' at Tanjore, Trichinopoly, and Hyderabad in the Deccau; and the highly ornamented gold-figured silks and gold and silver tissues principally at Ahmedabad, Benares, Murshedabad, and Trichinopoly.&quot;

Among the Western communities the demand for gold and silver lace and embroideries arises chiefly in connexion with naval and military uniforms, court costumes, public and private liveries, ecclesiastical robes and draperies, theatrical dresses, and the badges and insignia of various orders. To a limited extent there is a trade in gold wire and lace to India and China. The metallic basis of the various fabrics is wire round and flattened, the wire being of three kinds — 1st, gold wire, which is invariably silver gilt wire; 2d, copper gilt wire, used for common liveries and theatrical purposes; and 3d, silver wire. These wires are drawn by the ordinary processes, and the flattening, when done, is accomplished by passing the wire between a pair of revolving rollers of fine polished steel. The various qualities of wire are prepared and used in precisely the same way as in India, — round wire, flat wire, thread made of flat gold wire twisted round orange-coloured silk or cotton, known in the trade as &quot;orris,&quot; fine spirals and spangles, all being in use in the West as in the East. The lace is woven in the same manner as ribbons, and there are very numerous varieties in richness, pattern, and quality.  Cloth of gold, and brocades rich in gold and silver, are woven for ecclesiastical vestments and draperies.

The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the lace trade varies, but in all cases the proportion of gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold lace wire is drawn from a bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7 of copper, coated with 3 parts of gold. On an average each ounce troy of a bar so plated is drawn into 1500 yards of wire; and therefore about 16 grains of gold cover a mile of wire. It is estimated that about 250,000 ounces of gold wire are made annually in Great Britain, of which about 20 per cent, is used for the headings of calico, muslin, &amp;c., and the remainder is worked up in the gold lace trade.&lt;ref&gt;William Chandler Roberts-Austen and H. Bauerman [W.C.R. — H.B.]. &quot;Gold and Silver Lace.&quot; In &quot;Gold.&quot; ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 9th Edition (1875–1889). Vol. 10 (X). Adam and Charles Black (Publisher). https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%2010%20%28G-GOT%29%20193592738.23/page/753/mode/1up (accessed January 2023): 753, Col. 2c – 754, Cols. 1a–b – 2a–b.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Honiton Lace ====

Kate Stradsin says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Honiton lace was the finest English equivalent of Brussels bobbin lace and was constructed in small ‘sprigs, in the cottages of lacemakers[.'] These sprigs were then joined together and bleached to form the large white flounces that were so sought after in the mid-nineteenth century.&lt;ref&gt;Strasdin, Kate. &quot;Rediscovering Queen Alexandra’s Wardrobe: The Challenges and Rewards of Object-Based Research.&quot; ''The Court Historian'' 24.2 (2019): 181-196. Rpt  http://repository.falmouth.ac.uk/3762/15/Rediscovering%20Queen%20Alexandra%27s%20Wardrobe.pdf: 13, and (for the little quotation) n. 37, which reads &quot;Margaret Tomlinson, ''Three Generations in the Honiton Lace Trade: A Family History'', self-published, 1983.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[File:Strook in Alençon naaldkant, 1750-1775.jpg|thumb|alt=A long piece of complex white lace with garlands, flowers and bows|Point d'Alençon lace, 1750-1775]]
==== Passementerie ====
''Passementerie'' is the French term for trim on clothing or furniture. The 19th century (especially during the First and Second Empire) was a time of great &quot;''exubérance''&quot; in passementerie in French design, including the development and widespread use of the Jacquard loom.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-06-10|title=Passementerie|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Passementerie&amp;oldid=205068926|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passementerie.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Point d'Alençon Lace ====
A lace made by hand using a number of complex steps and layers. The lacemakers build the point d'Alençon design on some kind of mesh and sometimes leave some of the mesh in as part of the lace and perhaps to provide structure.

Elizabeth Lewandowski defines point d'Alençon lace and Alençon lace separately. Point lace is needlepoint lace,&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|233}} so Alençon point is &quot;a two thread [needlepoint] lace.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7}} Alençon lace has a &quot;floral design on [a] fine net ground [and is] referred to as [the] queen of French handmade needlepoint laces. The original handmade Alençon was a fine needlepoint lace made of linen thread.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7}}

The sample of point d'Alençon lace (right), from 1750–1775, shows the linen mesh that the lace was constructed on.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openfashion.momu.be/#9ce5f00e-8a06-4dab-a833-05c3371f3689|title=MoMu - Open Fashion|website=openfashion.momu.be|access-date=2024-02-26}} ModeMuseum Antwerpen. http://openfashion.momu.be/#9ce5f00e-8a06-4dab-a833-05c3371f3689.&lt;/ref&gt; The consistency in this sample suggests it may have been made by machine.

== Elastic ==
Elastic had been invented and was in use by the end of the 19th century. For the sense of &quot;Elastic cord or string, usually woven with india-rubber,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;“elastic, adj. &amp; n.”.  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press,  September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1199670313&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' has usage examples beginning in 1847. The example for 1886 is vivid: &quot;The thorough-going prim man will always place a circle of elastic round his hair previous to putting on his college cap.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Fabric ==

=== Brocatelle ===
Brocatelle is a kind of brocade, more simple than most brocades because it uses fewer warp and weft threads and fewer colors to form the design. The article in the French ''Wikipédia'' defines it like this:&lt;blockquote&gt;La '''brocatelle''' est un type de tissu datant du &lt;abbr&gt;xvi&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/abbr&gt; siècle qui comporte deux chaînes et deux trames, au minimum. Il est composé pour que le dessin ressorte avec un relief prononcé, grâce à la chaîne sur un fond en sergé. Les brocatelles les plus anciennes sont toujours fabriquées avec une des trames en lin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-06-01|title=Brocatelle|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brocatelle&amp;oldid=204796410|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocatelle.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Which translates to this:&lt;blockquote&gt;Brocatelle is a type of fabric dating from the 16th century that has two warps and two wefts, at a minimum. It is composed so that the design stands out with a pronounced relief, thanks to the weft threads on a twill background. The oldest brocades were always made with one of the wefts being linen.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' says, brocatelle is an &quot;imitation of brocade, usually made of silk or wool, used for tapestry, upholstery, etc., now also for dresses. Both the nature and the use of the stuff have changed&quot; between the late 17th century and 1888, the last time this definition was revised.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;brocatelle, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/23550. Accessed 4 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Broché ===

=== Ciselé ===

=== Crépe de Chine ===
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' distinguishes the use of ''crêpe'' (using a circumflex rather than an acute accent over the first ''e'') from ''crape'' in textiles, saying ''crêpe'' is &quot;often borrowed [from the French] as a term for all crapy fabrics other than ordinary black mourning crape,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;crêpe, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/44242. Accessed 10 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; with usage examples ranging from 1797 to the mid 20th century. Crêpe de chine, it says is &quot;a white or other coloured crape made of raw silk.&quot;

=== Crinoline ===
Technically, crinoline was a fabric made mostly of horsehair and sometimes linen, stiffened with starch or glue, similar to buckram today, used in men's military collars and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinolines|women's foundation garments]]. Lewandowski defines crinoline as &lt;blockquote&gt;(1840–1865 C.E.). France. Originally horsehair cloth used for officers' collars. Later used for women's underskirts to support skirts. Around 1850, replaced by many petticoats, starched and boned. Around 1856, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinoline Hoops|light metal cage]] was developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Épinglé Velvet ===
Often spelled ''épingle'' rather than ''épinglé'', this term appears to have been used for a fabric made of wool, or at least wool along with linen or cotton, that was heavier and stiffer than silk velvet. It was associated with outer garments and men's clothing. Nowadays, épinglé velvet is an upholstery fabric in which the pile is cut into designs and patterns, and the portrait of [[Social Victorians/People/Douglas-Hamilton Duke of Hamilton|Mary, Duchess of Hamilton]] shows a mantle described as épinglé velvet that does seem to be a velvet with a woven pattern perhaps cut into the pile. 

=== Lace ===
While lace also functioned sometimes as fabric — at the décolletage, for example, on the stomacher or as a veil — here we organize it as a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Trim and Lace|part of the elaboration of clothing]].

=== Liberty Fabrics ===

=== Lisse ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the term ''lisse'' as a &quot;kind of silk gauze&quot; was used in the 19th-century UK and US.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;lisse, n.1.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/108978. Accessed 4 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Satin ===
The pre-1927 ''History of Feminine Fashion'', probably commissioned by Charles Frederick Worth's sons, describes Worth's &quot;insistence on new fabrics, new trimmings, new materials of every description&quot; at the beginning of his career in the mid 19th century:&lt;blockquote&gt;When Worth first entered the business of dressmaking, the only materials of the richer sort used for woman's dress were velvet, faille, and watered silk. Satin, for example, was never used. M. Worth desired to use satin very extensively in the gowns he designed, but he was not satisfied with what could be had at the time; he wanted something very much richer than was produced by the mills at Lyons. That his requirements entailed the reconstruction of mills mattered little — the mills were reconstructed under his directions, and the Lyons looms turned out a richer satin than ever, and the manufacturers prospered accordingly.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|6 in printed, 26 in digital book}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Selesia ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''silesia'' is &quot;A fine linen or cotton fabric originally manufactured in Silesia in what is now Germany (''Schlesien'').&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Silesia, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/179664. Accessed 9 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; It may have been used as a lining — for pockets, for example — in garments made of more luxurious or more expensive cloth. The word ''sleazy'' — &quot;Of textile fabrics or materials: Thin or flimsy in texture; having little substance or body.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;sleazy, adj.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/181563. Accessed 9 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; — may be related.

=== Shot Fabric ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', &quot;Of a textile fabric: Woven with warp-threads of one colour and weft-threads of another, so that the fabric (usually silk) changes in tint when viewed from different points.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Shot, ''Adj.''”  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP,  July 2023,  https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2977164390.&lt;/ref&gt; A shot fabric might also be made of silk and cotton fibers.

=== Tissue ===
A lightly woven fabric like gauze or chiffon. The light weave can make the fabric translucent and make pleating and gathering flatter and less bulky. Tissue can be woven to be shot, sheer, stiff or soft.

Historically, the term in English was used for a &quot;rich kind of cloth, often interwoven with gold or silver&quot; or &quot;various rich or fine fabrics of delicate or gauzy texture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Tissue, N.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, March 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/5896731814.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fan ==

The ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (9th edition) has an article on the fan. (This article is based on knowledge that would have been available toward the end of the 19th century and does not, obviously, reflect current knowledge or ways of talking.)&lt;blockquote&gt;FAN (Latin, ''vannus''; French, ''éventail''), a light implement used for giving motion to the air. ''Ventilabrum'' and ''flabellum'' are names under which ecclesiastical fans are mentioned in old inventories. Fans for cooling the face have been in use in hot climates from remote ages. A bas-relief in the British Museum represents Sennacherib with female figures carrying feather fans. They were attributes of royalty along with horse-hair fly-flappers and umbrellas. Examples may be seen in plates of the Egyptian sculptures at Thebes and other places, and also in the ruins of Persepolis. In the museum of Boulak, near Cairo, a wooden fan handle showing holes for feathers is still preserved. It is from the tomb of Amen-hotep, of the 18th dynasty, 17th century &lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;.&lt;small&gt;C&lt;/small&gt;. In India fans were also attributes of men in authority, and sometimes sacred emblems. A heartshaped fan, with an ivory handle, of unknown age, and held in great veneration by the Hindus, was given to the prince of Wales. Large punkahs or screens, moved by a servant who does nothing else, are in common use by Europeans in India at this day.

Fans were used in the early Middle Ages to keep flies from the sacred elements during the celebrations of the Christian mysteries. Sometimes they were round, with bells attached — of silver, or silver gilt. Notices of such fans in the ancient records of St Paul’s, London, Salisbury cathedral, and many other churches, exist still. For these purposes they are no longer used in the Western church, though they are retained in some Oriental rites. The large feather fans, however, are still carried in the state processions of the supreme pontiff in Rome, though not used during the celebration of the mass. The fan of Queen Theodolinda (7th century) is still preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Monza. Fans made part of the bridal outfit, or ''mundus muliebris'', of ancient Roman ladies.

Folding fans had their origin in Japan, and were imported thence to China. They were in the shape still used—a segment of a circle of paper pasted on a light radiating frame-work of bamboo, and variously decorated, some in colours, others of white paper on which verses or sentences are written. It is a compliment in China to invite a friend or distinguished guest to write some sentiment on your fan as a memento of any special occasion, and this practice has continued. A fan that has some celebrity in France was presented by the Chinese ambassador to the Comtesse de Clauzel at the coronation of Napoleon I. in 1804. When a site was given in 1635, on an artificial island, for the settlement of Portuguese merchants in Nippo in Japan, the space was laid out in the form of a fan as emblematic of an object agreeable for general use. Men and women of every rank both in China and Japan carry fans, even artisans using them with one hand while working with the other. In China they are often made of carved ivory, the sticks being plates very thin and sometimes carved on both sides, the intervals between the carved parts pierced with astonishing delicacy, and the plates held together by a ribbon. The Japanese make the two outer guards of the stick, which cover the others, occasionally of beaten iron, extremely thin and light, damascened with gold and other metals.

Fans were used by Portuguese ladies in the 14th century, and were well known in England before the close of the reign of Richard II. In France the inventory of Charles V. at the end of the 14th century mentions a folding ivory fan. They were brought into general use in that country by Catherine de’ Medici, probably from Italy, then in advance of other countries in all matters of personal luxury. The court ladies of Henry VIII.’s reign in England were used to handling fans, A lady in the Dance of Death by Holbein holds a fan. Queen Elizabeth is painted with a round leather fan in her portrait at Gorhambury; and as many as twenty-seven are enumerated in her inventory (1606). Coryat, an English traveller, in 1608 describes them as common in Italy. They also became of general use from that time in Spain. In Italy, France, and Spain fans had special conventional uses, and various actions in handling them grew into a code of signals, by which ladies were supposed to convey hints or signals to admirers or to rivals in society. A paper in the ''Spectator'' humorously  proposes to establish a regular drill for these purposes.

The chief seat of the European manufacture of fans during the 17th century was Paris, where the sticks or frames, whether of wood or ivory, were made, and the decorations painted on mounts of very carefully prepared vellum (called latterly ''chicken skin'', but not correctly), — a material stronger and tougher than paper, which breaks at the folds. Paris makers exported fans unpainted to Madrid and other Spanish cities, where they were decorated by native artists. Many were exported complete; of old fans called Spanish a great number were in fact made in France. Louis XIV. issued edicts at various times to regulate the manufacture. Besides fans mounted with parchment, Dutch fans of ivory were imported into Paris, and decorated by the heraldic painters in the process called “Vernis Martin,” after a famous carriage painter and inventor of colourless lac varnish. Fans of this kind belonging to the Queen and to the late baroness de Rothschild were exhibited in 1870 at Kensington. A fan of the date of 1660, representing sacred subjects, is attributed to Philippe de Champagne, another to Peter Oliver in England in the / 17th century. Cano de Arevalo, a Spanish painter of the 17th century devoted himself to fan painting. Some harsh expressions of Queen Christina to the young ladies of the French court are said to have caused an increased ostentation in the splendour of their fans, which were set with jewels and mounted in gold. Rosalba Carriera was the name of a fan painter of celebrity in the 17th century. Lebrun and Romanelli were much employed during the same period. Klingstet, a Dutch artist, enjoyed a considerable reputation for his fans from the latter part of the 17th and the first thirty years of the 18th century.

The revocation of the edict of Nantes drove many fan-makers out of France to Holland and England. The trade in England was well established under the Stuart sovereigns. Petitions were addressed by the fan-makers to Charles II. against the importation of fans from India, and a duty was levied upon such fans in consequence. This importation of Indian fans, according to Savary, extended also to France. During the reign of Louis XV. carved Indian and China fans displaced to some extent those formerly imported from Italy, which had been painted on swanskin parchment prepared with various perfumes.

During the 18th century all the luxurious ornamentation of the day was bestowed on fans as far as they could display it. The sticks were made of mother-of-pearl or ivory, carved with extraordinary skill in France, Italy, England, and other countries. They were painted from designs of Boucher, Watteau, Lancret, and other &quot;genre&quot; painters, Hébert, Rau, Chevalier, Jean Boquet, Mad. Verité, are known as fan painters. These fashions were followed in most countries of Europe, with certain national differences. Taffeta and silk, as well as fine parchment, were used for the mounts. Little circles of glass were let into the stick to be looked through, and small telescopic glasses were sometimes contrived at the pivot of the stick. They were occasionally mounted with the finest point lace. An interesting fan (belonging to Madame de Thiac in France), the work of Le Flamand, was presented by the municipality of Dieppe to Marie Antoinette on the birth of her son the dauphin. From the time of the Revolution the old luxury expended on fans died out. Fine examples ceased to be exported to England and other countries. The painting on them represented scenes or personages connected with political events. At a later period fan mounts were often prints coloured by hand. The events of the day mark the date of many examples found in modern collections. Amongst the fanmakers of the present time the names of Alexandre, Duvelleroy, Fayet, Vanier, may be mentioned as well known in Paris. The sticks are chiefly made in the department of Oise, at Le Déluge, Crèvecœur, Méry, Ste Geneviève, and other villages, where whole families are engaged in preparing them; ivory sticks are carved at Dieppe. Water-colour painters of distinction often design and paint the mounts, the best designs being figure subjects. A great impulse has been given to the manufacture and painting of fans in England since the exhibition which took place at South Kensington in 1870. Other exhibitions have since been held, and competitive prizes offered, one of which was gained by the Princess Louise. Modern collections of fans take their date from the emigration of many noble families from France at the time of the Revolution. Such objects were given as souvenirs and occasionally sold by families in straitened circumstances. A large number of fans of all sorts, principally those of the 18th century, French, English, German, Italian Spanish, &amp;c., have been lately bequeathed to the South Kensington Museum.

Regarding the different parts of folding fans it may be well to state that the sticks are called in French ''brins'', the two outer guards ''panaches'', and the mount ''feuille''.&lt;ref&gt;J. H. Pollen [J.H.P.]. &quot;Fan.&quot; ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 9th Edition (1875–1889). Vol. '''10''' ('''X'''). Adam and Charles Black (Publisher). https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%209%20%28FAL-FYZ%29%20193323016.23/page/26/mode/2up (accessed January 2023): 27, Col. 1b – 28, Col. 1c.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Folding fans were available and popular early and are common accessories in portraits of fashionable women through the centuries.

== Costumes for Theatre and Fancy Dress ==
Fancy-dress (or costume) balls were popular and frequent in the U.K. and France as well as the rest of Europe and North America during the 19th century. The themes and styles of the fancy-dress balls influenced those that followed. 

At the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the guests came dressed in costume from times before 1820, as instructed on '''the invitation''', but their clothing was much more about late-Victorian standards of beauty and fashion than the standards of whatever time period the portraits they were copying or basing their costumes on. 

=== Fancy Dress ===
In her ''Magnificent Entertainments: Fancy Dress Balls of Canada's Governors General, 1876-1898'', Cynthia Cooper describes the resources available to those needing help making a costume for a fancy-dress ball:&lt;blockquote&gt;There were a number of places eager ballgoers could turn for assistance and inspiration. Those with a scholarly bent might pore over history books or study pictures of paintings or other works of art. For more direct advice, one could turn to the barrage of published information specifically on fancy dress. Women’s magazines such as ''Godey’s Lady’s Book'' and ''The Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine'' sometimes featured fancy dress designs and articles, and enticing specialized books were available with extensive recommendations for choosing fancy dress. By far the most complete sources were the books by [[Social Victorians/People/Ardern Holt|Ardern Holt]], a prolific British authority on the subject. Holt’s book for women, ''Fancy Dresses Described, or What to Wear at Fancy Balls'' (published in six editions between 1879 and 1896), began with the query, ‘‘But what are we to wear?” Holt’s companion book, ''Gentlemen’s Fancy Dress:'' ''How to Choose It'', was also published in six editions from 1882 to 1905. Other prominent authorities included Mrs. Aria’s ''Costume: Fanciful, Historical, and Theatrical'' and, in the US, the Butterick Company’s ''Masquerade and Carnival: Their Customs and Costumes''. The Butterick publication relied heavily on Holt, copying large sections of the introduction outright and paraphrasing other sections.&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;Cooper, Cynthia. ''Magnificent entertainments: fancy dress balls of Canada's Governors General, 1876-1898''.Fredericton, N.B.; Hull, Quebec: Goose Lane Editions and Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1997. Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/magnificententer0000coop/.&lt;/ref&gt; (28–29)&lt;/blockquote&gt;Cynthia Cooper discusses how &quot;historical accuracy&quot; works in historical fiction and historical dress: &lt;blockquote&gt;A seemingly accurate costume and coiffure bespoke a cultured individual whose most gratifying compliment would be “historically correct.” Those who were fortunate enough to own actual clothing from an earlier period might wear it with pride as a historical relic, though they would generally adapt or remake it in keeping with the aesthetics of their own period. Historical accuracy was always in the eye of beholders inclined to overlook elements of current fashion in a historical costume. Theatre had long taught the public that if a costume appeared tasteful and attractive, it could be assumed to be accurate. Even at Queen Victoria’s fancy dress balls, costume silhouette was always far more like the fashionable dress of the period than of the time portrayed. For this reason, many extant eighteenth-century dresses show evidence of extensive alterations done in the nineteenth century, no doubt for fancy dress purposes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; (25) &lt;/blockquote&gt;The newspaper ''The Queen'' published dress and fashion information and advice under the byline of [[Social Victorians/People/Ardern Holt|Ardern Holt]], who regularly answered questions from readers about fashion as well as about fancy dress. Holt also wrote entire articles with suggestions for what might make an appealing fancy-dress costume as well as pointing readers away from costumes that had been worn too frequently. The suggestions for costumes are based on familiar types or portraits available to readers, similar to Holt's books on fancy dress, which ran through a number of editions in the 1880s and 1890s. Fancy-dress questions sometimes asked for details about costumes worn in theatrical or operatic productions, which Holt provides. 

In November 1897, Holt refers to the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July ball: &quot;Since the famous fancy ball, given at Devonshire House during this year, historical fancy dresses have assumed a prominence that they had not hitherto known.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Fancy Dress a la Mode.&quot; The ''Queen'' 27 November 1897, Saturday: 94 [of 145 in BNA; print p. 1026], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18971127/459/0094.&lt;/ref&gt; Holt goes on to provide a number of ideas for costumes for historical fancy dress, as always with a strong leaning toward Victorian standards of beauty and style and away from any concern for historical accuracy.

As Leonore Davidoff says, &quot;Every cap, bow, streamer, ruffle, fringe, bustle, glove and other elaboration symbolised some status category for the female wearer.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93}} [handled under Elaborations]

=== Historical Accuracy ===
Many of the costumes at the ball were based on portraits, especially when the guest was dressed as a historical figure. If possible, we have found the portraits likely to have been the originals, or we have found, if possible, portraits that show the subjects from the two time periods at similar ages.

The way clothing was cut changed quite a bit between the 18th and 19th centuries. We think of Victorian clothing — particularly women's clothing, and particularly at the end of the century — as inflexible and restrictive, especially compared to 20th- and 21st-century customs permitting freedom of movement. The difference is generally evolutionary rather than absolute — that is, as time has passed since the 18th century, clothing has allowed an increasingly greater range of movement, especially for people who did not do manual labor.

By the end of the 19th century, garments like women's bodices and men's coats were made fitted and smooth by attention to the grain of the fabric and by the use of darts (rather than techniques that assembled many small, individual pieces of fabric).

* clothing construction and flat-pattern techniques
* Generally, the further back in time we go, the more 2-dimensional the clothing itself was.

==== Women's Versions of Historical Accuracy at the Ball ====
As always with this ball, whatever historical accuracy might be present in a woman's costume is altered so that the wearer is still a fashionable Victorian lady. What makes the costumes look &quot;Victorian&quot; to our eyes is the line of the silhouette caused by the foundation undergarments as well as the many &quot;elaborations&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93}}, mostly in the decorations, trim and accessories. 

Also, the clothing hangs and drapes differently because the fabric was cut on grain and the shoulders were freed by the way the sleeves were set in. 

==== Men's Versions of Historical Accuracy at the Ball ====
Because men were not wearing a Victorian foundation garment at the end of the century, the men's costumes at the ball are more historically accurate in some ways.

* Trim
* Mixing neck treatments
* Hair
* Breeches
* Shoes and boots
* Military uniforms, arms, gloves, boots

== Feathers and Plumes ==

=== Aigrette ===
Elizabeth Lewandowski defines ''aigrette'' as &quot;France. Feather or plume from an egret or heron.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;(5) Sometimes the newspapers use the term to refer to an accessory (like a fan or ornament on a hat) that includes such a feather or plume. The straight and tapered feathers in an aigrette are in a bundle.

=== Prince of Wales's Feathers or White Plumes ===
The feathers in an aigrette came from egrets and herons; Prince of Wales's feathers came from ostriches. A fuller discussion of Prince of Wales's feathers and the white ostrich plumes worn at court appears on [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Feathers and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Victorian Things]].

For much of the late 18th and 19th centuries, white ostrich plumes were central to fashion at court, and at a certain point in the late 18th century they became required for women being presented to the monarch and for their sponsors. Our purpose here is to understand why women were wearing plumes at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] as part of their costumes.

First published in 1893, [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Colin Campbell|Lady Colin Campbell]]'s ''Manners and Rules of Good Society'' (1911 edition) says that&lt;blockquote&gt;It was compulsory for both Married and Unmarried Ladies to Wear Plumes. The married lady’s Court plume consisted of three white feathers. An unmarried lady’s of two white feathers. The three white feathers should be mounted as a Prince of Wales plume and worn towards the left hand side of the head. Colored feathers may not be worn. In deep mourning, white feathers must be worn, black feathers are inadmissible.

White veils or lace lappets must be worn with the feathers. The veils should not be longer than 45 inches.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.edwardianpromenade.com/etiquette/the-court-presentation/|title=The Court Presentation|last=Holl|first=Evangeline|date=2007-12-07|website=Edwardian Promenade|language=en-US|access-date=2022-12-18}} https://www.edwardianpromenade.com/etiquette/the-court-presentation/.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;[[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Feathers and Prince of Wales's Feathers|This fashion was imported from France]] in the mid 1770s.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Abstract&quot; for Blackwell, Caitlin. &quot;'&lt;nowiki/&gt;''The Feather'd Fair in a Fright''': The Emblem of the Feather in Graphic Satire of 1776.&quot; ''Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 20 January 2013 (Vol. 36, Issue 3): 353-376. ''Wiley Online'' DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-0208.2012.00550.x (accessed November 2022).&lt;/ref&gt;

Separately, a secondary heraldic emblem of the Prince of Wales has been a specific arrangement of 3 ostrich feathers in a gold coronet&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-11-07|title=Prince of Wales's feathers|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers&amp;oldid=1120556015|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Wales's_feathers.&lt;/ref&gt; since King Edward III (1312–1377&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-12-14|title=Edward III of England|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_III_of_England&amp;oldid=1127343221|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III_of_England.&lt;/ref&gt;).

Some women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] wore white ostrich feathers in their hair, but most of them are not Prince of Wales's feathers. Most of the plumes in these portraits are arrangements of some kind of headdress to accompany the costume. A few, wearing what looks like the Princes of Wales's feathers, might be signaling that their character is royal or has royal ancestry. '''One of the women [which one?] was presented to the royals at this ball?'''

Here is the list of women who are wearing white ostrich plumes in their portraits in the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/Photographs|''Diamond Jubilee Fancy Dress Ball'' album of 286 photogravure portraits]]:

# Kathleen Pelham-Clinton, the [[Social Victorians/People/Newcastle|Duchess of Newcastle]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Cavendish]], the Duchess of Devonshire
# Jesusa Murrieta del Campo Mello y Urritio (née Bellido), [[Social Victorians/People/Santurce|Marquisa de Santurce]]
# Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Farquhar|Emilie Farquhar]]
# Princess (Laura Williamina Seymour) Victor of  [[Social Victorians/People/Gleichen#Laura%20Williamina%20Seymour%20of%20Hohenlohe-Langenburg|Hohenlohe Langenburg]]
# Louisa Acheson, [[Social Victorians/People/Gosford|Lady Gosford]]
# Alice Emily White Coke, [[Social Victorians/People/Leicester|Viscountess Coke]]
# Lady Mary Stewart, Helen Mary Theresa [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry|Vane-Tempest-Stewart]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Consuelo Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill|Consuelo Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill]], Duchess of [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough|Marlborough]], dressed as the wife of the French Ambassador at the Court of Catherine of Russia (not white, but some color that reads dark in the black-and-white photograph)
#Mrs. Mary [[Social Victorians/People/Chamberlain|Chamberlain]] (at 491), wearing white plumes, as Madame d'Epinay
#Lady Clementine [[Social Victorians/People/Tweeddale|Hay]] (at 629), wearing white plumes, as St. Bris (''Les Huguenots'')
#[[Social Victorians/People/Meysey-Thompson|Lady Meysey-Thompson]] (at 391), wearing white plumes, as Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia
#Mrs. [[Social Victorians/People/Grosvenor|Algernon (Catherine) Grosvenor]] (at 510), wearing white plumes, as Marie Louise
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Ancaster|Evelyn Ewart]], at 401), wearing white plumes, as the Duchess of Ancaster, Mistress of the Robes to Queen Charlotte, 1757, after a picture by Hudson
#[[Social Victorians/People/Lyttelton|Edith Sophy Balfour Lyttelton]] (at 580), wearing what might be white plumes on a large-brimmed white hat, after a picture by Romney
#[[Social Victorians/People/Yznaga|Emilia Yznaga]] (at 360), wearing what might be white plumes, as Cydalise of the Comedie Italienne from the time of Louis XV
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Ilchester|Muriel Fox Strangways]] (at 403), wearing what might be two smallish white plumes, as Lady Sarah Lennox, one of the bridesmaids of Queen Charlotte A.D. 1761
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Lucan|Violet Bingham]] (at 586), wearing perhaps one white plume in a headdress not related to the Prince of Wales's feathers
#Rosamond Fellowes, [[Social Victorians/People/de Ramsey|Lady de Ramsey]] (at 329), wearing a headdress that includes some white plumes, as Lady Burleigh
#[[Social Victorians/People/Dupplin|Agnes Blanche Marie Hay-Drummond]] (at 682), in a big headdress topped with white plumes, as Mademoiselle Andrée de Taverney A.D. 1775
#Florence Canning, [[Social Victorians/People/Garvagh|Lady Garvagh]] (at 336), wearing what looks like Prince of Wales's plumes
#[[Social Victorians/People/Suffolk|Marguerite Hyde &quot;Daisy&quot; Leiter]] (at 684), wearing what looks like Prince of Wales's plumes
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Spicer|Margaret Spicer]] (at 281), wearing one smallish white and one black plume, as Countess Zinotriff, Lady-in-Waiting to the Empress Catherine of Russia
#Mrs. [[Social Victorians/People/Cavendish Bentinck|Arthur James]] (at 318), wearing what looks like Prince of Wales's plumes, as Elizabeth Cavendish, daughter of Bess of Hardwick
#Nellie, [[Social Victorians/People/Kilmorey|Countess of Kilmorey]] (at 207), wearing three tall plumes, 2 white and one dark, as Comtesse du Barri
#Daisy, [[Social Victorians/People/Warwick|Countess of Warwick]] (at 53), wearing at least 1 white plume, as Marie Antoinette

More men than women were wearing plumes reminiscent of the Prince of Wales's feathers:

*

==== Bibliography for Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers ====
* Blackwell, Caitlin. &quot;'''The Feather'd Fair in a Fright'&lt;nowiki/&gt;'': The Emblem of the Feather in Graphic Satire of 1776.&quot; Journal for ''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 20 January 2013 (Vol. 36, Issue 3): 353-376. Wiley Online DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-0208.2012.00550.x.
* &quot;Prince of Wales's feathers.&quot; ''Wikipedia'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers (accessed November 2022). ['''Add women to this page''']
* Simpson, William. &quot;On the Origin of the Prince of Wales' Feathers.&quot; ''Fraser's magazine'' 617 (1881): 637-649. Hathi Trust https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.79253140&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=643&amp;q1=feathers (accessed December 2022). Deals mostly with use of feathers in other cultures and in antiquity; makes brief mention of feathers and plumes in signs and pub names that may not be associated with the Prince of Wales. No mention of the use of plumes in women's headdresses or court dress.

== Honors ==

=== The Bath ===
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath (GCB, Knight or Dame Grand Cross; KCB or DCB, Knight or Dame Commander; CB, Companion)

=== The Garter ===
The Most Noble Order of the Knights of the Garter (KG, Knight Companion; LG, Lady Companion)

[[File:The Golden Fleece - collar exhibited at MET, NYC.jpg|thumb|The Golden Fleece collar and pendant for the 2019 &quot;Last Knight&quot; exhibition at the MET, NYC.|alt=Recent photograph of a gold necklace on a wide band, with a gold skin of a sheep hanging from it as a pendant]]
=== The Golden Fleece ===
To wear the golden fleece is to wear the insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, said to be &quot;the most prestigious and historic order of chivalry in the world&quot; because of its long history and strict limitations on membership.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-25|title=Order of the Golden Fleece|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece&amp;oldid=980340875|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The monarchs of the U.K. were members of the originally Spanish order, as were others who could afford it, like the Duke of Wellington,&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;Thompson, R[obert]. H[ugh]. &quot;The Golden Fleece in Britain.&quot; Publication of the ''British Numismatic Society''. 2009 https://www.britnumsoc.org/publications/Digital%20BNJ/pdfs/2009_BNJ_79_8.pdf (accessed January 2023).&lt;/ref&gt; the first Protestant to be admitted to the order.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Founded in 1429/30 by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, the order separated into two branches in 1714, one Spanish and the other Austrian, still led by the House of Habsburg.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

[[File:Prince Albert - Franz Xaver Winterhalter 1842.jpg|thumb|1842 Winterhalter portrait of Prince Albert wearing the insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 1842|left|alt=1842 Portrait of Prince Albert by Winterhalter, wearing the insignia of the Golden Fleece]]
The photograph (upper right) is of a Polish badge dating from the &quot;turn of the XV and XVI centuries.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Polski:  Kolana orderowa orderu Złotego Runa, przełom XV i XVI wieku.|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Golden_Fleece_-_collar_exhibited_at_MET,_NYC.jpg|date=2019-11-10|accessdate=2023-01-10|last=Wulfstan}}. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Golden_Fleece_-_collar_exhibited_at_MET,_NYC.jpg.&lt;/ref&gt; The collar to this Golden Fleece might be similar to the one the [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish#The Insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece|Duke of Devonshire is wearing in the 1897 Lafayette portrait]].

The badges and collars that Knights of the Order actually wore vary quite a bit.

The 1842 Franz Xaver Winterhalter portrait (left) of Prince Consort Albert, Victoria's husband and father of the Prince of Wales, shows him wearing the Golden Fleece on a red ribbon around his neck and the star of the Garter on the front of his coat.&lt;ref&gt;Winterhalter, Franz Xaver. ''Prince Albert''. {{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/search#/16/collection/401412/prince-albert-1819-61|title=Explore the Royal Collection Online|website=www.rct.uk|access-date=2023-01-16}} https://www.rct.uk/collection/search#/16/collection/401412/prince-albert-1819-61.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Royal Victorian Order ===
(GCVO, Knight or Dame Grand Cross; KCVO or DCVO, Knight or Dame Commander; CVO, Commander; LVO, Lieutenant; MVO, Member)

=== St. John ===
The Order of the Knights of St. John

=== Star of India ===
Most Exalted Order of the Star of India (GCSI, Knight Grand Commander; KCSI, Knight Commander; CSI, Companion)

=== Thistle ===
The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle

== Hoops ==
'''This section is under construction right now'''.

Over the 19th century fashionable shapes for women's skirts — and their bodies — evolved ever more quickly, and sometimes several distinct silhouettes were fashionable at the same time. This evolution occurred as a result of changes in a number of large cultural factors:

#what was most fashionable changed over time, and the speed with which those changes occurred accelerated, which is associated with technological developments, the materials for clothing and foundations and the technologies for creating them
#* Over the course of the century, the materials that hoops were made of evolved, to include whalebone (cartilage), cane, iron and steel bands or wire as well as, apparently, sometimes rubber elastic.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; The evolution caused the hoops to become lighter and smoother. The cage also stopped the movement of fullness in skirts to the back.
#* grommets
#* the various materials used to make hoops
#* sewing machines
#* machines to make lace
#* aniline dyes
#relationship between fashion and social class: changes in conditions for women as social classes developed and increased wealth among the growing oligarchy, the needs among middle- and working-class women for freedom of movement and safety from fires
#*role of elites in controlling (sumptuary laws)
#*setting the style (Marie Antoinette)
#*development of the upper 10,000: expanding class of elite to include larger upper middle class, expanding aristocracy, growing oligarchy, internationalization of aristocracy and oligarchy, to include European royals seeking shelter in the U.K., American heiresses admitted into British aristocracy
#*role of Victoria as queen, leader of one branch of the aristocracy, her domesticity, her sense of style
#*fashion began to move down the social classes so that hoops (and, for example, top hats) were worn by people in the middle and sometimes working classes
#Impact of fashion on women's mobility, women's rights
#evolutionary process in the development of hoops: not discrete structures but over the centuries one leads to another
Terms: farthingale, panniers, hoops, crinoline, cage, bustle

Between 1450 and 1550 a loosely woven, very stiff fabric made from linen and horsehair was used in &quot;horsehair petticoats.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|137}} Heavy and scratchy, these petticoats made the fabric of the skirt lie smooth, without wrinkles or folds. Over time, this horsehair fabric was used in several kinds of objects made from fabric, like hats and padding for poufs, but it is best known for its use in the structure of hoops, or cages. Horsehair fabric was used until the mid-19th century, when it  was called ''crinoline'' and used for petticoats again (1840–1865).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}} We still call this fabric ''crinoline''.

''Hoops'' is a mid-19th-century term for a cage-like structure worn by a woman to hold her skirts away from her body. The term ''cage'' is also 19th century, and ''crinoline'' is sometimes used in a non-technical way for 19th-century cages as well. Both these terms are commonly used now for the general understructure of a woman's skirts, but they are not technically accurate for time periods before the 19th century.

As fashion, that cage-like structure was the foundation undergarment for the bottom half of a woman's body, for a skirt and petticoat, and created the fashionable silhouette from the 15th through the late 19th century. The 16th-century Katherine of Aragon is credited with making hoops popular outside Spain for women of the elite classes. By the end of the 16th century France had become the arbiter of fashion for the western world, and it still is. The cage is notable for how long it lasted in fashion and for its complex evolution.

Together with the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsets|corset]], the cage enabled all the changes in fashionable shapes, from the extreme distortions of 17th-and-18th-century panniers to the late 19th-century bustle. Early hoops circled the body in a bell, cone or drum shape, then were moved to the sides with panniers, then ballooned around the body like the top half of a sphere, and finally were pulled to the rear as a bustle. That is, the distorted shapes of high fashion were made possible by hoops. High fashion demanded these shapes, which disguised women's bodies, especially below the waist, while corsets did their work above it.

When hoops were first introduced in the 15th century, women's shoes for the first time differentiated from men's and became part of the fashionable look. In the periods when the skirts were flat in front (with the farthingale and in the transitional 17th century), they did not touch the floor, making shoes visible and important fashion accessories. Portraits of high-status, high-fashion women consistently show their pointy-toed shoes, which would have been more likely to show when they were moving than when they were standing still. The shoes seem to draw attention to themselves in these portraits, suggesting that they were important to the painters and, perhaps, the women as well.

In addition to the shape, the materials used to make hoops evolved — from cane and wood to whalebone, then steel bands and wire. Initially fabric strips, tabs or ribbons were the vertical elements in the cages and evolved into channels in a linen, muslin or, later, crinoline underskirt encasing wires or bands. Fabrics besides crinoline —  like cotton, silk and linen — were used to connect the hoops and bands in cages. All of these materials used in cages had disadvantages and advantages. 

=== Disadvantages and Advantages ===
Hoops affected the way women were able to move. ['''something about riding'''?]

==== Disadvantages ====
the weight, getting through doorways, sitting, the wind, getting into carriages, what the dances involved. Raising '''one's''' skirts to climb stairs or walk was more difficult with hoop. 

['''Contextualize with dates?'''] &quot;The combination of corset, bustle, and crinolette limited a woman's ability to bend except at the hip joint, resulting in a decorous, if rigid, sense of bearing.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Koda, Harold. ''Extreme Beauty: The Body Transformed.'' The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001.&lt;/ref&gt; (130) 

As caricatures through the centuries makes clear, one disadvantage hoops had is that they could be caught by the wind, no matter what the structure was made of or how heavy it was. 

In her 1941 ''Little Town on the Prairie'', Laura Ingalls Wilder writes a scene in which Laura's hoops have crept up under skirts because of the wind. Set in 1883,&lt;ref&gt;Hill, Pamela Smith, ed. ''Pioneer Girl: The Annotated Autobiography''.&lt;/ref&gt; this very unusual scene shows a young woman highly skilled at getting her hoops back down without letting her undergarments show. The majority of European and North American women wore hoops in 1883, but to our knowledge no other writer from this time describes any solution to the problem of the wind under hoops or, indeed, a skill like Laura's. &lt;blockquote&gt;“Well,” Laura began; then she stopped and spun round and round, for the strong wind blowing against her always made the wires of her hoop skirt creep slowly upward under her skirts until they bunched around her knees. Then she must whirl around and around until the wires shook loose and spiraled down to the bottom of her skirts where they should be.

“As she and Carrie hurried on she began again. “I think it was silly, the way they dressed when Ma was a girl, don’t you? Drat this wind!” she exclaimed as the hoops began creeping upward again.

“Quietly Carrie stood by while Laura whirled. “I’m glad I’m not old enough to have to wear hoops,” she said. “They’d make me dizzy.”

“They are rather a nuisance,” Laura admitted. “But they are stylish, and when you’re my age you’ll want to be in style.”&lt;ref&gt;Wilder, Laura Ingalls. ''Little Town on the Prairie.'' Harper and Row, 1941. Pp. 272–273.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The 16-year-old Laura makes the comment that she wants to be in style, but she lives on the prairie in the U.S., far from a large city, and would not necessarily wear the latest Parisian style, although she reads the American women's domestic and fashion monthly ''[[Social Victorians/Newspapers#Godey's Lady's Book|Godey's Lady's Book]]'' and would know what was stylish.

==== '''Advantages''' ====
The '''weight''' of hoops was somewhat corrected over time with the use of steel bands and wires, as they were lighter than the wood, cane or whalebone hoops, which had to be thick enough to keep their shape and to keep from breaking or folding under the weight of the petticoats and skirts. Full skirts made women's waists look smaller, whether by petticoats or hoops. Being fashionable, being included among the smart set.

The hoops moved the skirts away from the legs and feet, making moving easier. 

By moving the heavy petticoats and skirts away from their legs, hoops could actually give women's legs and feet more freedom to move.

Because so few fully constructed hoop foundation garments still exist, we cannot be certain of a number of details about how exactly they were worn. For example, the few contemporary drawings of 19th-century hoops show bloomers beneath them but no petticoats. However, in the cold and wind (and we know from Laura Ingalls Wilder how the wind could get under hoops), women could have added layers of petticoats beneath their hoops for warmth.[[File:Chaise à crinolines.jpg|thumb|Chaise à Crinolines, 19th century]]
=== Accommodation ===
Hoops affected how women sat, and furniture was developed specifically to accommodate these foundation structures. The ''chaise à crinolines'' or chair for hoop skirts (right), dating from the 2nd half of the 19th century, has a gap between the seat and the back of the chair to keep her undergarments from showing as she sat, or even seated herself, and to reduce wrinkling of the fabric by accommodating her hoops, petticoats and skirts.[[File:Vermeer Lady Seated at a Virginal.jpg|thumb|Vermeer, Lady Seated at a Virginal|left]]Vermeer's c. 1673 ''Lady Seated at a Virginal'' (left) looks like she is sitting on this same kind of chair, suggesting that furniture like this had existed long before the 19th century. Vermeer's painting shows how the chair could accommodate her hoops and the voluminous fabric of her skirts.

The wide doorways between the large public rooms in the Palace of Versailles could accommodate wide panniers. '''Louis XV and XVI of France occupied an already-built Versailles, but they both renovated the inside over time'''.

Some configurations of hoops permitted folding, and of course the width of the hoops themselves varied over time and with the evolving styles and materials.

With hoops, skirts moved away from the legs and feet, and when skirts got shorter, to above the floor, women's feet had nearly unrestricted freedom to move. Evening gowns, with trains, were still restrictive.

A modern accommodation are the leaning boards developed in Hollywood for women wearing period garments like corsets and long, full skirts. The leaning boards allowed the actors to rest without sitting and wrinkling their clothes.[[File:Pedro García de Benabarre St John Retable Detail.jpg|thumb|alt=Old oil painting of a woman wearing a dress from the 1400s holding the decapitated head of a man with a halo before a table of people at a dinner party|Pedro García de Benabarre, Detail from St. John Altarpiece, Showing Visible Hoops]]
=== Early Hoops ===
Hoops first appeared in Spain in the 15th century and influenced European fashion for at least 3 centuries.

A detail (right) from Pedro García de Benabarre's c. 1470 larger altarpiece painting shows women wearing a style of hoops that predates the farthingale but marks the beginning point of the development of that fashion. Salomé (holding John the Baptist's head) is wearing a dress with what looks like visible wooden hoops attached to the outside of the skirt, which also appears to have padding at the hips underneath it.

The clothing and hairstyles of the people in this painting are sufficiently realistic to offer details for analysis. The foundation garments the women are wearing are corsets and bum rolls. Because none still exist, we do not know how these hoops attached to the skirts or how they related structurally to the corset. The bottom hoop on Salomé's skirt rests on the ground, and her feet are covered. The women near her are kneeling, so not all their hoops show. 

The painter De Benabarre was &quot;active in Aragon and in Catalonia, between 1445–1496,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.mfab.hu/artworks/10528/|title=Saint Peter|website=Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest|language=en-US|access-date=2024-12-11}} https://www.mfab.hu/artworks/10528/.&lt;/ref&gt; so perhaps he saw the styles worn by people like Katharine of Aragon, whose hoops are now called a farthingale.

=== Early Farthingale ===
In the 16th century, the foundation garment we call ''hoops'' was called a ''farthingale''. Elizabeth Lewandowski says that the metal supports (or structure) in the hoops were made of wire:&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;FARTHINGALE: Renaissance (1450-1550 C.E. to Elizabethan (1550-1625 C.E.). Linen underskirt with wire supports which, when shaped, produced a variety of dome, bell, and oblong shapes.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;''{{rp|105}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The French term for ''farthingale'' is ''vertugadin'' — &quot;un élément essentiel de la mode Tudor en Angleterre [an essential element of Tudor fashion in England].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-12|title=Vertugadin|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vertugadin&amp;oldid=191825729|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertugadin.&lt;/ref&gt; The French also called the farthingale a &quot;''cachenfant'' for its perceived ability to hide pregnancy,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Clothes on the Shakespearean Stage.&quot; Carleton Production. Amazon Web Services. https://carleton-wp-production.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/sites/84/2023/05/Clothes-on-the-Shakespearean-Stage_-1.pdf (retrieved April 2025).&lt;/ref&gt; not unreasonable given the number of portraits where the subject wearing a farthingale looks as if she might be pregnant. The term in Spanish is ''vertugado''. Nowadays clothing historians make clear distinctions among these terms, especially farthingale, bustle and hip roll, but the terminology then did not need to distinguish these garments from later ones.&lt;p&gt;

The hoops on the outsides of the skirts in the Pedro García de Benabarre painting (above right) predate what would technically be considered a vertugado.[[File:Alonso Sánchez Coello 011.jpg|thumb|alt=Old painting of a princess wearing a richly jeweled outfit|Alonso Sánchez Coello, Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia Wearing a Vertugado, c. 1584]]

Blanche Payne says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Katherine of Aragon is reputed to have introduced the Spanish farthingale ... into England early in the [16th] century. The result was to convert the columnar skirt of the fifteenth century into the cone shape of the sixteenth.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|291}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In fact, &quot;The Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon brought the fashion to England for her marriage to Prince Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII in 1501 [La princesse espagnole Catherine d'Aragon amena la mode en Angleterre pour son mariage avec le prince Arthur, fils aîné d'Henri VII en 1501].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Catherine of Aragon, of course, married Henry VIII after Arthur's death, then was divorced and replaced by Anne Boleyn.

Of England, Lewandowski says that &quot;Spanish influence had introduced the hoop-supported skirt, smooth in contour, which was quite generally worn.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|291}} That is, hoops were &quot;quite generally worn&quot; among the ruling and aristocratic classes in England, and may have been worn by some women among the wealthy bourgeoisie. Sumptuary laws addressed &quot;certain features of garments that are decorative in function, intended to enhance the silhouette&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-22|title=Sumptuary law|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumptuary_law|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and signified wealth and status, but they were generally not very successful and not enforced well or consistently. (Sumptuary laws &quot;attempted to regulate permitted consumption, especially of clothing, food and luxury expenditures&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-09-27|title=sumptuary law|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sumptuary_law|journal=Wiktionary, the free dictionary|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; in order to mark class differences and, for our purposes, to use fashion to control women and the burgeoning middle class.)

The Spanish vertugado shaped the skirt into an symmetrical A-line with a graduated series of hoops sewn to an undergarment. Alonso Sánchez Coello's c. 1584&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|316}} portrait (right) shows infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia wearing a vertugado, with its &quot;typically Spanish smooth cone-shaped contour.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|315–316}}

The shoes do not show in the portraits of women wearing the Spanish cone-shaped vertugado. The round hoops stayed in place in front, even though the skirts might touch the floor, giving the women's feet enough room to take steps. 

By the end of the 16th century the French and Spanish farthingales had evolved separately and were no longer the same garment.[[File:Queen Elizabeth I ('The Ditchley portrait') by Marcus Gheeraerts the YoungerFXD.jpg|thumb|alt=Old oil painting of a queen in a white dress with shoulders and hips exaggerated by her dress|Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Queen Elizabeth I in a French Cartwheel Farthingale, 1592|left]]

The French vertugadin — a cartwheel farthingale — was a flat &quot;platter&quot; of hoops worn below the waist and above the hips. Once past the vertugadin, the skirt fell straight to the floor, into a kind of asymmetrical drum shape that was balanced by strict symmetry in the rest of the garment. The English Queen Elizabeth I is wearing a French drum-shaped farthingale in Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger's c. 1592 portrait (left).[[File:Hardwick Hall Portrait of Elizabeth I of England.jpg|thumb|Hilliard, Hardwick Hall Portrait of Elizabeth I of England, c. 1598–1599]]In Nicholas Hilliard's c. 1598–1599 portrait of Queen Elizabeth I (right), an extraordinary showing of jewels, pearls and embroidery from the top of her head to the tips of her toes make for a spectacular outfit. The drum of the cartwheel farthingale is closer to the body beneath the point of the bodice, and the underskirt is gathered up the sides of the foundation corset to where her natural waistline would be. The gathers flatten the petticoat from the point to the hem, and the fabric collected at the sides falls from the edge of the drum down to her ankles.

Associated with the cartwheel farthingale was a very long waist and a skirt slightly shorter in the front. A rigid corset with a point far below the waist and the downward-angled farthingale flattened the front of the skirt. Because the skirt in front over a cartwheel farthingale was closer to the woman's body and did not touch the floor, the dress flowed and the women's shoes showed as they moved. Almost all portraits of women wearing cartwheel farthingales show the little pointy toes of their shoes. In Gheeraerts' painting, Queen Elizabeth's feet draw attention to themselves, suggesting that showing the shoes was important.

Farthingales were heavy, and together with the rigid corsets and the construction of the dress (neckline, bodice, sleeves, mantle), women's movement was quite restricted. Although their feet and legs had the freedom to move under the hoops, their upper bodies were held in place by their foundation garments and their clothing, the sleeves preventing them from raising their arms higher than their shoulders. This restriction of the movement of their arms can be seen in Elizabethan court dances that included clapping. They clapped their hands beside their heads rather than over their heads.

The steady attempts in the sumptuary laws to control fine materials for clothing reveals the interest middle-class women had in wearing what the cultural elite were wearing at court.

=== The Transitional 17th Century ===
What had been starched and stiff in women's dress in the 16th century — like ruffs and collars — became looser and flatter in the 17th. This transitional period in women's clothing also introduced the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Cavalier|Cavalier style of men's dress]], which began with the political movement in support of England's King Charles II while he was still living in France. Like the ones women wore, men's ruffs and collars were also no longer starched or wired, making them looser and flatter as well.

For much of the 17th century — beginning about 1620, according to Payne — skirts were not supported by the cage-like hoops that had been so popular.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|355}} Without structures like hoops, skirts draped loosely to the floor, but they did not fall straight from the waist. Except for dressing gowns (which sometimes appear in portraiture in spite of their informality), the skirts women wore were held away from the body by some kind of padding or stiffened roll around the waist and at the hips, sometimes flat in front, sometimes not. The skirts flowed from the hips, either straight down or in an A-line depending on the cut of the skirt.
[[File:The Vanity of Women Masks and Bustles MET DT4982.jpg|thumb|Maerten de Vos, ''The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles'', c. 1600]]
==== Hip Rolls ====
This c. 1600 Dutch engraving attributed to Maerten de Vos (right) shows two servants dressing two wealthy women in masks and hip rolls. In its title of this engraving the Metropolitan Museum of Art calls a hip roll a ''bustle'' (which it defines as a padded roll or a French farthingale),&lt;ref&gt;De Vos, Maerten. &quot;The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles.&quot; Metropolitan Museum of Art. Wikimedia Commons 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Vanity_of_Women_Masks_and_Bustles_MET_DT4982.jpg.&lt;/ref&gt; but the engraving itself calls it a ''cachenfant''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;De Vos, Maerten (attrib. to). &quot;The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles.&quot; Circa 1600. ''The Costume Institute: The Metropolitan Museum of Art''. Object Number: 2001.341.1. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/82615&lt;/ref&gt; The craftsmen in the back are wearing masks. The one on the left is making the masks that the shop sells, and the one on the right is making the hip rolls.

The serving woman on the left is fitting a mask on what is probably her mistress. The kneeling woman on the right is tying a hip roll on what is probably hers.

The text around the engraving is in French and Dutch. The French passages read as follows (clockwise from top left), with the word ''cachenfant'' (farthingale) bolded:&lt;blockquote&gt;
Orne moy auecq la masque laide orde et sale:
&lt;br&gt;Car laideur est en moy la beaute principale.

Achepte dame masques &amp; passement:
&lt;br&gt;Monstre vostre pauvre [?] orgueil hardiment.

Venez belles filles auecq fesses maigres:
&lt;br&gt;Bien tost les ferayie rondes &amp; alaigres.

Vn '''cachenfant''' come les autres me fault porter:
&lt;br&gt;Couste qu'il couste; le fol la folle veult aymer.

Voy cy la boutiquel des enragez amours,
&lt;br&gt;De vanite, &amp; d'orgueil &amp; d'autres tels tours:

D'ont plusieurs qui parent la chair puante,
&lt;br&gt;S'en vont auecq les diables en la gehenne ardante.

&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Which translates, roughly, into
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Adorn me with the ugly, dirty, and orderly mask:
&lt;br&gt;For ugliness is the principal beauty in me.

Buy, lady, masks and trimmings:
&lt;br&gt;Boldly show your poor [?] pride.

Come, beautiful girls with thin buttocks:
&lt;br&gt;Soon, make them round and cheerful.

I must wear a [farthingale, lit. &quot;hide child&quot;] like the others:
&lt;br&gt;No matter how much it costs; the madman wants to love.

See here the store of rabid loves,
&lt;br&gt;Of vanity, and pride, and other such tricks:

Many of whom adorn the stinking flesh,
&lt;br&gt;Go with the devils to the burning hell.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[File:The Vanity of Women Masks and Bustles MET DT4982 (detail of padded rolls or French farthingales).jpg|thumb|Detail of Maerten de Vos, ''The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles'', c. 1600]]
Traditionally thought of as padding, the hip rolls, at least in this detail of the c. 1600 engraving (right), are hollow and seem to be made cylindrical by what looks like rings of cane or wire sewn into channels. The kneeling woman is tying the strings that attach the hip roll, which is being worn above the petticoat and below the overskirt that the mistress is holding up and back. The hip roll under construction on the table looks hollow, but when they are finished the rolls look padded and their ends sewn closed.

Farthingales were more complex than is usually assumed. Currently, ''farthingale'' usually refers to the cane or wire foundation that shaped the skirt from about 1450 to 1625, although the term was not always used so precisely. Padding was sometimes used to shape the skirt, either by itself or in addition to the cartwheel and cone-shaped foundational structures. The padding itself was in fact another version of hoops that were structured both by rings as well as padding. Called a bustle, French farthingale, cachenfant, bum barrel&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42}} or even (quoting Ben Jonson, 1601) bum roll&lt;ref&gt;Cunnington, C. Willett (Cecil Willett), and Phillis Cunnington. ''Handbook of English Costume in the Sixteenth Century''. Faber and Faber, 1954. Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/handbookofenglis0000unse_e2n2/.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|161}} in its day, the hip roll still does not have a stable name. The common terms for what we call the hip roll now include ''bum roll'' and ''French farthingale''. The term ''bustle'' is no longer associated with the farthingale.

==== Bunched Skirts or Padding ====
The speed with which trends in clothing changed began to accelerate in the 17th century, making fashion more expensive and making keeping up with the latest styles more difficult. Part of the transition in this century, then, is the number of silhouettes possible for women, including early forms of what became the pannier in the 18th century and what became the bustle in the late 19th. In the later periods, these forms of hoops involved &quot;baskets&quot; or cages (or crinolines), but during this transitional period, these shapes were made from &quot;stiffened rolls [&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hip Rolls|hip rolls]]] that were tied around the waist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bendall, Sarah A. () The Case of the “French Vardinggale”: A Methodological Approach to Reconstructing and Understanding Ephemeral Garments, ''Fashion Theory'' 2019 (23:3), pp. 363-399, DOI: [[doi:10.1080/1362704X.2019.1603862|10.1080/1362704X.2019.1603862]].&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|369}} at the hips under the skirts or from bunched fabric, or both. The fabric-based volume in the back involved the evolution of an overskirt, showing more and more of the underskirt, or [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Petticoat|petticoat]], beneath it. This development transformed the petticoat into an outer garment.[[File:Princess Teresa Pamphilj Cybo, by Jacob Ferdinand Voet.jpg|thumb|Attr. to Voet, Anna Pamphili, c. 1670]]
[[File:Caspar Netscher - Girl Standing before a Mirror - 1925.718 - Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|thumb|Netscher, Girl Standing before a Mirror|left]]

Two examples of the bunched overskirt can be seen in Caspar Netscher's ''Girl Standing before a Mirror'' (left) and Voet's ''Portrait of Anna Pamphili'' (right), both painted about 1670. (This portrait of Anna Pamphili and the one below right were both misidentified with her mother Olimpia Aldobrandini.) In both these portraits, the overskirt is split down the center front, pulled to the sides and toward the back and stitched (probably) to keep the fabric from falling flat. The petticoat, which is now an outer garment, hangs straight to the floor. In Netscher's portrait, the girl's shoe shows, but the skirt rests on the ground, requiring her to lift her skirts to be able to walk, not to mention dancing. The dress in Anna Pamphili's portrait is an interesting contrast of soft and hard. The embroidery stiffens the narrow petticoat, suggesting it might have been a good choice for a static portrait but not for moving or dancing.

Besides bunched fabric, the other way to make the skirts full at the hips was with hip rolls. Mierevelt's 1629 Portrait of Elizabeth Stuart (below, left) shows a split overskirt, although the fabric is not bunched or draped toward the back. The fullness here is caused by a hip roll, which adds fullness to the hips and back, leaving the skirts flat in front. In this case the flatness of the roll in front pulls the overskirt slightly apart and reveals the petticoat, even this early in the century. One reason this portrait is striking because Elizabeth Stuart appears to be wearing a mourning band on her left arm. Also striking are the very elaborate trim and decorations, displaying Stuart's wealth and status, including the large ornament on the mourning band. [[File:Michiel van Mierevelt - Portrait of Elizabeth Stuart (1596-1662), circa 1629.jpg|thumb|Michiel van Mierevelt, Elizabeth Stuart, c. 1629|left]][[File:Attributed to Voet - Portrait of Anna Pamphili, misidentified with her mother Olimpia Aldobrandini.jpg|thumb|Attr. to Voet, Anna Pamphili, c. 1671]]

The c. 1671 portrait of Anna Pamphili (below, right) shows an example of the petticoat's development as an outer garment. In the Mierevelt portrait (left), the petticoat barely shows. A half century later, in the portrait of Anna Pamphili, the overskirt is not split but so short that the petticoat is almost completely revealed. A hip roll worn under both the petticoat and the overskirt gives her hips breadth. The petticoat is gathered at the sides and smooth in the front, falling close to her body. The fullness of the petticoat and the overskirt is on the sides — and possibly the back. The heavily trimmed overskirt is stiff but not rigid. Anna Pamphili's shoe peeps out from under the flattened front of the petticoat.

The neckline, the hipline, the bottom of the overskirt, the trim at the hem of the petticoat and overskirt and the ribbons on the sleeves — as well as even the hair style — all give Pamphili's outfit a sophisticated horizontal design, a look that soon would become very important and influential as panniers gained popularity.

=== Panniers ===
The formal, high-status dress we most associate with the 18th century is the horizontal style of panniers, the hoops at the sides of the skirt, which is closer to the body in front and back. Popular in the mid century in France, panniers continued to dominate design in court dress in the U.K. &quot;well into the 19th century.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}} ''Paniers anglais'' were 8-hoop panniers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|219}}

Panniers were made from a variety of materials, most of which have not survived into the 21st century, and the most common materials used panniers has not been established. Lewandowski says that skirts were &quot;stretched over metal hoops&quot; that &quot;First appear[ed] around 1718 and [were] in fashion [for much of Europe] until 1800. ... By 1750 the one-piece pannier was replaced by [two pieces], with one section over each hip.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|219}} According to Payne, another kind of pannier &quot;consisted of a pair of caned or boned [instead of metal] pouches, their inner surfaces curved to the ... contour of the hips, the outside extending well beyond them.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|428}} Given that it is a natural material, surviving examples of cane for the structure of panniers are an unexpected gift, although silk, linen and wool also occasionally exists in museum collections. No examples of bone structures for panniers exist, suggesting that bone is less hardy than cane. Waugh says that whalebone was the only kind of &quot;bone&quot; (it was actually cartilage, of course) used;&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;Waugh, Norah. ''Corsets and Crinolines''. New York, NY: Theatre Arts Books, 1954. Rpt. Routledge/Theatre Arts Books, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|167}} Payne says cane and whalebone were used for panniers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|426}} Neither Payne nor Waugh mention metal. Examples of metal structures for panniers have also not survived, perhaps because they were rare or occurred later, during revolutionary times, when a lot of things got destroyed.

The pannier was not the only silhouette in the 18th century. In fact, the speed with which fashion changed continued to accelerate in this century. Payne describes &quot;Six basic forms,&quot; which though evolutionary were also quite distinct. Further, different events called for different styles, as did the status and social requirements for those who attended. For the first time in the clothing history of the culturally elite, different distinct fashions overlapped rather than replacing each other, the clothing choices marking divisions in this class.

The century saw Payne's &quot;Six basic forms&quot; or silhouettes generally in this order but sometimes overlapping:

# '''Fullness in the back'''. The fabric bustle. While we think of the bustle as a 19th-century look, it can be found in the 18th century, as Payne says.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|411}} The overskirt was all pulled to the back, the fullness probably mostly made by bunched fabric.
# '''The round skirt'''. &quot;The bell or dome shape resulted from the reintroduction of hoops[,] in England by 1710, in France by 1720.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|411}}
# '''The ellipse, panniers'''. &quot;The ellipse ... was achieved by broadening the support from side to side and compressing it from front to back. It had a long run of popularity, from 1740 to 1770, the extreme width being retained in court costumes. ... English court costume [411/413] followed this fashion well into the nineteenth century.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|411, 413}}
# '''Fullness in the back and sides'''. &quot;The dairy maid, or [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Polonaise|polonaise]], style could be achieved either by pulling the lower part of the overskirt through its own pocket holes, thus creating a bouffant effect, or by planned control of the overskirt, through the cut or by means of draw cords, ribbons, or loops and buttons, which were used to form the three great ‘poufs’ known as the polonaise .... These diversions appeared in the late [seventeen] sixties and became prevalent in the seventies. They were much like the familiar styles of our own [American] Revolutionary War period.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}
# '''Fullness in the back'''. The return of the bustle in the 1780s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}
# '''No fullness'''. The tubular [or Empire] form, drawn from classic art, in the 1790s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}
Hoops affected how women sat, went through doors and got into carriages, as well as what was involved in the popular dances. Length of skirts and trains. Some doorways required that women wearing wide panniers turn sideways, which undermined the &quot;entrance&quot; they were expected to make when they arrived at an event. Also, a woman might be accompanied by a gentleman, who would also be affected by her panniers and the width of the doorway. Over the century skirts varied from ankle length to resting on the floor. Women wearing panniers would not have been able to stand around naturally: the panniers alone meant they had to keep their elbows bent. 

[[File:Panniers 1.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of the wooden and fabric skeleton of an 18th-century women's foundation garment|Wooden and Fabric-covered Structure for 18th-century Panniers|left]][[File:Hoop petticoat and corset England 1750-1780 LACMA.jpg|thumb|Hooped Petticoat and Corset, 1750–80]]The 1760–1770 French panniers (left) are &quot;a rare surviving example&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Panniers|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/139668|date=1760–70|accessdate=2025-01-01}}. The Costume Institute, Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/139668.&lt;/ref&gt; of the structure of this foundation garment. Almost no examples of panniers survive. The hoops are made with bent cane, held together with red velvet silk ribbon that looks pinked. The cane also appears to be covered with red velvet, and the hoops have metal &quot;hinges that allow [them] to be lifted, facilitating movement in tight spaces.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; This inventive hingeing permitted the wearer to lift the bottom cane and her skirts, folding them up like an accordion, lifting the front slightly and greatly reducing the width (and making it easier to get through doors). ['''Write the Met to ask about this description once it's finished. Are there examples of boned or metal panniers that they're aware of?''']&lt;p&gt;

The corset and hoops shown (right) are also not reproductions and are also rare examples of foundation garments surviving from the 18th century. These hoops are made with cane held in place by casings sewn into a plain-woven linen skirt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/214714|title=Woman's Hoop Petticoat (Pannier) {{!}} LACMA Collections|website=collections.lacma.org|access-date=2025-01-03}} Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://collections.lacma.org/node/214714.&lt;/ref&gt; These 1750–1780 hoops are modestly wide, but the gathering around the casings for the hoops suggests that the panniers could be widened if longer hoops were inserted. (The corset shown with these hoops is treated in the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsets|Corsets section]]. The mannequin is wearing a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Chemise|chemise undergarment]] as well.)[[File:Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine1 copy.jpg|thumb|Martin van Meytens, Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine, c. 1760|left]]In her c. 1760 portrait (left), Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine is wearing exaggerated court-dress panniers, shown here about the widest that they got. Johanna Gabriele was the daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, so she was a sister of Marie Antoinette, who also would have worn panniers as exaggerated as these. Johanna Gabriele's hairstyle has not grown into the huge bouffant style that developed to balance the wide court dress, so her outfit looks out of proportion in this portrait. And, because of her panniers, her arms look slightly awkward. The tips of her shoes show because her skirt has been pulled back and up to rest on them.

France had become the leader in high fashion by the middle of the century, led first by Madame Pompadour and then by Marie Antoinette, who was crowned queen in 1774.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-23|title=Marie Antoinette|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Antoinette|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Court dress has always been regulated, but it could be influenced. Marie Antoinette's influence was toward exaggeration, both in formality and in informality. In their evolution formal-dress skirts moved away from the body in front and back but were still wider on the sides and were decorated with massive amounts of trim, including ruffles, flowers, lace and ribbons. The French queen led court fashion into greater and greater excess: &quot;Since her taste ran to dancing, theatrical, and masked escapades, her costumes and those of her court exhibited quixotic tendencies toward absurdity and exaggeration.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|428}} Both Madame Pompadour's and Marie Antoinette's taste ran to extravagance and excess, visually represented in the French court by the clothing.[[File:Marie Antoinette 1778-1783.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in 1778 and 1779]]The two portraits (right), painted by Élizabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun in 1778 on the left and 1779 on the right, show Marie Antoinette wearing the same dress. Although one painting has been photographed as lighter than the other, the most important differences between the two portraits are slight variations in the pose and the hairstyle and headdress. Her hair in the 1779 painting is in better proportion to her dress than it is in the earlier one, and the later headdress — a stylized mobcap — is more elaborate and less dependent on piled-up hair. (The description of the painting in Wikimedia Commons says she gave birth between these two portraits, which in particular affected her hair and hairline.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;File:Marie Antoinette 1778-1783.jpg.&quot; ''Wikimedia Commons'' [&lt;bdi&gt;Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun, 2 portraits of Marie Antoinette&lt;/bdi&gt;] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marie_Antoinette_1778-1783.jpg.&lt;/ref&gt;)[[File:Queen Charlotte, by studio of Thomas Gainsborough.jpg|thumb|Queen Charlotte of England, 1781|left]]

In this 1781&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/wd/jAGip1dpEkf-Fw|title=Portrait of Queen Charlotte of England - Thomas Gainsborough, studio|website=Google Arts &amp; Culture|language=en|access-date=2025-04-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; portrait from the workshop of Thomas Gainsborough (left), Queen Charlotte is wearing panniers less exaggerated in width than Johanna Gabriele's. The English did not usually wear panniers as wide as those in French court dress, but the decoration and trim on the English Queen Charlotte's gown are as elaborate as anything the French would do.

The ruffles (many of them double) and fichu are made with a sheer silk or cotton, which was translucent rather than transparent. The ruffles on Queen Charlotte's sleeves are made of lace. The ruffles and poufs of sheer silk are edged in gold. The embroidered flowers and stripes, as well as the sequin discs and attached clusters are all gold. The skirt rose above the floor, revealing Queen Charlotte's pointed shoe. Shoes were fashion accessories because of the shorter length of the skirts.

The whole look is more balanced because of the bouffant hairstyle, the less extreme width in the panniers and the greater fullness in front (and, probably, back). 

The white dress worn by the queen in Season 1, Episode 4 of the BBC and Canal+ series ''Marie Antoinette'' stands out because nobody else is wearing white at the ball in Paris and because of the translucent silk or muslin fabric, which would have been imported from India at that time (some silk was still being imported from China). Muslin is not a rich or exotic fabric to us, but toward the end of the 18th century, muslin could be imported only from India, making it unusual and expensive.&lt;blockquote&gt;Another English contribution to the fashion of the eighties was the sheer white muslin dress familiar to us from the paintings of Reynolds, Romney, and Lawrence. In this respect the English fell under the spell of classic Greek influence sooner than the French did. Lacking the restrictions imposed by Marie Antoinette's court, the English were free to adapt costume designs from the source which was inspiring their architects and draftsmen.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|438}} &lt;/blockquote&gt;So while a sheer white dress would have been unlikely in Marie Antoinette's court, according to Payne, the fabric itself was available and suddenly became very popular, in part because of its simplicity and its sheerness. The Empire style replaced the Rococo busyness in a stroke, like the French Revolution.&lt;p&gt;

By the 1790s French and English fashion had evolved in very different directions, and also by this time, accepted fashion and court dress had diverged, with the formulaic properties of court dress — especially in France — preventing its development. In general,&lt;blockquote&gt;English women were modestly covered ..., often in overdress and petticoat; that heavier fabrics with more pattern and color were used; and that for a while hairdress remained more elaborate and headdress more involved than in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|441}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;Even in such a rich and colorful court dress as Queen Charlotte is wearing in the Gainsborough-workshop portrait, her more &quot;modest&quot; dress shows these trends very clearly: the white (muslin or silk) and the elaborate style in headdress and hair.

=== Polonaise ===

==== Marie Antoinette — The Context ====

The robe à la Polonaise in casual court dress was popularized by Marie Antoinette for less formal settings and events, a style that occurred at the same time as highly formal dresses with panniers. An informal fashion not based on court dress, although court style would require panniers, though not always the extremely wide ones, and the new style. It was so popular that it evolved into one way court dress could be.[[File:Marie Antoinette in a Park Met DP-18368-001.jpg|thumb|Le Brun, ''Marie Antoinette in a Park'']]Trianon: Marie Antoinette's &quot;personal&quot; palace at Versailles, where she went to entertain her friends in a casual environment. While there, in extended, several-day parties, she and her friends played games, did amateur theatricals, wore costumes, like the stylization of what a dairy maid would wear. A release from the very rigid court procedures and social structures and practices. Separate from court and so not documented in the same way events at Versailles were.

In the c. 1780–81 sketch (right) of Marie Antoinette in a Park by Elisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun,&lt;ref&gt;Le Brun, Elisabeth Louise Vigée. ''Marie Antoinette in a Park'' (c. 1780–81). The Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/824771.&lt;/ref&gt; the queen is wearing a robe à la Polonaise with an apron in front, so we see her in a relatively informal pose and outfit. The underskirt, which is in part at least made of a sheer fabric, shows beneath the overskirt and the apron. This is a late Polonaise, more decoration, additions of ribbons, lace, lace, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Plastics|plastics]], ruffles, which did not exist on actual milkmaid dresses or earlier versions of the robe à la Polonaise. Even though this is a sketch, we can see that this dress would be more comfortable and convenient for movement because the bodice is not boned, and wrinkles in the bodice suggest that she is not likely wearing a corset. 

==== Definition of Terms ====

The Polonaise was a late-Georgian or late-18th-century style, the usage of the word in written English dating from 1773 although ''Polonaise'' is French for ''the Polish woman'', and the style arose in France:&lt;blockquote&gt;A woman's dress consisting of a tight, unboned bodice and a skirt open from the waist downwards to reveal a decorative underskirt. Now historical.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;“Polonaise, N. &amp; Adj.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, September 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2555138986.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The lack of boning in the bodice would make this fashion more comfortable than the formal foundation garments worn in court dress.

The term ''á la polonaise'' itself is not in common use by the French nowadays, and the French ''Wikipédia'' doesn't use it for clothing. French fashion drawings and prints from the 18th-century, however, do use the term.

Elizabeth Lewandowski dates the Polonaise style from about 1750 to about 1790,&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|123}} and Payne says it was &quot;prevalent&quot; in the 1770s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}

The style à la Polonaise was based on an idealization of what dairy maids wore, adapted by aristocratic women and frou-froued up. Two dairymaids are shown below, the first is a caricature of a stereotypical milkmaid and the second is one of Marie Antoinette's ladies in waiting costumed as a milkmaid.
[[File:La laitiere. G.16931.jpg|left|thumb|Mixelle, ''La Laitiere'' (the Milkmaid)]]
[[File:Madame A. Aughié, Friend of Queen Marie Antoinette, as a Dairymaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon - Nationalmuseum - 21931.tif|thumb|Madame A. Aughié, as a Dairymaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon]]In the aquatint engraving of ''La Laitiere'' (left) by Jean-Marie Mixelle (1758–1839),&lt;ref&gt;Mixelle, Jean-Marie. ''La Laitiere'', Musée Carnavalet, Histoire de Paris, Inventory Number: G.16931. https://www.parismuseescollections.paris.fr/fr/musee-carnavalet/oeuvres/la-laitiere-8#infos-secondaires-detail.&lt;/ref&gt; the milkmaid is portrayed as flirtatious and, perhaps, not virtuous. She is wearing clogs and two white aprons. Her bodice is laced in front, the ruffle is probably her chemise showing at her neckline, and the peplum sticks out, drawing attention to her hips. As apparently was typical, she is wearing a red skirt, short enough for her ankles to show. The piece around her neck has become untucked from her bodice, contributing to the sexualizing, as does the object hanging from her left hand and directing the eye to her bosom. (The collection of engravings that contains this one is undated but probably from the late 19th or early 20th century.)

The 1787 &lt;bdi&gt;Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller&lt;/bdi&gt; portrait of Madame Adélaïde Aughié in the Royal Dairy at Petit Trianon-Le Hameau&lt;ref&gt;Wertmüller, Adolf Ulrik. ''Adélaïde Auguié as a Dairy-Maid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon''. 1787. The National Museum of Sweden, Inventory number NM 4881. https://collection.nationalmuseum.se/en/collection/item/21931/.&lt;/ref&gt; (right) is about as casual as Le Trianon got. A contemporary of Marie Antoinette, she is in costume as a milkmaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon, perhaps for a theatrical event or a game. Her dress is not in the à la Polonaise style but a court interpretation of what a milkmaid would look like, in keeping with the hired workers at le Trianon.

==== The 3 Poufs ====
Visually, the style à la Polonaise is defined by the 3 poufs made by the gathering-up of the overskirt. Initially most of the fabric was bunched to make the poufs, but eventually they were padded or even supported by panniers. Payne describes how the polonaise skirt was constructed, mentioning only bunched fabric and not padding:&lt;blockquote&gt;The dairy maid, or polonaise, style could be achieved either by pulling the lower part of the overskirt through its own pocket holes, thus creating a bouffant effect, or by planned control of the overskirt, through the cut or by means of draw cords, ribbons, or loops and buttons, [or, later, buckles] which were used to form the three great ‘poufs’ known as the polonaise .... These diversions [the poufs] appeared in the late [seventeen] sixties and became prevalent in the seventies. They were much like the familiar styles of our own [American] Revolutionary War period.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;[[File:Robe à la polonaise jaune et violette, Galerie des modes, Fonds d'estampes du XVIIIème siècle, G.4555.jpg|thumb|Robe à la polonaise, c. 1775]]The overskirt, which was gathered or pulled into the 3 distinctive poufs, was sometimes quite elaborately decorated, revealing the place of this garment in high fashion (rather than what an actual working dairy maid might wear). The fabrics in the underskirt and overskirt sometimes were different and contrasting; in simpler styles, the two skirts might have the same fabrics. More complexly styled dresses were heavily decorated with ruffles, bows, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Plastics|plastics]], ribbons, flowers, lace and trim.

The c. 1775&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;&quot;Robe à la polonaise jaune et violette, Galerie des modes, Fonds d'estampes du XVIIIème siècle.&quot; Palais Galliera, musée de la Mode de la Ville de Paris. Inventory number: G.4555. https://www.parismuseescollections.paris.fr/fr/palais-galliera/oeuvres/robe-a-la-polonaise-jaune-et-violette-galerie-des-modes-fonds-d-estampes-du#infos-principales.&lt;/ref&gt; fashion color print (right) shows the way the overskirt of the Polonaise was gathered into 3 poufs, one in back and one on either side. In this illustration, the underskirt and the overskirt have the same yellow fabric trimmed with a flat band of purple fabric. The 18th-century caption printed below the image identifies it as a &quot;Jeune Dame en robe à la Polonoise de taffetas garnie a plat de bandes d'une autre couleur: elle est coeffée d'un mouchoir a bordures découpées, ajusté avec gout et bordé de fleurs [Young Lady in a Polonaise dress of taffeta trimmed flat with bands of another color: she is wearing a handkerchief with cut edges, tastefully adjusted and bordered with flowers].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;

The skirt's few embellishments are the tasseled bows creating the poufs. The gathered underskirt falls straight from the padded hips to a few inches above the floor. Her cap is interesting, perhaps a forerunner of the mob cap (here a handkerchief worn as a cap [&quot;mouchoir a bordures découpées&quot;]).

===== The Evolution of the Polonaise into Court Dress =====
Part of the original attraction of the robe à la Polonaise was that women did not wear their usual heavy corsets and hoops, which is what would have made this style informal, playful, easy to move in, an escape from the stiffness of court life. Traditionally court dress with panniers and the robe à la Polonaise were thought to be separate, competing styles, but actually the two styles influenced each other and evolved into a design that combined elements from both.

By the time the robe à la Polonaise became court dress, the poufs were no longer only bunched fabric but large, controlled elaborations that were supported by structural elements, and the silhouette of the dress had returned to the ellipsis shape provided by panniers, with perhaps a little more fullness in front and back. The underskirt fell straight down from the hip level, indicating that some kind of padding or structure pulled it away from the body.

Court dress required the controlled shape of the skirt and a tightly structured bodice, which could have been achieved with corseting or tight lacing of the bodice itself. In the combined style, the bodice comes to a pointed V below the waist, which could only be kept flat by stays. While the Polonaise was ankle length, court dress touched the floor.

The following 3 images are fashion prints showing Marie Antoinette in court dress influenced by the robe à la Polonaise, made into a personal style for the queen by the asymmetrical poufs, the reduction of Rococo decoration, layers stacked upon each other and a length that keeps the hem of the skirts off the floor.[[File:Marie Antoinette de modekoningin Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français, 1787, ooo 356 Grand habit de bal a la Cour (..), RP-P-2009-1213.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in a Court Ball Gown à la Polonaise|left]]The 1787 &quot;Grand habit de bal à la Cour, avec des manches à la Gabrielle &amp; c.&quot; (left) by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a ballgown for the court with sleeves à la Gabrielle.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Marie-Antoinette-The-Queen-of-Fashion-Gallerie-des-Modes-et-Costumes-Francais--10ceb0e05fbb45ad4941bed1dacb27f1|title=Marie Antoinette: The Queen of Fashion: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

This ballgown, influenced by the robe à la polonaise, is balanced but asymmetrical and seems to have panniers for support of the side poufs. The only decoration on the skirt is ribbon or braid and tassels. Contrasting fabrics replace the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Frou-frou|frou-frou]] for more depth and interest. The lining of the poufs has been pulled out for another contrasting color. The print makes it impossible to tell if the purple is an underskirt and an overskirt or one skirt with attached loops of the ribbon-like trim. 

(A sleeve à la Gabrielle has turned out to be difficult to define. The best we can do, which is not perfect, is a 4 July 1814 description: &quot;On fait, depuis quelque temps, des manches à la Gabrielle. Ces manches, plus courtes que les manches ordinaires, se terminent par plusieurs rangs de garnitures. Au lieu d'un seul bouillonné au poignet, on en met trois ou quatre, que l'on sépare par un poignet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Modes.&quot; ''Journal des Dames et des Modes''. 4 July 1814 (18:37), vol. 10, 1. ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=kwNdAAAAcAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|296}} [&quot;For some time now, sleeves have been made in the Gabrielle style. These sleeves, shorter than ordinary sleeves, end in several rows of trimmings. Instead of a single ruffle at the wrist, three or four are used, separated by a wrist treatment.&quot;] The sleeves on the bodice of robes à la Polonaise seem to have been short, 3/4-length or less.) [[File:Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français, 1787, sss 384 Robe de Cour à la Turque (..), RP-P-2009-1220.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in a Court Dress à la Turque]]The c. 1787 &quot;Robe de Cour à la Turque, coeffure Orientale aves des aigrettes et plumes, &amp;c.&quot; (right) by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a court dress à la Turque with a headdress that has [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Aigrette|aigrettes]] and plumes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/---75499afec371ac1741dd98d769b14698|title=Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français, 1787, sss 384 : Robe de Cour à la Turque; (...)|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; The &quot;coeffure Orientale&quot; seems to be a highly stylized turban.

This court dress is à la Polonaise in that it has poufs, but it has 2 layers of poufs and an underskirt with a large ruffle. With its unusual striped fabric, its contrasting colors, the very asymmetrical skirt and the ruffles, bows and tassels, this is an elaborate and visually complex dress, but it is not decorated with a lot of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Frou-frou|frou-frou]].

Several prints in this fashion collection show the robe à la Turque, a late-Georgian style [1750–1790],&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|250}} none of which look &quot;Turkish&quot; in the slightest. Lewandowski defines robe à la Turque:&lt;blockquote&gt;

Very tight bodice with trained over-robe with funnel sleeves and a collar. Worn with a draped sash.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|250}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Her &quot;Robe à la Reine&quot; might offer a better description of this outfit, or at least of the overskirt:&lt;blockquote&gt;Popular from 1776 to 1787, bodice with an attached overskirt swagged back to show the underskirt. .... Gown was short sleeved and elaborately decorated.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|250}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;[[File:Marie Antoinette de modekoningin Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Francais, 1787, ooo.359, Habit de Cour en hyver (titel op object), RP-P-2004-1142.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in Winter Court Fashion]]

This 18th-century interpretation of what looked Turkish would have been about what was fashionable and, in the case of Marie Antoinette's court, dramatic.

The 1787 &quot;Habit de Cour en hyver garni de fourrures &amp;c.&quot; (right) of Marie Antoinette by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a winter court outfit trimmed with white fur.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Marie-Antoinette-The-Queen-of-Fashion-Gallerie-des-Modes-et-Costumes-Francais--727dc366885cc0596cd60d7b2c57e207|title=Marie Antoinette: The Queen of Fashion: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unusually, this &quot;habit&quot; à la Polonaise has a train. The highly stylized court version of a mob cap was appropriated from the peasantry and turned into this extravagant headdress with its unrealistic high crown and its huge ribbon and bows. This outfit as a whole is balanced even though individual elements (like the cap and the white drapes gathered and bunched with bows and tassels) are out of proportion.

The decadence of the aristocratic and royal classes in France at the end of the 18th century are revealed by these extravagant, dramatic fashions in court dress. These restructured, redesigned court dresses are the merging of the earlier, highly decorated and formal pannier style with the simpler, informal style à la Polonaise. The design is complex, but the complexity does not result from the variety of decorations. The most important differences in the merged design are in the radical reduction of frou-frou and the number of layers. Also, sometimes, the skirts are ankle rather than floor length. The foundation garments held the layers away from the legs, not restricting movement. The different styles of farthingales that existed at the same time are variations on a theme, but the panniers and the Polonaise styles, which also existed at the same time, had different purposes and were designed for different events, but the two styles influenced each other to the point that they merged. 

All the various forms of hoops we've discussed so far are not discrete but moments in a long evolution of foundation structures. Once fashion had moved on, they all passed out of style and were not repeated. Except the Polonaise, which had influence beyond the 18th century — in the 1870s revival of the à la Polonaise style and in Victorian fancy-dress (or costume) balls. For example, [[Social Victorians/People/Pembroke#Lady Beatrix Herbert|Lady Beatrix Herbert]] at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] was wearing a Polonaise, based on a Thomas Gainsborough portrait of dancer Giovanna Baccelli.

=== Crinoline Hoops ===
''[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinoline|Crinoline]]'', technically, is the name for a kind of stiff fabric made mostly from horsehair and sometimes linen, stiffened with starch or glue, and used for [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Foundation Garments|foundation garments]] like petticoats or bustles. The term ''crinoline'' was not used at first for the cage (shown in the image below left), but that kind of structure came to be called a crinoline as well as a cage, and the term is still used in this way by some.

After the 1789 French Revolution, for about one generation, women stopped wearing corsets and hoops in western Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|445–446}} What they did wear was the Empire dress, a simple, columnar style of light-weight cotton fabric that idealized classical Greek outlines and aesthetics. Cotton was a fabric for the elite at this point since it was imported from India or the United States. Sometimes women moistened the fabric to reveal their &quot;natural&quot; bodies, showing that they were not wearing artificial understructures.[[File:Crinoline era3.gif|thumb|1860s Cage Showing the Structure|left]]

Beginning in the second decade of the 19th century and continuing through the 1830s, corsets returned and skirts became more substantial, widened by layers of flounced cotton petticoats — and in winter, heavy woolen or quilted ones. The waist moved down to the natural waist from the Empire height. As skirts got wider in the 1840s, the petticoats became too bulky and heavy, hanging against the legs and impeding movement. In the mid 1850s&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|510}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}} those layers of petticoats began to be replaced by hoops, which were lighter than all that fabric, even when made of steel, and even when really wide.

The sketch (left) shows a crinoline cage from the 1860s, making clear the structure that underlay the very wide, bell or hemisphere shapes of the era without the fabric that would normally have covered it.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, Carl Emil. ''Karikatur-album: den evropaeiske karikature-kunst fra de aeldste tider indtil vor dage. Vaesenligst paa grundlag af Eduard Fuchs : Die karikature'', Eduard Fuchs. Vol. 1. København, A. Chrustuabsebs Forlag, 1906. P. 504, Fig. 474 (probably) ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=BUlHAQAAMAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt; (This image was published in a book in 1904, but it may have been drawn earlier. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Chemise|chemise]] is accurate but oversimplified, minus the usual ruffles, more for the wealthy and less for the working classes.) When people think of 1860s hoops, they think of this shape, the one shown in, say, the 1939 film ''Gone with the Wind''. The extremely wide, round shape, which is what we are accustomed to seeing in historical fiction and among re-enactors, was very popular in the 1860s, but it was not the only shape hoops took at this time. The half-sphere shape — in spite of what popular history prepares us to think — was far from universal.[[File:Miss Victoria Stuart-Wortley, later Victoria, Lady Welby (1837-1912) 1859.jpg|thumb|Victoria Stuart-Wortley, 1859]]As the 1860s progressed, hoops (and skirts) moved towards the back, creating more fullness there and leaving a flatter front. The photographs below show the range of choices for women in this decade. Cages could be more or less wide, skirts could be more or less full in back and more or less flat in front, and skirts could be smooth, pleated or folded, or gathered. Skirts could be decorated  with any of the many kinds of ruffles or with layers (sometimes made of contrasting fabrics), and they could be part of an outfit with a long bodice or jacket (sometimes, in fact, a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Peplum|peplum]]). As always, the woman's social class and sense of style, modesty and practicality affected her choices.&lt;p&gt;

In her portrait (right) Victoria Stuart-Wortley (later Victoria, Lady Welby) is shown in 1859, two years before she became one of Queen Victoria's maids of honor. While Stuart-Wortley is dressed fashionably, her style of clothing is modest and conservative. The wrinkles and folds in the skirt suggest that she could be wearing numerous petticoats (which would have been practical in cold buildings), but the smoothness and roundness of the silhouette of the skirt suggest that she is wearing conservative hoops.[[File:Elisabeth Franziska wearing a crinoline and feathered hat.jpg|thumb|Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska, 1860s|left]]

The portrait of Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska (left) offers an example of hoops from the 1860s that are not half-sphere shaped and a skirt that is not made to fit smoothly over them. The dress seems to have a short peplum whose edges do not reach the front. She is standing close to the base of the column and possibly leaning on the balustrade, distorting the shape of the skirt by pushing the hoop forward.

This dress has a complex and sophisticated design, in part because of the weight and textures of the fabric and trim. The folds in the skirt are unusually deep. Even though the textured or flocked fabric is light-colored, this could be a winter dress.

The skirt is trimmed with zig-zag rows of ruffles and a ruffle along the bottom edge. The ruffles may be double with the top ruffle a very narrow one (made of an eyelet or some kind of textured fabric). Both the top and bottom edges of the tiered double ruffles are outlined in a contrasting fabric, perhaps of ribbon or another lace, perhaps even crocheted. Visual interest comes from the three-dimensionality provided by the ruffles and the contrast caused by dark crocheted or ribbon edging on the ruffles. In fact, the ruffles are the focus of this outfit.

[[File:Her Majesty the Queen Victoria.JPG|thumb|Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, 1861]]
The photographic portrait (right) of Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, in evening dress with diadem and jewels, is by Charles Clifford&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ppgcfuck|title=Queen Victoria. Photograph by C. Clifford, 1861.|website=Wellcome Collection|language=en|access-date=2025-02-03}}&lt;/ref&gt; of Madrid, dated 14 November 1861 and now held by the Wellcome Institute. Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-20|title=Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; so this carte-de-visite portrait was taken one month before Victoria went into mourning for 40 years.

This fashionable dress could be a ballgown designed by a designer.

The hoops under these skirts appear to be round rather than elliptical but are rather modest in their width and not extreme. That is, there is as much fullness in the front and back as on the sides. In this style, the skirt has a smooth appearance because it is not fuller at the bottom than the waist, where it is tightly gathered or pleated, so the skirts lie smoothly on the hoops and are not much fuller than the hoops. The smoothness of this skirt makes it definitive for its time. 

Instead of elaborate decoration, this visually complex dress depends on the woven moiré fabric with additional texture created by the shine and shadows in the bunched gathering of the fabric. The underskirt is gathered both at the waist and down the front, along what may be ribbons separating the gathers and making small horizontal bunches. The overskirt, which includes a train, has a vertical drape caused by the large folds at the waist. The horizontal design in the moiré fabric contrasts with the vertical and horizontal gathers of the underskirt and large, strongly vertical folds of the overskirt.[[File:Queen Victoria photographed by Mayall.JPG|thumb|Queen Victoria photographed by Mayall. early 1860s|left]]
The carte-de-visite portrait of Queen Victoria by John Jabez Edwin Paisley Mayall (left) shows hoops that are more full in the back than the front. Mayall took a number of photographs of the royal family in 1860 and in 1861 that were published as cartes de visite,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-11-08|title=John Jabez Edwin Mayall|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jabez_Edwin_Mayall|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the style of Victoria's dress is consistent with the early 1860s.

The fact that she has white or a very light color at her collar and wrists suggests that she was not in full mourning and thus wore this dress before Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861. We cannot tell what color this dress is, and it may not be black in spite of how it appears in this photograph. Victoria's hoops are modest — not too full — and mostly round, slightly flatter in the front. The skirt gathers more as it goes around the sides to the back and falls without folds in the front, where it is smoother, even over the flatter hoops. This is a winter garment with bulky sleeves and possibly fur trim. Except for what may be an undergarment at the wrists, this one-layer garment might be a dress or a bodice and skirt (perhaps with a short jacket). Over-trimmed garments were standard in this period. Lacking layers, ruffles, lace or frou-frou, the simple design of Victoria's dress is deliberate and balanced — and looks warm.

The bourgeois, inexpensive-looking design of this dress echoes Victoria's performance of a queen who is respectable and responsible rather than aristocratic and &quot;fashion forward.&quot; So she looks like a middle-class matron.[[File:Queen Emma of Hawaii, photograph by John &amp; Charles Watkins, The Royal Collection Trust (crop).jpg|thumb|Queen Emma Kaleleokalani of Hawai'i, 1865]]

The portrait (right) of Queen Emma of Hawaii —  Emma Kalanikaumakaʻamano Kaleleonālani Naʻea Rooke — is a carte de visite from an album of ''Royal Portraits'' that Queen Victoria collected. The carte-de-visite photograph is labelled 1865 and ''Queen Emma of the Sandwich Islands'',&lt;ref&gt;Unknown Photographer. ''Emma Kalanikaumakaʻamano Kaleleonālani Naʻea Rooke, Queen of the Kingdom of Hawaii (1836-85)''. ''www.rct.uk''. Retrieved 2025-02-07. https://www.rct.uk/collection/2908295/emma-kalanikaumakaamano-kaleleonalani-naea-rooke-queen-of-the-kingdom-of-hawaii.&lt;/ref&gt; possibly in Victoria's hand. How Victoria got this photograph is not clear. Queen Emma traveled to North America and Europe between 6 May 1865 and 23 October 1866,&lt;ref&gt;Benton, Russell E. ''Emma Naea Rooke (1836-1885), Beloved Queen of Hawaii''. Lewiston, N.Y., U.S.A. : E. Mellen Press, 1988. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/emmanaearooke1830005bent/.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|49}} visiting London twice, the second time in June 1866.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-07|title=Queen Emma of Hawaii|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Emma_of_Hawaii|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In her portrait Queen Emma is standing before some books and an open jewelry box. She shows an elegant sense of style.

The silhouette shows a sophisticated variation of the hoops as the fullness has moved to the back and the front flattened. The large pleats suggest a lot of fabric, but the front falls almost straight down. The overskirt and bodice are made from a satin-weave fabric, and the petticoat has a matt woven surface. The overskirt is longer in the back, leading us to expect the petticoat also to be longer and to turn into a train. Although the hoops cause the skirt to fall away from her body in back, the skirt does not drag on the floor as a train would and just clears the floor all the way around.

This optical illusion of a train makes this dress look more formal than it actually was. The covered shoulders and décolletage say the dress was not a formal or evening gown. In fact, this looks like a winter dress, and the sleeves (which she has pushed up above her wrist) are wrinkled, suggesting they may be padded. Queen Emma seems to have worn veils like this at other times as well, especially after the death of her husband, as did Victoria, so this is also not her wedding dress.

Popular history has led us to believe that crinoline hoops were half-spherical and always very wide, but photographs of the time show a variety of shapes for skirts, with many women wearing skirts that had flatter fronts and more fabric in the back. In fact, also in the 1860s, according to Lewandowski, a version of the bustle — called a crinolette or crinolette petticoat — developed:&lt;blockquote&gt;Crinolette petticoat: Bustle (1865–1890 C.E.). Worn in 1870 and revived in 1883, petticoat cut flat in front and with half circle steel hoops in back and flounces on bottom back.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This development of a bustle mid century is the result of construction techniques that include foundation structures and specifically shaped pattern pieces to achieve the evolving silhouette, in this case part of the general movement of the fullness of skirts away from the front and toward the back. The other essential element of these construction techniques is angled seams in the skirts, made by gores, pieces of fabric shaped to fit the waist (and sometimes the hips) and to widen at the bottom so that the skirt flares outward.

==== The 19th-century Revival of the Polonaise ====
The Polonaise style was revived in the last third of the 19th century, but the revival did not bring back the 18th-century 3 poufs. The robe à la Polonaise had evolved. The foundation that created the poufs is gone, replaced possibly in fact by the crinolette petticoat or something like it. The panniers — and the 2 side poufs they supported — have gone, and the bulk of the fabric has been bunched in the back.

Also, the poufs on the sides have been replaced with a flat drape in front that functions as an overskirt.

The Polonaise dress (below left and right), in the collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, is English, dating from about 1875.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;&quot;Woman's Dress Ensemble.&quot; Costumes and Textiles. LACMA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://collections.lacma.org/node/214459.&lt;/ref&gt; The sheer fabric has red &quot;wool supplementary patterning&quot; woven into the weft.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; Because the mannequin is modern, we cannot be certain how long the skirts would have been on the woman who wore this dress.[[File:Woman's Polonaise Dress LACMA M.2007.211.777a-f (1 of 4).jpg|thumb|English Polonaise, c. 1875, front view|left]][[File:Woman's Polonaise Dress LACMA M.2007.211.777a-f (4 of 4).jpg|thumb|English Polonaise, c. 1875, side view]]The dress has an overskirt that is draped up toward the back and pulled under the top poof. The underskirt gets fuller at the bottom because it is constructed with gores to create the A-line but it is also slightly gathered at the waist.

The vertical element is emphasized by the angled silhouette and the folds caused by the gathering at the waist. The ruffles and lace form horizontal lines in the skirts. The skirts are very busy visually because of pattern in the fabric and the contrasting vertical and horizontal elements as well as the ruffles, some of which are double, and the machine-made lace at the edge of the ruffles. The skirts look three dimensional because of these elements and the layering of the fabric, multiplying the jagged-edged red &quot;supplementary patterning.&quot;

The fabric of the overskirt is cut, gathered and draped so that the poufs in back are full and rounded, but they are also possibly supported by some kind of foundation structure. The lower pouf in back introduces the idea that the fullness in the back is layered, making this element of the Polonaise a kind of precursor to the bustle and continuing what the crinolette petticoat began in the 1860s. This layering of the lower pouf also indicates one way a train might be attached.

Laura Ingalls Wilder wrote about the hoops her fictionalized self wore the century before, unusually, and calls her dress a Polonaise. Although they are common in current historical fiction, descriptions of foundation garments are rare in the writings of the women who wore them or in the literature of the time. In ''These Happy Golden Years'' (1943), she gives a detailed description of the foundation garments as well as the undergarments under her dress, including a bustle, and talks about how they make the Polonaise look on her:&lt;blockquote&gt;
Then carefully over her under-petticoats she put on her hoops. She liked these new hoops. They were the very latest style in the East, and these were the first of the kind that Miss Bell had got. Instead of wires, there were wide tapes across the front, almost to her knees, holding the petticoats so that her dress would lie flat. These tapes held the wire bustle in place at the back, and it was an adjustable bustle. Short lengths of tape were fastened to either end of it; these could be buckled together underneath the bustle to puff it out, either large or small. Or they could be buckled together in front, drawing the bustle down close in back so that a dress rounded smoothly over it. Laura did not like a large bustle, so she buckled the tapes in front.

Then carefully over all she buttoned her best petticoat, and over all the starched petticoats she put on the underskirt of her new dress. It was of brown cambric, fitting smoothly around the top over the bustle, and gored to flare smoothly down over the hoops. At the bottom, just missing the floor, was a twelve-inch-wide flounce of the brown poplin, bound with an inch-wide band of plain brown silk. The poplin was not plain poplin, but striped with an openwork silk stripe.

Then over this underskirt and her starched white corset-cover, Laura put on the polonaise. Its smooth, long sleeves fitted her arms perfectly to the wrists, where a band of the plain silk ended them. The neck was high with a smooth band of the plain silk around the throat. The polonaise fitted tightly and buttoned all down the front with small round buttons covered with the plain brown silk. Below the smooth hips it flared and rippled down and covered the top of the flounce on the underskirt. A band of the plain silk finished the polonaise at the bottom.&lt;ref&gt;Wilder, Laura Ingalls. ''These Happy Golden Years.'' Harper &amp; Row, Publishers, 1943. Pp. 161–163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
When a 20th-century Laura Ingalls Wilder calls her character's late-19th-century dress a polonaise, she is probably referring to the &quot;tight, unboned bodice&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; and perhaps a simple, modest look like the stereotype of a dairy maid. While the bodice was unboned, the fact that she is wearing a corset cover means that she is corseted under it.   
==== Bustle or Tournure ====
As we have seen, bustles were popular from around 1865 to 1890.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; (296) The French term ''tournure'' was a euphemism in English for ''bustle''. The article on the tournure in the French ''Wikipédia'' addresses the purpose of the bustle and crinoline:&lt;blockquote&gt;
Crinoline et tournure ont exactement la même fonction déjà recherchée à d'autres époques avec le vertugadin et ses dérivés: soutenir l'ampleur de la jupe, et par là souligner par contraste la finesse de la taille; toute la mode du xixe siècle visant à accentuer les courbes féminines naturelles par le double emploi du corset affinant la taille et d'éléments accentuant la largeur des hanches (crinoline, tournure, drapés bouffants…).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-10-27|title=Tournure|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournure|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[Translation by ''Google Translate'': Crinoline and bustle have exactly the same function already sought in other periods with the farthingale and its derivatives: to support the fullness of the skirt, and thereby emphasize by contrast the finesse of the waist; all the fashion of the 19th century aimed at accentuating natural feminine curves by the dual use of the corset refining the waist and elements accentuating the width of the hips (crinoline, bustle, puffy drapes, etc.).]&lt;/blockquote&gt;The evolution of hoops' final phase was the development of the bustle. We see evidence of the evolving bustle in some skirts as early as the 1860s as the fabric was pulled to the back, draped with pleats or gathers, though unsupported by specialized hoops. The overskirt so popular with the revival of the Polonaise pulled additional fabric to the back of the skirt, the poufs supported by some substructure, often ruffled petticoats or padding. The bustle, then, is more complex than might be normally be thought and than some of the earlier foundation garments in this evolution, in part because the silhouette of hoops (and dresses) was changing so quickly in the last half of the 19th century.

[[File:La Gazette rose, 16 Mai 1874; robe à tournure.jpg|thumb|La Gazette rose, 16 Mai 1874; robe à tournure.jpg]]Trains, skirt length

In fact, fashion trends were moving so fast at this point that the two &quot;bustle periods&quot; were actually in only two decades, the 1870s and the 1880s. The height of bustle fashion lasted for these two decades, and in that time, the line of the skirts changed significantly in the 1880s in how flat the skirt was in the front and how far it extended in the back. 

This 1874 French fashion plate (right) shows two women walking in the country, the one in green with an extremely long and impractical train. 

* Often bustles appeared under an overskirt that was part of the bodice. In this case, the same fabric on the jacket front, becomes an overskirt by the way it's draped.
* Both of these have several rows of ruffles beneath the overskirt, a short-lived fashion. The ruffles create fullness in the front of the skirt at the bottom that isn't seen in the 2nd bustle period.
* Plumes makes the hats tall, part of the proportioning with the bustle.
* The dog at the feet of the woman in the green dress recalls the ubiquitous dogs in earlier portraiture.
[[File:Somm26.jpg|thumb|Somm26.jpg|left]][[File:Elizabeth Alice Austen in June 1888.jpg|thumb|Elizabeth Alice Austen in June 1888.jpg]]
The Henry Somm watercolor (left) offers a clear example of how extreme bustles got in the mid 1880s, in the 2nd bustle period. The skirt is quite narrow and flat in front with a huge bustle behind, with yards of fabric draped in poufs over the foundation substructure. This dress has no ruffles or excessive frills. The narrow sleeves and tall hat, along with the umbrella so tightly folded it looks like a stick, contribute to the lean silhouette.

The 1888 photograph of American photographer Elizabeth Alice Austen (right) is also from the 2nd bustle period. The very stylish Austen is wearing a rather extreme bustle with the slim line of the bodice and skirt. The poufs of the overskirt may be referring to the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#The 19th-century Revival of the Polonaise|Polonaise revival]]. [[File:Cperrien-fashionplatescan-p-vf 33.jpg|thumb|Cperrien-fashionplatescan-p-vf 33.jpg]]This mid-1880s fashion plate (below right) has caricatures for figures because it is a fashion plate, with exaggerated waists, feet, height, but it is useful because of the 3 different ways bustles are working in the illustration. The little girl's overskirt and sash function as a bustle, regardless of whatever foundation garments she is wearing. The two women's outfits have the characteristic narrow sleeves and tall hats, and the one in white is holding another extremely narrow umbrella as well. The trim on the white dress controls the ruffles, preventing them from sticking out. The front overskirt is very flat and the back overskirt contributes to the bustle. The front of the bodice on the green dress extends below the waist to an extreme point. A wide black ribbon bow adorns the front one of the solid black panels on the skirt. Tiny pleats peep out from below the skirt on both women's dresses. The child's dress has 3 flat pleated ruffles in front that contrast with the fuller but still controlled folds in the back.

The most common image of the bustle — the extreme form of the 1880s — required a foundation structure, one of which was &quot;steel springs placed inside the shirring [gathering] around the back of the petticoat.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; (296) Many manufacturers were making bustles by this time, offering women a choice on the kinds of materials used in the foundation structures ['''check this'''].

== Jewelry and Stones ==

=== Cabochon ===
This term describes both the treatment and shape of a precious or semiprecious stone. A cabochon treatment does not facet the stone but merely polishes it, removing &quot;the rough parts&quot; and the parts that are not the right stone.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;cabochon, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/25778. Accessed 7 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; A cabochon shape is often flat on one side and oval or round, forming a mound in the setting.

=== Cairngorm ===
=== Half-hoop ===
Usually of a ring or bracelet, a precious-metal band with a setting of stones on one side, covering perhaps about 1/3 or 1/2 of the band. Half-hoop jewelry pieces were occasionally given as wedding gifts to the bride.

=== Jet ===

=== ''Orfèvrerie'' ===
Sometimes misspelled in the newspapers as ''orvfèvrerie''. ''Orfèvrerie'' is the artistic work of a goldsmith, silversmith, or jeweler.

=== Solitaire ===
A solitaire is a ring with a single stone set as the focal point. Solitaire rings were occasionally given as wedding gifts to the bride.

=== Turquoise ===

== Mantle, Cloak, Cape ==
In 19th-century newspaper accounts, these terms are sometimes used without precision as synonyms. These are all outer garments.

=== '''Mantle''' ===
A mantle — often a long outer garment — might have elements like a train, sleeves, collars, revers, fur, and a cape. A late-19th-century writer making a distinction between a mantle and a cloak might use ''mantle'' if the garment is more voluminous.

=== '''Cloak''' ===

=== '''Cape''' ===

== Military ==
Several men from the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball at Devonshire House]] were dressed in military uniforms, some historical and some, possibly, not.

=== Baldric ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the primary sense of ''baldric'' is &quot;A belt or girdle, usually of leather and richly ornamented, worn pendent from one shoulder across the breast and under the opposite arm, and used to support the wearer's sword, bugle, etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;baldric, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/14849. Accessed 17 May 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; This sense has been in existence since c. 1300.

=== Cuirass ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the primary sense of ''cuirass'' is &quot;A piece of armour for the body (originally of leather); ''spec.'' a piece reaching down to the waist, and consisting of a breast-plate and a back-plate, buckled or otherwise fastened together ....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;cuirass, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/45604. Accessed 17 May 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Knötel IV, 04.jpg|thumb|alt=An Old drawing in color of British soldiers on horses brandishing swords in 1815.|1890 illustration of the Household Cavalry (Life Guard, left; Horse Guard, right) at the Battle of Waterloo, 1815]]
=== Household Cavalry ===
The Royal Household contains the Household Cavalry, a corps of British Army units assigned to the monarch. It is made up of 2 regiments, the Life Guards and what is now called The Blues and Royals, which were formed around the time of &quot;the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Joll, Christopher. &quot;Tales of the Household Cavalry, No. 1. Roles.&quot; The Household Cavalry Museum, https://householdcavalry.co.uk/app/uploads/sites/2/2021/06/Household-Cavalry-Museum-video-series-large-print-text-Tales-episode-01.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|1}} Regimental Historian Christopher Joll says, &quot;the original Life Guards were formed as a mounted bodyguard for the exiled King Charles II, The Blues were raised as Cromwellian cavalry and The Royals were established to defend Tangier.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|1–2}} The 1st and 2nd Life Guards were formed from &quot;the Troops of Horse and Horse Grenadier Guards ... in 1788.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} The Life Guards were and are still official bodyguards of the queen or king, but through history they have been required to do quite a bit more than serve as bodyguards for the monarch.

The Household Cavalry fought in the Battle of Waterloo on Sunday, 18 June 1815 as heavy cavalry.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} Besides arresting the Cato Steet conspirators in 1820 &quot;and guarding their subsequent execution,&quot; the Household Cavalry contributed to the &quot;the expedition to rescue General Gordon, who was trapped in Khartoum by The Mahdi and his army of insurgents&quot; in 1884.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} In 1887 they &quot;were involved ... in the suppression of rioters in Trafalgar Square on Bloody Sunday.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} 

==== Grenadier Guards ====
Three men — [[Social Victorians/People/Gordon-Lennox#Lord Algernon Gordon Lennox|Lord Algernon Gordon-Lennox]], [[Social Victorians/People/Stanley#Edward George Villiers Stanley, Lord Stanley|Lord Stanley]], and [[Social Victorians/People/Stanley#Hon. Ferdinand Charles Stanley|Hon. F. C. Stanley]] — attended the ball as officers of the Grenadier Guards, wearing &quot;scarlet tunics, ... full blue breeches, scarlet hose and shoes, lappet wigs&quot; as well as items associated with weapons and armor.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 34, Col. 2a}}

Founded in England in 1656 as Foot Guards, this infantry regiment &quot;was granted the 'Grenadier' designation by a Royal Proclamation&quot; at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-04-22|title=Grenadier Guards|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grenadier_Guards&amp;oldid=1151238350|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenadier_Guards.&lt;/ref&gt; They were not called Grenadier Guards, then, before about 1815. In 1660, the Stuart Restoration, they were called Lord Wentworth's Regiment, because they were under the command of Thomas Wentworth, 5th Baron Wentworth.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-07-24|title=Lord Wentworth's Regiment|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Wentworth%27s_Regiment&amp;oldid=1100069077|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Wentworth%27s_Regiment.&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of Lord Wentworth's Regiment, the style of the French cavalier had begun to influence wealthy British royalists. In the British military, a Cavalier was a wealthy follower of Charles I and Charles II — a commander, perhaps, or a field officer, but probably not a soldier.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-04-22|title=Cavalier|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cavalier&amp;oldid=1151166569|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Guards were busy as infantry in the 17th century, engaging in a number of armed conflicts for Great Britain, but they also served the sovereign. According to the Guards Museum,&lt;blockquote&gt;In 1678 the Guards were ordered to form Grenadier Companies, these men were the strongest and tallest of the regiment, they carried axes, hatches and grenades, they were the shock troops of their day. Instead of wearing tri-corn hats they wore a mitre shaped cap.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-2/|title=Service to the Crown|website=The Guards Museum|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-05-15}} https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-2/.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The name comes from ''grenades'', then, and we are accustomed to seeing them in front of Buckingham Palace, with their tall mitre hats.

The Guard fought in the American Revolution, and in the 19th century, the Grenadier Guards fought in the Crimean War, Sudan and the Boer War. They have roles as front-line troops and as ceremonial for the sovereign, which makes them elite:&lt;blockquote&gt;Queen Victoria decreed that she did not want to see a single chevron soldier within her Guards. Other then [sic] the two senior Warrant Officers of the British Army, the senior Warrant Officers of the Foot Guards wear a large Sovereigns personal coat of arms badge on their upper arm. No other regiments of the British Army are allowed to do so; all the others wear a small coat of arms of their lower arms. Up until 1871 all officers in the Foot Guards had the privilege of having double rankings. An Ensign was ranked as an Ensign and Lieutenant, a Lieutenant as Lieutenant and Captain and a Captain as Captain and Lieutenant Colonel. This was because at the time officers purchased their own ranks and it cost more to purchase a commission in the Foot Guards than any other regiments in the British Army. For example if it cost an officer in the Foot Guards £1,000 for his first rank, in the rest of the Army it would be £500 so if he transferred to another regiment he would loose [sic] £500, hence the higher rank, if he was an Ensign in the Guards and he transferred to a Line Regiment he went in at the higher rank of Lieutenant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-1/|title=Formation and role of the Regiments|website=The Guards Museum|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-05-15}} https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-1/.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Life Guards ====
[[Social Victorians/People/Shrewsbury#Reginald Talbot's Costume|General the Hon. Reginald Talbot]], a member of the 1st Life Guards, attended the Duchess of Devonshire's ball dressed in the uniform of his regiment during the Battle of Waterloo.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 36, Col. 3b}}

At the Battle of Waterloo the 1st Life Guards were part of the 1st Brigade — the Household Brigade — and were commanded by Major-General Lord Edward Somerset.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-09-30|title=Battle of Waterloo|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Waterloo&amp;oldid=1177893566|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo.&lt;/ref&gt; The 1st Life Guards were on &quot;the extreme right&quot; of a French countercharge and &quot;kept their cohesion and consequently suffered significantly fewer casualties.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
== Peplum ==
According to the French ''Wiktionnaire'', a peplum is a &quot;Short skirt or flared flounce layered at the waist of a jacket, blouse or dress&quot; [translation by Google Translate].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-07-02|title=péplum|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=p%C3%A9plum&amp;oldid=29547727|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/p%C3%A9plum.&lt;/ref&gt; The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' has a fuller definition, although, it focuses on women's clothing because the sense is written for the present day:&lt;blockquote&gt;''Fashion''. ... a kind of overskirt resembling the ancient peplos (''obsolete''). Hence (now usually) in modern use: a short flared, gathered, or pleated strip of fabric attached at the waist of a woman's jacket, dress, or blouse to create a hanging frill or flounce.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;“peplum, n.”. ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1832614702&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Men haven't worn peplums since the 18th century, except when wearing costumes based on historical portraits. The ''Daily News'' reported in 1896 that peplums had been revived as a fashion item for women.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

== Revers ==
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''revers'' are the &quot;edge[s] of a garment turned back to reveal the undersurface (often at the lapel or cuff) (chiefly in ''plural''); the material covering such an edge.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;revers, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/164777. Accessed 17 April 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; The term is French and was used this way in the 19th century (according to the ''Wiktionnaire'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-03-07|title=revers|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=revers&amp;oldid=31706560|journal=Wiktionnaire|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/revers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Traditional vs Progressive Style ==

=== Progressive Style ===
The terms ''artistic dress'' and ''aesthetic dress'' — as well as ''rational dress'' or ''dress reform'' — are not synonymous and were in use at different times to refer to different groups of people in different contexts, but we recognize them as referring to a similar kind of personal style in clothing, a style we call progressive dress or the progressive style. Used in a very precise way, ''artistic dress'' is associated with the Pre-Raphaelite artists and the women in their circle beginning in the 1860s. Similarly, ''aesthetic dress'' is associated with the 1880s and 1890s and dress reform movements, as is ''rational dress'', a movement located largely among women in the middle classes from the middle to the end of the century. In general, what we are calling the progressive style is characterized by its resistance to the highly structured fashion of its day, especially corseting, aniline dyes and an extremely close fit.

* [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship|Ada Nettleship]]: Constance Wilde and Ellen Terry; an 1883 exhibition of dress by the Rational Dress Society featured her work, including trousers for women (with a short overskirt)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Ada Nettleship|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Nettleship&amp;oldid=1286707541|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship|Alice Comyns Carr]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-06|title=Alice Comyns Carr|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alice_Comyns_Carr&amp;oldid=1294283929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Grosvenor Gallery

=== Traditional Style ===
Images

* Smooth bodice, fabric draped to the back, bustle, laters: Victoria Hesse NPG 95941 crop.jpg
By the end of the century designs from the [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#The House of Worth|House of Worth]] (or Maison Worth) define what we think of as the traditional Victorian look, which was very stylish and expensive. Blanche Payne describes an example of the 1895 &quot;high style&quot; in a gown by Worth with &quot;the idiosyncrasies of the [1890s] full blown&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;The dress is white silk with wine-red stripes. Sleeves, collars, bows, bag, hat, and hem border match the stripes. The sleeve has reached its maximum volume; the bosom full and emphasized with added lace; the waistline is elongated, pointed, and laced to the point of distress; the skirt is smooth over the hips, gradually swinging out to sweep the floor. This is the much vaunted hourglass figure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|530}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Victorian-looking gowns at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] are stylish in a way that recalls the designs of the House of Worth. The elements that make their look so Victorian are anachronisms on the costumes representing fashion of earlier eras. The women wearing these gowns preferred the standards of beauty from their own day to a more-or-less historically accurate look. The style competing at the very end of the century with the Worth look was not the historical, however, but a progressive style called at the time ''artistic'' or ''aesthetic''.

William Powell Frith's 1883 painting ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'' (discussion below) pits this kind of traditional style against the progressive or artistic style.

=== The Styles ===
[[File:Frith A Private View.jpg|thumb|William Powell Frith, ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'']]
We typically think of the late-Victorian silhouette as universal but, in the periods in which corsets dominated women's dress, not all women wore corsets and not all corsets were the same, as William Powell Frith's 1883 ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'' (right) illustrates. Frith is clear in his memoir that this painting — &quot;recording for posterity the aesthetic craze as regards dress&quot; — deliberately contrasts what he calls the &quot;folly&quot; of the Artistic Dress movement and the look of the traditional corseted waist.&lt;ref&gt;Frith, William Powell. ''My Autobiography and Reminiscences''. 1887.&lt;/ref&gt; Frith considered the Artistic Movement and Artistic Dress &quot;ephemeral,&quot; but its rejection of corsetry looks far more consequential to us in hindsight than it did in the 19th century.

As Frith sees it, his painting critiques the &quot;craze&quot; associated with the women in this set of identifiable portraits who are not corseted, but his commitment to realism shows us a spectrum, a range, of conservatism and if not political then at least stylistic progressivism among the women. The progressives, oddly, are the women wearing artistic (that is, somewhat historical) dress, because they’re not corseted. It is a misreading to see the presentation of the women’s fashion as a simple opposition. Constance, Countess of Lonsdale — situated at the center of this painting with Frederick Leighton, president of the Royal Academy of Art — is the most conservatively dressed of the women depicted, with her narrow sleeves, tight waist and almost perfectly smooth bodice, which tells us that her corset has eyelets so that it can be laced precisely and tightly, and it has stays (or &quot;bones&quot;) to prevent wrinkles or natural folds in the overclothing. Lillie Langtry, in the white dress, with her stylish narrow sleeves, does not have such a tightly bound waist or smooth bodice, suggesting she may not be corseted at all, as we know she sometimes was not.['''citation'''] Jenny Trip, a painter’s model, is the woman in the green dress in the aesthetic group being inspected by Anthony Trollope, who may be taking notes. She looks like she is not wearing a corset. Both Langtry and Trip are toward the middle of this spectrum: neither is dressed in the more extreme artistic dress of, say, the two figures between Trip and Trollope.

A lot has been written about the late-Victorian attraction to historical dress, especially in the context of fancy-dress balls and the Gothic revival in social events as well as art and music. Part of the appeal has to have been the way those costumes could just be beautiful clothing beautifully made. Historical dress provided an opportunity for some elite women to wear less-structured but still beautiful and influential clothing. ['''Calvert'''&lt;ref&gt;Calvert, Robyne Erica. ''Fashioning the Artist: Artistic Dress in Victorian Britain 1848-1900''. Ph.D. thesis, University of Glasgow, 2012. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://theses.gla.ac.uk/3279/&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;] The standards for beauty, then, with historical dress were Victorian, with the added benefit of possibly less structure. So, at the Duchess of Devonshire's ball, &quot;while some attendees tried to hew closely to historical precedent, many rendered their historical or mythological personage in the sartorial vocabulary they knew best. The [photographs of people in their costumes at the ball offer] a glimpse into how Victorians understood history, not a glimpse into the costume of an authentic historical past.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Mitchell, Rebecca N. &quot;The Victorian Fancy Dress Ball, 1870–1900.&quot; ''Fashion Theory'' 2017 (21: 3): 291–315. DOI: 10.1080/1362704X.2016.1172817.&lt;/ref&gt; (294)

* historical dress: beautiful clothing.

* the range at the ball, from Minnie Paget to Gwladys
* &quot;In light of such efforts, the ball remains to this day one of the best documented outings of the period, and a quick glance at the album shows that ...&quot;

Women had more choices about their waists than the simple opposition between no corset and tightlacing can accommodate. The range of choices is illustrated in Frith's painting, with a woman locating herself on it at a particular moment for particular reasons. Much analysis of 19th-century corsetry focuses on its sexualizing effects — corsets dominated Victorian photographic pornography ['''citations'''] and at the same time, the absence of a corset was sexual because it suggested nudity.['''citations'''] A great deal of analysis of 19th-century corsetry, on the other hand, assumes that women wore corsets for the male gaze ['''citations'''] or that they tightened their waists to compete with other women.['''citations'''] 

But as we can see in Frith's painting, the sexualizing effect was not universal or sweeping, and these analyses do not account for the choices women had in which corset to wear or how tightly to lace it. Especially given the way that some photographic portraits were mechanically altered to make the waist appear smaller, the size of a woman's waist had to do with how she was presenting herself to the world. That is, the fact that women made choices about the size of or emphasis on their waists suggests that they had agency that needs to be taken into account. 

As they navigated the complex social world, women's fashion choices had meaning. Society or political hostesses had agency not only in their clothing but generally in that complex social world. They had roles managing social events of the upper classes, especially of the upper aristocracy and oligarchy, like the Duchess of Devonshire's ball. Their class and rank, then, were essential to their agency, including to some degree their freedom to choose what kind of corset to wear and how to wear it. Also, by the end of the century lots of different kinds of corsets were available for lots of different purposes. Special corsets existed for pregnancy, sports (like tennis, bicycling, horseback riding, golf, fencing, archery, stalking and hunting), theatre and dance and, of course, for these women corsets could be made to support the special dress worn over it.  

Women's choices in how they presented themselves to the world included more than just their foundation garments, of course. &quot;Every cap, bow, streamer, ruffle, fringe, bustle, glove,&quot; that is, the trim and decorations on their garments, their jewelry and accessories — which Davidoff calls &quot;elaborations&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93}} — pointed to a host of status categories, like class, rank, wealth, age, marital status, engagement with the empire, how sexual they wanted to seem, political alignment and purpose at the social event. For example, when women were being presented to the monarch, they were expected to wear three ostrich plumes, often called the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Prince of Wales's Feathers or White Plumes|Prince of Wales's feathers]].  

Like all fashions, the corset, which was quite long-lasting in all its various forms, eventually went out of style. Of the many factors that might have influenced its demise, perhaps most important was the women's movement, in which women's rights, freedom, employment and access to their own money and children were less slogan-worthy but at least as essential as votes for women. The activities of the animal-rights movements drew attention not only to the profligate use of the bodies and feathers of birds but also to the looming extinction of the baleen whale, which made whale bone scarce and expensive. Perhaps the century's debates over corseting and especially tightlacing were relevant to some decisions not to be corseted. And, of course, perhaps no other reason is required than that the nature of fashion is to change.  

== Undergarments ==
Unlike undergarments, Victorian women's foundation garments created the distinctive silhouette. Victorian undergarments included the chemise, the bloomers, the corset cover — articles that are not structural.
The corset was an important element of the understructure of foundation garments — hoops, bustles, petticoats and so on — but it has never been the only important element. 

=== Undergarments ===

* Chemise
* Corset cover
* Bloomers
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Petticoat|Petticoats]] (distinguish between the outer- and undergarment type of petticoat)
* Combinations
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hose, Stockings and Tights|Hose, stockings and tights]]
* Men's shirts
* Men's unders

==== Bloomers ====

==== Chemise ====
A chemise is a garment &quot;linen, homespun, or cotton knee-length garment with [a] square neck&quot; worn under all the other garments except the bloomers or combinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; (61) According to Lewandowski, combinations replaced the chemise by 1890.

==== Combinations ====

=== Foundation Garments ===
Foundation structures changed the shape of the body by metal, cane, boning. Men wore corsets as well.
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corset|Corset]]
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hoops|Hoops]]
* Padding

==== Padding ====
Some kinds of padding were used in the Victorian age to enlarge women's bosoms and create cleavage as well as to keep elements of a garment puffy. In the Elizabethan era, men's codpieces are examples of padding.

With respect to the costumes worn at fancy-dress balls, most important would be bum rolls and cod pieces. 

What are commonly called '''bum rolls''' were sometimes called roll farthingales, French farthingales or padded rolls.

== Footnotes ==
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      <text bytes="186739" sha1="0xipe5s584zudffdm3gyvqcbflkkyyp" xml:space="preserve">Especially with respect to fashion, the newspapers at the end of the 19th century in the UK often used specialized terminology. The definitions on this page are to provide a sense of what someone in the late 19th century might have meant by the term rather than a definition of what we might mean by it today. In the absence of a specialized glossary from the end of the 19th century in the U.K., we use the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' because the senses of a word are illustrated with examples that have dates so we can be sure that the senses we pick are appropriate for when they are used in the quotations we have.

We also sometimes use the French ''Wikipédia'' to define a word because many technical terms of fashion were borrowings from the French. Also, often the French ''Wikipédia'' provides historical context for the uses of a word similar to the way the OED does.

== Articles or Parts of Clothing: Men's ==
[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Military|Men's military uniforms]] are discussed below.

=== À la Romaine ===
[[File:Johann Baptist Straub - Mars um 1772-1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Old and damaged marble statue of a Roman god of war with flowing cloak, big helmet with a plume on top, and armor|Johann Baptist Straub's 1772 ''à la romaine'' ''Mars'']]
A few people who attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball in 1897]] personated Roman gods or people. They were dressed not as Romans, however, but ''à la romaine'', which was a standardized style of depicting Roman figures that was used in paintings, sculpture and the theatre for historical dress from the 17th until the 20th century. The codification of the style was developed in France in the 17th century for theatre and ballet, when it became popular for masked balls.

Women as well as men could be dressed ''à la romaine'', but much sculpture, portraiture and theatre offered opportunities for men to dress in Roman style — with armor and helmets — and so it was most common for men. In large part because of the codification of the style as well as the painting and sculpture, the style persisted and remained influential into the 20th century and can be found in museums and galleries and on monuments.

For example, Johann Baptist Straub's 1772 statue of Mars (left), now in the Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich, missing part of an arm, shows Mars ''à la romaine''. In London, an early 17th-century example of a figure of Mars ''à la romaine'', with a helmet, '''was''' &quot;at the foot of the Buckingham tomb in Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster Abbey.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Webb, Geoffrey. “Notes on Hubert Le Sueur-II.” ''The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs'' 52, no. 299 (1928): 81–89. http://www.jstor.org/stable/863535.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|81, Col. 2c}}

[[File:Sir-Anthony-van-Dyck-Lord-John-Stuart-and-His-Brother-Lord-Bernard-Stuart.jpg|thumb|alt=Old painting of 2 men flamboyantly and stylishly dressed in colorful silk, with white lace, high-heeled boots and long hair|Van Dyck's c. 1638 painting of cavaliers Lord John Stuart and his brother Lord Bernard Stuart]]
[[File:Frans_Hals_-_The_Meagre_Company_(detail)_-_WGA11119.jpg|thumb|Frans Hals - The Meagre Company (detail) - WGA11119.jpg]]

=== Cavalier ===
As a signifier in the form of clothing of a royalist political and social ideology begun in France in the early 17th century, the cavalier style established France as the leader in fashion and taste. Adopted by [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Military|wealthy royalist British military officers]] during the time of the Restoration, the style signified a political and social position, both because of the loyalty to Charles I and II as well the wealth required to achieve the cavalier look. The style spread beyond the political, however, to become associated generally with dress as well as a style of poetry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-04-25|title=Cavalier poet|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cavalier_poet&amp;oldid=1151690299|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier_poet.&lt;/ref&gt;

Van Dyck's 1638 painting of two brothers (right) emphasizes the cavalier style of dress.

=== Coats ===

==== Doublet ====
* In the 19th-century newspaper accounts we have seen that use this word, doublet seems always to refer to a garment worn by a man, but historically women may have worn doublets. In fact, a doublet worn by Queen Elizabeth I exists and '''is somewhere'''.
* Technically doublets were long sleeved, although we cannot be certain what this or that Victorian tailor would have done for a costume. For example, the [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Duke of Devonshire's costume as Charles V]] shows long sleeves that may be part of the surcoat but should be the long sleeves of the doublet.

==== Pourpoint ====
A padded doublet worn under armor to protect the warrior from the metal chafing. A pourpoint could also be worn without the armor.

==== Surcoat ====
Sometimes just called ''coat''.

[[File:Oscar Wilde by Sarony 1882 18.jpg|thumb|alt=Old photograph of a young man wearing a velvet jacket, knee breeches, silk hose and shiny pointed shoes with bows, seated on a sofa and leaning on his left hand and holding a book in his right| Oscar Wilde, 1882, by Napoleon Sarony]]
=== Hose, Stockings and Tights ===
Newspaper accounts from the late 19th century of men's clothing use the term ''hose'' for what we might call stockings or tights.

In fact, the terminology is specific. ''Stockings'' is the more general term and could refer to hose or tights. With knee breeches men wore hose, which ended above the knee, and women wore hose under their dresses.

The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defines tights as &quot;Tight-fitting breeches, worn by men in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and still forming part of court-dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Tights, N.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, July 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2693287467.&lt;/ref&gt; By 1897, the term was in use for women's stockings, which may have come up only to the knee. Tights were also worn by dancers and acrobats. This general sense of ''tights'' does not assume that they were knitted.

''Clocking'' is decorative embroidery on hose, usually, at the ankles on either the inside or the outside of the leg. It started at the ankle and went up the leg, sometimes as far as the knee. On women's hose, the clocking could be quite colorful and elaborate, while the clocking on men's hose was more inconspicuous.

In many photographs men's hose are wrinkled, especially at the ankles and the knees, because they were shaped from woven fabric. Silk hose were knitted instead of woven, which gave them elasticity and reduced the wrinkling.

The famous Sarony carte de visite photograph of Oscar Wilde (right) shows him in 1882 wearing knee breeches and silk hose, which are shiny and quite smoothly fitted although they show a few wrinkles at the ankles and knees. In the portraits of people in costume at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the men's hose are sometimes quite smooth, which means they were made of knitted silk and may have been smoothed for the portrait.

In painted portraits the hose are almost always depicted as smooth, part of the artist's improvement of the appearance of the subject.

=== Shoes and Boots ===

== Articles or Parts of Clothing: Women's ==

=== '''Chérusque''' ===
According to the French ''Wikipedia'', ''chérusque'' is a 19th-century term for the kind of standing collar like the ones worn by ladies in the Renaissance.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-06-26|title=Collerette (costume)|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collerette_(costume)&amp;oldid=184136746|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collerette_(costume)#Au+xixe+siècle+:+la+Chérusque.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Corsage ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the corsage is the &quot;'body' of a woman's dress; a bodice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;corsage, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/42056. Accessed 7 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; This sense is well documented in the ''OED'' for the mid and late 19th-century, used this way in fiction as well as in a publication like ''Godey's Lady's Book'', which would be expected to use appropriate terminology associated with fashion and dress making.

The sense of &quot;a bouquet worn on the bodice&quot; is, according to the ''OED'', American.

=== Décolletage ===

=== Girdle ===

=== Mancheron ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', a ''mancheron'' is a &quot;historical&quot; word for &quot;A piece of trimming on the upper part of a sleeve on a woman's dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;mancheron, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/113251. Accessed 17 April 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; At the present, in French, a ''mancheron'' is a cap sleeve &quot;cut directly on the bodice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-11-28|title=Manche (vêtement)|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manche_(v%C3%AAtement)&amp;oldid=199054843|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manche_(v%C3%AAtement).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Petticoat ===

According to the ''O.E.D.'', a petticoat is a &lt;blockquote&gt;skirt, as distinguished from a bodice, worn either externally or showing beneath a dress as part of the costume (often trimmed or ornamented); an outer skirt; a decorative underskirt. Frequently in ''plural'': a woman's or girl's upper skirts and underskirts collectively. Now ''archaic'' or ''historical''.&lt;ref&gt;“petticoat, n., sense 2.b”.  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press,  September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1021034245&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;This sense is, according to the ''O.E.D.'', &quot;The usual sense between the 17th and 19th centuries.&quot; However, while petticoats belong in both outer- and undergarments — that is, meant to be seen or hidden, like underwear — they were always under another garment, for example, underneath an open overskirt. The primary sense seems to have shifted through the 19th century so that, by the end, petticoats were underwear and the term ''underskirt'' was used to describe what showed under an open overskirt. 

In the 19th century, women wore their chemises, bloomers and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hoops|hoops]] under their petticoats. 

=== Stomacher ===
According to the ''O.E.D.'', a stomacher is &quot;An ornamental covering for the chest (often covered with jewels) worn by women under the lacing of the bodice,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“stomacher, n.¹, sense 3.a”. ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1169498955&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; although by the end of the 19th century, the bodice did not often have visible laces. Some stomachers were so decorated that they were thought of as part of the jewelry.

=== Train ===
A train is

The Length of the Train

'''For the monarch [or a royal?]'''

According to Debrett's,&lt;blockquote&gt;A peeress's coronation robe is a long-trained crimson velvet mantle, edged with miniver pure, with a miniver pure cape. The length of the train varies with the rank of the wearer:

* Duchess: for rows of ermine; train to be six feet
* Marchioness: three and a half rows of ermine; train to be three and three-quarters feet
* Countess: three rows of ermine; train to be three and a half feet
* Viscountess: two and a half rows of ermine; train to be three and a quarter feet
* Baroness: two rows of ermine; train to be three feet&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://debretts.com/royal-family/dress-codes/|title=Dress Codes|website=debretts.com|language=en-US|access-date=2023-07-27}} https://debretts.com/royal-family/dress-codes/.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;The pattern on the coronet worn was also quite specific, similar but not exactly the same for peers and peeresses. Debrett's also distinguishes between coronets and tiaras, which were classified more like jewelry, which was regulated only in very general terms.

Peeresses put on their coronets after the Queen or Queen Consort has been crowned. ['''peers?''']

== Hats, Bonnets and Headwear ==

=== Women's ===

==== Fontanges ====
Another fontange:
[[File:Madame de Ludre en Stenkerke et falbala - (estampe) (2e état) - N. arnoult fec - btv1b53265886c.jpg|none|thumb|Madame de Ludre en Stenkerke et falbala - (estampe) (2e état) - N. arnoult fec - btv1b53265886c.jpg]]
[[File:Recueil de modes - Tome 4 - cent-quatre-vingt-cinq planches - estampes - btv1b105296325 (083 of 195).jpg|none|thumb|Recueil de modes - Tome 4 - cent-quatre-vingt-cinq planches - estampes - btv1b105296325 (083 of 195).jpg]]

=== Men's ===

== Cinque Cento ==
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''Cinque Cento'' is a shortening of ''mil cinque cento'', or 1500.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;cinquecento, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/33143. Accessed 7 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; The term, then would refer, perhaps informally, to the sixteenth century.

== Corset ==
[[File:Corset - MET 1972.209.49a, b.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of an old silk corset on a mannequin, showing the closure down the front, similar to a button, and channels in the fabric for the boning. It is wider at the top and bottom, creating smooth curves from the bust to the compressed waist to the hips, with a long point below the waist in front.|French 1890s corset, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NYC]]
The understructure of Victorian women's clothing is what makes the costumes worn by the women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] so distinctly Victorian in appearance. An example of a corset that has the kind of structure often worn by fashionably dressed women in 1897 is the one at right. 

This corset exaggerated the shape of the women's bodies and made possible a bodice that looked and was fitted in the way that is so distinctive of the time — very controlled and smooth. And, as a structural element, this foundation garment carried the weight of all those layers and all that fabric and decoration on the gowns, trains and mantles. (The trains and mantles could be attached directly to the corset itself.)

* This foundation emphasizes the waist and the bust in particular, in part because of the contrast between the very small waist and the rounded fullness of the bust and hips.
* The idealized waist is defined by its small span and the sexualizing point at the center-bottom of the bodice, which directs the eye downwards. Interestingly, the pointed waistline worn by Elizabethan men has become level in the Victorian age. Highly fashionable Victorian women wearing the traditional style, however, had extremely pointed waists.
* The busk (a kind of boning in the front of a corset that is less flexible than the rest) smoothed the bodice, flattened the abdomen and prevented the point on the bodice from curling up.
* The sharp definition of the waist was caused by
** length of the corset (especially on the sides)
** the stiffness of the boning
** the layers of fabric
** the lacing (especially if the woman used tightlacing)
** the over-all shape, which was so much wider at the top and the bottom
** the contrast between the waist and the wider top and bottom
* The late-19th-century corset was long, ending below the waist even on the sides and back.
* The boning and the top edge of the late 19th-century fashion corset pushed up the bust, rounding (rather than flattening, as in earlier styles) the breasts, drawing attention to their exposed curves and creating cleavage.
* The exaggerated bust was larger than the hips, whenever possible, an impression reinforced by the A-line of the skirt and the inverted Vs in the decorative trim near the waist and on the skirt.
* This corset made the bodice very smooth with a very precise fit, that had no wrinkles, folds or loose drapery. The bodice was also trimmed or decorated, but the base was always a smooth bodice. More formal gowns would still have the fitted bodice and more elaborate trim made from lace, embroidery, appliqué, beading and possibly even jewels.
The advantages and disadvantages of corseting and especially tight lacing were the subject of thousands of articles and opinions in the periodical press for a great part of the century, but the fetishistic and politicized tight lacing was practiced by very few women. And no single approach to corsetry was practiced by all women all the time. Most of the women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 ball]] were not tightly laced, but the progressive style does not dominate either, even though all the costumes are technically historical dress. Part of what gives most of the costumes their distinctive 19th-century &quot;look&quot; is the more traditional corset beneath them. Even though this highly fashionable look was widely present in the historical costumes at the ball, some women's waists were obviously very small and others were hardly '''emphasized''' at all. Women's waists are never mentioned in the newspaper coverage of the ball — or, indeed, of any of the social events attended by the network at the ball — so it is only in photographs that we can see the effects of how they used their corsets.

==== Things To Add ====
[[File:Woman's Corset LACMA M.2007.211.353.jpg|thumb|Woman's Corset LACMA M.2007.211.353.jpg|none]]

* Corset as an outer garment, 18th century, in place of a stomacher&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; (419)
* Corsets could be laced in front or back
* Methods for making the holes for the laces and the development of the grommet (in the 1830s)

== Court Dress ==
Also Levee and drawing-room

== Crevé ==
''Creve'', without the accent, is an old word in English (c. 1450) for burst or split.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;creve, v.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/44339. Accessed 8 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; ['''With the acute accent, it looks like a past participle in French.''']

== Elaborations ==
In her 1973 ''The Best Circles: Society, Etiquette and the Season'', Leonore Davidoff notes that women’s status was indicated by dress and especially ornament: “Every cap, bow, streamer, ruffle, fringe, bustle, glove and other elaboration,” she says, “symbolised some status category for the female wearer.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Davidoff, Leonore. ''The Best Circles: Society Etiquette and the Season''. Intro., Victoria Glendinning. The Cressett Library (Century Hutchinson), 1986 (orig 1973).&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|93}}

Looking at these elaborations as meaningful rather than dismissing them as failed attempts at &quot;historical accuracy&quot; reveals a great deal about the individual women who wore or carried them — and about the society women and political hostesses in their roles as managers of the social world. In her review of ''The House of Worth: Portrait of an Archive'', Mary Frances Gormally says,&lt;blockquote&gt;In a socially regulated year, garments custom made with a Worth label provided women with total reassurance, whatever the season, time of day or occasion, setting them apart as members of the “Best Circles” dressed in luxurious, fashionable and always appropriate attire (Davidoff 1973). The woman with a Worth wardrobe was a woman of elegance, lineage, status, extreme wealth and faultless taste.&lt;ref&gt;Gormally, Mary Frances. Review essay of ''The House of Worth: Portrait of an Archive'', by Amy de la Haye and Valerie D. Mendes (V&amp;A Publishing, 2014). ''Fashion Theory'' 2017 (21, 1): 109–126. DOI: 10.1080/1362704X.2016.1179400.&lt;/ref&gt; (117)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[File:Aglets from Spanish portraits - collage by shakko.jpg|thumb|alt=A collage of 12 different ornaments typically worn by elite people from Spain in the 1500s and later|Aglets — Detail from Spanish Portraits]]
=== Aglet, Aiglet ===
Historically, an aglet is a &quot;point or metal piece that capped a string [or ribbon] used to attach two pieces of the garment together, i.e., sleeve and bodice.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|4}} Although they were decorative, they were not always visible on the outside of the clothing. They were often stuffed inside the layers at the waist (for example, attaching the bodice to a skirt or breeches).

Alonso Sánchez Coello's c. 1584 (316) portrait (above right, in the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#16th Century|Hoops section]]) shows infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia wearing a vertugado, with its &quot;typically Spanish smooth cone-shaped contour,&quot; with &quot;handsome aiglets cascad[ing] down center front.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper &amp; Row, 1965.&lt;/ref&gt; (315)

=== Frou-frou ===
In French, ''frou-frou'' or, spelled as ''froufrou'', is the sound of the rustling of silk or sometimes of fabrics in general.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-07-25|title=frou-frou|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=frou-frou&amp;oldid=32508509|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/frou-frou.&lt;/ref&gt; The first use the French ''Wiktionnaire'' lists is Honoré Balzac, ''La Cousine Bette'', 1846.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-06-03|title=froufrou|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=froufrou&amp;oldid=32330124|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/froufrou.&lt;/ref&gt;

''Frou-frou'' is a term clothing historians use to describe decorative additions to an article of clothing; often the term has a slight negative connotation, suggesting that the additions are superficial and, perhaps, excessive.

=== Plastics ===
Small poufs of fabric connected in a strip in the 18th century, Rococo styles.

=== Pouf, Puff, Poof ===
According to the French ''Wikipédia'', a pouf was, beginning in 1744, a &quot;kind of women's hairstyle&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;The hairstyle in question, known as the “pouf”, had launched the reputation of the enterprising Rose Bertin, owner of the Grand Mogol, a very prominent fashion accessories boutique on Rue Saint-Honoré in Paris in 1774. Created in collaboration with the famous hairdresser, Monsieur Léonard, the pouf was built on a scaffolding of wire, fabric, gauze, horsehair, fake hair, and the client's own hair held up in an almost vertical position. — (Marie-Antoinette, ''Queen of Fashion'', translated from the American by Sylvie Lévy, in ''The Rules of the Game'', n° 40, 2009)&lt;/blockquote&gt;''Puff'' and ''poof'' are used to describe clothing.

=== Shirring ===
''Shirring'' is the gathering of fabric to make poufs or puffs. The 19th century is known for its use of this decorative technique. Even men's clothing had shirring: at the shoulder seam.

=== Sequins ===
Sequins, paillettes, spangles

Sequins — or paillettes — are &quot;small, scalelike glittering disks.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;(216) The French ''Wiktionnaire'' defines ''paillette'' as &quot;Lamelle de métal, brillante, mince, percée au milieu, ordinairement ronde, et qu’on applique sur une étoffe pour l’orner [A strip of metal, shiny, thin, pierced in the middle, usually round, and which is applied to a fabric in order to decorate it.]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-03-18|title=paillette|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=paillette&amp;oldid=33809572|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/paillette.&lt;/ref&gt;

According to the ''OED'', the use of ''sequin'' as a decorative device for clothing (as opposed to gold coins minted and used for international trade) goes back to the 1850s.&lt;ref&gt;“Sequin, N.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, September 2023,  https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/4074851670.&lt;/ref&gt; The first instance of ''spangle'' as &quot;A small round thin piece of glittering metal (usually brass) with a hole in the centre to pass a thread through, used for the decoration of textile fabrics and other materials of various sorts&quot; is from c. 1420.&lt;ref&gt;“Spangle, N. (1).” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, July 2023,  https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/4727197141.&lt;/ref&gt; The first use of ''paillette'' listed in the French ''Wiktionnaire'' is in Jules Verne in 1873 to describe colored spots on icy walls.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

Currently many distinguish between sequins (which are smaller) and paillettes (which are larger).

Before the 20th century, sequins were metal discs or foil leaves, and so of course if they were silver or copper, they tarnished. It is not until well into the 20th century that plastics were invented and used for sequins.

=== Trim and Lace ===
''A History of Feminine Fashion'', published sometime before 1927 and probably commissioned by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Worth, of Paris|the Maison Worth]], describes Charles Frederick Worth's contributions to the development of embroidery and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Passementerie|passementerie]] (trim) from about the middle of the 19th century:&lt;blockquote&gt;For it must be remembered that one of M. Worth's most important and lasting contributions to the prosperity of those who cater for women's needs, as well as to the variety and elegance of his clients' garments, was his insistence on new fabrics, new trimmings, new materials of every description. In his endeavours to restore in Paris the splendours of the days of La Pompadour, and of Marie Antoinette, he found himself confronted at the outset with a grave difficulty, which would have proved unsurmountable to a man of less energy, resource and initiative. The magnificent materials of those days were no longer to be had! The Revolution had destroyed the market for beautiful materials of this, type, and the Restoration and regime of Louis Philippe had left a dour aspect in the City of Light. ... On parallel lines [to his development of better [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Satin|satin]]], [Worth] stimulated also the manufacture of embroidery and ''passementerie''. It was he who first started the manufacture of laces copied from the designs of the real old laces. He was the / first dressmaker to use fur in the trimming of light materials — but he employed only the richer furs, such as sable and ermine, and had no use whatever for the inferior varieties of skins.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;[Worth, House of.] {{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfFeminineFashion|title=A History Of Feminine Fashion (1800s to 1920s)}} Before 1927. [Likely commissioned by Worth. Link is to Archive.org; info from Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worth_Biarritz_salon.jpg.]&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|6–7}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Gold and Silver Fabric and Lace ====

The ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (9th edition) has an article on gold and silver fabric, threads and lace attached to the article on gold. (This article is based on knowledge that would have been available toward the end of the 19th century and does not, obviously, reflect current knowledge or ways of talking.)&lt;blockquote&gt;GOLD AND SILVER LACE. Under this heading a general account may be given of the use of the precious metals in textiles of all descriptions into which they enter. That these metals were used largely in the sumptuous textiles of the earliest periods of civilization there is abundant testimony; and to this day, in the Oriental centres whence a knowledge and the use of fabrics inwoven, ornamented, and embroidered with gold and silver first spread, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still most strongly and generally prevalent. The earliest mention of the use of gold in a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod made for Aaron (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3) — &quot;And he made the ephod of gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen. And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires (strips), to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work.&quot; In both the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' distinct allusion is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden textiles. Many circumstances point to the conclusion that the art of weaving and embroidering with gold and silver originated in India, where it is still principally prosecuted, and that from one great city to another the practice travelled westward, — Babylon, Tarsus, Baghdad, Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily, Con- / stantinople and Venice, all in the process of time becoming famous centres of these much prized manufactures. Alexander the Great found Indian kings and princes arrayed in robes of gold and purple; and the Persian monarch Darius, we are told, wore a war mantle of cloth of gold, on which were figured two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. There is reason, according to Josephus, to believe that the “royal apparel&quot; worn by Herod on the day of his death (Acts xii. 21) was a tissue of silver. Agrippina, the wife of the emperor Claudius, had a robe woven entirely of gold, and from that period downwards royal personages and high ecclesiastical dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver for their state and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings and decorations. In England, at different periods, various names were applied to cloths of gold, as ciclatoun, tartarium, naques or nac, baudekiu or baldachin, Cyprus damask, and twssewys or tissue. The thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper, is so called because it originally was placed between the folds of gold &quot;tissue&quot; to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each other. At what time the drawing of gold wire for the preparation of these textiles was first practised is not accurately known. The art was probably introduced and applied in different localities at widely different dates, but down till mediaeval times the method graphically described in the Pentateuch continued to be practised with both gold and silver.

Fabrics woven with gold and silver continue to be used on the largest scale to this day in India; and there the preparation of the varieties of wire, and the working of the various forms of lace, brocade, and embroidery, is at once an important and peculiar art. The basis of all modern fabrics of this kind is wire, the &quot;gold wire&quot; of the manufacturer being in all cases silver gilt wire, and silver wire being, of course, composed of pure silver. In India the wire is drawn by means of simple draw-plates, with rude and simple appliances, from rounded bars of silver, or gold-plated silver, as the case may be. The wire is flattened into the strip or ribbon-like form it generally assumes by passing it, fourteen or fifteen strands simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil, and beating it as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly convex surface. From wire so flattened there is made in India soniri, a tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp being composed entirely of golden strips, and ruperi, a similar tissue of silver. Gold lace is also made on a warp of thick yellow silk with a weft of flat wire, and in the case of ribbons the warp or web is composed of the metal. The flattened wires are twisted around orange (in the case of silver, white) coloured silk thread, so as completely to cover the thread and present the appearance of a continuous wire; and in this form it is chiefly employed for weaving into the rich brocades known as kincobs or kinkhábs. Wires flattened, or partially flattened, are also twisted into exceedingly fine spirals, and in this form they are the basis of numerous ornamental applications. Such spirals drawn out till they present a waved appearance, and in that state flattened, are much used for rich heavy embroideries termed karchobs. Spangles for embroideries, &amp;c., are made from spirals of comparatively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer flattening it out into a thin round disk with a slit extending from the centre to one edge. Fine spirals are also used for general embroidery purposes. The demand for various kinds of loom-woven and embroidered gold and silver work in India is immense; and the variety of textiles so ornamented is also very great. &quot;Gold and silver,&quot; says Dr Birdwood in his ''Handbook to the British-Indian Section, Paris Exhibition'', 1878, &quot;are worked into the decoration of all the more costly loom-made garments and Indian piece goods, either on the borders only, or in stripes throughout, or in diapered figures. The gold-bordered loom embroideries are made chiefly at Sattara, and the gold or silver striped at Tanjore; the gold figured ''mashrus'' at Tanjore, Trichinopoly, and Hyderabad in the Deccau; and the highly ornamented gold-figured silks and gold and silver tissues principally at Ahmedabad, Benares, Murshedabad, and Trichinopoly.&quot;

Among the Western communities the demand for gold and silver lace and embroideries arises chiefly in connexion with naval and military uniforms, court costumes, public and private liveries, ecclesiastical robes and draperies, theatrical dresses, and the badges and insignia of various orders. To a limited extent there is a trade in gold wire and lace to India and China. The metallic basis of the various fabrics is wire round and flattened, the wire being of three kinds — 1st, gold wire, which is invariably silver gilt wire; 2d, copper gilt wire, used for common liveries and theatrical purposes; and 3d, silver wire. These wires are drawn by the ordinary processes, and the flattening, when done, is accomplished by passing the wire between a pair of revolving rollers of fine polished steel. The various qualities of wire are prepared and used in precisely the same way as in India, — round wire, flat wire, thread made of flat gold wire twisted round orange-coloured silk or cotton, known in the trade as &quot;orris,&quot; fine spirals and spangles, all being in use in the West as in the East. The lace is woven in the same manner as ribbons, and there are very numerous varieties in richness, pattern, and quality.  Cloth of gold, and brocades rich in gold and silver, are woven for ecclesiastical vestments and draperies.

The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the lace trade varies, but in all cases the proportion of gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold lace wire is drawn from a bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7 of copper, coated with 3 parts of gold. On an average each ounce troy of a bar so plated is drawn into 1500 yards of wire; and therefore about 16 grains of gold cover a mile of wire. It is estimated that about 250,000 ounces of gold wire are made annually in Great Britain, of which about 20 per cent, is used for the headings of calico, muslin, &amp;c., and the remainder is worked up in the gold lace trade.&lt;ref&gt;William Chandler Roberts-Austen and H. Bauerman [W.C.R. — H.B.]. &quot;Gold and Silver Lace.&quot; In &quot;Gold.&quot; ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 9th Edition (1875–1889). Vol. 10 (X). Adam and Charles Black (Publisher). https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%2010%20%28G-GOT%29%20193592738.23/page/753/mode/1up (accessed January 2023): 753, Col. 2c – 754, Cols. 1a–b – 2a–b.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Honiton Lace ====

Kate Stradsin says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Honiton lace was the finest English equivalent of Brussels bobbin lace and was constructed in small ‘sprigs, in the cottages of lacemakers[.'] These sprigs were then joined together and bleached to form the large white flounces that were so sought after in the mid-nineteenth century.&lt;ref&gt;Strasdin, Kate. &quot;Rediscovering Queen Alexandra’s Wardrobe: The Challenges and Rewards of Object-Based Research.&quot; ''The Court Historian'' 24.2 (2019): 181-196. Rpt  http://repository.falmouth.ac.uk/3762/15/Rediscovering%20Queen%20Alexandra%27s%20Wardrobe.pdf: 13, and (for the little quotation) n. 37, which reads &quot;Margaret Tomlinson, ''Three Generations in the Honiton Lace Trade: A Family History'', self-published, 1983.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[File:Strook in Alençon naaldkant, 1750-1775.jpg|thumb|alt=A long piece of complex white lace with garlands, flowers and bows|Point d'Alençon lace, 1750-1775]]
==== Passementerie ====
''Passementerie'' is the French term for trim on clothing or furniture. The 19th century (especially during the First and Second Empire) was a time of great &quot;''exubérance''&quot; in passementerie in French design, including the development and widespread use of the Jacquard loom.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-06-10|title=Passementerie|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Passementerie&amp;oldid=205068926|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passementerie.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Point d'Alençon Lace ====
A lace made by hand using a number of complex steps and layers. The lacemakers build the point d'Alençon design on some kind of mesh and sometimes leave some of the mesh in as part of the lace and perhaps to provide structure.

Elizabeth Lewandowski defines point d'Alençon lace and Alençon lace separately. Point lace is needlepoint lace,&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|233}} so Alençon point is &quot;a two thread [needlepoint] lace.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7}} Alençon lace has a &quot;floral design on [a] fine net ground [and is] referred to as [the] queen of French handmade needlepoint laces. The original handmade Alençon was a fine needlepoint lace made of linen thread.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7}}

The sample of point d'Alençon lace (right), from 1750–1775, shows the linen mesh that the lace was constructed on.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openfashion.momu.be/#9ce5f00e-8a06-4dab-a833-05c3371f3689|title=MoMu - Open Fashion|website=openfashion.momu.be|access-date=2024-02-26}} ModeMuseum Antwerpen. http://openfashion.momu.be/#9ce5f00e-8a06-4dab-a833-05c3371f3689.&lt;/ref&gt; The consistency in this sample suggests it may have been made by machine.

== Elastic ==
Elastic had been invented and was in use by the end of the 19th century. For the sense of &quot;Elastic cord or string, usually woven with india-rubber,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;“elastic, adj. &amp; n.”.  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press,  September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1199670313&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' has usage examples beginning in 1847. The example for 1886 is vivid: &quot;The thorough-going prim man will always place a circle of elastic round his hair previous to putting on his college cap.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Fabric ==

=== Brocatelle ===
Brocatelle is a kind of brocade, more simple than most brocades because it uses fewer warp and weft threads and fewer colors to form the design. The article in the French ''Wikipédia'' defines it like this:&lt;blockquote&gt;La '''brocatelle''' est un type de tissu datant du &lt;abbr&gt;xvi&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/abbr&gt; siècle qui comporte deux chaînes et deux trames, au minimum. Il est composé pour que le dessin ressorte avec un relief prononcé, grâce à la chaîne sur un fond en sergé. Les brocatelles les plus anciennes sont toujours fabriquées avec une des trames en lin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-06-01|title=Brocatelle|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brocatelle&amp;oldid=204796410|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocatelle.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Which translates to this:&lt;blockquote&gt;Brocatelle is a type of fabric dating from the 16th century that has two warps and two wefts, at a minimum. It is composed so that the design stands out with a pronounced relief, thanks to the weft threads on a twill background. The oldest brocades were always made with one of the wefts being linen.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' says, brocatelle is an &quot;imitation of brocade, usually made of silk or wool, used for tapestry, upholstery, etc., now also for dresses. Both the nature and the use of the stuff have changed&quot; between the late 17th century and 1888, the last time this definition was revised.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;brocatelle, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/23550. Accessed 4 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Broché ===

=== Ciselé ===

=== Crépe de Chine ===
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' distinguishes the use of ''crêpe'' (using a circumflex rather than an acute accent over the first ''e'') from ''crape'' in textiles, saying ''crêpe'' is &quot;often borrowed [from the French] as a term for all crapy fabrics other than ordinary black mourning crape,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;crêpe, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/44242. Accessed 10 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; with usage examples ranging from 1797 to the mid 20th century. Crêpe de chine, it says is &quot;a white or other coloured crape made of raw silk.&quot;

=== Crinoline ===
Technically, crinoline was a fabric made mostly of horsehair and sometimes linen, stiffened with starch or glue, similar to buckram today, used in men's military collars and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinolines|women's foundation garments]]. Lewandowski defines crinoline as &lt;blockquote&gt;(1840–1865 C.E.). France. Originally horsehair cloth used for officers' collars. Later used for women's underskirts to support skirts. Around 1850, replaced by many petticoats, starched and boned. Around 1856, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinoline Hoops|light metal cage]] was developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Épinglé Velvet ===
Often spelled ''épingle'' rather than ''épinglé'', this term appears to have been used for a fabric made of wool, or at least wool along with linen or cotton, that was heavier and stiffer than silk velvet. It was associated with outer garments and men's clothing. Nowadays, épinglé velvet is an upholstery fabric in which the pile is cut into designs and patterns, and the portrait of [[Social Victorians/People/Douglas-Hamilton Duke of Hamilton|Mary, Duchess of Hamilton]] shows a mantle described as épinglé velvet that does seem to be a velvet with a woven pattern perhaps cut into the pile. 

=== Lace ===
While lace also functioned sometimes as fabric — at the décolletage, for example, on the stomacher or as a veil — here we organize it as a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Trim and Lace|part of the elaboration of clothing]].

=== Liberty Fabrics ===

=== Lisse ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the term ''lisse'' as a &quot;kind of silk gauze&quot; was used in the 19th-century UK and US.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;lisse, n.1.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/108978. Accessed 4 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Satin ===
The pre-1927 ''History of Feminine Fashion'', probably commissioned by Charles Frederick Worth's sons, describes Worth's &quot;insistence on new fabrics, new trimmings, new materials of every description&quot; at the beginning of his career in the mid 19th century:&lt;blockquote&gt;When Worth first entered the business of dressmaking, the only materials of the richer sort used for woman's dress were velvet, faille, and watered silk. Satin, for example, was never used. M. Worth desired to use satin very extensively in the gowns he designed, but he was not satisfied with what could be had at the time; he wanted something very much richer than was produced by the mills at Lyons. That his requirements entailed the reconstruction of mills mattered little — the mills were reconstructed under his directions, and the Lyons looms turned out a richer satin than ever, and the manufacturers prospered accordingly.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|6 in printed, 26 in digital book}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Selesia ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''silesia'' is &quot;A fine linen or cotton fabric originally manufactured in Silesia in what is now Germany (''Schlesien'').&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Silesia, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/179664. Accessed 9 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; It may have been used as a lining — for pockets, for example — in garments made of more luxurious or more expensive cloth. The word ''sleazy'' — &quot;Of textile fabrics or materials: Thin or flimsy in texture; having little substance or body.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;sleazy, adj.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/181563. Accessed 9 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; — may be related.

=== Shot Fabric ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', &quot;Of a textile fabric: Woven with warp-threads of one colour and weft-threads of another, so that the fabric (usually silk) changes in tint when viewed from different points.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Shot, ''Adj.''”  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP,  July 2023,  https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2977164390.&lt;/ref&gt; A shot fabric might also be made of silk and cotton fibers.

=== Tissue ===
A lightly woven fabric like gauze or chiffon. The light weave can make the fabric translucent and make pleating and gathering flatter and less bulky. Tissue can be woven to be shot, sheer, stiff or soft.

Historically, the term in English was used for a &quot;rich kind of cloth, often interwoven with gold or silver&quot; or &quot;various rich or fine fabrics of delicate or gauzy texture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Tissue, N.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, March 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/5896731814.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fan ==

The ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (9th edition) has an article on the fan. (This article is based on knowledge that would have been available toward the end of the 19th century and does not, obviously, reflect current knowledge or ways of talking.)&lt;blockquote&gt;FAN (Latin, ''vannus''; French, ''éventail''), a light implement used for giving motion to the air. ''Ventilabrum'' and ''flabellum'' are names under which ecclesiastical fans are mentioned in old inventories. Fans for cooling the face have been in use in hot climates from remote ages. A bas-relief in the British Museum represents Sennacherib with female figures carrying feather fans. They were attributes of royalty along with horse-hair fly-flappers and umbrellas. Examples may be seen in plates of the Egyptian sculptures at Thebes and other places, and also in the ruins of Persepolis. In the museum of Boulak, near Cairo, a wooden fan handle showing holes for feathers is still preserved. It is from the tomb of Amen-hotep, of the 18th dynasty, 17th century &lt;small&gt;B&lt;/small&gt;.&lt;small&gt;C&lt;/small&gt;. In India fans were also attributes of men in authority, and sometimes sacred emblems. A heartshaped fan, with an ivory handle, of unknown age, and held in great veneration by the Hindus, was given to the prince of Wales. Large punkahs or screens, moved by a servant who does nothing else, are in common use by Europeans in India at this day.

Fans were used in the early Middle Ages to keep flies from the sacred elements during the celebrations of the Christian mysteries. Sometimes they were round, with bells attached — of silver, or silver gilt. Notices of such fans in the ancient records of St Paul’s, London, Salisbury cathedral, and many other churches, exist still. For these purposes they are no longer used in the Western church, though they are retained in some Oriental rites. The large feather fans, however, are still carried in the state processions of the supreme pontiff in Rome, though not used during the celebration of the mass. The fan of Queen Theodolinda (7th century) is still preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Monza. Fans made part of the bridal outfit, or ''mundus muliebris'', of ancient Roman ladies.

Folding fans had their origin in Japan, and were imported thence to China. They were in the shape still used—a segment of a circle of paper pasted on a light radiating frame-work of bamboo, and variously decorated, some in colours, others of white paper on which verses or sentences are written. It is a compliment in China to invite a friend or distinguished guest to write some sentiment on your fan as a memento of any special occasion, and this practice has continued. A fan that has some celebrity in France was presented by the Chinese ambassador to the Comtesse de Clauzel at the coronation of Napoleon I. in 1804. When a site was given in 1635, on an artificial island, for the settlement of Portuguese merchants in Nippo in Japan, the space was laid out in the form of a fan as emblematic of an object agreeable for general use. Men and women of every rank both in China and Japan carry fans, even artisans using them with one hand while working with the other. In China they are often made of carved ivory, the sticks being plates very thin and sometimes carved on both sides, the intervals between the carved parts pierced with astonishing delicacy, and the plates held together by a ribbon. The Japanese make the two outer guards of the stick, which cover the others, occasionally of beaten iron, extremely thin and light, damascened with gold and other metals.

Fans were used by Portuguese ladies in the 14th century, and were well known in England before the close of the reign of Richard II. In France the inventory of Charles V. at the end of the 14th century mentions a folding ivory fan. They were brought into general use in that country by Catherine de’ Medici, probably from Italy, then in advance of other countries in all matters of personal luxury. The court ladies of Henry VIII.’s reign in England were used to handling fans, A lady in the Dance of Death by Holbein holds a fan. Queen Elizabeth is painted with a round leather fan in her portrait at Gorhambury; and as many as twenty-seven are enumerated in her inventory (1606). Coryat, an English traveller, in 1608 describes them as common in Italy. They also became of general use from that time in Spain. In Italy, France, and Spain fans had special conventional uses, and various actions in handling them grew into a code of signals, by which ladies were supposed to convey hints or signals to admirers or to rivals in society. A paper in the ''Spectator'' humorously  proposes to establish a regular drill for these purposes.

The chief seat of the European manufacture of fans during the 17th century was Paris, where the sticks or frames, whether of wood or ivory, were made, and the decorations painted on mounts of very carefully prepared vellum (called latterly ''chicken skin'', but not correctly), — a material stronger and tougher than paper, which breaks at the folds. Paris makers exported fans unpainted to Madrid and other Spanish cities, where they were decorated by native artists. Many were exported complete; of old fans called Spanish a great number were in fact made in France. Louis XIV. issued edicts at various times to regulate the manufacture. Besides fans mounted with parchment, Dutch fans of ivory were imported into Paris, and decorated by the heraldic painters in the process called “Vernis Martin,” after a famous carriage painter and inventor of colourless lac varnish. Fans of this kind belonging to the Queen and to the late baroness de Rothschild were exhibited in 1870 at Kensington. A fan of the date of 1660, representing sacred subjects, is attributed to Philippe de Champagne, another to Peter Oliver in England in the / 17th century. Cano de Arevalo, a Spanish painter of the 17th century devoted himself to fan painting. Some harsh expressions of Queen Christina to the young ladies of the French court are said to have caused an increased ostentation in the splendour of their fans, which were set with jewels and mounted in gold. Rosalba Carriera was the name of a fan painter of celebrity in the 17th century. Lebrun and Romanelli were much employed during the same period. Klingstet, a Dutch artist, enjoyed a considerable reputation for his fans from the latter part of the 17th and the first thirty years of the 18th century.

The revocation of the edict of Nantes drove many fan-makers out of France to Holland and England. The trade in England was well established under the Stuart sovereigns. Petitions were addressed by the fan-makers to Charles II. against the importation of fans from India, and a duty was levied upon such fans in consequence. This importation of Indian fans, according to Savary, extended also to France. During the reign of Louis XV. carved Indian and China fans displaced to some extent those formerly imported from Italy, which had been painted on swanskin parchment prepared with various perfumes.

During the 18th century all the luxurious ornamentation of the day was bestowed on fans as far as they could display it. The sticks were made of mother-of-pearl or ivory, carved with extraordinary skill in France, Italy, England, and other countries. They were painted from designs of Boucher, Watteau, Lancret, and other &quot;genre&quot; painters, Hébert, Rau, Chevalier, Jean Boquet, Mad. Verité, are known as fan painters. These fashions were followed in most countries of Europe, with certain national differences. Taffeta and silk, as well as fine parchment, were used for the mounts. Little circles of glass were let into the stick to be looked through, and small telescopic glasses were sometimes contrived at the pivot of the stick. They were occasionally mounted with the finest point lace. An interesting fan (belonging to Madame de Thiac in France), the work of Le Flamand, was presented by the municipality of Dieppe to Marie Antoinette on the birth of her son the dauphin. From the time of the Revolution the old luxury expended on fans died out. Fine examples ceased to be exported to England and other countries. The painting on them represented scenes or personages connected with political events. At a later period fan mounts were often prints coloured by hand. The events of the day mark the date of many examples found in modern collections. Amongst the fanmakers of the present time the names of Alexandre, Duvelleroy, Fayet, Vanier, may be mentioned as well known in Paris. The sticks are chiefly made in the department of Oise, at Le Déluge, Crèvecœur, Méry, Ste Geneviève, and other villages, where whole families are engaged in preparing them; ivory sticks are carved at Dieppe. Water-colour painters of distinction often design and paint the mounts, the best designs being figure subjects. A great impulse has been given to the manufacture and painting of fans in England since the exhibition which took place at South Kensington in 1870. Other exhibitions have since been held, and competitive prizes offered, one of which was gained by the Princess Louise. Modern collections of fans take their date from the emigration of many noble families from France at the time of the Revolution. Such objects were given as souvenirs and occasionally sold by families in straitened circumstances. A large number of fans of all sorts, principally those of the 18th century, French, English, German, Italian Spanish, &amp;c., have been lately bequeathed to the South Kensington Museum.

Regarding the different parts of folding fans it may be well to state that the sticks are called in French ''brins'', the two outer guards ''panaches'', and the mount ''feuille''.&lt;ref&gt;J. H. Pollen [J.H.P.]. &quot;Fan.&quot; ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 9th Edition (1875–1889). Vol. '''10''' ('''X'''). Adam and Charles Black (Publisher). https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Vol%209%20%28FAL-FYZ%29%20193323016.23/page/26/mode/2up (accessed January 2023): 27, Col. 1b – 28, Col. 1c.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Folding fans were available and popular early and are common accessories in portraits of fashionable women through the centuries.

== Costumes for Theatre and Fancy Dress ==
Fancy-dress (or costume) balls were popular and frequent in the U.K. and France as well as the rest of Europe and North America during the 19th century. The themes and styles of the fancy-dress balls influenced those that followed. 

At the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the guests came dressed in costume from times before 1820, as instructed on '''the invitation''', but their clothing was much more about late-Victorian standards of beauty and fashion than the standards of whatever time period the portraits they were copying or basing their costumes on. 

=== Fancy Dress ===
In her ''Magnificent Entertainments: Fancy Dress Balls of Canada's Governors General, 1876-1898'', Cynthia Cooper describes the resources available to those needing help making a costume for a fancy-dress ball:&lt;blockquote&gt;There were a number of places eager ballgoers could turn for assistance and inspiration. Those with a scholarly bent might pore over history books or study pictures of paintings or other works of art. For more direct advice, one could turn to the barrage of published information specifically on fancy dress. Women’s magazines such as ''Godey’s Lady’s Book'' and ''The Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine'' sometimes featured fancy dress designs and articles, and enticing specialized books were available with extensive recommendations for choosing fancy dress. By far the most complete sources were the books by [[Social Victorians/People/Ardern Holt|Ardern Holt]], a prolific British authority on the subject. Holt’s book for women, ''Fancy Dresses Described, or What to Wear at Fancy Balls'' (published in six editions between 1879 and 1896), began with the query, ‘‘But what are we to wear?” Holt’s companion book, ''Gentlemen’s Fancy Dress:'' ''How to Choose It'', was also published in six editions from 1882 to 1905. Other prominent authorities included Mrs. Aria’s ''Costume: Fanciful, Historical, and Theatrical'' and, in the US, the Butterick Company’s ''Masquerade and Carnival: Their Customs and Costumes''. The Butterick publication relied heavily on Holt, copying large sections of the introduction outright and paraphrasing other sections.&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;Cooper, Cynthia. ''Magnificent entertainments: fancy dress balls of Canada's Governors General, 1876-1898''.Fredericton, N.B.; Hull, Quebec: Goose Lane Editions and Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1997. Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/magnificententer0000coop/.&lt;/ref&gt; (28–29)&lt;/blockquote&gt;Cynthia Cooper discusses how &quot;historical accuracy&quot; works in historical fiction and historical dress: &lt;blockquote&gt;A seemingly accurate costume and coiffure bespoke a cultured individual whose most gratifying compliment would be “historically correct.” Those who were fortunate enough to own actual clothing from an earlier period might wear it with pride as a historical relic, though they would generally adapt or remake it in keeping with the aesthetics of their own period. Historical accuracy was always in the eye of beholders inclined to overlook elements of current fashion in a historical costume. Theatre had long taught the public that if a costume appeared tasteful and attractive, it could be assumed to be accurate. Even at Queen Victoria’s fancy dress balls, costume silhouette was always far more like the fashionable dress of the period than of the time portrayed. For this reason, many extant eighteenth-century dresses show evidence of extensive alterations done in the nineteenth century, no doubt for fancy dress purposes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; (25) &lt;/blockquote&gt;The newspaper ''The Queen'' published dress and fashion information and advice under the byline of [[Social Victorians/People/Ardern Holt|Ardern Holt]], who regularly answered questions from readers about fashion as well as about fancy dress. Holt also wrote entire articles with suggestions for what might make an appealing fancy-dress costume as well as pointing readers away from costumes that had been worn too frequently. The suggestions for costumes are based on familiar types or portraits available to readers, similar to Holt's books on fancy dress, which ran through a number of editions in the 1880s and 1890s. Fancy-dress questions sometimes asked for details about costumes worn in theatrical or operatic productions, which Holt provides. 

In November 1897, Holt refers to the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July ball: &quot;Since the famous fancy ball, given at Devonshire House during this year, historical fancy dresses have assumed a prominence that they had not hitherto known.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Fancy Dress a la Mode.&quot; The ''Queen'' 27 November 1897, Saturday: 94 [of 145 in BNA; print p. 1026], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18971127/459/0094.&lt;/ref&gt; Holt goes on to provide a number of ideas for costumes for historical fancy dress, as always with a strong leaning toward Victorian standards of beauty and style and away from any concern for historical accuracy.

As Leonore Davidoff says, &quot;Every cap, bow, streamer, ruffle, fringe, bustle, glove and other elaboration symbolised some status category for the female wearer.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93}} [handled under Elaborations]

=== Historical Accuracy ===
Many of the costumes at the ball were based on portraits, especially when the guest was dressed as a historical figure. If possible, we have found the portraits likely to have been the originals, or we have found, if possible, portraits that show the subjects from the two time periods at similar ages.

The way clothing was cut changed quite a bit between the 18th and 19th centuries. We think of Victorian clothing — particularly women's clothing, and particularly at the end of the century — as inflexible and restrictive, especially compared to 20th- and 21st-century customs permitting freedom of movement. The difference is generally evolutionary rather than absolute — that is, as time has passed since the 18th century, clothing has allowed an increasingly greater range of movement, especially for people who did not do manual labor.

By the end of the 19th century, garments like women's bodices and men's coats were made fitted and smooth by attention to the grain of the fabric and by the use of darts (rather than techniques that assembled many small, individual pieces of fabric).

* clothing construction and flat-pattern techniques
* Generally, the further back in time we go, the more 2-dimensional the clothing itself was.

==== Women's Versions of Historical Accuracy at the Ball ====
As always with this ball, whatever historical accuracy might be present in a woman's costume is altered so that the wearer is still a fashionable Victorian lady. What makes the costumes look &quot;Victorian&quot; to our eyes is the line of the silhouette caused by the foundation undergarments as well as the many &quot;elaborations&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93}}, mostly in the decorations, trim and accessories. 

Also, the clothing hangs and drapes differently because the fabric was cut on grain and the shoulders were freed by the way the sleeves were set in. 

==== Men's Versions of Historical Accuracy at the Ball ====
Because men were not wearing a Victorian foundation garment at the end of the century, the men's costumes at the ball are more historically accurate in some ways.

* Trim
* Mixing neck treatments
* Hair
* Breeches
* Shoes and boots
* Military uniforms, arms, gloves, boots

== Feathers and Plumes ==

=== Aigrette ===
Elizabeth Lewandowski defines ''aigrette'' as &quot;France. Feather or plume from an egret or heron.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;(5) Sometimes the newspapers use the term to refer to an accessory (like a fan or ornament on a hat) that includes such a feather or plume. The straight and tapered feathers in an aigrette are in a bundle.

=== Prince of Wales's Feathers or White Plumes ===
The feathers in an aigrette came from egrets and herons; Prince of Wales's feathers came from ostriches. A fuller discussion of Prince of Wales's feathers and the white ostrich plumes worn at court appears on [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Feathers and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Victorian Things]].

For much of the late 18th and 19th centuries, white ostrich plumes were central to fashion at court, and at a certain point in the late 18th century they became required for women being presented to the monarch and for their sponsors. Our purpose here is to understand why women were wearing plumes at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] as part of their costumes.

First published in 1893, [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Colin Campbell|Lady Colin Campbell]]'s ''Manners and Rules of Good Society'' (1911 edition) says that&lt;blockquote&gt;It was compulsory for both Married and Unmarried Ladies to Wear Plumes. The married lady’s Court plume consisted of three white feathers. An unmarried lady’s of two white feathers. The three white feathers should be mounted as a Prince of Wales plume and worn towards the left hand side of the head. Colored feathers may not be worn. In deep mourning, white feathers must be worn, black feathers are inadmissible.

White veils or lace lappets must be worn with the feathers. The veils should not be longer than 45 inches.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.edwardianpromenade.com/etiquette/the-court-presentation/|title=The Court Presentation|last=Holl|first=Evangeline|date=2007-12-07|website=Edwardian Promenade|language=en-US|access-date=2022-12-18}} https://www.edwardianpromenade.com/etiquette/the-court-presentation/.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;[[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Feathers and Prince of Wales's Feathers|This fashion was imported from France]] in the mid 1770s.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Abstract&quot; for Blackwell, Caitlin. &quot;'&lt;nowiki/&gt;''The Feather'd Fair in a Fright''': The Emblem of the Feather in Graphic Satire of 1776.&quot; ''Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 20 January 2013 (Vol. 36, Issue 3): 353-376. ''Wiley Online'' DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-0208.2012.00550.x (accessed November 2022).&lt;/ref&gt;

Separately, a secondary heraldic emblem of the Prince of Wales has been a specific arrangement of 3 ostrich feathers in a gold coronet&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-11-07|title=Prince of Wales's feathers|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers&amp;oldid=1120556015|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Wales's_feathers.&lt;/ref&gt; since King Edward III (1312–1377&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-12-14|title=Edward III of England|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_III_of_England&amp;oldid=1127343221|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III_of_England.&lt;/ref&gt;).

Some women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] wore white ostrich feathers in their hair, but most of them are not Prince of Wales's feathers. Most of the plumes in these portraits are arrangements of some kind of headdress to accompany the costume. A few, wearing what looks like the Princes of Wales's feathers, might be signaling that their character is royal or has royal ancestry. '''One of the women [which one?] was presented to the royals at this ball?'''

Here is the list of women who are wearing white ostrich plumes in their portraits in the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/Photographs|''Diamond Jubilee Fancy Dress Ball'' album of 286 photogravure portraits]]:

# Kathleen Pelham-Clinton, the [[Social Victorians/People/Newcastle|Duchess of Newcastle]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Cavendish]], the Duchess of Devonshire
# Jesusa Murrieta del Campo Mello y Urritio (née Bellido), [[Social Victorians/People/Santurce|Marquisa de Santurce]]
# Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Farquhar|Emilie Farquhar]]
# Princess (Laura Williamina Seymour) Victor of  [[Social Victorians/People/Gleichen#Laura%20Williamina%20Seymour%20of%20Hohenlohe-Langenburg|Hohenlohe Langenburg]]
# Louisa Acheson, [[Social Victorians/People/Gosford|Lady Gosford]]
# Alice Emily White Coke, [[Social Victorians/People/Leicester|Viscountess Coke]]
# Lady Mary Stewart, Helen Mary Theresa [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry|Vane-Tempest-Stewart]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Consuelo Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill|Consuelo Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill]], Duchess of [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough|Marlborough]], dressed as the wife of the French Ambassador at the Court of Catherine of Russia (not white, but some color that reads dark in the black-and-white photograph)
#Mrs. Mary [[Social Victorians/People/Chamberlain|Chamberlain]] (at 491), wearing white plumes, as Madame d'Epinay
#Lady Clementine [[Social Victorians/People/Tweeddale|Hay]] (at 629), wearing white plumes, as St. Bris (''Les Huguenots'')
#[[Social Victorians/People/Meysey-Thompson|Lady Meysey-Thompson]] (at 391), wearing white plumes, as Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia
#Mrs. [[Social Victorians/People/Grosvenor|Algernon (Catherine) Grosvenor]] (at 510), wearing white plumes, as Marie Louise
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Ancaster|Evelyn Ewart]], at 401), wearing white plumes, as the Duchess of Ancaster, Mistress of the Robes to Queen Charlotte, 1757, after a picture by Hudson
#[[Social Victorians/People/Lyttelton|Edith Sophy Balfour Lyttelton]] (at 580), wearing what might be white plumes on a large-brimmed white hat, after a picture by Romney
#[[Social Victorians/People/Yznaga|Emilia Yznaga]] (at 360), wearing what might be white plumes, as Cydalise of the Comedie Italienne from the time of Louis XV
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Ilchester|Muriel Fox Strangways]] (at 403), wearing what might be two smallish white plumes, as Lady Sarah Lennox, one of the bridesmaids of Queen Charlotte A.D. 1761
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Lucan|Violet Bingham]] (at 586), wearing perhaps one white plume in a headdress not related to the Prince of Wales's feathers
#Rosamond Fellowes, [[Social Victorians/People/de Ramsey|Lady de Ramsey]] (at 329), wearing a headdress that includes some white plumes, as Lady Burleigh
#[[Social Victorians/People/Dupplin|Agnes Blanche Marie Hay-Drummond]] (at 682), in a big headdress topped with white plumes, as Mademoiselle Andrée de Taverney A.D. 1775
#Florence Canning, [[Social Victorians/People/Garvagh|Lady Garvagh]] (at 336), wearing what looks like Prince of Wales's plumes
#[[Social Victorians/People/Suffolk|Marguerite Hyde &quot;Daisy&quot; Leiter]] (at 684), wearing what looks like Prince of Wales's plumes
#Lady [[Social Victorians/People/Spicer|Margaret Spicer]] (at 281), wearing one smallish white and one black plume, as Countess Zinotriff, Lady-in-Waiting to the Empress Catherine of Russia
#Mrs. [[Social Victorians/People/Cavendish Bentinck|Arthur James]] (at 318), wearing what looks like Prince of Wales's plumes, as Elizabeth Cavendish, daughter of Bess of Hardwick
#Nellie, [[Social Victorians/People/Kilmorey|Countess of Kilmorey]] (at 207), wearing three tall plumes, 2 white and one dark, as Comtesse du Barri
#Daisy, [[Social Victorians/People/Warwick|Countess of Warwick]] (at 53), wearing at least 1 white plume, as Marie Antoinette

More men than women were wearing plumes reminiscent of the Prince of Wales's feathers:

*

==== Bibliography for Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers ====
* Blackwell, Caitlin. &quot;'''The Feather'd Fair in a Fright'&lt;nowiki/&gt;'': The Emblem of the Feather in Graphic Satire of 1776.&quot; Journal for ''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 20 January 2013 (Vol. 36, Issue 3): 353-376. Wiley Online DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-0208.2012.00550.x.
* &quot;Prince of Wales's feathers.&quot; ''Wikipedia'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers (accessed November 2022). ['''Add women to this page''']
* Simpson, William. &quot;On the Origin of the Prince of Wales' Feathers.&quot; ''Fraser's magazine'' 617 (1881): 637-649. Hathi Trust https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.79253140&amp;view=1up&amp;seq=643&amp;q1=feathers (accessed December 2022). Deals mostly with use of feathers in other cultures and in antiquity; makes brief mention of feathers and plumes in signs and pub names that may not be associated with the Prince of Wales. No mention of the use of plumes in women's headdresses or court dress.

== Honors ==

=== The Bath ===
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath (GCB, Knight or Dame Grand Cross; KCB or DCB, Knight or Dame Commander; CB, Companion)

=== The Garter ===
The Most Noble Order of the Knights of the Garter (KG, Knight Companion; LG, Lady Companion)

[[File:The Golden Fleece - collar exhibited at MET, NYC.jpg|thumb|The Golden Fleece collar and pendant for the 2019 &quot;Last Knight&quot; exhibition at the MET, NYC.|alt=Recent photograph of a gold necklace on a wide band, with a gold skin of a sheep hanging from it as a pendant]]
=== The Golden Fleece ===
To wear the golden fleece is to wear the insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, said to be &quot;the most prestigious and historic order of chivalry in the world&quot; because of its long history and strict limitations on membership.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-25|title=Order of the Golden Fleece|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece&amp;oldid=980340875|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The monarchs of the U.K. were members of the originally Spanish order, as were others who could afford it, like the Duke of Wellington,&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;Thompson, R[obert]. H[ugh]. &quot;The Golden Fleece in Britain.&quot; Publication of the ''British Numismatic Society''. 2009 https://www.britnumsoc.org/publications/Digital%20BNJ/pdfs/2009_BNJ_79_8.pdf (accessed January 2023).&lt;/ref&gt; the first Protestant to be admitted to the order.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Founded in 1429/30 by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, the order separated into two branches in 1714, one Spanish and the other Austrian, still led by the House of Habsburg.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

[[File:Prince Albert - Franz Xaver Winterhalter 1842.jpg|thumb|1842 Winterhalter portrait of Prince Albert wearing the insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 1842|left|alt=1842 Portrait of Prince Albert by Winterhalter, wearing the insignia of the Golden Fleece]]
The photograph (upper right) is of a Polish badge dating from the &quot;turn of the XV and XVI centuries.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Polski:  Kolana orderowa orderu Złotego Runa, przełom XV i XVI wieku.|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Golden_Fleece_-_collar_exhibited_at_MET,_NYC.jpg|date=2019-11-10|accessdate=2023-01-10|last=Wulfstan}}. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Golden_Fleece_-_collar_exhibited_at_MET,_NYC.jpg.&lt;/ref&gt; The collar to this Golden Fleece might be similar to the one the [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish#The Insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece|Duke of Devonshire is wearing in the 1897 Lafayette portrait]].

The badges and collars that Knights of the Order actually wore vary quite a bit.

The 1842 Franz Xaver Winterhalter portrait (left) of Prince Consort Albert, Victoria's husband and father of the Prince of Wales, shows him wearing the Golden Fleece on a red ribbon around his neck and the star of the Garter on the front of his coat.&lt;ref&gt;Winterhalter, Franz Xaver. ''Prince Albert''. {{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/search#/16/collection/401412/prince-albert-1819-61|title=Explore the Royal Collection Online|website=www.rct.uk|access-date=2023-01-16}} https://www.rct.uk/collection/search#/16/collection/401412/prince-albert-1819-61.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Royal Victorian Order ===
(GCVO, Knight or Dame Grand Cross; KCVO or DCVO, Knight or Dame Commander; CVO, Commander; LVO, Lieutenant; MVO, Member)

=== St. John ===
The Order of the Knights of St. John

=== Star of India ===
Most Exalted Order of the Star of India (GCSI, Knight Grand Commander; KCSI, Knight Commander; CSI, Companion)

=== Thistle ===
The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle

== Hoops ==
'''This section is under construction right now'''.

Over the 19th century fashionable shapes for women's skirts — and their bodies — evolved ever more quickly, and sometimes several distinct silhouettes were fashionable at the same time. This evolution occurred as a result of changes in a number of large cultural factors:

#what was most fashionable changed over time, and the speed with which those changes occurred accelerated, which is associated with technological developments, the materials for clothing and foundations and the technologies for creating them
#* Over the course of the century, the materials that hoops were made of evolved, to include whalebone (cartilage), cane, iron and steel bands or wire as well as, apparently, sometimes rubber elastic.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; The evolution caused the hoops to become lighter and smoother. The cage also stopped the movement of fullness in skirts to the back.
#* grommets
#* the various materials used to make hoops
#* sewing machines
#* machines to make lace
#* aniline dyes
#relationship between fashion and social class: changes in conditions for women as social classes developed and increased wealth among the growing oligarchy, the needs among middle- and working-class women for freedom of movement and safety from fires
#*role of elites in controlling (sumptuary laws)
#*setting the style (Marie Antoinette)
#*development of the upper 10,000: expanding class of elite to include larger upper middle class, expanding aristocracy, growing oligarchy, internationalization of aristocracy and oligarchy, to include European royals seeking shelter in the U.K., American heiresses admitted into British aristocracy
#*role of Victoria as queen, leader of one branch of the aristocracy, her domesticity, her sense of style
#*fashion began to move down the social classes so that hoops (and, for example, top hats) were worn by people in the middle and sometimes working classes
#Impact of fashion on women's mobility, women's rights
#evolutionary process in the development of hoops: not discrete structures but over the centuries one leads to another
Terms: farthingale, panniers, hoops, crinoline, cage, bustle

Between 1450 and 1550 a loosely woven, very stiff fabric made from linen and horsehair was used in &quot;horsehair petticoats.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|137}} Heavy and scratchy, these petticoats made the fabric of the skirt lie smooth, without wrinkles or folds. Over time, this horsehair fabric was used in several kinds of objects made from fabric, like hats and padding for poufs, but it is best known for its use in the structure of hoops, or cages. Horsehair fabric was used until the mid-19th century, when it  was called ''crinoline'' and used for petticoats again (1840–1865).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}} We still call this fabric ''crinoline''.

''Hoops'' is a mid-19th-century term for a cage-like structure worn by a woman to hold her skirts away from her body. The term ''cage'' is also 19th century, and ''crinoline'' is sometimes used in a non-technical way for 19th-century cages as well. Both these terms are commonly used now for the general understructure of a woman's skirts, but they are not technically accurate for time periods before the 19th century.

As fashion, that cage-like structure was the foundation undergarment for the bottom half of a woman's body, for a skirt and petticoat, and created the fashionable silhouette from the 15th through the late 19th century. The 16th-century Katherine of Aragon is credited with making hoops popular outside Spain for women of the elite classes. By the end of the 16th century France had become the arbiter of fashion for the western world, and it still is. The cage is notable for how long it lasted in fashion and for its complex evolution.

Together with the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsets|corset]], the cage enabled all the changes in fashionable shapes, from the extreme distortions of 17th-and-18th-century panniers to the late 19th-century bustle. Early hoops circled the body in a bell, cone or drum shape, then were moved to the sides with panniers, then ballooned around the body like the top half of a sphere, and finally were pulled to the rear as a bustle. That is, the distorted shapes of high fashion were made possible by hoops. High fashion demanded these shapes, which disguised women's bodies, especially below the waist, while corsets did their work above it.

When hoops were first introduced in the 15th century, women's shoes for the first time differentiated from men's and became part of the fashionable look. In the periods when the skirts were flat in front (with the farthingale and in the transitional 17th century), they did not touch the floor, making shoes visible and important fashion accessories. Portraits of high-status, high-fashion women consistently show their pointy-toed shoes, which would have been more likely to show when they were moving than when they were standing still. The shoes seem to draw attention to themselves in these portraits, suggesting that they were important to the painters and, perhaps, the women as well.

In addition to the shape, the materials used to make hoops evolved — from cane and wood to whalebone, then steel bands and wire. Initially fabric strips, tabs or ribbons were the vertical elements in the cages and evolved into channels in a linen, muslin or, later, crinoline underskirt encasing wires or bands. Fabrics besides crinoline —  like cotton, silk and linen — were used to connect the hoops and bands in cages. All of these materials used in cages had disadvantages and advantages. 

=== Disadvantages and Advantages ===
Hoops affected the way women were able to move. ['''something about riding'''?]

==== Disadvantages ====
the weight, getting through doorways, sitting, the wind, getting into carriages, what the dances involved. Raising '''one's''' skirts to climb stairs or walk was more difficult with hoop. 

['''Contextualize with dates?'''] &quot;The combination of corset, bustle, and crinolette limited a woman's ability to bend except at the hip joint, resulting in a decorous, if rigid, sense of bearing.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Koda, Harold. ''Extreme Beauty: The Body Transformed.'' The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001.&lt;/ref&gt; (130) 

As caricatures through the centuries makes clear, one disadvantage hoops had is that they could be caught by the wind, no matter what the structure was made of or how heavy it was. 

In her 1941 ''Little Town on the Prairie'', Laura Ingalls Wilder writes a scene in which Laura's hoops have crept up under skirts because of the wind. Set in 1883,&lt;ref&gt;Hill, Pamela Smith, ed. ''Pioneer Girl: The Annotated Autobiography''.&lt;/ref&gt; this very unusual scene shows a young woman highly skilled at getting her hoops back down without letting her undergarments show. The majority of European and North American women wore hoops in 1883, but to our knowledge no other writer from this time describes any solution to the problem of the wind under hoops or, indeed, a skill like Laura's. &lt;blockquote&gt;“Well,” Laura began; then she stopped and spun round and round, for the strong wind blowing against her always made the wires of her hoop skirt creep slowly upward under her skirts until they bunched around her knees. Then she must whirl around and around until the wires shook loose and spiraled down to the bottom of her skirts where they should be.

“As she and Carrie hurried on she began again. “I think it was silly, the way they dressed when Ma was a girl, don’t you? Drat this wind!” she exclaimed as the hoops began creeping upward again.

“Quietly Carrie stood by while Laura whirled. “I’m glad I’m not old enough to have to wear hoops,” she said. “They’d make me dizzy.”

“They are rather a nuisance,” Laura admitted. “But they are stylish, and when you’re my age you’ll want to be in style.”&lt;ref&gt;Wilder, Laura Ingalls. ''Little Town on the Prairie.'' Harper and Row, 1941. Pp. 272–273.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The 16-year-old Laura makes the comment that she wants to be in style, but she lives on the prairie in the U.S., far from a large city, and would not necessarily wear the latest Parisian style, although she reads the American women's domestic and fashion monthly ''[[Social Victorians/Newspapers#Godey's Lady's Book|Godey's Lady's Book]]'' and would know what was stylish.

==== '''Advantages''' ====
The '''weight''' of hoops was somewhat corrected over time with the use of steel bands and wires, as they were lighter than the wood, cane or whalebone hoops, which had to be thick enough to keep their shape and to keep from breaking or folding under the weight of the petticoats and skirts. Full skirts made women's waists look smaller, whether by petticoats or hoops. Being fashionable, being included among the smart set.

The hoops moved the skirts away from the legs and feet, making moving easier. 

By moving the heavy petticoats and skirts away from their legs, hoops could actually give women's legs and feet more freedom to move.

Because so few fully constructed hoop foundation garments still exist, we cannot be certain of a number of details about how exactly they were worn. For example, the few contemporary drawings of 19th-century hoops show bloomers beneath them but no petticoats. However, in the cold and wind (and we know from Laura Ingalls Wilder how the wind could get under hoops), women could have added layers of petticoats beneath their hoops for warmth.[[File:Chaise à crinolines.jpg|thumb|Chaise à Crinolines, 19th century]]
=== Accommodation ===
Hoops affected how women sat, and furniture was developed specifically to accommodate these foundation structures. The ''chaise à crinolines'' or chair for hoop skirts (right), dating from the 2nd half of the 19th century, has a gap between the seat and the back of the chair to keep her undergarments from showing as she sat, or even seated herself, and to reduce wrinkling of the fabric by accommodating her hoops, petticoats and skirts.[[File:Vermeer Lady Seated at a Virginal.jpg|thumb|Vermeer, Lady Seated at a Virginal|left]]Vermeer's c. 1673 ''Lady Seated at a Virginal'' (left) looks like she is sitting on this same kind of chair, suggesting that furniture like this had existed long before the 19th century. Vermeer's painting shows how the chair could accommodate her hoops and the voluminous fabric of her skirts.

The wide doorways between the large public rooms in the Palace of Versailles could accommodate wide panniers. '''Louis XV and XVI of France occupied an already-built Versailles, but they both renovated the inside over time'''.

Some configurations of hoops permitted folding, and of course the width of the hoops themselves varied over time and with the evolving styles and materials.

With hoops, skirts moved away from the legs and feet, and when skirts got shorter, to above the floor, women's feet had nearly unrestricted freedom to move. Evening gowns, with trains, were still restrictive.

A modern accommodation are the leaning boards developed in Hollywood for women wearing period garments like corsets and long, full skirts. The leaning boards allowed the actors to rest without sitting and wrinkling their clothes.[[File:Pedro García de Benabarre St John Retable Detail.jpg|thumb|alt=Old oil painting of a woman wearing a dress from the 1400s holding the decapitated head of a man with a halo before a table of people at a dinner party|Pedro García de Benabarre, Detail from St. John Altarpiece, Showing Visible Hoops]]
=== Early Hoops ===
Hoops first appeared in Spain in the 15th century and influenced European fashion for at least 3 centuries.

A detail (right) from Pedro García de Benabarre's c. 1470 larger altarpiece painting shows women wearing a style of hoops that predates the farthingale but marks the beginning point of the development of that fashion. Salomé (holding John the Baptist's head) is wearing a dress with what looks like visible wooden hoops attached to the outside of the skirt, which also appears to have padding at the hips underneath it.

The clothing and hairstyles of the people in this painting are sufficiently realistic to offer details for analysis. The foundation garments the women are wearing are corsets and bum rolls. Because none still exist, we do not know how these hoops attached to the skirts or how they related structurally to the corset. The bottom hoop on Salomé's skirt rests on the ground, and her feet are covered. The women near her are kneeling, so not all their hoops show. 

The painter De Benabarre was &quot;active in Aragon and in Catalonia, between 1445–1496,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.mfab.hu/artworks/10528/|title=Saint Peter|website=Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest|language=en-US|access-date=2024-12-11}} https://www.mfab.hu/artworks/10528/.&lt;/ref&gt; so perhaps he saw the styles worn by people like Katharine of Aragon, whose hoops are now called a farthingale.

=== Early Farthingale ===
In the 16th century, the foundation garment we call ''hoops'' was called a ''farthingale''. Elizabeth Lewandowski says that the metal supports (or structure) in the hoops were made of wire:&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;FARTHINGALE: Renaissance (1450-1550 C.E. to Elizabethan (1550-1625 C.E.). Linen underskirt with wire supports which, when shaped, produced a variety of dome, bell, and oblong shapes.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;''{{rp|105}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The French term for ''farthingale'' is ''vertugadin'' — &quot;un élément essentiel de la mode Tudor en Angleterre [an essential element of Tudor fashion in England].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-12|title=Vertugadin|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vertugadin&amp;oldid=191825729|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertugadin.&lt;/ref&gt; The French also called the farthingale a &quot;''cachenfant'' for its perceived ability to hide pregnancy,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Clothes on the Shakespearean Stage.&quot; Carleton Production. Amazon Web Services. https://carleton-wp-production.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/sites/84/2023/05/Clothes-on-the-Shakespearean-Stage_-1.pdf (retrieved April 2025).&lt;/ref&gt; not unreasonable given the number of portraits where the subject wearing a farthingale looks as if she might be pregnant. The term in Spanish is ''vertugado''. Nowadays clothing historians make clear distinctions among these terms, especially farthingale, bustle and hip roll, but the terminology then did not need to distinguish these garments from later ones.&lt;p&gt;

The hoops on the outsides of the skirts in the Pedro García de Benabarre painting (above right) predate what would technically be considered a vertugado.[[File:Alonso Sánchez Coello 011.jpg|thumb|alt=Old painting of a princess wearing a richly jeweled outfit|Alonso Sánchez Coello, Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia Wearing a Vertugado, c. 1584]]

Blanche Payne says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Katherine of Aragon is reputed to have introduced the Spanish farthingale ... into England early in the [16th] century. The result was to convert the columnar skirt of the fifteenth century into the cone shape of the sixteenth.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|291}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In fact, &quot;The Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon brought the fashion to England for her marriage to Prince Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII in 1501 [La princesse espagnole Catherine d'Aragon amena la mode en Angleterre pour son mariage avec le prince Arthur, fils aîné d'Henri VII en 1501].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Catherine of Aragon, of course, married Henry VIII after Arthur's death, then was divorced and replaced by Anne Boleyn.

Of England, Lewandowski says that &quot;Spanish influence had introduced the hoop-supported skirt, smooth in contour, which was quite generally worn.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|291}} That is, hoops were &quot;quite generally worn&quot; among the ruling and aristocratic classes in England, and may have been worn by some women among the wealthy bourgeoisie. Sumptuary laws addressed &quot;certain features of garments that are decorative in function, intended to enhance the silhouette&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-22|title=Sumptuary law|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumptuary_law|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and signified wealth and status, but they were generally not very successful and not enforced well or consistently. (Sumptuary laws &quot;attempted to regulate permitted consumption, especially of clothing, food and luxury expenditures&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-09-27|title=sumptuary law|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sumptuary_law|journal=Wiktionary, the free dictionary|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; in order to mark class differences and, for our purposes, to use fashion to control women and the burgeoning middle class.)

The Spanish vertugado shaped the skirt into an symmetrical A-line with a graduated series of hoops sewn to an undergarment. Alonso Sánchez Coello's c. 1584&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|316}} portrait (right) shows infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia wearing a vertugado, with its &quot;typically Spanish smooth cone-shaped contour.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|315–316}}

The shoes do not show in the portraits of women wearing the Spanish cone-shaped vertugado. The round hoops stayed in place in front, even though the skirts might touch the floor, giving the women's feet enough room to take steps. 

By the end of the 16th century the French and Spanish farthingales had evolved separately and were no longer the same garment.[[File:Queen Elizabeth I ('The Ditchley portrait') by Marcus Gheeraerts the YoungerFXD.jpg|thumb|alt=Old oil painting of a queen in a white dress with shoulders and hips exaggerated by her dress|Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Queen Elizabeth I in a French Cartwheel Farthingale, 1592|left]]

The French vertugadin — a cartwheel farthingale — was a flat &quot;platter&quot; of hoops worn below the waist and above the hips. Once past the vertugadin, the skirt fell straight to the floor, into a kind of asymmetrical drum shape that was balanced by strict symmetry in the rest of the garment. The English Queen Elizabeth I is wearing a French drum-shaped farthingale in Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger's c. 1592 portrait (left).[[File:Hardwick Hall Portrait of Elizabeth I of England.jpg|thumb|Hilliard, Hardwick Hall Portrait of Elizabeth I of England, c. 1598–1599]]In Nicholas Hilliard's c. 1598–1599 portrait of Queen Elizabeth I (right), an extraordinary showing of jewels, pearls and embroidery from the top of her head to the tips of her toes make for a spectacular outfit. The drum of the cartwheel farthingale is closer to the body beneath the point of the bodice, and the underskirt is gathered up the sides of the foundation corset to where her natural waistline would be. The gathers flatten the petticoat from the point to the hem, and the fabric collected at the sides falls from the edge of the drum down to her ankles.

Associated with the cartwheel farthingale was a very long waist and a skirt slightly shorter in the front. A rigid corset with a point far below the waist and the downward-angled farthingale flattened the front of the skirt. Because the skirt in front over a cartwheel farthingale was closer to the woman's body and did not touch the floor, the dress flowed and the women's shoes showed as they moved. Almost all portraits of women wearing cartwheel farthingales show the little pointy toes of their shoes. In Gheeraerts' painting, Queen Elizabeth's feet draw attention to themselves, suggesting that showing the shoes was important.

Farthingales were heavy, and together with the rigid corsets and the construction of the dress (neckline, bodice, sleeves, mantle), women's movement was quite restricted. Although their feet and legs had the freedom to move under the hoops, their upper bodies were held in place by their foundation garments and their clothing, the sleeves preventing them from raising their arms higher than their shoulders. This restriction of the movement of their arms can be seen in Elizabethan court dances that included clapping. They clapped their hands beside their heads rather than over their heads.

The steady attempts in the sumptuary laws to control fine materials for clothing reveals the interest middle-class women had in wearing what the cultural elite were wearing at court.

=== The Transitional 17th Century ===
What had been starched and stiff in women's dress in the 16th century — like ruffs and collars — became looser and flatter in the 17th. This transitional period in women's clothing also introduced the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Cavalier|Cavalier style of men's dress]], which began with the political movement in support of England's King Charles II while he was still living in France. Like the ones women wore, men's ruffs and collars were also no longer starched or wired, making them looser and flatter as well.

For much of the 17th century — beginning about 1620, according to Payne — skirts were not supported by the cage-like hoops that had been so popular.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|355}} Without structures like hoops, skirts draped loosely to the floor, but they did not fall straight from the waist. Except for dressing gowns (which sometimes appear in portraiture in spite of their informality), the skirts women wore were held away from the body by some kind of padding or stiffened roll around the waist and at the hips, sometimes flat in front, sometimes not. The skirts flowed from the hips, either straight down or in an A-line depending on the cut of the skirt.
[[File:The Vanity of Women Masks and Bustles MET DT4982.jpg|thumb|Maerten de Vos, ''The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles'', c. 1600]]
==== Hip Rolls ====
This c. 1600 Dutch engraving attributed to Maerten de Vos (right) shows two servants dressing two wealthy women in masks and hip rolls. In its title of this engraving the Metropolitan Museum of Art calls a hip roll a ''bustle'' (which it defines as a padded roll or a French farthingale),&lt;ref&gt;De Vos, Maerten. &quot;The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles.&quot; Metropolitan Museum of Art. Wikimedia Commons 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Vanity_of_Women_Masks_and_Bustles_MET_DT4982.jpg.&lt;/ref&gt; but the engraving itself calls it a ''cachenfant''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;De Vos, Maerten (attrib. to). &quot;The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles.&quot; Circa 1600. ''The Costume Institute: The Metropolitan Museum of Art''. Object Number: 2001.341.1. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/82615&lt;/ref&gt; The craftsmen in the back are wearing masks. The one on the left is making the masks that the shop sells, and the one on the right is making the hip rolls.

The serving woman on the left is fitting a mask on what is probably her mistress. The kneeling woman on the right is tying a hip roll on what is probably hers.

The text around the engraving is in French and Dutch. The French passages read as follows (clockwise from top left), with the word ''cachenfant'' (farthingale) bolded:&lt;blockquote&gt;
Orne moy auecq la masque laide orde et sale:
&lt;br&gt;Car laideur est en moy la beaute principale.

Achepte dame masques &amp; passement:
&lt;br&gt;Monstre vostre pauvre [?] orgueil hardiment.

Venez belles filles auecq fesses maigres:
&lt;br&gt;Bien tost les ferayie rondes &amp; alaigres.

Vn '''cachenfant''' come les autres me fault porter:
&lt;br&gt;Couste qu'il couste; le fol la folle veult aymer.

Voy cy la boutiquel des enragez amours,
&lt;br&gt;De vanite, &amp; d'orgueil &amp; d'autres tels tours:

D'ont plusieurs qui parent la chair puante,
&lt;br&gt;S'en vont auecq les diables en la gehenne ardante.

&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Which translates, roughly, into
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Adorn me with the ugly, dirty, and orderly mask:
&lt;br&gt;For ugliness is the principal beauty in me.

Buy, lady, masks and trimmings:
&lt;br&gt;Boldly show your poor [?] pride.

Come, beautiful girls with thin buttocks:
&lt;br&gt;Soon, make them round and cheerful.

I must wear a [farthingale, lit. &quot;hide child&quot;] like the others:
&lt;br&gt;No matter how much it costs; the madman wants to love.

See here the store of rabid loves,
&lt;br&gt;Of vanity, and pride, and other such tricks:

Many of whom adorn the stinking flesh,
&lt;br&gt;Go with the devils to the burning hell.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[File:The Vanity of Women Masks and Bustles MET DT4982 (detail of padded rolls or French farthingales).jpg|thumb|Detail of Maerten de Vos, ''The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles'', c. 1600]]
Traditionally thought of as padding, the hip rolls, at least in this detail of the c. 1600 engraving (right), are hollow and seem to be made cylindrical by what looks like rings of cane or wire sewn into channels. The kneeling woman is tying the strings that attach the hip roll, which is being worn above the petticoat and below the overskirt that the mistress is holding up and back. The hip roll under construction on the table looks hollow, but when they are finished the rolls look padded and their ends sewn closed.

Farthingales were more complex than is usually assumed. Currently, ''farthingale'' usually refers to the cane or wire foundation that shaped the skirt from about 1450 to 1625, although the term was not always used so precisely. Padding was sometimes used to shape the skirt, either by itself or in addition to the cartwheel and cone-shaped foundational structures. The padding itself was in fact another version of hoops that were structured both by rings as well as padding. Called a bustle, French farthingale, cachenfant, bum barrel&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42}} or even (quoting Ben Jonson, 1601) bum roll&lt;ref&gt;Cunnington, C. Willett (Cecil Willett), and Phillis Cunnington. ''Handbook of English Costume in the Sixteenth Century''. Faber and Faber, 1954. Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/handbookofenglis0000unse_e2n2/.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|161}} in its day, the hip roll still does not have a stable name. The common terms for what we call the hip roll now include ''bum roll'' and ''French farthingale''. The term ''bustle'' is no longer associated with the farthingale.

==== Bunched Skirts or Padding ====
The speed with which trends in clothing changed began to accelerate in the 17th century, making fashion more expensive and making keeping up with the latest styles more difficult. Part of the transition in this century, then, is the number of silhouettes possible for women, including early forms of what became the pannier in the 18th century and what became the bustle in the late 19th. In the later periods, these forms of hoops involved &quot;baskets&quot; or cages (or crinolines), but during this transitional period, these shapes were made from &quot;stiffened rolls [&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hip Rolls|hip rolls]]] that were tied around the waist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bendall, Sarah A. () The Case of the “French Vardinggale”: A Methodological Approach to Reconstructing and Understanding Ephemeral Garments, ''Fashion Theory'' 2019 (23:3), pp. 363-399, DOI: [[doi:10.1080/1362704X.2019.1603862|10.1080/1362704X.2019.1603862]].&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|369}} at the hips under the skirts or from bunched fabric, or both. The fabric-based volume in the back involved the evolution of an overskirt, showing more and more of the underskirt, or [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Petticoat|petticoat]], beneath it. This development transformed the petticoat into an outer garment.[[File:Princess Teresa Pamphilj Cybo, by Jacob Ferdinand Voet.jpg|thumb|Attr. to Voet, Anna Pamphili, c. 1670]]
[[File:Caspar Netscher - Girl Standing before a Mirror - 1925.718 - Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|thumb|Netscher, Girl Standing before a Mirror|left]]

Two examples of the bunched overskirt can be seen in Caspar Netscher's ''Girl Standing before a Mirror'' (left) and Voet's ''Portrait of Anna Pamphili'' (right), both painted about 1670. (This portrait of Anna Pamphili and the one below right were both misidentified with her mother Olimpia Aldobrandini.) In both these portraits, the overskirt is split down the center front, pulled to the sides and toward the back and stitched (probably) to keep the fabric from falling flat. The petticoat, which is now an outer garment, hangs straight to the floor. In Netscher's portrait, the girl's shoe shows, but the skirt rests on the ground, requiring her to lift her skirts to be able to walk, not to mention dancing. The dress in Anna Pamphili's portrait is an interesting contrast of soft and hard. The embroidery stiffens the narrow petticoat, suggesting it might have been a good choice for a static portrait but not for moving or dancing.

Besides bunched fabric, the other way to make the skirts full at the hips was with hip rolls. Mierevelt's 1629 Portrait of Elizabeth Stuart (below, left) shows a split overskirt, although the fabric is not bunched or draped toward the back. The fullness here is caused by a hip roll, which adds fullness to the hips and back, leaving the skirts flat in front. In this case the flatness of the roll in front pulls the overskirt slightly apart and reveals the petticoat, even this early in the century. One reason this portrait is striking because Elizabeth Stuart appears to be wearing a mourning band on her left arm. Also striking are the very elaborate trim and decorations, displaying Stuart's wealth and status, including the large ornament on the mourning band. [[File:Michiel van Mierevelt - Portrait of Elizabeth Stuart (1596-1662), circa 1629.jpg|thumb|Michiel van Mierevelt, Elizabeth Stuart, c. 1629|left]][[File:Attributed to Voet - Portrait of Anna Pamphili, misidentified with her mother Olimpia Aldobrandini.jpg|thumb|Attr. to Voet, Anna Pamphili, c. 1671]]

The c. 1671 portrait of Anna Pamphili (below, right) shows an example of the petticoat's development as an outer garment. In the Mierevelt portrait (left), the petticoat barely shows. A half century later, in the portrait of Anna Pamphili, the overskirt is not split but so short that the petticoat is almost completely revealed. A hip roll worn under both the petticoat and the overskirt gives her hips breadth. The petticoat is gathered at the sides and smooth in the front, falling close to her body. The fullness of the petticoat and the overskirt is on the sides — and possibly the back. The heavily trimmed overskirt is stiff but not rigid. Anna Pamphili's shoe peeps out from under the flattened front of the petticoat.

The neckline, the hipline, the bottom of the overskirt, the trim at the hem of the petticoat and overskirt and the ribbons on the sleeves — as well as even the hair style — all give Pamphili's outfit a sophisticated horizontal design, a look that soon would become very important and influential as panniers gained popularity.

=== Panniers ===
The formal, high-status dress we most associate with the 18th century is the horizontal style of panniers, the hoops at the sides of the skirt, which is closer to the body in front and back. Popular in the mid century in France, panniers continued to dominate design in court dress in the U.K. &quot;well into the 19th century.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}} ''Paniers anglais'' were 8-hoop panniers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|219}}

Panniers were made from a variety of materials, most of which have not survived into the 21st century, and the most common materials used panniers has not been established. Lewandowski says that skirts were &quot;stretched over metal hoops&quot; that &quot;First appear[ed] around 1718 and [were] in fashion [for much of Europe] until 1800. ... By 1750 the one-piece pannier was replaced by [two pieces], with one section over each hip.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|219}} According to Payne, another kind of pannier &quot;consisted of a pair of caned or boned [instead of metal] pouches, their inner surfaces curved to the ... contour of the hips, the outside extending well beyond them.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|428}} Given that it is a natural material, surviving examples of cane for the structure of panniers are an unexpected gift, although silk, linen and wool also occasionally exists in museum collections. No examples of bone structures for panniers exist, suggesting that bone is less hardy than cane. Waugh says that whalebone was the only kind of &quot;bone&quot; (it was actually cartilage, of course) used;&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;Waugh, Norah. ''Corsets and Crinolines''. New York, NY: Theatre Arts Books, 1954. Rpt. Routledge/Theatre Arts Books, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|167}} Payne says cane and whalebone were used for panniers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|426}} Neither Payne nor Waugh mention metal. Examples of metal structures for panniers have also not survived, perhaps because they were rare or occurred later, during revolutionary times, when a lot of things got destroyed.

The pannier was not the only silhouette in the 18th century. In fact, the speed with which fashion changed continued to accelerate in this century. Payne describes &quot;Six basic forms,&quot; which though evolutionary were also quite distinct. Further, different events called for different styles, as did the status and social requirements for those who attended. For the first time in the clothing history of the culturally elite, different distinct fashions overlapped rather than replacing each other, the clothing choices marking divisions in this class.

The century saw Payne's &quot;Six basic forms&quot; or silhouettes generally in this order but sometimes overlapping:

# '''Fullness in the back'''. The fabric bustle. While we think of the bustle as a 19th-century look, it can be found in the 18th century, as Payne says.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|411}} The overskirt was all pulled to the back, the fullness probably mostly made by bunched fabric.
# '''The round skirt'''. &quot;The bell or dome shape resulted from the reintroduction of hoops[,] in England by 1710, in France by 1720.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|411}}
# '''The ellipse, panniers'''. &quot;The ellipse ... was achieved by broadening the support from side to side and compressing it from front to back. It had a long run of popularity, from 1740 to 1770, the extreme width being retained in court costumes. ... English court costume [411/413] followed this fashion well into the nineteenth century.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|411, 413}}
# '''Fullness in the back and sides'''. &quot;The dairy maid, or [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Polonaise|polonaise]], style could be achieved either by pulling the lower part of the overskirt through its own pocket holes, thus creating a bouffant effect, or by planned control of the overskirt, through the cut or by means of draw cords, ribbons, or loops and buttons, which were used to form the three great ‘poufs’ known as the polonaise .... These diversions appeared in the late [seventeen] sixties and became prevalent in the seventies. They were much like the familiar styles of our own [American] Revolutionary War period.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}
# '''Fullness in the back'''. The return of the bustle in the 1780s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}
# '''No fullness'''. The tubular [or Empire] form, drawn from classic art, in the 1790s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}
Hoops affected how women sat, went through doors and got into carriages, as well as what was involved in the popular dances. Length of skirts and trains. Some doorways required that women wearing wide panniers turn sideways, which undermined the &quot;entrance&quot; they were expected to make when they arrived at an event. Also, a woman might be accompanied by a gentleman, who would also be affected by her panniers and the width of the doorway. Over the century skirts varied from ankle length to resting on the floor. Women wearing panniers would not have been able to stand around naturally: the panniers alone meant they had to keep their elbows bent. 

[[File:Panniers 1.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of the wooden and fabric skeleton of an 18th-century women's foundation garment|Wooden and Fabric-covered Structure for 18th-century Panniers|left]][[File:Hoop petticoat and corset England 1750-1780 LACMA.jpg|thumb|Hooped Petticoat and Corset, 1750–80]]The 1760–1770 French panniers (left) are &quot;a rare surviving example&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Panniers|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/139668|date=1760–70|accessdate=2025-01-01}}. The Costume Institute, Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/139668.&lt;/ref&gt; of the structure of this foundation garment. Almost no examples of panniers survive. The hoops are made with bent cane, held together with red velvet silk ribbon that looks pinked. The cane also appears to be covered with red velvet, and the hoops have metal &quot;hinges that allow [them] to be lifted, facilitating movement in tight spaces.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; This inventive hingeing permitted the wearer to lift the bottom cane and her skirts, folding them up like an accordion, lifting the front slightly and greatly reducing the width (and making it easier to get through doors). ['''Write the Met to ask about this description once it's finished. Are there examples of boned or metal panniers that they're aware of?''']&lt;p&gt;

The corset and hoops shown (right) are also not reproductions and are also rare examples of foundation garments surviving from the 18th century. These hoops are made with cane held in place by casings sewn into a plain-woven linen skirt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/214714|title=Woman's Hoop Petticoat (Pannier) {{!}} LACMA Collections|website=collections.lacma.org|access-date=2025-01-03}} Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://collections.lacma.org/node/214714.&lt;/ref&gt; These 1750–1780 hoops are modestly wide, but the gathering around the casings for the hoops suggests that the panniers could be widened if longer hoops were inserted. (The corset shown with these hoops is treated in the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsets|Corsets section]]. The mannequin is wearing a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Chemise|chemise undergarment]] as well.)[[File:Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine1 copy.jpg|thumb|Martin van Meytens, Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine, c. 1760|left]]In her c. 1760 portrait (left), Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine is wearing exaggerated court-dress panniers, shown here about the widest that they got. Johanna Gabriele was the daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, so she was a sister of Marie Antoinette, who also would have worn panniers as exaggerated as these. Johanna Gabriele's hairstyle has not grown into the huge bouffant style that developed to balance the wide court dress, so her outfit looks out of proportion in this portrait. And, because of her panniers, her arms look slightly awkward. The tips of her shoes show because her skirt has been pulled back and up to rest on them.

France had become the leader in high fashion by the middle of the century, led first by Madame Pompadour and then by Marie Antoinette, who was crowned queen in 1774.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-23|title=Marie Antoinette|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Antoinette|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Court dress has always been regulated, but it could be influenced. Marie Antoinette's influence was toward exaggeration, both in formality and in informality. In their evolution formal-dress skirts moved away from the body in front and back but were still wider on the sides and were decorated with massive amounts of trim, including ruffles, flowers, lace and ribbons. The French queen led court fashion into greater and greater excess: &quot;Since her taste ran to dancing, theatrical, and masked escapades, her costumes and those of her court exhibited quixotic tendencies toward absurdity and exaggeration.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|428}} Both Madame Pompadour's and Marie Antoinette's taste ran to extravagance and excess, visually represented in the French court by the clothing.[[File:Marie Antoinette 1778-1783.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in 1778 and 1779]]The two portraits (right), painted by Élizabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun in 1778 on the left and 1779 on the right, show Marie Antoinette wearing the same dress. Although one painting has been photographed as lighter than the other, the most important differences between the two portraits are slight variations in the pose and the hairstyle and headdress. Her hair in the 1779 painting is in better proportion to her dress than it is in the earlier one, and the later headdress — a stylized mobcap — is more elaborate and less dependent on piled-up hair. (The description of the painting in Wikimedia Commons says she gave birth between these two portraits, which in particular affected her hair and hairline.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;File:Marie Antoinette 1778-1783.jpg.&quot; ''Wikimedia Commons'' [&lt;bdi&gt;Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun, 2 portraits of Marie Antoinette&lt;/bdi&gt;] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marie_Antoinette_1778-1783.jpg.&lt;/ref&gt;)[[File:Queen Charlotte, by studio of Thomas Gainsborough.jpg|thumb|Queen Charlotte of England, 1781|left]]

In this 1781&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/wd/jAGip1dpEkf-Fw|title=Portrait of Queen Charlotte of England - Thomas Gainsborough, studio|website=Google Arts &amp; Culture|language=en|access-date=2025-04-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; portrait from the workshop of Thomas Gainsborough (left), Queen Charlotte is wearing panniers less exaggerated in width than Johanna Gabriele's. The English did not usually wear panniers as wide as those in French court dress, but the decoration and trim on the English Queen Charlotte's gown are as elaborate as anything the French would do.

The ruffles (many of them double) and fichu are made with a sheer silk or cotton, which was translucent rather than transparent. The ruffles on Queen Charlotte's sleeves are made of lace. The ruffles and poufs of sheer silk are edged in gold. The embroidered flowers and stripes, as well as the sequin discs and attached clusters are all gold. The skirt rose above the floor, revealing Queen Charlotte's pointed shoe. Shoes were fashion accessories because of the shorter length of the skirts.

The whole look is more balanced because of the bouffant hairstyle, the less extreme width in the panniers and the greater fullness in front (and, probably, back). 

The white dress worn by the queen in Season 1, Episode 4 of the BBC and Canal+ series ''Marie Antoinette'' stands out because nobody else is wearing white at the ball in Paris and because of the translucent silk or muslin fabric, which would have been imported from India at that time (some silk was still being imported from China). Muslin is not a rich or exotic fabric to us, but toward the end of the 18th century, muslin could be imported only from India, making it unusual and expensive.&lt;blockquote&gt;Another English contribution to the fashion of the eighties was the sheer white muslin dress familiar to us from the paintings of Reynolds, Romney, and Lawrence. In this respect the English fell under the spell of classic Greek influence sooner than the French did. Lacking the restrictions imposed by Marie Antoinette's court, the English were free to adapt costume designs from the source which was inspiring their architects and draftsmen.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|438}} &lt;/blockquote&gt;So while a sheer white dress would have been unlikely in Marie Antoinette's court, according to Payne, the fabric itself was available and suddenly became very popular, in part because of its simplicity and its sheerness. The Empire style replaced the Rococo busyness in a stroke, like the French Revolution.&lt;p&gt;

By the 1790s French and English fashion had evolved in very different directions, and also by this time, accepted fashion and court dress had diverged, with the formulaic properties of court dress — especially in France — preventing its development. In general,&lt;blockquote&gt;English women were modestly covered ..., often in overdress and petticoat; that heavier fabrics with more pattern and color were used; and that for a while hairdress remained more elaborate and headdress more involved than in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|441}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;Even in such a rich and colorful court dress as Queen Charlotte is wearing in the Gainsborough-workshop portrait, her more &quot;modest&quot; dress shows these trends very clearly: the white (muslin or silk) and the elaborate style in headdress and hair.

=== Polonaise ===

==== Marie Antoinette — The Context ====

The robe à la Polonaise in casual court dress was popularized by Marie Antoinette for less formal settings and events, a style that occurred at the same time as highly formal dresses with panniers. An informal fashion not based on court dress, although court style would require panniers, though not always the extremely wide ones, and the new style. It was so popular that it evolved into one way court dress could be.[[File:Marie Antoinette in a Park Met DP-18368-001.jpg|thumb|Le Brun, ''Marie Antoinette in a Park'']]Trianon: Marie Antoinette's &quot;personal&quot; palace at Versailles, where she went to entertain her friends in a casual environment. While there, in extended, several-day parties, she and her friends played games, did amateur theatricals, wore costumes, like the stylization of what a dairy maid would wear. A release from the very rigid court procedures and social structures and practices. Separate from court and so not documented in the same way events at Versailles were.

In the c. 1780–81 sketch (right) of Marie Antoinette in a Park by Elisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun,&lt;ref&gt;Le Brun, Elisabeth Louise Vigée. ''Marie Antoinette in a Park'' (c. 1780–81). The Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/824771.&lt;/ref&gt; the queen is wearing a robe à la Polonaise with an apron in front, so we see her in a relatively informal pose and outfit. The underskirt, which is in part at least made of a sheer fabric, shows beneath the overskirt and the apron. This is a late Polonaise, more decoration, additions of ribbons, lace, lace, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Plastics|plastics]], ruffles, which did not exist on actual milkmaid dresses or earlier versions of the robe à la Polonaise. Even though this is a sketch, we can see that this dress would be more comfortable and convenient for movement because the bodice is not boned, and wrinkles in the bodice suggest that she is not likely wearing a corset. 

==== Definition of Terms ====

The Polonaise was a late-Georgian or late-18th-century style, the usage of the word in written English dating from 1773 although ''Polonaise'' is French for ''the Polish woman'', and the style arose in France:&lt;blockquote&gt;A woman's dress consisting of a tight, unboned bodice and a skirt open from the waist downwards to reveal a decorative underskirt. Now historical.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;“Polonaise, N. &amp; Adj.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, September 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2555138986.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The lack of boning in the bodice would make this fashion more comfortable than the formal foundation garments worn in court dress.

The term ''á la polonaise'' itself is not in common use by the French nowadays, and the French ''Wikipédia'' doesn't use it for clothing. French fashion drawings and prints from the 18th-century, however, do use the term.

Elizabeth Lewandowski dates the Polonaise style from about 1750 to about 1790,&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|123}} and Payne says it was &quot;prevalent&quot; in the 1770s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}

The style à la Polonaise was based on an idealization of what dairy maids wore, adapted by aristocratic women and frou-froued up. Two dairymaids are shown below, the first is a caricature of a stereotypical milkmaid and the second is one of Marie Antoinette's ladies in waiting costumed as a milkmaid.
[[File:La laitiere. G.16931.jpg|left|thumb|Mixelle, ''La Laitiere'' (the Milkmaid)]]
[[File:Madame A. Aughié, Friend of Queen Marie Antoinette, as a Dairymaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon - Nationalmuseum - 21931.tif|thumb|Madame A. Aughié, as a Dairymaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon]]In the aquatint engraving of ''La Laitiere'' (left) by Jean-Marie Mixelle (1758–1839),&lt;ref&gt;Mixelle, Jean-Marie. ''La Laitiere'', Musée Carnavalet, Histoire de Paris, Inventory Number: G.16931. https://www.parismuseescollections.paris.fr/fr/musee-carnavalet/oeuvres/la-laitiere-8#infos-secondaires-detail.&lt;/ref&gt; the milkmaid is portrayed as flirtatious and, perhaps, not virtuous. She is wearing clogs and two white aprons. Her bodice is laced in front, the ruffle is probably her chemise showing at her neckline, and the peplum sticks out, drawing attention to her hips. As apparently was typical, she is wearing a red skirt, short enough for her ankles to show. The piece around her neck has become untucked from her bodice, contributing to the sexualizing, as does the object hanging from her left hand and directing the eye to her bosom. (The collection of engravings that contains this one is undated but probably from the late 19th or early 20th century.)

The 1787 &lt;bdi&gt;Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller&lt;/bdi&gt; portrait of Madame Adélaïde Aughié in the Royal Dairy at Petit Trianon-Le Hameau&lt;ref&gt;Wertmüller, Adolf Ulrik. ''Adélaïde Auguié as a Dairy-Maid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon''. 1787. The National Museum of Sweden, Inventory number NM 4881. https://collection.nationalmuseum.se/en/collection/item/21931/.&lt;/ref&gt; (right) is about as casual as Le Trianon got. A contemporary of Marie Antoinette, she is in costume as a milkmaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon, perhaps for a theatrical event or a game. Her dress is not in the à la Polonaise style but a court interpretation of what a milkmaid would look like, in keeping with the hired workers at le Trianon.

==== The 3 Poufs ====
Visually, the style à la Polonaise is defined by the 3 poufs made by the gathering-up of the overskirt. Initially most of the fabric was bunched to make the poufs, but eventually they were padded or even supported by panniers. Payne describes how the polonaise skirt was constructed, mentioning only bunched fabric and not padding:&lt;blockquote&gt;The dairy maid, or polonaise, style could be achieved either by pulling the lower part of the overskirt through its own pocket holes, thus creating a bouffant effect, or by planned control of the overskirt, through the cut or by means of draw cords, ribbons, or loops and buttons, [or, later, buckles] which were used to form the three great ‘poufs’ known as the polonaise .... These diversions [the poufs] appeared in the late [seventeen] sixties and became prevalent in the seventies. They were much like the familiar styles of our own [American] Revolutionary War period.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|413}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;[[File:Robe à la polonaise jaune et violette, Galerie des modes, Fonds d'estampes du XVIIIème siècle, G.4555.jpg|thumb|Robe à la polonaise, c. 1775]]The overskirt, which was gathered or pulled into the 3 distinctive poufs, was sometimes quite elaborately decorated, revealing the place of this garment in high fashion (rather than what an actual working dairy maid might wear). The fabrics in the underskirt and overskirt sometimes were different and contrasting; in simpler styles, the two skirts might have the same fabrics. More complexly styled dresses were heavily decorated with ruffles, bows, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Plastics|plastics]], ribbons, flowers, lace and trim.

The c. 1775&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;&quot;Robe à la polonaise jaune et violette, Galerie des modes, Fonds d'estampes du XVIIIème siècle.&quot; Palais Galliera, musée de la Mode de la Ville de Paris. Inventory number: G.4555. https://www.parismuseescollections.paris.fr/fr/palais-galliera/oeuvres/robe-a-la-polonaise-jaune-et-violette-galerie-des-modes-fonds-d-estampes-du#infos-principales.&lt;/ref&gt; fashion color print (right) shows the way the overskirt of the Polonaise was gathered into 3 poufs, one in back and one on either side. In this illustration, the underskirt and the overskirt have the same yellow fabric trimmed with a flat band of purple fabric. The 18th-century caption printed below the image identifies it as a &quot;Jeune Dame en robe à la Polonoise de taffetas garnie a plat de bandes d'une autre couleur: elle est coeffée d'un mouchoir a bordures découpées, ajusté avec gout et bordé de fleurs [Young Lady in a Polonaise dress of taffeta trimmed flat with bands of another color: she is wearing a handkerchief with cut edges, tastefully adjusted and bordered with flowers].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;

The skirt's few embellishments are the tasseled bows creating the poufs. The gathered underskirt falls straight from the padded hips to a few inches above the floor. Her cap is interesting, perhaps a forerunner of the mob cap (here a handkerchief worn as a cap [&quot;mouchoir a bordures découpées&quot;]).

===== The Evolution of the Polonaise into Court Dress =====
Part of the original attraction of the robe à la Polonaise was that women did not wear their usual heavy corsets and hoops, which is what would have made this style informal, playful, easy to move in, an escape from the stiffness of court life. Traditionally court dress with panniers and the robe à la Polonaise were thought to be separate, competing styles, but actually the two styles influenced each other and evolved into a design that combined elements from both.

By the time the robe à la Polonaise became court dress, the poufs were no longer only bunched fabric but large, controlled elaborations that were supported by structural elements, and the silhouette of the dress had returned to the ellipsis shape provided by panniers, with perhaps a little more fullness in front and back. The underskirt fell straight down from the hip level, indicating that some kind of padding or structure pulled it away from the body.

Court dress required the controlled shape of the skirt and a tightly structured bodice, which could have been achieved with corseting or tight lacing of the bodice itself. In the combined style, the bodice comes to a pointed V below the waist, which could only be kept flat by stays. While the Polonaise was ankle length, court dress touched the floor.

The following 3 images are fashion prints showing Marie Antoinette in court dress influenced by the robe à la Polonaise, made into a personal style for the queen by the asymmetrical poufs, the reduction of Rococo decoration, layers stacked upon each other and a length that keeps the hem of the skirts off the floor.[[File:Marie Antoinette de modekoningin Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français, 1787, ooo 356 Grand habit de bal a la Cour (..), RP-P-2009-1213.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in a Court Ball Gown à la Polonaise|left]]The 1787 &quot;Grand habit de bal à la Cour, avec des manches à la Gabrielle &amp; c.&quot; (left) by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a ballgown for the court with sleeves à la Gabrielle.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Marie-Antoinette-The-Queen-of-Fashion-Gallerie-des-Modes-et-Costumes-Francais--10ceb0e05fbb45ad4941bed1dacb27f1|title=Marie Antoinette: The Queen of Fashion: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

This ballgown, influenced by the robe à la polonaise, is balanced but asymmetrical and seems to have panniers for support of the side poufs. The only decoration on the skirt is ribbon or braid and tassels. Contrasting fabrics replace the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Frou-frou|frou-frou]] for more depth and interest. The lining of the poufs has been pulled out for another contrasting color. The print makes it impossible to tell if the purple is an underskirt and an overskirt or one skirt with attached loops of the ribbon-like trim. 

(A sleeve à la Gabrielle has turned out to be difficult to define. The best we can do, which is not perfect, is a 4 July 1814 description: &quot;On fait, depuis quelque temps, des manches à la Gabrielle. Ces manches, plus courtes que les manches ordinaires, se terminent par plusieurs rangs de garnitures. Au lieu d'un seul bouillonné au poignet, on en met trois ou quatre, que l'on sépare par un poignet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Modes.&quot; ''Journal des Dames et des Modes''. 4 July 1814 (18:37), vol. 10, 1. ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=kwNdAAAAcAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|296}} [&quot;For some time now, sleeves have been made in the Gabrielle style. These sleeves, shorter than ordinary sleeves, end in several rows of trimmings. Instead of a single ruffle at the wrist, three or four are used, separated by a wrist treatment.&quot;] The sleeves on the bodice of robes à la Polonaise seem to have been short, 3/4-length or less.) [[File:Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français, 1787, sss 384 Robe de Cour à la Turque (..), RP-P-2009-1220.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in a Court Dress à la Turque]]The c. 1787 &quot;Robe de Cour à la Turque, coeffure Orientale aves des aigrettes et plumes, &amp;c.&quot; (right) by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a court dress à la Turque with a headdress that has [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Aigrette|aigrettes]] and plumes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/---75499afec371ac1741dd98d769b14698|title=Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français, 1787, sss 384 : Robe de Cour à la Turque; (...)|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; The &quot;coeffure Orientale&quot; seems to be a highly stylized turban.

This court dress is à la Polonaise in that it has poufs, but it has 2 layers of poufs and an underskirt with a large ruffle. With its unusual striped fabric, its contrasting colors, the very asymmetrical skirt and the ruffles, bows and tassels, this is an elaborate and visually complex dress, but it is not decorated with a lot of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Frou-frou|frou-frou]].

Several prints in this fashion collection show the robe à la Turque, a late-Georgian style [1750–1790],&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|250}} none of which look &quot;Turkish&quot; in the slightest. Lewandowski defines robe à la Turque:&lt;blockquote&gt;

Very tight bodice with trained over-robe with funnel sleeves and a collar. Worn with a draped sash.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|250}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Her &quot;Robe à la Reine&quot; might offer a better description of this outfit, or at least of the overskirt:&lt;blockquote&gt;Popular from 1776 to 1787, bodice with an attached overskirt swagged back to show the underskirt. .... Gown was short sleeved and elaborately decorated.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|250}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;[[File:Marie Antoinette de modekoningin Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Francais, 1787, ooo.359, Habit de Cour en hyver (titel op object), RP-P-2004-1142.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in Winter Court Fashion]]

This 18th-century interpretation of what looked Turkish would have been about what was fashionable and, in the case of Marie Antoinette's court, dramatic.

The 1787 &quot;Habit de Cour en hyver garni de fourrures &amp;c.&quot; (right) of Marie Antoinette by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a winter court outfit trimmed with white fur.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Marie-Antoinette-The-Queen-of-Fashion-Gallerie-des-Modes-et-Costumes-Francais--727dc366885cc0596cd60d7b2c57e207|title=Marie Antoinette: The Queen of Fashion: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unusually, this &quot;habit&quot; à la Polonaise has a train. The highly stylized court version of a mob cap was appropriated from the peasantry and turned into this extravagant headdress with its unrealistic high crown and its huge ribbon and bows. This outfit as a whole is balanced even though individual elements (like the cap and the white drapes gathered and bunched with bows and tassels) are out of proportion.

The decadence of the aristocratic and royal classes in France at the end of the 18th century are revealed by these extravagant, dramatic fashions in court dress. These restructured, redesigned court dresses are the merging of the earlier, highly decorated and formal pannier style with the simpler, informal style à la Polonaise. The design is complex, but the complexity does not result from the variety of decorations. The most important differences in the merged design are in the radical reduction of frou-frou and the number of layers. Also, sometimes, the skirts are ankle rather than floor length. The foundation garments held the layers away from the legs, not restricting movement. The different styles of farthingales that existed at the same time are variations on a theme, but the panniers and the Polonaise styles, which also existed at the same time, had different purposes and were designed for different events, but the two styles influenced each other to the point that they merged. 

All the various forms of hoops we've discussed so far are not discrete but moments in a long evolution of foundation structures. Once fashion had moved on, they all passed out of style and were not repeated. Except the Polonaise, which had influence beyond the 18th century — in the 1870s revival of the à la Polonaise style and in Victorian fancy-dress (or costume) balls. For example, [[Social Victorians/People/Pembroke#Lady Beatrix Herbert|Lady Beatrix Herbert]] at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] was wearing a Polonaise, based on a Thomas Gainsborough portrait of dancer Giovanna Baccelli.

=== Crinoline Hoops ===
''[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinoline|Crinoline]]'', technically, is the name for a kind of stiff fabric made mostly from horsehair and sometimes linen, stiffened with starch or glue, and used for [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Foundation Garments|foundation garments]] like petticoats or bustles. The term ''crinoline'' was not used at first for the cage (shown in the image below left), but that kind of structure came to be called a crinoline as well as a cage, and the term is still used in this way by some.

After the 1789 French Revolution, for about one generation, women stopped wearing corsets and hoops in western Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|445–446}} What they did wear was the Empire dress, a simple, columnar style of light-weight cotton fabric that idealized classical Greek outlines and aesthetics. Cotton was a fabric for the elite at this point since it was imported from India or the United States. Sometimes women moistened the fabric to reveal their &quot;natural&quot; bodies, showing that they were not wearing artificial understructures.[[File:Crinoline era3.gif|thumb|1860s Cage Showing the Structure|left]]

Beginning in the second decade of the 19th century and continuing through the 1830s, corsets returned and skirts became more substantial, widened by layers of flounced cotton petticoats — and in winter, heavy woolen or quilted ones. The waist moved down to the natural waist from the Empire height. As skirts got wider in the 1840s, the petticoats became too bulky and heavy, hanging against the legs and impeding movement. In the mid 1850s&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|510}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}} those layers of petticoats began to be replaced by hoops, which were lighter than all that fabric, even when made of steel, and even when really wide.

The sketch (left) shows a crinoline cage from the 1860s, making clear the structure that underlay the very wide, bell or hemisphere shapes of the era without the fabric that would normally have covered it.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, Carl Emil. ''Karikatur-album: den evropaeiske karikature-kunst fra de aeldste tider indtil vor dage. Vaesenligst paa grundlag af Eduard Fuchs : Die karikature'', Eduard Fuchs. Vol. 1. København, A. Chrustuabsebs Forlag, 1906. P. 504, Fig. 474 (probably) ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=BUlHAQAAMAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt; (This image was published in a book in 1904, but it may have been drawn earlier. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Chemise|chemise]] is accurate but oversimplified, minus the usual ruffles, more for the wealthy and less for the working classes.) When people think of 1860s hoops, they think of this shape, the one shown in, say, the 1939 film ''Gone with the Wind''. The extremely wide, round shape, which is what we are accustomed to seeing in historical fiction and among re-enactors, was very popular in the 1860s, but it was not the only shape hoops took at this time. The half-sphere shape — in spite of what popular history prepares us to think — was far from universal.[[File:Miss Victoria Stuart-Wortley, later Victoria, Lady Welby (1837-1912) 1859.jpg|thumb|Victoria Stuart-Wortley, 1859]]As the 1860s progressed, hoops (and skirts) moved towards the back, creating more fullness there and leaving a flatter front. The photographs below show the range of choices for women in this decade. Cages could be more or less wide, skirts could be more or less full in back and more or less flat in front, and skirts could be smooth, pleated or folded, or gathered. Skirts could be decorated  with any of the many kinds of ruffles or with layers (sometimes made of contrasting fabrics), and they could be part of an outfit with a long bodice or jacket (sometimes, in fact, a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Peplum|peplum]]). As always, the woman's social class and sense of style, modesty and practicality affected her choices.&lt;p&gt;

In her portrait (right) Victoria Stuart-Wortley (later Victoria, Lady Welby) is shown in 1859, two years before she became one of Queen Victoria's maids of honor. While Stuart-Wortley is dressed fashionably, her style of clothing is modest and conservative. The wrinkles and folds in the skirt suggest that she could be wearing numerous petticoats (which would have been practical in cold buildings), but the smoothness and roundness of the silhouette of the skirt suggest that she is wearing conservative hoops.[[File:Elisabeth Franziska wearing a crinoline and feathered hat.jpg|thumb|Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska, 1860s|left]]

The portrait of Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska (left) offers an example of hoops from the 1860s that are not half-sphere shaped and a skirt that is not made to fit smoothly over them. The dress seems to have a short peplum whose edges do not reach the front. She is standing close to the base of the column and possibly leaning on the balustrade, distorting the shape of the skirt by pushing the hoop forward.

This dress has a complex and sophisticated design, in part because of the weight and textures of the fabric and trim. The folds in the skirt are unusually deep. Even though the textured or flocked fabric is light-colored, this could be a winter dress.

The skirt is trimmed with zig-zag rows of ruffles and a ruffle along the bottom edge. The ruffles may be double with the top ruffle a very narrow one (made of an eyelet or some kind of textured fabric). Both the top and bottom edges of the tiered double ruffles are outlined in a contrasting fabric, perhaps of ribbon or another lace, perhaps even crocheted. Visual interest comes from the three-dimensionality provided by the ruffles and the contrast caused by dark crocheted or ribbon edging on the ruffles. In fact, the ruffles are the focus of this outfit.

[[File:Her Majesty the Queen Victoria.JPG|thumb|Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, 1861]]
The photographic portrait (right) of Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, in evening dress with diadem and jewels, is by Charles Clifford&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ppgcfuck|title=Queen Victoria. Photograph by C. Clifford, 1861.|website=Wellcome Collection|language=en|access-date=2025-02-03}}&lt;/ref&gt; of Madrid, dated 14 November 1861 and now held by the Wellcome Institute. Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-20|title=Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; so this carte-de-visite portrait was taken one month before Victoria went into mourning for 40 years.

This fashionable dress could be a ballgown designed by a designer.

The hoops under these skirts appear to be round rather than elliptical but are rather modest in their width and not extreme. That is, there is as much fullness in the front and back as on the sides. In this style, the skirt has a smooth appearance because it is not fuller at the bottom than the waist, where it is tightly gathered or pleated, so the skirts lie smoothly on the hoops and are not much fuller than the hoops. The smoothness of this skirt makes it definitive for its time. 

Instead of elaborate decoration, this visually complex dress depends on the woven moiré fabric with additional texture created by the shine and shadows in the bunched gathering of the fabric. The underskirt is gathered both at the waist and down the front, along what may be ribbons separating the gathers and making small horizontal bunches. The overskirt, which includes a train, has a vertical drape caused by the large folds at the waist. The horizontal design in the moiré fabric contrasts with the vertical and horizontal gathers of the underskirt and large, strongly vertical folds of the overskirt.[[File:Queen Victoria photographed by Mayall.JPG|thumb|Queen Victoria photographed by Mayall. early 1860s|left]]
The carte-de-visite portrait of Queen Victoria by John Jabez Edwin Paisley Mayall (left) shows hoops that are more full in the back than the front. Mayall took a number of photographs of the royal family in 1860 and in 1861 that were published as cartes de visite,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-11-08|title=John Jabez Edwin Mayall|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jabez_Edwin_Mayall|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the style of Victoria's dress is consistent with the early 1860s.

The fact that she has white or a very light color at her collar and wrists suggests that she was not in full mourning and thus wore this dress before Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861. We cannot tell what color this dress is, and it may not be black in spite of how it appears in this photograph. Victoria's hoops are modest — not too full — and mostly round, slightly flatter in the front. The skirt gathers more as it goes around the sides to the back and falls without folds in the front, where it is smoother, even over the flatter hoops. This is a winter garment with bulky sleeves and possibly fur trim. Except for what may be an undergarment at the wrists, this one-layer garment might be a dress or a bodice and skirt (perhaps with a short jacket). Over-trimmed garments were standard in this period. Lacking layers, ruffles, lace or frou-frou, the simple design of Victoria's dress is deliberate and balanced — and looks warm.

The bourgeois, inexpensive-looking design of this dress echoes Victoria's performance of a queen who is respectable and responsible rather than aristocratic and &quot;fashion forward.&quot; So she looks like a middle-class matron.[[File:Queen Emma of Hawaii, photograph by John &amp; Charles Watkins, The Royal Collection Trust (crop).jpg|thumb|Queen Emma Kaleleokalani of Hawai'i, 1865]]

The portrait (right) of Queen Emma of Hawaii —  Emma Kalanikaumakaʻamano Kaleleonālani Naʻea Rooke — is a carte de visite from an album of ''Royal Portraits'' that Queen Victoria collected. The carte-de-visite photograph is labelled 1865 and ''Queen Emma of the Sandwich Islands'',&lt;ref&gt;Unknown Photographer. ''Emma Kalanikaumakaʻamano Kaleleonālani Naʻea Rooke, Queen of the Kingdom of Hawaii (1836-85)''. ''www.rct.uk''. Retrieved 2025-02-07. https://www.rct.uk/collection/2908295/emma-kalanikaumakaamano-kaleleonalani-naea-rooke-queen-of-the-kingdom-of-hawaii.&lt;/ref&gt; possibly in Victoria's hand. How Victoria got this photograph is not clear. Queen Emma traveled to North America and Europe between 6 May 1865 and 23 October 1866,&lt;ref&gt;Benton, Russell E. ''Emma Naea Rooke (1836-1885), Beloved Queen of Hawaii''. Lewiston, N.Y., U.S.A. : E. Mellen Press, 1988. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/emmanaearooke1830005bent/.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|49}} visiting London twice, the second time in June 1866.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-07|title=Queen Emma of Hawaii|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Emma_of_Hawaii|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In her portrait Queen Emma is standing before some books and an open jewelry box. She shows an elegant sense of style.

The silhouette shows a sophisticated variation of the hoops as the fullness has moved to the back and the front flattened. The large pleats suggest a lot of fabric, but the front falls almost straight down. The overskirt and bodice are made from a satin-weave fabric, and the petticoat has a matt woven surface. The overskirt is longer in the back, leading us to expect the petticoat also to be longer and to turn into a train. Although the hoops cause the skirt to fall away from her body in back, the skirt does not drag on the floor as a train would and just clears the floor all the way around.

This optical illusion of a train makes this dress look more formal than it actually was. The covered shoulders and décolletage say the dress was not a formal or evening gown. In fact, this looks like a winter dress, and the sleeves (which she has pushed up above her wrist) are wrinkled, suggesting they may be padded. Queen Emma seems to have worn veils like this at other times as well, especially after the death of her husband, as did Victoria, so this is also not her wedding dress.

Popular history has led us to believe that crinoline hoops were half-spherical and always very wide, but photographs of the time show a variety of shapes for skirts, with many women wearing skirts that had flatter fronts and more fabric in the back. In fact, also in the 1860s, according to Lewandowski, a version of the bustle — called a crinolette or crinolette petticoat — developed:&lt;blockquote&gt;Crinolette petticoat: Bustle (1865–1890 C.E.). Worn in 1870 and revived in 1883, petticoat cut flat in front and with half circle steel hoops in back and flounces on bottom back.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|78}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This development of a bustle mid century is the result of construction techniques that include foundation structures and specifically shaped pattern pieces to achieve the evolving silhouette, in this case part of the general movement of the fullness of skirts away from the front and toward the back. The other essential element of these construction techniques is angled seams in the skirts, made by gores, pieces of fabric shaped to fit the waist (and sometimes the hips) and to widen at the bottom so that the skirt flares outward.

==== The 19th-century Revival of the Polonaise ====
The Polonaise style was revived in the last third of the 19th century, but the revival did not bring back the 18th-century 3 poufs. The robe à la Polonaise had evolved. The foundation that created the poufs is gone, replaced possibly in fact by the crinolette petticoat or something like it. The panniers — and the 2 side poufs they supported — have gone, and the bulk of the fabric has been bunched in the back.

Also, the poufs on the sides have been replaced with a flat drape in front that functions as an overskirt.

The Polonaise dress (below left and right), in the collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, is English, dating from about 1875.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;&quot;Woman's Dress Ensemble.&quot; Costumes and Textiles. LACMA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://collections.lacma.org/node/214459.&lt;/ref&gt; The sheer fabric has red &quot;wool supplementary patterning&quot; woven into the weft.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; Because the mannequin is modern, we cannot be certain how long the skirts would have been on the woman who wore this dress.[[File:Woman's Polonaise Dress LACMA M.2007.211.777a-f (1 of 4).jpg|thumb|English Polonaise, c. 1875, front view|left]][[File:Woman's Polonaise Dress LACMA M.2007.211.777a-f (4 of 4).jpg|thumb|English Polonaise, c. 1875, side view]]The dress has an overskirt that is draped up toward the back and pulled under the top poof. The underskirt gets fuller at the bottom because it is constructed with gores to create the A-line but it is also slightly gathered at the waist.

The vertical element is emphasized by the angled silhouette and the folds caused by the gathering at the waist. The ruffles and lace form horizontal lines in the skirts. The skirts are very busy visually because of pattern in the fabric and the contrasting vertical and horizontal elements as well as the ruffles, some of which are double, and the machine-made lace at the edge of the ruffles. The skirts look three dimensional because of these elements and the layering of the fabric, multiplying the jagged-edged red &quot;supplementary patterning.&quot;

The fabric of the overskirt is cut, gathered and draped so that the poufs in back are full and rounded, but they are also possibly supported by some kind of foundation structure. The lower pouf in back introduces the idea that the fullness in the back is layered, making this element of the Polonaise a kind of precursor to the bustle and continuing what the crinolette petticoat began in the 1860s. This layering of the lower pouf also indicates one way a train might be attached.

Laura Ingalls Wilder wrote about the hoops her fictionalized self wore the century before, unusually, and calls her dress a Polonaise. Although they are common in current historical fiction, descriptions of foundation garments are rare in the writings of the women who wore them or in the literature of the time. In ''These Happy Golden Years'' (1943), she gives a detailed description of the foundation garments as well as the undergarments under her dress, including a bustle, and talks about how they make the Polonaise look on her:&lt;blockquote&gt;
Then carefully over her under-petticoats she put on her hoops. She liked these new hoops. They were the very latest style in the East, and these were the first of the kind that Miss Bell had got. Instead of wires, there were wide tapes across the front, almost to her knees, holding the petticoats so that her dress would lie flat. These tapes held the wire bustle in place at the back, and it was an adjustable bustle. Short lengths of tape were fastened to either end of it; these could be buckled together underneath the bustle to puff it out, either large or small. Or they could be buckled together in front, drawing the bustle down close in back so that a dress rounded smoothly over it. Laura did not like a large bustle, so she buckled the tapes in front.

Then carefully over all she buttoned her best petticoat, and over all the starched petticoats she put on the underskirt of her new dress. It was of brown cambric, fitting smoothly around the top over the bustle, and gored to flare smoothly down over the hoops. At the bottom, just missing the floor, was a twelve-inch-wide flounce of the brown poplin, bound with an inch-wide band of plain brown silk. The poplin was not plain poplin, but striped with an openwork silk stripe.

Then over this underskirt and her starched white corset-cover, Laura put on the polonaise. Its smooth, long sleeves fitted her arms perfectly to the wrists, where a band of the plain silk ended them. The neck was high with a smooth band of the plain silk around the throat. The polonaise fitted tightly and buttoned all down the front with small round buttons covered with the plain brown silk. Below the smooth hips it flared and rippled down and covered the top of the flounce on the underskirt. A band of the plain silk finished the polonaise at the bottom.&lt;ref&gt;Wilder, Laura Ingalls. ''These Happy Golden Years.'' Harper &amp; Row, Publishers, 1943. Pp. 161–163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
When a 20th-century Laura Ingalls Wilder calls her character's late-19th-century dress a polonaise, she is probably referring to the &quot;tight, unboned bodice&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; and perhaps a simple, modest look like the stereotype of a dairy maid. While the bodice was unboned, the fact that she is wearing a corset cover means that she is corseted under it.   
==== Bustle or Tournure ====
As we have seen, bustles were popular from around 1865 to 1890.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|296}} The French term ''tournure'' was a euphemism in English for ''bustle''. The article on the tournure in the French ''Wikipédia'' addresses the purpose of the bustle and crinoline:&lt;blockquote&gt;
Crinoline et tournure ont exactement la même fonction déjà recherchée à d'autres époques avec le vertugadin et ses dérivés: soutenir l'ampleur de la jupe, et par là souligner par contraste la finesse de la taille; toute la mode du xixe siècle visant à accentuer les courbes féminines naturelles par le double emploi du corset affinant la taille et d'éléments accentuant la largeur des hanches (crinoline, tournure, drapés bouffants…).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-10-27|title=Tournure|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournure|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[Translation by ''Google Translate'': Crinoline and bustle have exactly the same function already sought in other periods with the farthingale and its derivatives: to support the fullness of the skirt, and thereby emphasize by contrast the finesse of the waist; all the fashion of the 19th century aimed at accentuating natural feminine curves by the dual use of the corset refining the waist and elements accentuating the width of the hips (crinoline, bustle, puffy drapes, etc.).]&lt;/blockquote&gt;The evolution of hoops' final phase was the development of the bustle. We see evidence of the evolving bustle in some skirts as early as the 1860s as the fabric was pulled to the back, draped with pleats or gathers, though unsupported by specialized hoops. The overskirt so popular with the revival of the Polonaise pulled additional fabric to the back of the skirt, the poufs supported by some substructure, often ruffled petticoats or padding. The bustle, then, is more complex than might be normally be thought and than some of the earlier foundation garments in this evolution, in part because the silhouette of hoops (and dresses) was changing so quickly in the last half of the 19th century.

[[File:La Gazette rose, 16 Mai 1874; robe à tournure.jpg|thumb|La Gazette rose, 16 Mai 1874; robe à tournure.jpg]]Trains, skirt length

In fact, fashion trends were moving so fast at this point that the two &quot;bustle periods&quot; were actually in only two decades, the 1870s and the 1880s. The height of bustle fashion lasted for these two decades, and in that time, the line of the skirts changed significantly in the 1880s in how flat the skirt was in the front and how far it extended in the back. 

This 1874 French fashion plate (right) shows two women walking in the country, the one in green with an extremely long and impractical train. 

* Often bustles appeared under an overskirt that was part of the bodice. In this case, the same fabric on the jacket front, becomes an overskirt by the way it's draped.
* Both of these have several rows of ruffles beneath the overskirt, a short-lived fashion. The ruffles create fullness in the front of the skirt at the bottom that isn't seen in the 2nd bustle period.
* Plumes makes the hats tall, part of the proportioning with the bustle.
* The dog at the feet of the woman in the green dress recalls the ubiquitous dogs in earlier portraiture.
[[File:Somm26.jpg|thumb|Somm26.jpg|left]][[File:Elizabeth Alice Austen in June 1888.jpg|thumb|Elizabeth Alice Austen in June 1888.jpg]]
The Henry Somm watercolor (left) offers a clear example of how extreme bustles got in the mid 1880s, in the 2nd bustle period. The skirt is quite narrow and flat in front with a huge bustle behind, with yards of fabric draped in poufs over the foundation substructure. This dress has no ruffles or excessive frills. The narrow sleeves and tall hat, along with the umbrella so tightly folded it looks like a stick, contribute to the lean silhouette.

The 1888 photograph of American photographer Elizabeth Alice Austen (right) is also from the 2nd bustle period. The very stylish Austen is wearing a rather extreme bustle with the slim line of the bodice and skirt. The poufs of the overskirt may be referring to the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#The 19th-century Revival of the Polonaise|Polonaise revival]]. [[File:Cperrien-fashionplatescan-p-vf 33.jpg|thumb|Cperrien-fashionplatescan-p-vf 33.jpg]]This mid-1880s fashion plate (below right) has caricatures for figures because it is a fashion plate, with exaggerated waists, feet, height, but it is useful because of the 3 different ways bustles are working in the illustration. The little girl's overskirt and sash function as a bustle, regardless of whatever foundation garments she is wearing. The two women's outfits have the characteristic narrow sleeves and tall hats, and the one in white is holding another extremely narrow umbrella as well. The trim on the white dress controls the ruffles, preventing them from sticking out. The front overskirt is very flat and the back overskirt contributes to the bustle. The front of the bodice on the green dress extends below the waist to an extreme point. A wide black ribbon bow adorns the front one of the solid black panels on the skirt. Tiny pleats peep out from below the skirt on both women's dresses. The child's dress has 3 flat pleated ruffles in front that contrast with the fuller but still controlled folds in the back.

The most common image of the bustle — the extreme form of the 1880s — required a foundation structure, one of which was &quot;steel springs placed inside the shirring [gathering] around the back of the petticoat.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; (296) Many manufacturers were making bustles by this time, offering women a choice on the kinds of materials used in the foundation structures ['''check this'''].

== Jewelry and Stones ==

=== Cabochon ===
This term describes both the treatment and shape of a precious or semiprecious stone. A cabochon treatment does not facet the stone but merely polishes it, removing &quot;the rough parts&quot; and the parts that are not the right stone.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;cabochon, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, December 2022, www.oed.com/view/Entry/25778. Accessed 7 February 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; A cabochon shape is often flat on one side and oval or round, forming a mound in the setting.

=== Cairngorm ===
=== Half-hoop ===
Usually of a ring or bracelet, a precious-metal band with a setting of stones on one side, covering perhaps about 1/3 or 1/2 of the band. Half-hoop jewelry pieces were occasionally given as wedding gifts to the bride.

=== Jet ===

=== ''Orfèvrerie'' ===
Sometimes misspelled in the newspapers as ''orvfèvrerie''. ''Orfèvrerie'' is the artistic work of a goldsmith, silversmith, or jeweler.

=== Solitaire ===
A solitaire is a ring with a single stone set as the focal point. Solitaire rings were occasionally given as wedding gifts to the bride.

=== Turquoise ===

== Mantle, Cloak, Cape ==
In 19th-century newspaper accounts, these terms are sometimes used without precision as synonyms. These are all outer garments.

=== '''Mantle''' ===
A mantle — often a long outer garment — might have elements like a train, sleeves, collars, revers, fur, and a cape. A late-19th-century writer making a distinction between a mantle and a cloak might use ''mantle'' if the garment is more voluminous.

=== '''Cloak''' ===

=== '''Cape''' ===

== Military ==
Several men from the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball at Devonshire House]] were dressed in military uniforms, some historical and some, possibly, not.

=== Baldric ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the primary sense of ''baldric'' is &quot;A belt or girdle, usually of leather and richly ornamented, worn pendent from one shoulder across the breast and under the opposite arm, and used to support the wearer's sword, bugle, etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;baldric, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/14849. Accessed 17 May 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; This sense has been in existence since c. 1300.

=== Cuirass ===
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the primary sense of ''cuirass'' is &quot;A piece of armour for the body (originally of leather); ''spec.'' a piece reaching down to the waist, and consisting of a breast-plate and a back-plate, buckled or otherwise fastened together ....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;cuirass, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/45604. Accessed 17 May 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Knötel IV, 04.jpg|thumb|alt=An Old drawing in color of British soldiers on horses brandishing swords in 1815.|1890 illustration of the Household Cavalry (Life Guard, left; Horse Guard, right) at the Battle of Waterloo, 1815]]
=== Household Cavalry ===
The Royal Household contains the Household Cavalry, a corps of British Army units assigned to the monarch. It is made up of 2 regiments, the Life Guards and what is now called The Blues and Royals, which were formed around the time of &quot;the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Joll, Christopher. &quot;Tales of the Household Cavalry, No. 1. Roles.&quot; The Household Cavalry Museum, https://householdcavalry.co.uk/app/uploads/sites/2/2021/06/Household-Cavalry-Museum-video-series-large-print-text-Tales-episode-01.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|1}} Regimental Historian Christopher Joll says, &quot;the original Life Guards were formed as a mounted bodyguard for the exiled King Charles II, The Blues were raised as Cromwellian cavalry and The Royals were established to defend Tangier.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|1–2}} The 1st and 2nd Life Guards were formed from &quot;the Troops of Horse and Horse Grenadier Guards ... in 1788.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} The Life Guards were and are still official bodyguards of the queen or king, but through history they have been required to do quite a bit more than serve as bodyguards for the monarch.

The Household Cavalry fought in the Battle of Waterloo on Sunday, 18 June 1815 as heavy cavalry.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} Besides arresting the Cato Steet conspirators in 1820 &quot;and guarding their subsequent execution,&quot; the Household Cavalry contributed to the &quot;the expedition to rescue General Gordon, who was trapped in Khartoum by The Mahdi and his army of insurgents&quot; in 1884.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} In 1887 they &quot;were involved ... in the suppression of rioters in Trafalgar Square on Bloody Sunday.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|3}} 

==== Grenadier Guards ====
Three men — [[Social Victorians/People/Gordon-Lennox#Lord Algernon Gordon Lennox|Lord Algernon Gordon-Lennox]], [[Social Victorians/People/Stanley#Edward George Villiers Stanley, Lord Stanley|Lord Stanley]], and [[Social Victorians/People/Stanley#Hon. Ferdinand Charles Stanley|Hon. F. C. Stanley]] — attended the ball as officers of the Grenadier Guards, wearing &quot;scarlet tunics, ... full blue breeches, scarlet hose and shoes, lappet wigs&quot; as well as items associated with weapons and armor.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 34, Col. 2a}}

Founded in England in 1656 as Foot Guards, this infantry regiment &quot;was granted the 'Grenadier' designation by a Royal Proclamation&quot; at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-04-22|title=Grenadier Guards|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grenadier_Guards&amp;oldid=1151238350|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenadier_Guards.&lt;/ref&gt; They were not called Grenadier Guards, then, before about 1815. In 1660, the Stuart Restoration, they were called Lord Wentworth's Regiment, because they were under the command of Thomas Wentworth, 5th Baron Wentworth.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-07-24|title=Lord Wentworth's Regiment|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Wentworth%27s_Regiment&amp;oldid=1100069077|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Wentworth%27s_Regiment.&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of Lord Wentworth's Regiment, the style of the French cavalier had begun to influence wealthy British royalists. In the British military, a Cavalier was a wealthy follower of Charles I and Charles II — a commander, perhaps, or a field officer, but probably not a soldier.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-04-22|title=Cavalier|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cavalier&amp;oldid=1151166569|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Guards were busy as infantry in the 17th century, engaging in a number of armed conflicts for Great Britain, but they also served the sovereign. According to the Guards Museum,&lt;blockquote&gt;In 1678 the Guards were ordered to form Grenadier Companies, these men were the strongest and tallest of the regiment, they carried axes, hatches and grenades, they were the shock troops of their day. Instead of wearing tri-corn hats they wore a mitre shaped cap.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-2/|title=Service to the Crown|website=The Guards Museum|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-05-15}} https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-2/.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The name comes from ''grenades'', then, and we are accustomed to seeing them in front of Buckingham Palace, with their tall mitre hats.

The Guard fought in the American Revolution, and in the 19th century, the Grenadier Guards fought in the Crimean War, Sudan and the Boer War. They have roles as front-line troops and as ceremonial for the sovereign, which makes them elite:&lt;blockquote&gt;Queen Victoria decreed that she did not want to see a single chevron soldier within her Guards. Other then [sic] the two senior Warrant Officers of the British Army, the senior Warrant Officers of the Foot Guards wear a large Sovereigns personal coat of arms badge on their upper arm. No other regiments of the British Army are allowed to do so; all the others wear a small coat of arms of their lower arms. Up until 1871 all officers in the Foot Guards had the privilege of having double rankings. An Ensign was ranked as an Ensign and Lieutenant, a Lieutenant as Lieutenant and Captain and a Captain as Captain and Lieutenant Colonel. This was because at the time officers purchased their own ranks and it cost more to purchase a commission in the Foot Guards than any other regiments in the British Army. For example if it cost an officer in the Foot Guards £1,000 for his first rank, in the rest of the Army it would be £500 so if he transferred to another regiment he would loose [sic] £500, hence the higher rank, if he was an Ensign in the Guards and he transferred to a Line Regiment he went in at the higher rank of Lieutenant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-1/|title=Formation and role of the Regiments|website=The Guards Museum|language=en-GB|access-date=2023-05-15}} https://theguardsmuseum.com/about-the-guards/history-of-the-foot-guards/history-page-1/.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Life Guards ====
[[Social Victorians/People/Shrewsbury#Reginald Talbot's Costume|General the Hon. Reginald Talbot]], a member of the 1st Life Guards, attended the Duchess of Devonshire's ball dressed in the uniform of his regiment during the Battle of Waterloo.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 36, Col. 3b}}

At the Battle of Waterloo the 1st Life Guards were part of the 1st Brigade — the Household Brigade — and were commanded by Major-General Lord Edward Somerset.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-09-30|title=Battle of Waterloo|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Waterloo&amp;oldid=1177893566|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo.&lt;/ref&gt; The 1st Life Guards were on &quot;the extreme right&quot; of a French countercharge and &quot;kept their cohesion and consequently suffered significantly fewer casualties.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
== Peplum ==
According to the French ''Wiktionnaire'', a peplum is a &quot;Short skirt or flared flounce layered at the waist of a jacket, blouse or dress&quot; [translation by Google Translate].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-07-02|title=péplum|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=p%C3%A9plum&amp;oldid=29547727|journal=Wiktionnaire, le dictionnaire libre|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/p%C3%A9plum.&lt;/ref&gt; The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' has a fuller definition, although, it focuses on women's clothing because the sense is written for the present day:&lt;blockquote&gt;''Fashion''. ... a kind of overskirt resembling the ancient peplos (''obsolete''). Hence (now usually) in modern use: a short flared, gathered, or pleated strip of fabric attached at the waist of a woman's jacket, dress, or blouse to create a hanging frill or flounce.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;“peplum, n.”. ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, September 2023, &lt;https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1832614702&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Men haven't worn peplums since the 18th century, except when wearing costumes based on historical portraits. The ''Daily News'' reported in 1896 that peplums had been revived as a fashion item for women.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

== Revers ==
According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''revers'' are the &quot;edge[s] of a garment turned back to reveal the undersurface (often at the lapel or cuff) (chiefly in ''plural''); the material covering such an edge.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;revers, n.&quot; ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2023, www.oed.com/view/Entry/164777. Accessed 17 April 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; The term is French and was used this way in the 19th century (according to the ''Wiktionnaire'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-03-07|title=revers|url=https://fr.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=revers&amp;oldid=31706560|journal=Wiktionnaire|language=fr}} https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/revers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Traditional vs Progressive Style ==

=== Progressive Style ===
The terms ''artistic dress'' and ''aesthetic dress'' — as well as ''rational dress'' or ''dress reform'' — are not synonymous and were in use at different times to refer to different groups of people in different contexts, but we recognize them as referring to a similar kind of personal style in clothing, a style we call progressive dress or the progressive style. Used in a very precise way, ''artistic dress'' is associated with the Pre-Raphaelite artists and the women in their circle beginning in the 1860s. Similarly, ''aesthetic dress'' is associated with the 1880s and 1890s and dress reform movements, as is ''rational dress'', a movement located largely among women in the middle classes from the middle to the end of the century. In general, what we are calling the progressive style is characterized by its resistance to the highly structured fashion of its day, especially corseting, aniline dyes and an extremely close fit.

* [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship|Ada Nettleship]]: Constance Wilde and Ellen Terry; an 1883 exhibition of dress by the Rational Dress Society featured her work, including trousers for women (with a short overskirt)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Ada Nettleship|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Nettleship&amp;oldid=1286707541|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship|Alice Comyns Carr]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-06|title=Alice Comyns Carr|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alice_Comyns_Carr&amp;oldid=1294283929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Grosvenor Gallery

=== Traditional Style ===
Images

* Smooth bodice, fabric draped to the back, bustle, laters: Victoria Hesse NPG 95941 crop.jpg
By the end of the century designs from the [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#The House of Worth|House of Worth]] (or Maison Worth) define what we think of as the traditional Victorian look, which was very stylish and expensive. Blanche Payne describes an example of the 1895 &quot;high style&quot; in a gown by Worth with &quot;the idiosyncrasies of the [1890s] full blown&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;The dress is white silk with wine-red stripes. Sleeves, collars, bows, bag, hat, and hem border match the stripes. The sleeve has reached its maximum volume; the bosom full and emphasized with added lace; the waistline is elongated, pointed, and laced to the point of distress; the skirt is smooth over the hips, gradually swinging out to sweep the floor. This is the much vaunted hourglass figure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|530}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Victorian-looking gowns at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] are stylish in a way that recalls the designs of the House of Worth. The elements that make their look so Victorian are anachronisms on the costumes representing fashion of earlier eras. The women wearing these gowns preferred the standards of beauty from their own day to a more-or-less historically accurate look. The style competing at the very end of the century with the Worth look was not the historical, however, but a progressive style called at the time ''artistic'' or ''aesthetic''.

William Powell Frith's 1883 painting ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'' (discussion below) pits this kind of traditional style against the progressive or artistic style.

=== The Styles ===
[[File:Frith A Private View.jpg|thumb|William Powell Frith, ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'']]
We typically think of the late-Victorian silhouette as universal but, in the periods in which corsets dominated women's dress, not all women wore corsets and not all corsets were the same, as William Powell Frith's 1883 ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'' (right) illustrates. Frith is clear in his memoir that this painting — &quot;recording for posterity the aesthetic craze as regards dress&quot; — deliberately contrasts what he calls the &quot;folly&quot; of the Artistic Dress movement and the look of the traditional corseted waist.&lt;ref&gt;Frith, William Powell. ''My Autobiography and Reminiscences''. 1887.&lt;/ref&gt; Frith considered the Artistic Movement and Artistic Dress &quot;ephemeral,&quot; but its rejection of corsetry looks far more consequential to us in hindsight than it did in the 19th century.

As Frith sees it, his painting critiques the &quot;craze&quot; associated with the women in this set of identifiable portraits who are not corseted, but his commitment to realism shows us a spectrum, a range, of conservatism and if not political then at least stylistic progressivism among the women. The progressives, oddly, are the women wearing artistic (that is, somewhat historical) dress, because they’re not corseted. It is a misreading to see the presentation of the women’s fashion as a simple opposition. Constance, Countess of Lonsdale — situated at the center of this painting with Frederick Leighton, president of the Royal Academy of Art — is the most conservatively dressed of the women depicted, with her narrow sleeves, tight waist and almost perfectly smooth bodice, which tells us that her corset has eyelets so that it can be laced precisely and tightly, and it has stays (or &quot;bones&quot;) to prevent wrinkles or natural folds in the overclothing. Lillie Langtry, in the white dress, with her stylish narrow sleeves, does not have such a tightly bound waist or smooth bodice, suggesting she may not be corseted at all, as we know she sometimes was not.['''citation'''] Jenny Trip, a painter’s model, is the woman in the green dress in the aesthetic group being inspected by Anthony Trollope, who may be taking notes. She looks like she is not wearing a corset. Both Langtry and Trip are toward the middle of this spectrum: neither is dressed in the more extreme artistic dress of, say, the two figures between Trip and Trollope.

A lot has been written about the late-Victorian attraction to historical dress, especially in the context of fancy-dress balls and the Gothic revival in social events as well as art and music. Part of the appeal has to have been the way those costumes could just be beautiful clothing beautifully made. Historical dress provided an opportunity for some elite women to wear less-structured but still beautiful and influential clothing. ['''Calvert'''&lt;ref&gt;Calvert, Robyne Erica. ''Fashioning the Artist: Artistic Dress in Victorian Britain 1848-1900''. Ph.D. thesis, University of Glasgow, 2012. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://theses.gla.ac.uk/3279/&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;] The standards for beauty, then, with historical dress were Victorian, with the added benefit of possibly less structure. So, at the Duchess of Devonshire's ball, &quot;while some attendees tried to hew closely to historical precedent, many rendered their historical or mythological personage in the sartorial vocabulary they knew best. The [photographs of people in their costumes at the ball offer] a glimpse into how Victorians understood history, not a glimpse into the costume of an authentic historical past.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Mitchell, Rebecca N. &quot;The Victorian Fancy Dress Ball, 1870–1900.&quot; ''Fashion Theory'' 2017 (21: 3): 291–315. DOI: 10.1080/1362704X.2016.1172817.&lt;/ref&gt; (294)

* historical dress: beautiful clothing.

* the range at the ball, from Minnie Paget to Gwladys
* &quot;In light of such efforts, the ball remains to this day one of the best documented outings of the period, and a quick glance at the album shows that ...&quot;

Women had more choices about their waists than the simple opposition between no corset and tightlacing can accommodate. The range of choices is illustrated in Frith's painting, with a woman locating herself on it at a particular moment for particular reasons. Much analysis of 19th-century corsetry focuses on its sexualizing effects — corsets dominated Victorian photographic pornography ['''citations'''] and at the same time, the absence of a corset was sexual because it suggested nudity.['''citations'''] A great deal of analysis of 19th-century corsetry, on the other hand, assumes that women wore corsets for the male gaze ['''citations'''] or that they tightened their waists to compete with other women.['''citations'''] 

But as we can see in Frith's painting, the sexualizing effect was not universal or sweeping, and these analyses do not account for the choices women had in which corset to wear or how tightly to lace it. Especially given the way that some photographic portraits were mechanically altered to make the waist appear smaller, the size of a woman's waist had to do with how she was presenting herself to the world. That is, the fact that women made choices about the size of or emphasis on their waists suggests that they had agency that needs to be taken into account. 

As they navigated the complex social world, women's fashion choices had meaning. Society or political hostesses had agency not only in their clothing but generally in that complex social world. They had roles managing social events of the upper classes, especially of the upper aristocracy and oligarchy, like the Duchess of Devonshire's ball. Their class and rank, then, were essential to their agency, including to some degree their freedom to choose what kind of corset to wear and how to wear it. Also, by the end of the century lots of different kinds of corsets were available for lots of different purposes. Special corsets existed for pregnancy, sports (like tennis, bicycling, horseback riding, golf, fencing, archery, stalking and hunting), theatre and dance and, of course, for these women corsets could be made to support the special dress worn over it.  

Women's choices in how they presented themselves to the world included more than just their foundation garments, of course. &quot;Every cap, bow, streamer, ruffle, fringe, bustle, glove,&quot; that is, the trim and decorations on their garments, their jewelry and accessories — which Davidoff calls &quot;elaborations&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93}} — pointed to a host of status categories, like class, rank, wealth, age, marital status, engagement with the empire, how sexual they wanted to seem, political alignment and purpose at the social event. For example, when women were being presented to the monarch, they were expected to wear three ostrich plumes, often called the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Prince of Wales's Feathers or White Plumes|Prince of Wales's feathers]].  

Like all fashions, the corset, which was quite long-lasting in all its various forms, eventually went out of style. Of the many factors that might have influenced its demise, perhaps most important was the women's movement, in which women's rights, freedom, employment and access to their own money and children were less slogan-worthy but at least as essential as votes for women. The activities of the animal-rights movements drew attention not only to the profligate use of the bodies and feathers of birds but also to the looming extinction of the baleen whale, which made whale bone scarce and expensive. Perhaps the century's debates over corseting and especially tightlacing were relevant to some decisions not to be corseted. And, of course, perhaps no other reason is required than that the nature of fashion is to change.  

== Undergarments ==
Unlike undergarments, Victorian women's foundation garments created the distinctive silhouette. Victorian undergarments included the chemise, the bloomers, the corset cover — articles that are not structural.
The corset was an important element of the understructure of foundation garments — hoops, bustles, petticoats and so on — but it has never been the only important element. 

=== Undergarments ===

* Chemise
* Corset cover
* Bloomers
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Petticoat|Petticoats]] (distinguish between the outer- and undergarment type of petticoat)
* Combinations
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hose, Stockings and Tights|Hose, stockings and tights]]
* Men's shirts
* Men's unders

==== Bloomers ====

==== Chemise ====
A chemise is a garment &quot;linen, homespun, or cotton knee-length garment with [a] square neck&quot; worn under all the other garments except the bloomers or combinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; (61) According to Lewandowski, combinations replaced the chemise by 1890.

==== Combinations ====

=== Foundation Garments ===
Foundation structures changed the shape of the body by metal, cane, boning. Men wore corsets as well.
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corset|Corset]]
* [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hoops|Hoops]]
* Padding

==== Padding ====
Some kinds of padding were used in the Victorian age to enlarge women's bosoms and create cleavage as well as to keep elements of a garment puffy. In the Elizabethan era, men's codpieces are examples of padding.

With respect to the costumes worn at fancy-dress balls, most important would be bum rolls and cod pieces. 

What are commonly called '''bum rolls''' were sometimes called roll farthingales, French farthingales or padded rolls.

== Footnotes ==
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==Overview==
A mood disorder affects a persons{{gr}} general emotional state. They can distort an individuals{{gr}} mood and can make a persons{{gr}} mood inconsistent with their circumstances. This can interfere with their ability to function (Mayo Clinic, 2021.) Menstrual cycle mood disorders are mood disorders found in women, associated with or caused by their menstrual cycle. Menstrual cycles are associated with intense hormonal fluctuation that can cause vulnerabilities to depression and other symptoms commonly associated with mood disorders (''Menstrually related mood disorders'' 2019).

[[File:PMDD cry.jpg|thumb]]

There is no test to diagnose either Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) or Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD). To be diagnosed with either disorder, a woman must have physical symptoms and mood changes prior to the onset of her menstrual period. Symptoms of PMDD can often be misdiagnosed as Bipolar in women due to similar symptoms being displayed. PMDD affects emotions and the fluctuation of hormones. Many women who experience PMDD may experience clinical levels of depression or anxiety. The severity of emotional symptoms that may be experienced in sufferers of PMDD can damage or interfere with the normal functioning of relationships. This mood disorder has clinical, biological and treatment characteristics that differ from other mood disorders (''The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry'' 2000.) 

It is important that these disorders are recognised, diagnosed and treated because the symptoms and side effects associated with menstrual cycle mood disorders can be crippling and cause everyday life disturbances that can grossly affect a woman in her everyday life. The symptoms of PMDD are both physical and mental in women can include depression, anxiety, loss of interest in activities, bloating, fatigue, overwhelming mood swings etc. 

In this chapter, there is information regarding PMDD, what it is and how it is diagnosed, how PMDD differs from other mood disorders and how it impacts a woman's emotions. There is also be a case study about a woman with PMDD and how the diagnosis and treatment affected her life, and how it changed it. There is also sections to spread awareness and how important the future research surrounding PMDD will be for women. This chapter will focus on the main focus questions found below;    

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What Menstrual Cycle Mood Disorders are there?
* How are they diagnosed? How can they be treated?
* How does PMDD differ from other mood disorders?
* How does PMDD impact ones{{gr}} emotions?
* What does future research look like for PMDD?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are Menstrual Cycle Mood Disorders?==
A mood disorder affects a persons{{gr}} general emotional state. They can distort an individuals{{gr}} mood and can make a persons{{gr}} mood inconsistent with their circumstances. This can interfere with their ability to function (Mayo Clinic, 2021.) Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder is a mood disorder that causes mood changes and irritability that occurs during the premenstrual phase of a woman's menstrual cycle and go away with the onset of menses (Mayo Clinic, 2021.) 

Menstrual Cycle Mood Disorders are mood disorders in women, associated with or caused by the menstrual cycle. Menstrual cycles are a period with intense hormonal fluctuation that can cause vulnerabilities to depression and other symptoms commonly associated with mood. The two most common mood disorders/syndromes associated with the Menstrual cycle are Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) which is a more 'severe' version of PMS. To find out more about the difference between PMS and PMDD you can visit this link https://youtu.be/OEF3CEky6WU. PMDD generally affects 5-10% of women in their reproductive years (''Menstrually related mood disorders'' 2019.) Despite this number, many women still go undiagnosed, or worse misdiagnosed, generally with other mood disorders such as bipolar disorder. 

Both of these disorders occur during one specific phase of the menstrual cycle; the 'luteal' phase. The luteal phase occurs after ovulation (when the ovaries release an egg), and before the period starts. The diagnostic criteria and symptoms associated with a diagnosis of PMDD can be found in the section below (Robert L Reid, 2017.) 

Researchers at the National Institute of Health (NIH) have discovered that women with PMDD have an altered gene complex that processes the body's response to hormones and stress, {{gr}} these findings are important as they have structured a biological basis for the mood disturbances associated with PMDD (Harvard Health Publishing, 2017.) 

With the current literature and future research, hopefully more awareness is spread of this disorder and will allow women who are diagnosed in the future to be treated and feel relief from the straining emotional and physical symptoms of PMDD. While there is some information with recent literature coming up, there is still more research that is underway for the future.

=== History of PMDD ===
First described in 1931 by a man called Robert Frank, this disorder was first named 'Premenstrual Tension Syndrome. Robert was the first person to produce and publish studies about this disorder. The name eventually changed to Premenstrual Syndrome, and then again to Late Luteal Phase Dysphoric Disorder (LLPDD). As it is currently known now as PMDD, It was first listed in the DSM-III as a Psychiatric Disorder and was then moved to the section requiring further study into the disorder. PMDD returned to the DSM-5 listed as a depressive disorder as a diagnosis approved for clinical use (Zachar &amp; Kendler, 2015.) Today, PMDD research is still not well known about and there is a long way to go until people know more about the disorder and how it effects women, or even, what causes it. Future research and literature is up and coming and seems to be a hot topic for research at this point in time.

=== Treatment &amp; Diagnosis ===
There are no current tests to diagnose PMDD. However, there is certain criteria according to the DSM V. The timing of the symptoms is vital to the diagnosis, PMDD can often be misdiagnosed as Bipolar Disorder due to the similarity of emotional symptoms presented{{fact}}. Table 1 shows some of the similarities of symptoms that can cause misdiagnosis, {{gr}} the symptoms are essentially identical and are often mistakenly confused with each other.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Similarities of Symptoms that cause Misdiagnoses
!Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder
!Symptoms of Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
|-
|Sadness, Depression, Despair, Suicide
|Sadness, Depression, Despair, Suicide
|-
|Tension/Anxiety
|Tension/Anxiety
|-
|Panic Attacks, Mood Swings
|Panic Attacks, Mood Swings
|-
|Feeling out of control
|Feeling out of control
|-
|Lack of Interest in activities and relationships
|Lack of Interest in activities and relationships
|-
|Trouble thinking and focusing
|Trouble thinking and focusing
|-
|Lack of energy
|Lack of energy
|}
According to the diagnostic criteria in the DSM V; In the majority of menstrual cycles, at least 5 symptoms must be present in the final week before the onset of menses, start to improve within a few days after the onset of menses, and become minimal or absent in the week post menses. Symptoms can include;

* Depressed, feelings of hopelessness, self depreciating thoughts.
* Anxiety, tension, feeling on edge.
[[File:PMDD cycle 2.webp|thumb|The cycle of PMDD Symptoms during a Menstrual Cycle]]

* Decreased interest in usual activities.

* Difficulty in concentration.
* Lethargy, fatigue, lack of energy.
* Change in appetite, overeating or specific food cravings.
* Hypersomnia, Insomnia.
* Feeling overwhelmed or out of control.
* Physical Symptoms.

There are several treatment options available for PMDD. These treatment options help to relieve or decrease the severity of symptoms. Symptoms tend to be mainly psychological or emotional including depression, suicidal ideation, intense mood swings, lethargy, extreme sensitivity. Options for treatment that can help relieve these symptoms include:{{fact}}

* SSRI Medications (fluoxetine, sertraline, citalopram, paroxetine) - These are the most common.
* Anti Inflammatory Medication
* Birth Control Medications
* Stress Management
* Regular Exercise

The severity of symptoms can differ between women, {{gr}} this condition is generally long lasting up until menopause. While there is no 'cure' for this disorder, medication will often suppress the physical and mental symptoms of the disorder to help, SSRI Medications (Anti Depressants) are the most common form of medication used for this disorder and are known to be the most useful in helping with symptoms{{fact}}. PMDD can also be treated with hormone treatments and in very rare cases, if recommended by a doctor, the removal of the ovaries{{fact}}. Talking therapy, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is often used as the most popular form of talking therapy to help with emotional regulation and managing symptoms of PMDD{{fact}}. While PMDD can overlap with other mood disorders such as Major Depressive Disorder, it can differ from other mood disorders by being marked by a symptom-free period after menses begins and before ovulation (Pinkerton et al., 2010.)

===Causes===
 

Figure 1 shows some common causes of PMDD among women. These common causes include genetic predisposition, smoking, history of mood disorders, stress etc. There is also research to suggest that there is a genetic predisposition to this disorder however women with a history of a mood disorder are also more susceptible to having PMDD. 

{{expand}}

=== Is it PMS or PMDD, How can you tell? ===
While PMS symptoms include a combination of mood, behavioural and physical alterations prior to menstruation, most women do not report any major discomfort with PMS{{fact}}. The 5-8% of women who have PMDD experience debilitating symptoms that cause significant psychological stress and functional impairment{{gr}}. While they may have some similar symptoms, PMDD symptoms seem to be more debilitating on women than PMS{{fact}}. Most symptoms that women get with PMS compared to PMDD are more severe or extreme (WebMD, 2020.)

=== &quot;My Periods make me Suicidal&quot; ===
A YouTube video was posted by the BBC where they had interviewed 4,000 women with PMDD and showed their experiences living with PMDD and how it has affected their lives. The video stated it takes on average 12 years to be diagnosed with PMDD. Click on the link below to view this short video that allows people to hear these women's experiences with PMDD.{{fact}}

https://youtu.be/qNSiiRpy0pM

=== Facts &amp; Figures ===
* Women wait on average 12 years for an accurate diagnosis of PMDD.
* On average women saw 6.15 providers before receiving a diagnosis of PMDD.
* 90% of women with PMDD are thought to be undiagnosed.
* 85% of Women with PMDD have thoughts of suicide.
* 30% with PMDD have attempted suicide, compared to the 10% of women who have depression without PMDD.
* About half of the women with PMDD report to losing an intimate partner due to PMDD.
* 98% feel PMDD puts a strain on their intimate relationship.

{{fact}}

===Case Study===
Elena Venturelli provided a case study based upon her own experience of being diagnosed with PMDD. In this case study she explains the up's{{gr}} and down's{{gr}} that come with a PMDD diagnosis. Find below a glimpse of her story and her experience with PMDD after being diagnosed and receiving proper treatment for her condition.            

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Elena was diagnosed in 2017 after years of feeling misunderstood. 50% more women than men are diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder. The explanation for this is that women with PMDD are often misdiagnosed due to the almost identical symptoms.

Elena stated that according to statistics from 'The Recovery Village' website, 30% of women with PMDD attempt suicide and you are 70% more likely to experience suicidal ideation if you are a woman with PMDD, compared to a woman without.

Elena tells of her experience admitting herself to the emergency department as she was considering suicidal. She mentioned that she thought her PMDD was the cause of this suicidal ideation. After a sleepless night she was seen by a doctor. The doctor told her she did not show sufficient sign of neither bipolar disorder nor borderline personality disorder, so she was sent home with some leaflets and crisis team numbers. Later that day Elena tried to jump out of a window due to her emotional distress and suicidal ideation.

Elena stated that according to statistics from 'The Recovery Village' website, 30% of women with PMDD attempt suicide and you are 70% more likely to experience suicidal ideation if you are a woman with PMDD, compared to a woman without.

After gaining a diagnosis and being able to get proper treatment, Elena saw a staggering improvement in her mental and physical health. (Venturelli, 2019.)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

While there are few case studies available around this topic, the ones that are, are about spreading awareness around PMDD and how there is lack of information surrounding treatment and the misdiagnosis of this disorder, {{gr} Elena's case study is a great example of spreading awareness of such an important mood disorder that receives little attention.

=== PMDD and Emotion ===
PMDD is well known to cause problems with emotional regulation in women. Emotional regulation is very important as it gives people the ability to identify and influence which emotions a person feels and how these emotions are expressed and experienced.  A study on emotional regulation in women with PMDD showed that there is a significant increase in behavioural impulsivity and greater difficulty in regulating emotions in socioemotional functioning (Petersen et al., 2016.) The study showed that women with PMDD struggled with emotional regulation. The women also exhibited evidence of behavioural impulsivity, impaired social connectedness and elevated stress. The results from the study were that Emotion Regulation Therapy has previously been proposed as an effective form of therapy that is adaptive to treating symptoms of PMDD (Petersen et al., 2016.)

=== How is PMDD treated in relation to Psychological Symptoms? ===
There are a few therapy treatment options when it comes to treating the psychological symptoms of PMDD and emotional regulation. Talking therapy seems to be the best option for supporting these women with their emotions and management of symptoms associated with PMDD. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the most popular option for talking therapy. This has been shown to be the most effective form of therapy for managing symptoms of PMDD, specifically to do with regulating and managing emotions and finding ways that work for the person to deal with them to help in the future.{{fact}}

=== PMDD Awareness ===
Every year in April, PMDD awareness months is celebrated. There is fundraising and donating that occurs to help spread awareness of this disorder and to also fund for future research and treatment of this disorder. PMDD awareness month was started in the UK in 2013 by Cat Hawkins. Every year the event grows larger and more awareness is spread. People can get involved by taking the pledge to smash stigma around PMDD, Donate or fundraise to keep awareness and research going, or you can even post on Instagram or Facebook to spread awareness. The more information that we can share surrounding PMDD, the more aware people are going to be of this debilitating disorder. More people will be able to be diagnosed and access the help and treatment they need to live a long and non-debilitating life suffering from the symptoms of PMDD.

 
If you would like to read more information around PMDD awareness months, Please find the link below;

https://iapmd.org/pam-2021

===Quiz===
Test your knowledge on PMDD after reading the information in the chapter. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Women with PMDD are 7 times at higher risk of suicide attempts than those without:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{PMDD is common in every woman:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{PMDD is commonly misdiagnosed as major depressive disorder:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{PMDD symptoms occur during menses:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{PMDD is commonly misdiagnosed as Bipolar Disorder:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
As menstrual mood disorders are only prevalent in 5-10% of women during their reproductive years, there is still a lot that is unknown about these mood disorders. As they are still being misdiagnosed, there is a lot of research still to be done to understand PMDD and the importance of the symptoms and the importance of it being diagnosed properly to receive proper treatment and awareness of this disorder.{{vague}}

This mood disorder has a large impact on a women's emotions which can cause severe emotional symptoms that play as a factor in being able to maintain functional relationships, {{gr}} this affects a woman's everyday life and creates severe emotional strain. With medication, specifically SSRI medications (Anti Depressants), talking therapy for emotional regulation, as well as physical activity to help regulate physical symptoms, symptoms both mental and physical can be suppressed which can provide temporary relief for people suffering from the debilitating effects of PMDD.

The importance of future research will enable women to find reason like Elena did in the case study presented in this chapter. Diagnosis enabled her to understand what was happening to her emotionally and then enabled her to find the treatment and the help to treat the severe symptoms of PMDD. Hopefully this chapter as well as explaining what PMDD is and how it can be managed, can help spread awareness and the importance of this disorder, as well as figuring out future treatment options expanding from what is current.  

This area of mood disorders are still current in research, {{gr}} a frontiers article identified 2,833 publications from 1945 - 2018 (Gao et al., 2021.) With the literature and research in this area growing, PMDD is becoming more known and prevalent within young women of today and helping others spread awareness and gain an insight into the reality of this crippling mood disorder and the opportunities it brings for proper diagnosis and helpful treatment options. This disorder can no longer be dismissed as PMS, dismissing and ignoring this puts women at a disadvantage to accessing proper treatment and care. Research into this mood disorder also opens doors for more research into hormones and the way that menstrual cycles can affect a woman, especially with a disorder that perpetuates such intense emotions.  

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Menopause and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Menstrual cycle and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Pleasure and sexual motivation]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Hormones and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Pheromones and motivation]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Halbreich, U., Borenstein, J., Pearlstein, T., &amp;amp; Kahn, L. S. (2003). The prevalence, impairment, impact, and burden of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMS/PMDD). ''Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28'', 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4530(03)00098-2 

Iakimova, R. K., Stoimenova-Popova, M. Y., Chumpalova, P. G., Pandova, M. S., &amp;amp; Stoyanova, M. B. (2020). A case report of a woman with premenstrual dysphoric disorder misdiagnosed as having bipolar affective disorder. ''Journal of Biomedical and Clinical Research, 13''(2), 144–146. https://doi.org/10.2478/jbcr-2020-0021 

Menstrually related mood disorders. ''Center for Women's Mood Disorders''. (2019, June 4). Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://www.med.unc.edu/psych/wmd/resources/mood-disorders/menstrually-related/#md_pmdd 

Steiner, M., &amp;amp; CARROLL, B. (1977). The psychobiology of premenstrual dysphoria: Review of theories and treatments. ''Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2''(4), 321–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4530(77)90002-6 

Table 1, diagnostic criteria for premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD ... Diagnostic Criteria for Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder. (n.d.). Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279045/table/premenstrual-syndrom.table1diag/ 

Venturelli, E. (2019, December 17). ''Women's Health Crisis: A case study on PMDD''. Epigram. Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://epigram.org.uk/2019/12/17/womens-health-crisis-a-case-study-on-pmdd/

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2021, October 29). ''Mood disorders''. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mood-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20365057#:~:text=Overview,being%20excessively%20happy%20(mania).

New indications for antidepressants - The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. (n.d.). Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://www.psychiatrist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/14163_indications-antidepressants.pdf

RL;, R. (n.d.). Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (formerly premenstrual syndrome). National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25905274/

Gao, M., Gao, D., Sun, H., Cheng, X., An, L., &amp;amp; Qiao, M. (1AD, January 1). Trends in research related to premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder from 1945 to 2018: A Bibliometric analysis. Frontiers. Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2021.596128/full

Pinkerton, J. V., Guico-Pabia, C. J., &amp;amp; Taylor, H. S. (2010, March). Menstrual cycle-related exacerbation of disease. ''American journal of obstetrics and gynecology''. Retrieved October 24, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3107848/

Petersen, N., London, E. D., Liang, L., Ghahremani, D. G., Gerards, R., Goldman, L., &amp;amp; Rapkin, A. J. (2016, October). Emotion regulation in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. ''Archives of women's mental health''. Retrieved October 24, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5024711/

Premenstrual syndrome. Psychological History of Women. (n.d.). Retrieved October 24, 2022, from https://psychistofwomen.umwblogs.org/menstruation/premenstrual-syndrome/ 

Zachar, P., &amp;amp; Kendler, K. S. (2015). A DSM insiders’ history of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. ''Oxford Medicine Online''. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198725978.003.0041

Facts and figures about PMDD. Vicious Cycle PMDD. (n.d.). Retrieved October 24, 2022, from https://www.viciouscyclepmdd.com/facts-figures

WebMD. (n.d.). PMS vs. PMDD: What's the difference and which is worse? WebMD. Retrieved October 24, 2022, from https://www.webmd.com/women/pms/pms-vs-pmdd

Treatment for PMDD. Mind. (n.d.). Retrieved October 24, 2022, from https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/premenstrual-dysphoric-disorder-pmdd/treatment/#:~:text=Cognitive%20behavioural%20therapy%20(CBT)%20has,such%20as%20anxiety%20and%20depression.
}}

==External links==
* What is a mood disorder? [https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mood-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20365057#:~:text=Overview,being%20excessively%20happy%20(mania). https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mood-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20365057#:~:text=Overview,being%20excessively%20happy%20(mania).]
* Diagnostic Criteria for PMDD https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279045/table/premenstrual-syndrom.table1diag/
* Menstrual Related Mood Disorders https://www.med.unc.edu/psych/wmd/resources/mood-disorders/menstrually-related/#md_pmdd
* Information on PMS [https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/premenstrual-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20376780#:~:text=Overview,some%20form%20of%20premenstrual%20syndrome. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/premenstrual-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20376780#:~:text=Overview,some%20form%20of%20premenstrual%20syndrome.]
* Information on PMDD awareness month https://iapmd.org/pam-2021
* History of PMDD https://www.psychiatrist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/24797_history-evolution-diagnosis-premenstrual-dysphoric.pdf
* PMDD and Hormonal Treatments https://youtu.be/7I-vJa2EHKE
* Everything you need to know about PMDD https://youtu.be/-yBYviQJKPY
* Find the link here to Elena's Case Study: https://epigram.org.uk/2019/12/17/womens-health-crisis-a-case-study-on-pmdd/
* Find the link here to how PMDD can be misdiagnosed as Bipolar Disorder: https://iapmd.org/pmdd-bipolar-disorder
* Find the link to an alternate case study here: https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/jbcr-2020-0021
* Find the link for sources and information on PMDD: https://www.womenshealth.gov/menstrual-cycle/premenstrual-syndrome/premenstrual-dysphoric-disorder-pmdd
* Find the link for the trend in PMDD research: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2021.596128/full
* Find the link for a video of other women's experiences living with PMDD: https://youtu.be/qNSiiRpy0pM
* Find the link for a short video explaining what PMDD is: https://youtu.be/-yBYviQJKPY
* Find the link for more Facts and Figures:https://www.viciouscyclepmdd.com/facts-figures

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==Overview==
[[wikipedia:Neuroimaging|Neuroimaging]] offers a window into the biological components of [[wikipedia:Mental_health|mental health]], which has increased interest in [[wikipedia:Objectivity_(science)|objectively]] [[wikipedia:Diagnosis|diagnosing]] and [[wikipedia:Therapy|treating]] mental health conditions, such as [[wikipedia:Mood_disorder|mood disorders]] (Lai et al., 2021). Mood disorders are burdensome on lives and society, relying on self-reported [[wikipedia:Signs_and_symptoms|symptoms]] for diagnosis, which can lead to inaccurate diagnoses or ineffective treatment. Neuroimaging research has significantly contributed to identifying unique [[wikipedia:Brain|brain]] differences in mood disorders compared to healthy individuals (Chen et al., 2020). This research provides more information about how these conditions develop, offering ways for health professionals to diagnose patients more accurately (Merenstein &amp; Bennet, 2022). These findings can also help researchers to find new clinical treatments and [[wikipedia:Psychiatric_medication|psychiatric medications]] for mood disorders (Chen et al., 2020).      

This chapter explores the background of mood disorder treatment and diagnosis, neuroimaging’s use in mood disorder research, and the hunt to identify unique brain differences in mood disorders. It discusses how neuroimaging can help with mood disorder diagnosis and treatment, why [[wikipedia:Health_care|healthcare]] providers do not currently use it in clinical settings, and how this issue could change.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the current limitations of mood disorder treatment and diagnosis?
* What are neurological biomarkers for mood disorder and why are they important?
* How has neuroimaging helped us understand how mood disorders develop?
* How can neuroimaging help mood disorder treatment? 
* How could neuroimaging help treat mood disorders?
* What is the future of neuroimaging for mood disorders?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Mood disorders ==
[[File:Bipolar disorder subtypes comparison between Bipolar I, II disorder and Cyclothymia.svg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Graph with the X-Axis representing the mood fluctuations associated with mood disorders.]]

Mood disorders, also known as affective disorders, are a broad term for two types of mental illnesses: [[wikipedia:Mood_disorder#Bipolar_disorders|bipolar]] and [[wikipedia:Mood_disorder#Depressive_disorders|depressive disorders]]. These disorders are two of the most common mental illnesses worldwide and a leading cause of [[wikipedia:Disability|disability]] (Chen et al., 2020). Bipolar disorder is marked by abnormally [[wikipedia:Mania|high]] or [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|low]] [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|moods]] that interfere with thinking and impair daily functioning (Marwaha et al., 2018). Depressive disorders are characterised by extended periods of sad, empty, irritable or pleasureless mood in combination with physical and mental problems resulting in impaired daily functioning (Rakofsky &amp; Rapaport, 2018).

=== The challenges in treating mood disorders ===
Decades of substantial research have sought to treat mood disorders effectively (Kalin, 2020). Based on this research, the current standard treatment for mood disorders is a combination of psychiatric medication and [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] (Sekhon et al., 2022). Current approaches cannot accurately predict how individuals will respond to medication. [[wikipedia:Trial_and_error|Trial and error]] is often used until patients find a treatment with an ideal balance of side effects and benefits. This process can have adverse [[wikipedia:Side_effect|side effects]] that disrupt patients’ lives and worsen the illness, and sometimes no beneficial medication is found (Howes et al., 2022). These challenges present a need for new treatments for mood disorders according to individual needs.

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|8}}}|title= Did you know? [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}
Treatment resistance in mood disorders produces major economic and healthcare burdens (Diaz et al., 2022). Within Australia, finding a way to successfully treat bipolar could save as much as $1.3 billion dollars per year (Harper, 2017). 
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=== The need for improved methods of diagnosing mood disorders ===
Currently, there is no objective or biological way to diagnose mood disorders. Instead, mood disorder diagnosis is based primarily on self-reported thoughts, feelings, and behaviour patterns according to the diagnostic criteria in the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|Diagnostic Statistics Manual]] or the [[wikipedia:International_Classification_of_Diseases|International Classification of Diseases]] (Kalin, 2020). Many experts claim that the current psychiatric diagnosis systems have [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder#Criticism|flaws]] that can lead to incorrect diagnoses and poor treatment (Henderson, 2020). For example, diagnoses often rely on self-reported symptoms, and multiple mental illnesses can show similar symptoms, making it challenging to provide a correct diagnosis (Sekhon et al., 2022). Further, it is difficult to accurately predict mood disorder diagnoses before their onset or how the condition may progress over time. With the challenges in diagnosing mood disorders correctly, there is a need for new diagnostic tools.

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Within healthcare the current method for diagnosing mood disorders relies on: 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Genetic testing to find genetic markers
- Brain scanning to identify abnormal brain structure and function
+ Meeting a clinical diagnostic criteria based on thoughts, feelings and behaviour
- Blood testing to identify reduced brain chemicals
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[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwMlHkWKDwM&amp;t=58s CrashCourse: Depressive and bipolar disorders (Youtube)] 
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== Neuroimaging and mood disorders ==
[[File:Parasagittal MRI of human head in patient with benign familial macrocephaly prior to brain injury (ANIMATED).gif|thumb|''Figure 2.'' [[wikipedia:Magnetic_resonance_imaging|Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create images of the brain (Lai et al., 2021).]]

Neuroimaging is a growing field that has revolutionised [[wikipedia:Neuroscience|neuroscience]] research since the 1990s, enabling the [[wikipedia:Non-invasive_procedure|non-invasive]] study of live patients and providing science with a richer understanding of how brain functions relate to [[wikipedia:Human_behavior|human behaviour]] (Lai et al., 2021). Neuroimaging applies various technologies to see the function and structure of the [[wikipedia:Central_nervous_system|central]] and [[wikipedia:Peripheral_nervous_system|peripheral]] nervous system, including the brain (Chen et al., 2020. For example, techniques such as [[wikipedia:Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging|functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI), [[wikipedia:CT_scan|computer tomography]] (CT) scanning and [[wikipedia:Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography|single-photon emission computed tomography]] (SPECT) are commonly used in [[wikipedia:Psychological_research|psychological research]] (Merenstein &amp; Bennett, 2020). Within psychological research, neuroimaging has become a primary tool for identifying brain activity that correlates to many psychological phenomena and to better understand conditions like mood disorders (Moran &amp; Zaki, 2013).   

=== The importance of neurological brain biomarkers in mood disorders ===
A primary focus of neuroimaging studies exploring mood disorders is identifying precision brain [[wikipedia:Biomarker|biomarkers]] in the condition (Chen at al., 2020). Precision neurological biomarkers are objectively measurable changes in the brain’s structure and function compared to healthy people (Lai et al., 2021). Finding these biomarkers in people with mood disorders may provide evidence for the condition’s cause and effects and how to diagnose and treat them more accurately (Chen at al.,, 2020; Merenstein &amp; Bennett, 2022). Consequently, neuroimaging may be able to assist the diagnosis and treatment of mood disorders by identifying mood disorder brain biomarkers. 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|8}}}|title= Did you know? [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}The 'human circulation balance,' developed by Angelo Mosso&amp;nbsp;in the 1880s is regarded as the earliest neuroimaging technique ever. Angelo used this technique to explore the redistribution of blood during emotional and intellectual activity with the hopes of better understanding how the brain works (Sandrome et al., 2012). 

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=== Research shows brain differences in mood disorders ===
[[File:CFS-brain-scan-basal-ganglia-fMRI.png|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Image showing an example of fMRI neuroimaging identifying functional differences between two brains.]]

Attempts to identify precision neurological biomarkers for mood disorders using neuroimaging have yielded promising results. Compared to healthy groups, multiple studies identify structural and functional brain changes in people with mood disorders that may contribute to the conditions’ [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotional]], [[wikipedia:Thought|thought]], and physical symptoms (Merenstein &amp; Bennet, 2022). For example, studies have revealed that patients with mood disorders have, on average, smaller than typical [[wikipedia:Grey_matter|grey]] and [[wikipedia:White_matter|white]] matter volumes in specific regions of the brain and larger than average volumes in others (Schmaal et al., 2020; Lai et al., 2021). In addition, neuroimaging studies have discovered potential [[wikipedia:Risk_factor|risk factors]] for the onset of mood disorders, including [[wikipedia:Childhood_trauma|childhood maltreatment]] and [[wikipedia:Traumatic_brain_injury|traumatic brain injury]] (Henderson et al., 2020).  

This research shows neuroimaging’s ability to identify critical structural and functional differences in the brain as well as risk factors, which could guide future diagnosis and treatment of mood disorders. However, it is still unclear whether the identified brain changes are the cause or effect of the condition. Furthermore, it is unclear how brain structure might be affected by multiple mental illnesses, the age the disease starts, and the effects of medications (Lai et al., 2021; Merenstein &amp; Bennett, 2022).

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Research on neurological biomarkers of mood disorders have found:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-  Absolute proof of how mood disorders change the brain
+ People with mood disorders, on average, have distinct brain changes compared to healthy people
- Direct causes of mood disorders
- The answer on how to treat and diagnose mood disorders effectively
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[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kCesWlbEAKQ Imaging the brain for precision mental health (Youtube) ] 
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== Neuroimaging-related theories of mood disorder causes ==
The pressing question of what causes mood disorders is intricate, with multiple parts and no agreed-upon answer (Kalin, 2020). Neuroimaging research on mood disorders has sought to understand their causes better; however, these findings have been inconclusive (Rakofsky &amp; Rapaport, 2018; Kalin, 2020). One helpful direction of neuroimaging research is to help support or disprove [[wikipedia:Hypothesis|hypotheses]] on the causes of mood disorders. Furthering our understanding of what causes mood disorders may help identify pre-disease precision neurological biomarkers, and this research could help guide methods to diagnose mood disorders before they develop{{gr}}. 

=== Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction ===
The [[wikipedia:Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal_axis|Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal]] (HPA) axis is a biological system crucial to the body’s stress response (Sheng et al., 2021). Dysfunction of the HPA axis is linked to various diseases, including bipolar disorder (Murri et al., 2016). Neuroimaging studies have shown how HPA axis dysfunction, as demonstrated by abnormally high [[wikipedia:Cortisol|cortisol]] levels, influence similar structural and functional brain changes to bipolar disorder (Valli et al., 2016). However, it is unclear whether HPA axis dysfunction is a cause or effect of the illness (Murri et al., 2016).  

=== The neurotrophic hypothesis ===
The neurotrophic hypothesis suggests that a decline in [[wikipedia:Neurotrophic_factors|neurotrophins]], [[wikipedia:Molecule|molecules]] that maintain and repair the nervous system, negatively impacts the brain's structure and function, causing depressive disorders (Skaper, 2018). Neuroimaging research has supported this hypothesis by connecting the reduced volume and functionality of brain regions that typically have high levels of neurotrophins in healthy populations to people with depressive disorders (Levy et al., 2018). This research shows how neuroimaging can reveal potential neurological mechanisms for depressive disorders, but it is still unclear whether reduced neurotrophins cause or effect the condition. 

=== The monoamine hypothesis ===
According to the [[wikipedia:Biology_of_depression#Monoamines|monoamine hypothesis,]] decreased [[wikipedia:Monoamine_neurotransmitter|monoamine neurotransmitters]] in the central nervous system cause depressive symptoms (Rakofsky &amp; Rapaport, 2018). Monoamine neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain, such as [[wikipedia:Serotonin|serotonin]], [[wikipedia:Dopamine|dopamine]] and [[wikipedia:Norepinephrine|norepinephrine]], that are crucial for the brain’s function (Swallow et al., 2016). A neuroimaging study by Kaufman and colleagues (2016) found depressed patients to have dysfunction in brain areas associated with reduced monoamine levels. However, many experts challenge this hypothesis as research conducted after patient death showed that healthy persons and individuals with [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD) had the same levels of monoamines in their brains (Rakofsky &amp; Rapaport, 2018). As a result, the evidence suggests that reduced monoamine levels are only a minor part of how depressive disorders work.

=== Other considerations ===
Modern approaches to understanding the causes of mood disorders follow the [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|biopsychosocial model]], which acknowledges that several [[wikipedia:Genetics|inherited]], [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychological]], and [[wikipedia:Social_environment|socio]]-[[wikipedia:Environmental_factor|environmental]] factors impact mood disorder emergence (Sekhon &amp; Gupta, 2022). However, most neuroimaging studies do not expand current psychological understandings of how mood disorders develop and persist, such as [[wikipedia:Beck's_cognitive_triad|Beck’s cognitive triad]] (Henderson, 2020; Moskow et al., 2022). Consequently, some psychologists doubt how well neuroimaging can fully capture all the psychological and environmental factors that affect mood disorders. (Henderson, 2020).

[[File:Beck's Negative Cognitive Triad.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Beck's cognitive triad of depression. ]]{{Robelbox|theme=7|width=40%|title=Section Quiz 3|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
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The idea that mood disorders are caused by reduced neurochemicals in the brain is: 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- The neuroinflammatory hypothesis
- The HPA axis dysfunction hypothesis
+ The monoamine hypothesis
- The biopsychosocial model 
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== How can neuroimaging help mood disorder treatment? ==
[[File:Typical deep brain stimulation setup.jpg|thumb|''Figure 5. Example of d''eep brain stimulation. ]]

The high prevalence of [[wikipedia:Treatment-resistant_depression|treatment-resistant]] mood disorders and the undesirable side effects of psychiatric medication presents a need to develop new treatments (Carvalho &amp; McIntyre, 2015). Recent years have seen a sharp decline in new mood disorder medication, partly due to the lack of well-established neurological targets (Howes et al., 2022). Researchers may be ignoring neuroimaging’s full potential in mood disorder treatment research, as many studies still rely on other biological measures, such as focusing on [[wikipedia:Pharmacokinetics|pharmacokinetics]] (Medhi et al., 2014). Neuroimaging could be a valuable way to help treat mood disorders by finding new treatments, better understanding and enhancing existing medication and offering the potential for individualised treatment plans.  

=== Identifying new treatments ===
Neuroimaging research has identified possible [[wikipedia:Pharmacology|pharmacological]] and [[wikipedia:Surgery|surgical]] treatment therapies, most notably target locations for [[wikipedia:Deep_brain_stimulation|deep brain stimulation]] (Merenstein &amp; Bennet, 2022). This procedure involves implanting electrodes in the brain to send [[wikipedia:Electricity|electrical]] pulses to impaired areas, which neuroimaging has made possible by identifying brain abnormalities (Sui et al., 2020). Deep brain stimulation has successfully treated some depressive disorders by targeting areas of the brain thought to produce the effects of the condition. This treatment’s promising potential may provide a side-effect-free method of treating depressive disorders. However, due to the risk of worsening elevated moods, studies do not recommend deep brain stimulation for treating bipolar disorder (Graat et al., 2020). This research shows the potential for neuroimaging to identify new methods of treating mood disorders. 

=== Understanding and enhancing existing treatments ===
Neuroimaging studies have played a key role in research developments seeking to understand psychiatric medication benefits. Multiple studies have explored common pharmacological treatments for mood disorders’ unique effects on the brain, which may further science’s understanding of treatment-resistant populations (Merenstein &amp; Bennett, 2022). Notably, neuroimaging aided the development of the cognitive neurophysiological model of antidepressant action. This model identifies common [[wikipedia:Antidepressant_medication|antidepressant medication]]’s biological impact, suggesting that the medication positively influences the [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognitive processing]] of emotional information rather than directly influencing mood (Zghoul et al., 2019). These findings and similar information may provide a way to monitor and accurately predict treatment outcomes (Medhi et al., 2014). Accurately identifying medication responses could eventually inform individualised treatment options for mood disorders, removing the need for patients to try multiple medications before finding an ideal option (Godlewska, 2020).   

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The cognitive neurophysiological model of antidepressant action suggests:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Antidepressants do not boost mood directly but enhance emotional processing
- Antidepressants reduce depression by boosting monoamine levels
- Antidepressants make you happy
- Antidepressants have no clinical value
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[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kaThzeghWnM Deep brain stimulation: How it works (Youtube)]
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== How can neuroimaging help mood disorder diagnosis? ==

Initial speculation around neuroimaging’s clinical use in diagnosing mental illness provoked great interest in the scientific community (Merenstein &amp; Bennett, 2022). Many experts have hoped that neuroimaging would be the tool required in [[wikipedia:Psychiatry|psychiatry]] and psychology to provide an objective diagnosis of mental illness, removing the need for a ‘less accurate’ behavioural diagnosis. However, the [[wikipedia:American_Psychiatric_Association|American Psychiatric Association]] states that neuroimaging presently provides no benefit to diagnosing and treating any mental illness (Henderson et al., 2020). As such, healthcare providers limit neuroimaging’s clinical use in helping diagnose mood disorders to ruling out biological conditions that may mimic mental disorders, such as [[wikipedia:Cerebrovascular_disease|cerebrovascular disease]], [[wikipedia:Neoplasm|neoplasm]], and [[wikipedia:Hematoma|hematoma]] (Chen et al., 2020). Although this application of neuroimaging to mood disorders is beneficial, it does not achieve many researchers’ ambitions for the technology. Despite identifying neurological biomarkers for mood disorders, healthcare providers do not apply these findings in treating and diagnosing mood disorders due to three crucial barriers: a lack of clinical [[wikipedia:Sensitivity_and_specificity|sensitivity, specificity]], and [[wikipedia:Standardization|standardisation]] (Rachofsky &amp; Rapaport, 2018; Henderson et al., 2020). Understanding and finding solutions to these challenges are necessary for neuroimaging to aid in diagnosing mood disorders.  

Sensitivity is the ability of a diagnostic method to precisely pinpoint the disease or condition under investigation (Swift et al., 2020). Although healthcare providers diagnose individuals, psychiatric neuroimaging studies currently analyse and combine group data averages (Lai et al., 2021). Consequently, the present neuroimaging findings cannot accurately represent individuals’ high degree of neurological variability (Merenstein &amp; Bennett, 2022). Specificity is the degree to which a medical or psychological examination can rule out individuals who do not have the ailment (Swift et al., 2020). Diversity in how neuroimaging results are interpreted in research limits specificity (Chen et al., 2020). This is due to the high variability of individual brain function and structure and the inability to discriminate between various mental disorders due to similar neurological patterns (Lai et al., 2021). 

Standardisation is a consistent test administration process between studies to ensure that researchers measure and test under the same circumstances (Tate &amp; Panteghini, 2007). Within neuroimaging studies of mental illnesses, there is no consensus ensuring uniformity in research methods (Rakofsky &amp; Rapaport, 2018). This makes it hard to put together and compare the results of different neuroimaging studies on the same topic because the researchers may use different measurements and come to different conclusions (Merenstein &amp; Bennett, 2022). These three limitations highlight the primary barriers restricting neuroimaging's potential to help diagnose mood disorders.

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Why is neuroimaging not presently recommended for diagnosing mood disorders?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Neuroimaging data does not accurately represent all the possible variations in peoples brains
- There is a high degree of variability in how neuroimaging data is intepreted
- There is no standard way neuroimaging research is conducted and it is 
difficult to compare different studies findings
+ All of the above
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== The future of neuroimaging and mood disorders ==
[[File:2020-met-oa-slide-machine-learning.jpg|thumb|''Figure 7.'' Example of machine learning's utility applied to art research. ]]

Currently, problems with sensitivity, specificity, and standardisation make it hard to use clinical neuroimaging widely to diagnose and treat mood disorders. However, research is presently exploring ways to overcome the technology’s limitations. Combining neuroimaging with [[wikipedia:Machine_learning|machine learning]], which uses [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm algorithms] to find patterns in a [[wikipedia:Data_set|dataset,]] could be a method for neuroimaging to become sufficiently sensitive and specific (Davatzkios, 2019). Additionally, a standardised diagnostic approach combining genetic, physiological and neuroimaging analysis techniques may provide a method for accurate and objective mental illness diagnosis (Thompson et al., 2020).   

=== Machine learning ===
The use of machine learning has grown since 2010, finding widespread applications in research and [[wikipedia:Business|commercial enterprise]]. Applying machine learning to neuroimaging mental diseases could address the issues of data interpretation [[wikipedia:Statistical_dispersion|variability]] and provide a means to precisely subcategorise complicated brain presentations (Merenstein &amp; Bennet, 2022). Researchers in multiple studies that use machine learning to compare vast amounts of neuroimaging research has reported successful differentiation of biomarkers in different psychiatric conditions relative to healthy populations (Merenstein &amp; Bennet, 2022). However, the reliable use of machine learning in neuroimaging is still in its early stages and not without limitations (Davatzikos, 2019). For instance, the lack of standardisation between neuroimaging studies makes it difficult to compare the findings accurately (Davatzikos, 2019). Consequently, further standardised research and development are needed for machine learning to improve neuroimaging's clinical potential for diagnosing and treating mood disorders.

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|8}}}|title= Did you know? [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}
Machine learning technology is a multi-billion dollar industry, and its observable in many areas of modern life, including what shows Netflix recommends, personalised advertisement on social media and which matches dating apps like hinge offer their customers (Mukherjee, 2021; Pajkovic, 2022).

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=== Multiple biomarker diagnosis ===
It is doubtful that any single neuroimaging biomarker will provide enough specificity and sensitivity to justify neuroimaging's use in mood disorder diagnosis (Godlewska, 2020). Instead, a standardised clinical approach that combines neuroimaging biomarkers of mental disorders with other known biomarkers, such as [[wikipedia:Neuroinflammation|neuroinflammatory]] and genetic indicators, may be able to find both shared and unique brain changes across mental disorders. The Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) consortium is a research group exploring this idea and applying machine learning to mood disorder diagnosis and treatment (Schmaal et al., 2020; Thompson et al., 2020). Through their work and similar research, neuroimaging biomarkers combined with multiple biological biomarkers may help diagnose and treat mood disorders in an objective and targeted way, revolutionising modern psychology and psychiatry.    

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How can machine learning assist neuroimaging to better diagnose and treat mood disorders?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Proving what causes mood disorders
+ Comparing vast collections of neuroimaging data and categorising them
-  Teaching researchers how to see mood disorders in brain images
- It cant
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[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukzFI9rgwfU What is machine learning? (Youtube)]
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== Conclusion ==
Mood disorders are debilitating and prevalent health issues needing new diagnoses and treatment methods due to limitations, such as the risk of a wrong diagnosis or treatment resistance. Neuroimaging research has tried to find accurate and objective measures of mood disorders by finding precision neurological biomarkers, distinct brain changes influenced by the condition. Finding neurological biomarkers for mood disorders may help neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating the condition. People with mood disorders have been found to have more than one pattern of abnormal brain structure and function. These changes may help explain aspects of mood disorder's symptoms and identify causal risk factors, but it is unclear if the identified brain changes cause or affect mood disorders.   

The search for precise biomarkers has provided helpful evidence for influential theories about what causes mood disorders. For example, neuroimaging has helped demonstrate the HPA axis dysregulation hypothesis, the neurotrophic hypothesis and supported the monoamine theory of how mood disorders start. However, neuroimaging technology may not be able to identify all the factors influencing the cause of mood disorders, such as how people think. Consequently, some experts question neuroimaging's usefulness in psychological research.

Through finding precise biomarkers for mood disorders, sites for deep brain stimulation implants have been found that may be able to treat depressive disorders. Neuroimaging studies exploring current mood disorder medicines have furthered our understanding of how they work. One notable example of this is the cognitive neurophysiological model of antidepressant action. These results could help produce new medicines and make individualised treatment plans, leading to better treatment outcomes. Despite what we have learnt from neuroimaging mood disorders, it is presently only used in mood disorder diagnosis to rule out other diseases with similar symptoms to mood disorders, such as neurodegenerative disorders. This is because current neuroimaging technology cannot always distinguish between different brain problems or correctly diagnose people with a wide range of mental illnesses. There is also no standard way to collect and interpret data from neuroimaging studies of mood disorders, making it hard to compare the results of different studies.

Research is striving to overcome the limitations of the current technology. Combining neuroimaging results with machine learning and a standard diagnostic strategy that combines genetic, physiological, and neuroimaging analytic approaches could also be a way to diagnose mental disorders accurately and objectively. The combination of these two strategies is presently underway with the ENIGMA project, which seeks to overcome neuroimaging's current clinical limitations. Overall, neuroimaging has promising future potential for diagnosing and treating mood disorders.

== See also ==
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective Disorders] (Book chapter, 2021)

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{{Hanging indent|1=

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Davatzikos C. (2019). Machine learning in neuroimaging: Progress and challenges. ''NeuroImage'', ''197'', 652–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.003

Godlewska, B. R. (2020). Neuroimaging as a tool for individualised treatment choice in depression: The past, the present and the future. ''Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports'', ''7''(1), 32–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40473-020-00198-2

Graat, I., van Rooijen, G., Mocking, R., Vulink, N., de Koning, P., Schuurman, R., &amp; Denys, D. (2020). Is deep brain stimulation effective and safe for patients with obsessive compulsive disorder and comorbid bipolar disorder?. ''Journal of affective disorders'', ''264'', 69–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.152

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Merenstein, J. L., &amp; Bennett, I. J. (2022). Neuroimaging studies of Mental Disorders. ''Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology''. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-91497-0.00030-8

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‌Rakofsky, J., &amp; Rapaport, M. (2018). Mood Disorders. ''Continuum (Minneapolis, Minn.)'', ''24''(3, BEHAVIORAL NEUROLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY), 804–827. https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.000000000000060

Sandrone, S., Bacigaluppi, M., Galloni, M. R., &amp; Martino, G. (2012). Angelo Mosso (1846–1910). ''Journal of Neurology'', ''259''(11), 2513–2514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-012-6632-1

Schmaal, L., Pozzi, E., C. Ho, T., van Velzen, L. S., Veer, I. M., Opel, N., Van Someren, E. J., Han, L. K., Aftanas, L., Aleman, A., Baune, B. T., Berger, K., Blanken, T. F., Capitão, L., Couvy-Duchesne, B., R. Cullen, K., Dannlowski, U., Davey, C., Erwin-Grabner, T., … Veltman, D. J. (2020). Enigma MDD: Seven Years of global neuroimaging studies of major depression through Worldwide Data Sharing. ''Translational Psychiatry'', ''10''(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0842-6

Sheng, J. A., Bales, N. J., Myers, S. A., Bautista, A. I., Roueinfar, M., Hale, T. M., &amp; Handa, R. J. (2021). The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis: Development, Programming Actions of Hormones, and Maternal-Fetal Interactions. ''Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''14''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.601939

Skaper S. D. (2018). Neurotrophic Factors: An Overview. ''Methods in molecular biology, 1727'', 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7571-6_1

Sekhon, S., &amp; Gupta, V. (2022, May 8). ''Mood Disorder''. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558911/

Swift, A., Heale, R. and Twycross, A. (2019) “What are sensitivity and specificity?,” ''Evidence Based Nursing'', 23(1), pp. 2–4. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2019-103225

Sui, Y., Tian, Y., Ko, W., Wang, Z., Jia, F., Horn, A., De Ridder, D., Choi, K. S., Bari, A. A., Wang, S., Hamani, C., Baker, K. B., Machado, A. G., Aziz, T. Z., Fonoff, E. T., Kühn, A. A., Bergman, H., Sanger, T., Liu, H., Haber, S. N., … Li, L. (2021). Deep Brain Stimulation Initiative: Toward Innovative Technology, New Disease Indications, and Approaches to Current and Future Clinical Challenges in Neuromodulation Therapy. ''Frontiers in neurology'', ''11'', 597451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.597451

Tate, J., &amp; Panteghini, M. (2007). Standardisation--the theory and the practice. ''The Clinical biochemist. Reviews'', ''28''(3), 93–96. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1994108/

Valli, I., Crossley, N. A., Day, F., Stone, J., Tognin, S., Mondelli, V., Howes, O., Valmaggia, L., Pariante, C., &amp; McGuire, P. (2016). HPA-axis function and grey matter volume reductions: imaging the diathesis-stress model in individuals at ultra-high risk of psychosis. ''Translational Psychiatry'', ''6''(5), 797. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2016.68

Thompson, P.M., et al., 2020. ENIGMA and global neuroscience: a decade of large-scale studies of the brain in health and disease across more than 40 countries. ''Transl. Psychiatr., 10''(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0705-1

Zghoul, T., Cowen, P. J., &amp; Harmer, C. J. (2019). A perspective: From the serotonin hypothesis to cognitive neuropsychological approaches. ''The Serotonin System'', 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813323-1.00005-0

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2apCx1rlIQ 2-Minute Neuroscience: Neuroimaging] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwMlHkWKDwM Crash Course Psychology: Depressive and Bipolar Disorders] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kCesWlbEAKQ Imaging the brain for precision mental health] (YouTube)
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/the-facts/depression/types-of-depression Types of depression] (beyondblue.org)
* [https://www.simplypsychology.org/neuroimaging.html Simply Psychology: The history of neuroimaging techniques]
* [https://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-is-depression-helen-m-farrell TEDEd: What is depression?] (TED)
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/helen_m_farrell_what_is_bipolar_disorder TEDEd: What is bipolar disorder?] (TED)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukzFI9rgwfU What is machine learning?] (YouTube) 

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== Motivation ==
# [[/Abusive supervision/]] - What is abusive supervision, what motivates it, and what can be done about it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|Lara.Begg}}
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3214564}}
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? {{ME-By|Msherrybarr}}
# [[/Ageing and motivation/]] - What is the relationship between ageing and motivation? {{ME-By|U3217153}}
# [[/Anomie and motivation/]] - How does anomie affect motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|U3223909}}
# [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3216706}}
# [[/Bedtime procrastination/]] - What causes it, what are the consequences, and what can be done about it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|U3227684}}
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|JasnaM}}
# [[/Childhood trauma and criminal behaviour/]] - How does childhood trauma influence subsequent criminal behaviour?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3218323}}
# [[/Comprehensive action determination model|Comprehensive action determination model]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|Rocxie}}
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3223114}}
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? {{ME-By|U3217803|U3217803}}
# [[/Dark tetrad and motivation/]] - What is the dark tetrad and how does it relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3223849}}
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? {{ME-By|U3197031}}
# [[/Dopamine and extraversion-introversion/]] - How does dopamine affect extraversion-introversion? {{ME-By|SaucyTuRkLeBiRd}}
# [[/Egosystem and ecosystem motivation/]] - What are egosystem and ecosystem motivations and what are their consequences? {{ME-By|U3216125}}
# [[/Effective leadership/]] - What does it take to be an effective leader? {{ME-By|U103189}}
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|LightDragonflies}}
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting 2/]] - What is the relationship between episodic future thinking and delay discounting? {{ME-By|U3224582}}
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? {{ME-By|Maheenusman}}
# [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U891419}}
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3217955}}
# [[/Gamer motivation/]] - What motivates game playing?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|Bellehines}}
# [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]]
# [[/Growth mindset and mental health/]] - What is the relationship between growth mindset and mental health? {{ME-By|Mia Pearse }}
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|U3226487}}
# [[/Identity fusion and motivation/]] - What are the motivational implications of identity fusion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3235369}}
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3209567}}
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|De2023}}
# [[/Indigenous Australian engagement in mental health services/]] - What helps Indigenous Australians to engage with mental health services? {{ME-By|CaitlinFisher01}}
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|TD3223808}}
# [[/Irrational belief motivation/]] - What motivates irrational beliefs?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|Concettazicc}}
# [[/Köhler effect and motivation/]] - What is the Köhler effect and how can it be applied? {{ME-By|Declan Robinson}}
# [[/Learning motivation and chatbots/]] - How can student motivation to learn be enhanced by using artificial intelligence chatbots? {{ME-By|Ashhstarr}}
# [[/Life history theory and human reproductive strategies/]] - How does life history theory explain human reproductive strategies? {{ME-By|U3212234}}
# [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Casey Coulton}}
# [[/Mobile phone use motivation/]] - What are the motivations for mobile phone use?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|Yaruki91}}
# [[/Morning routine and motivation/]] - How can a morning routine be used to facilitate motivation, productivity, and well-being?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3216585}}
# [[/Motivational technologies/]] - How can motivation be fostered through technology? {{ME-By|U3196624}}
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? {{ME-By|U3161239}}
# [[/Nudge theory and sedentary behaviour/]] - How can nudge theory can be used reduce sedentary behaviour?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|U3145851}}
# [[/Overchoice and motivation/]] - What is the overchoice effect, why does it occur, and who are most susceptible to it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3230003}}
# [[/Physical activity tracking and exercise motivation/]] - What role can physical activity tracking play in exercise motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3230383}}
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? {{ME-By|Superghostfresh}}
# [[/Placebo effect and motivation/]] - What is the placebo effect and how can it affect motivation? {{ME-By|U3203797}}
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3227759}}
# [[/Sadism motivation/]] - What motivates sadism and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|BM3062384}}
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? {{ME-By|Rumesa.Aria}}
# [[/Sport injury recovery motivation/]] - How can motivation be sustained when recovering from a sport injury? {{ME-By|U3210285}}
# [[/SSRIs and motivation/]] - What are the effects of SSRIs on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|Josh.Cattle}}
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? How do they work?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3231448UC}}
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Ishi}}
# [[/Testosterone and dominance/]] - What is the relationship between testosterone and dominance? [[User:Giovannihbartlett|Giovannihbartlett]]
# [[/Testosterone and violent crime/]] - What is the relationship between testosterone and violent crime?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3200902}}
# [[/Testosterone, winning, and losing/]] - What is the relationship between winning, losing, and testosterone? {{ME-By|Hugo DL}}
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? {{ME-By|Madison.Mayo}}
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3162169T}}
# [[/Treatment motivation in substance use disorder/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation in substance abuse disorder and how can it be enhanced?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|KATE HERLIHY}}
# [[/Violent extremism motivation/]] - What motivates people to engage in violent extremism? {{ME-By|U3216313}}
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? {{ME-By|U3171379}}

== Emotion ==
# [[/Artificial emotion/]] - To what extent can artificial intelligence experience emotion and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|KylieGiddings}}
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? {{ME-By|Carol Chariarse}}
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? {{ME-By|Zmelmoth02}}
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|Samanthagrebert}}
# [[/Body functionality and body satisfaction/]] - What is the relationship between body functionality and body satisfaction? {{ME-By|Fatima2617}}
# [[/Burn injury and body image/]] - What is the impact of burn injury on body image and what can be done? {{ME-By|Biancanappo}}
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? {{ME-By|Grace (Tram) Chu}}
# [[/Choice and emotion/]] - How does emotion affect choice? {{ME-By|Jingying Chen}}
# [[/Climate change emotion/]] - What is the relationship between climate change and emotion?- [[User:Sireyes|Sireyes]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirable outcomes? {{ME-By|U3203936}}
# [[/Community resilience/]] - What is community resilience and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|U3213682}}
# [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Rhys Harmer}}
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|U3229619}}
# [[/Dark tetrad and emotion/]] - What is the dark tetrad and how does it relate to emotion? {{ME-By|U3214333}}
# [[/Death and meaning in life/]] - How does confronting mortality influence the sense of meaning in life? {{ME-By|U3222680}}
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? {{ME-By|U3190506}}
# [[/Deference emotion system/]] - What is the deference emotion system, how does it work, and what are its implications? {{ME-By|U3216127}}
# [[/Eco-anxiety/]] - What is eco-anxiety, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|MT200107}}
# [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, why do they matter, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|Emkatev}}
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|Dnamynts}}
# [[/Ego death/]] - What is ego death, what are its consequences, and how can it be facilitated?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|Gaissa}}
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? {{ME-By|Taliastefanoski}}
# [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|Adf001}}
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? {{ME-By|RolandC2023}}
# [[/Empathy and psychopathy/]] - What is the relationship between empathy and psychopathy? {{ME-By|U3218292}}
# [[/Empathy training/]] - How can empathy be enhanced? {{ME-By|U3224924}}
# [[/Equine therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in equine therapy? {{ME-By|SoSilverLibby}}
# [[/Fear of apocalypse/]] - What is apocalyptic fear and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|AliciaEdwards1212}}
# [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|JorjaFive}}
# [[/Guided meditation and emotion regulation/]] - How can guided meditation be used to regulate emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3215755}}
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? {{ME-By|Siobhanu3216316}}
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis and how does it help to understand drug addiction? {{ME-By|U3189442 - K.Ryan}}
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|Inandonit365}}
# [[/Interoception and mental health/]] - What is the role of interoception in mental health? {{ME-By|U3229576}}
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|U3168525}}
# [[/Long-term injury in high performance field athletes and emotion/]] - How do long-term injuries impact the emotions of high performance field athletes? {{ME-By|U3216619}}
# [[/Meditation and mindfulness/]] - How can meditation contribute to mindfulness? {{ME-By|APMonte}}
# [[/Mental health literacy/]] - What is mental health literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? {{ME-By|U3215387}}
# [[/Mental imagery and emotion/]] - How can mental imagery be used to regulate emotion? {{ME-By|MaryamNageeb}}
# [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - How can mental toughness be useful in the workplace and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|KubeChu}}
# [[/Moral outrage/]] - What is moral outrage, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3215934}}
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|Alyssa.marin}}
# [[/Placebo effect and emotion/]] - What is the placebo effect and how can it affect emotion? {{ME-By|U3213568}}
# [[/Positive body image development/]] - What is a positive body image and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3224053}}
# [[/Psilocybin assisted therapy and anxiety/]] - How can psilocybin assisted therapy help to treat anxiety?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|SammyTabrett}}
# [[/Psychedelic treatment of anxiety/]] - How can psychedelics be used to help in treating anxiety? {{ME-By|SashaBrooksby}}
# [[/Psychological literacy/]] - What is psychological literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|DMaphosa}}
# [[/Relief/]] - What is relief and what role does it play in our emotional lives? {{ME-By|U3216413(2023)}}
# [[/Sadism and emotion/]] - What are the emotional aspects of sadism? {{ME-By|Kimberley Manyura}}
# [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3229936}}
# [[/Self-affirmation and psychological change/]] - How can self-affirmation be used for positive psychological change? {{ME-By|U3213910}}
# [[/Self-discrepancy theory and emotion/]] - In what ways does self-discrepancy help to understand emotion? {{ME-By|U3173387}}
# [[/Singing and emotion/]] - What is the relation between singing and emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3213084}}
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? {{ME-By|U3230268}}
# [[/Stress mindset/]] - What is stress mindset, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3224687}}
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? {{ME-By|U3185622}}
# [[/Therapeutic recreation/]] - What is therapeutic recreation, how does it work, and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|MojoHides}}
# [[/Toxic positivity/]] - What is toxic positivity, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Lauraei11}}
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} {{ME-By|Clarestuparich}}
# [[/Tragic optimism/]] - What is tragic optimism, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? {{ME-By|Alice hatcher }}
# [[/Trauma-informed care/]] - What is trauma-informed care and how can it be implemented?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|Nabila.Tursun}}
# [[/Unconscious aspects of multiple selves and emotion/]] - What role do unconscious aspects play in shaping our multiple selves and their influence on emotion? {{ME-By|Natsta19}}
# [[/Uncertainty and emotion/]] - How does uncertainty influence emotion? [[User:Mikaela MG|Mikaela MG]]
# [[/Unemployment and depression/]] - What is the relationship between unemployment and depression? {{ME-By|U3213250}}
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]] - What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? {{ME-By|U3211780}}
# [[/Vicarious embarrassment/]] - What is vicarious embarrassment, why does it occur, and how can it be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} {{ME-By|U3216476}}
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|Alyson131}}
# [[/Yoga and emotional regulation/]] - How can yoga help with emotional regulation? {{ME-By|U3169170}}

== Motivation and emotion ==
# [[/GABA, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the neurological function of GABA for motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|U3227976}}
# [[/Medial forebrain bundle, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional functions of the medial forebrain bundle? {{ME-By|U3226707}}
# [[/Multiple selves theory, motivation, and emotion/]] - How does the concept of multiple selves impact our motivational and emotional experiences?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|H.Maycock}}
# [[/Overchoice, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of overchoice? {{ME-By|Atu320270}}
# [[/Role-playing games, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional characteristics of role-playing games?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} {{ME-By|U3224203}}
# [[/Torture interrogation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional aspects of torture interrogation and how do these impact on the effectiveness of torture interrogation? {{ME-By|U3204500}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2023]]</text>
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    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/The unreasonable effectiveness of the cathetus rule in ancient and modern optics</title>
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| first = Gavin R.
| last = Putland
| orcid = 0000-0003-4757-6341
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| correspondence = [[w:Special:EmailUser/Gavin_R_Putland|Contact form]]
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| abstract = The &quot;cathetus rule&quot;, in optics, alleges that the image of an object-point formed by reflection or refraction at a surface lies on the perpendicular (&quot;cathetus&quot;) from the object-point to or through the surface. The first known statement to this effect, attributed to Euclid, was for a plane or spherical mirror. The rule was extended to refraction by Ptolemy, and to cylindrical and conical mirrors by Ibn al-Haytham, and was upheld by Witelo. But the first valid proofs involving lines of sight other than the cathetus itself were published by Benedetti as late as 1585, for binocular vision, for two special cases: (i) a plane mirror, and (ii) a concave or convex spherical mirror with the two points of reflection (one for each eye) equidistant from the cathetus. Benedetti also gave the first explicit counterexamples to the rule—for a concave or convex spherical mirror with the eyes in the same plane of reflection. Kepler, in 1604, used more general lines of sight than Benedetti, improved on Benedetti's counterexample for the convex spherical mirror, gave the first counterexample for refraction, salvaged the rule for reflection or refraction in a plane or spherical surface subject to appropriate symmetry in the placement of the eyes, was the first author to attack the received rational arguments for the rule, and did all this in a systematic treatise on &quot;the optical part of astronomy&quot;, which so eclipsed Benedetti's book that Kepler was universally credited with the first disproof-and-salvage of the cathetus rule until 2018, when Benedetti's priority was exposed by Goulding.

Kepler notwithstanding, the rule was reaffirmed by Tacquet for plane and spherical mirrors, except for the case in which the rays converge toward a point behind the eye. This became known as the &quot;Barrovian case&quot; because it troubled Barrow, in spite of his modern concept of an image. Barrow demolished the cathetus rule for the tangential image except in the paraxial limit, and Newton salvaged it for the sagittal image. The rule then seems to fade from history.

But the rule is equivalent to the assumption that the image is stigmatic and the cathetus well defined. This narrow assumption is approximately true in the first-order (paraxial, &quot;Gaussian&quot;) analysis of lenses and mirrors, and unacknowledged applications of the ancient rule can indeed be discerned in modern expositions of that subject. Moreover, the validity of the rule for the sagittal image fills a critical gap in meridional ray-tracing through spherical surfaces: by tracing the chief ray from an off-axis object-point, then applying the cathetus rule to the successive surfaces, one can locate successive sagittal image-points on the chief ray (produced rectilinearly through surfaces as necessary), and hence assess astigmatism to leading order, without tracing any rays outside the meridional plane.
| keywords = geometrical optics, Gaussian optics, history of optics, stigmatism, astigmatism, sagittal focus
}}

== Introduction: Undeniable implausibility ==

[[File:Convex mirror.png|thumb|300px|This modern diagram, for locating the image{{mvar| I}}&amp;#8202; of an object-point{{mvar| O}}&amp;#8202; in a convex spherical mirror whose center of curvature is{{mvar| C}}, happens to agree with the ancient cathetus rule. In this case the cathetus is {{mvar|OC&amp;#8202;}} and the point of reflection is{{mvar| V}}.&amp;#8201; According to the rule, the image is at the intersection of the line of sight (through the point of reflection) and the cathetus.]]

The ''cathetus rule'', as it came to be called, is the ancient optical principle according to which the image of an object-point formed by a reflective or refractive surface lies at the intersection of the line of sight and the ''cathetus'', the latter being the perpendicular let fall from the object-point to the surface. The line of sight and&amp;#10744;or the cathetus may be produced rectilinearly through the surface. In the earliest statements of the rule, but not all statements, the surface is assumed to be plane or spherical. If the premise that the image-point lies on the line of sight is taken as tautological, the rule reduces to the proposition that the image-point lies on the cathetus, but still carries the implication that the line of sight intersects the cathetus.

The rule is easily distilled to an absurdity, especially if we drop the assumption that the surface is plane or spherical. &lt;span id=&quot;active&quot;&gt;Suppose that the image is seen in a part of the surface (which we shall call the ''active'' part) far removed from the cathetus.&lt;/span&gt; If we now deform the surface in a small neighborhood of the cathetus so that the cathetus moves, does the image also move although the object and the observer and the active part of the surface do not? Or if, while preserving the active part, we damage another part of the surface so that there is no longer any cathetus, does the image disappear? For that matter, does the image disappear—even in a plane or spherical surface—if we merely cover the point on the surface where the cathetus falls?

== History ==

=== Euclid ===

In the oldest surviving source of the cathetus rule, namely the ''[[w:Catoptrics|Catoptrics]]'' traditionally attributed to [[w:Euclid|Euclid]], the last-mentioned absurdity seems to be not only tolerated as an implication, but relied upon as a premise, and even stated among the postulates at the outset: the 4th and 5th postulates, as paraphrased by [[w:A. Mark Smith|A.&amp;#8239;Mark Smith]], state that in plane, convex spherical, and concave spherical mirrors, &quot;if a perpendicular (the so-called cathetus) is dropped from an object to the mirror's surface, and if the point at which it meets that surface is covered, the object will no longer be seen.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;56. For the original Greek and the Latin translation by Jean Pena, see [[#euclid-pena-1557|Euclid/Pena, 1557]], p.&amp;#8239;35 in the Greek version, &amp;amp; p.&amp;#8239;45 in the Latin version. Smith evidently follows a different edition in numbering the offending postulates as 4 and 5; though I have small Greeke, and lesse Latine, I notice that Pena's edition divides the corresponding postulates into nos.&amp;#8239;4,&amp;#8239;5,&amp;#8239;and 6, referring respectively to plane, convex spherical, and concave spherical mirrors.&lt;/ref&gt; Euclid cites these postulates, together with the premise that the image lies on the line of sight (Postulate 2), to prove the cathetus rule for plane mirrors (Proposition 16), convex spherical mirrors (Proposition 17), and concave spherical mirrors (Proposition 18).&lt;ref&gt;See [[#euclid-pena-1557|Euclid/Pena, 1557]], p.&amp;#8239;42 in the Greek &amp;amp; pp.&amp;#8239;55–6 in the Latin.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;span id=&quot;takahashi-defense&quot;&gt;[[w:Ken'ichi Takahashi|Ken'ichi Takahashi]] has suggested, in Euclid's defense, that the 4th and 5th postulates refer correctly to the case in which the observer looks along the cathetus, so that the line of sight is blocked by the object&lt;/span&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;[[#takahashi-92|Takahashi, 1992]], pp.&amp;#8239;20–26, cited by [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;59–61, and by [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;500–501.&lt;/ref&gt; or, I should add, by the observer's head, if it is between the object and the mirror. Under that interpretation, the cathetus rule may seem to express the reasonable premise that the image-point lies at the intersection of two lines of sight. But that does not explain why the cathetus (if it exists) must be one of them, or why all choices of the other should intersect the cathetus at the same point (if at all), or how we can speak of &quot;the&quot; image if they do not. Neither does any &quot;two lines of sight&quot; argument appear in subsequent ancient and medieval efforts to defend the rule (as we shall see). Nevertheless the rule is upheld as often as it is mentioned, for both reflection and refraction, by all optical writers until [[w:Giambattista Benedetti|Benedetti]] (1585),&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]].&lt;/ref&gt; and by all better-known ones until Kepler.&lt;ref&gt;[[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;26–7.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Johannes Kepler|Johannes Kepler]], in the third chapter of his ''Paralipomena'' (1604), initially interprets Euclid's premise in the more literal, absurd manner, and duly dismisses it. Supposing that ''C''&amp;#8202; is the foot of the cathetus from the object-point ''A'',&amp;#8239; Kepler says of Euclid:
&lt;blockquote&gt;That the place of the image of the object ''A'' is on ''AC''&amp;#8202; he proves thus: &quot;For,&quot; he says, &quot;when the position ''C''&amp;#8202; of the mirror is taken, upon which the perpendicular falls, the visible object ''A'' is no longer seen.&quot; If by &quot;taken&quot; you understand &quot;occupied&quot; (that is, that the position ''C''&amp;#8202; is covered), the axiom is false…&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;73. In the quotation, which appears in italics in the original edition ([[#kepler-1604|Kepler, 1604]], p.&amp;#8239;56), Kepler may be translating from Greek, or paraphrasing, rather than quoting from Latin; ''cf''. [[#euclid-pena-1557|Euclid/Pena, 1557]], p.&amp;#8239;42 in the Greek &amp;amp; p.&amp;#8239;55 in the Latin.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Kepler offers Euclid a lifeline but cannot save him:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Let us now grant that Euclid's axiom is to be understood differently, so as to state that if the observer were situated at ''A''&amp;#8201; and ''C''&amp;#8202; were covered, then ''A'' would not be seen. Then the axiom is perfectly true, but the conclusion does not follow from it, except for perpendicular viewing. The argument does not carry over from a perpendicular to an oblique observer.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;74.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Kepler's lifeline is not as general as Takahashi's; but even if it were, the argument would still &quot;not carry over&quot; to an oblique viewer, in as much as it would not explain the distance of the perceived image along a ''single'' line of sight.

In Euclid's Postulate 4 and Proposition 16, the Greek ''káthetos'' is rendered in Latin as ''perpendicularis''&amp;#8202; by at least three translators,&lt;ref&gt;[[#euclid-pena-1557|Euclid/Pena, 1557]], pp.&amp;#8239;45 &amp;amp; 55 in the Latin; [[#euclid-dasypodius-1557|Euclid/Dasypodius, 1557]] (unnumbered pages); [[#euclid-heiberg-1895|Euclid/Heiberg, 1895]], pp.&amp;#8239;286–7,&amp;#8239;312–13.&lt;/ref&gt; whereas Postulate 5 and Propositions 17 and 18 refer to the cathetus not by any name, but as the line drawn to the center of the sphere.

=== Ptolemy ===

When interpreting the authorities on geometrical optics before 1000{{midsize|&amp;#8239;CE}}, we must remember that they believed in visual rays emitted by the eye, so that the &quot;incident&quot; ray is from the eye, not from the object-point; the &quot;cathetus of incidence&quot;, if it is mentioned, is therefore the perpendicular from the ''eye'' to the surface, while the perpendicular from the object-point to the surface, if it must be distinguished, may be called the cathetus of reflection or refraction. So it is with [[w:Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]'s ''Optics'', written some years after his ''[[w:Almagest|Almagest]]'', but known to us only through a 12th-century Latin translation of a now lost, incomplete Arabic translation;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;1–8; [[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], p.&amp;#8239;211.&lt;/ref&gt; even the Latin version was not available to Kepler,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;84, n.&amp;#8239;34; [[#lohne-59|Lohne, 1959]], pp.&amp;#8239;117-18.&lt;/ref&gt; and not printed until 1885.&lt;ref&gt;[[#ptolemy-govi-1885|Ptolemy/Govi, 1885]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Ptolemy affirms the cathetus rule for reflection in a plane or spherical mirror, on the empirical ground that a thin rod standing perpendicularly on the reflecting surface appears aligned with its reflection&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;93.&lt;/ref&gt; when &quot;properly viewed outside the mirror.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;131–2.&lt;/ref&gt; That premise is certainly true if the rod is viewed with one eye, due to the axial symmetry about the rod (the cathetus), implying a bilateral symmetry (&quot;mirror symmetry&quot;) about the plane of the eye and the rod. But it proves only that the reflection is in that plane—not that it is necessarily collinear with the rod. Moving the eye around the rod does not prove anything more, because the said plane moves with the eye, so that the image, if not collinear with the rod, moves with the plane.

Ptolemy then notes that the perpendicular to the surface at the point of reflection is in the plane of the line of sight and the cathetus,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], p.&amp;#8239;132.&lt;/ref&gt; which is indeed the case if we retain the symmetry. Thus he makes the cathetus rule the ''premise'' of an aspect of the law of reflection—an aspect that seems to have escaped his predecessors&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], p.&amp;#8239;36.&lt;/ref&gt;— namely that the incident and reflected rays and the normal at the point of reflection are coplanar!&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;502.&lt;/ref&gt;

Later in his treatise, Ptolemy makes the corresponding aspect of the law of ''refraction'' dependent on the cathetus rule. As evidence for the latter, he cites the already old &quot;floating coin&quot; experiment, in which a coin lying on the bottom of a tub and hidden by the rim is seemingly raised into view by filling the tub with water.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;230–31.&lt;/ref&gt; He does not explain why the image should be raised precisely ''vertically'', as the cathetus rule requires—and as will seem to be confirmed in observations that tacitly exploit the axial symmetry. And although the cited experiment concerns a ''plane'' refracting surface, Ptolemy goes on to apply the rule to spherical refracting surfaces without further justification.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;252–3.&lt;/ref&gt;

In addition to these flawed empirical demonstrations of the rule, Ptolemy attempts a rational explanation, saying that the location of the image must be unique, and that &quot;to any point on a given object there is one and only one cathetus, whereas any other line, being oblique with respect to this cathetus, is subject to numerous variations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Translated by Smith ([[#smith-1996|1996]], p.&amp;#8239;138); cited by Goulding ([[#goulding-18|2018]], p.&amp;#8239;503).&lt;/ref&gt; There are at least two weaknesses in this argument. First, some qualification must be imposed on the image-point in order to ensure uniqueness; Ptolemy himself shows that for given positions of the object-point and the eye, a concave mirror can give multiple points of reflection, and these, according to the cathetus rule, will give multiple image-points on a common cathetus.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;102; [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;505''n''.&lt;/ref&gt; Second, and more seriously, if we admit the uniqueness of the image-point and of the cathetus, that does not prove any other connection between the two.

In the Latin text of Ptolemy's ''Optics'', which is already a translation of a translation, the cathetus is again called the ''perpendicularis''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;287–8, 296. The word ''cathetus'' and the expressions ''cathetus of incidence'' and ''cathetus of reflection'' appear in Smith's English translation, and these terms together with ''cathetus of refraction'' appear in his annotations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;br /&gt;

The cathetus rule has been remarkably successful in spite of its lack of foundation. Its effectiveness for ''reflection''&amp;#8202; is accidentally emphasized by one author who seems unfamiliar with it: the Syrian Christian polymath [[w:Qusta ibn Luqa|Qusṭā ibn Lūqā]] (820?–912?{{midsize|&amp;#8239;CE}}). In only one case—that of a plane mirror—does he specify the location of a reflected image. To explain why (e.g.) the image in a convex mirror is diminished,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;170–71.&lt;/ref&gt; Ibn&amp;#8239;Lūqā compares the apparent extent of the image ''on the reflecting surface'' with that given by a plane mirror—whereas Euclid&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;61.&lt;/ref&gt; and Ptolemy,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;165–9.&lt;/ref&gt; aided by the cathetus rule, have correctly deduced not only that the image is diminished, but also that it is closer to the reflective surface than the object is, and that convex mirrors make the world look convex.

By the end of the 10th century, however, Ptolemy's ''Optics'' has been translated into Arabic,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], p.&amp;#8239;6.&lt;/ref&gt; ready to be studied—and surpassed—by &quot;the most significant figure in the history of optics between antiquity and the seventeenth century.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], p.&amp;#8239;58.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Alhacen ===

For Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥasan (&quot;Alhacen&quot;) ibn al-Ḥasan [[w:Ibn al-Haytham|ibn al-Haytham]],{{efn|The original Latin spelling was ''Alhacen'', not the more familiar ''Alhazen'' ([[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], pp.&amp;#8239;209–10; [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;1).}} whose ''Book of Optics'' was written circa 1030{{midsize|&amp;#8239;CE}},&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;182.&lt;/ref&gt; the eye is not an emitter of visual rays, but a receiver of light rays.&lt;ref&gt;[[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;17–18; [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;184–6.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Although Alhacen's theory of vision was not the first ''intromission'' theory, it was apparently the first such theory incorporating the premise (first stated explicitly by [[w:al-Kindi|al-Kindī]] in the 9th century) that each visible spot on a luminous or illuminated body sends out ''light'' to be seen from wherever the eye happens to be, and consequently the first such theory that could be reconciled with a geometrical science of optics ([[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], pp.&amp;#8239;30,&amp;#8239;58–60).}} Hence, in reflection or refraction, the &quot;incident&quot; ray is not from the eye, but from the object-point, and the &quot;perpendicular of incidence&quot; is dropped from the object-point, while the &quot;line of sight&quot; now coincides with the &quot;line of reflection&quot; or the &quot;line of refraction&quot;. This reversal of direction does not affect the geometry and therefore does not of itself furnish any new arguments for the cathetus rule, although Alhacen offers many—some empirical and some rational, for both reflection&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;385–97.&lt;/ref&gt; and refraction&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;275–82.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;#8202;—none of which is an exemplar of the rigor for which he is otherwise renowned.

In the ''empirical'' category, for a plane mirror,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;385–7.&lt;/ref&gt; Alhacen recommends putting marks on Ptolemy's rod (but does not name Ptolemy here). Then he tries a cone instead of a rod, and invites us to imagine such a cone extended to the mirror from every point on the object. He notes that the same observations are true for convex spherical mirrors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;387–8.&lt;/ref&gt; Conceding that they are ''not'' generally true for a convex cylindrical mirror, Alhacen claims that the cathetus rule is observed to hold for such a mirror if we concentrate on a single point on the object.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;388.&lt;/ref&gt; It seems to escape his notice that if the image of a point on a thin rod standing perpendicularly on the mirror does not align with the rod, then the line of reflection, when produced through the mirror, does not intersect the cathetus at all. Obviously, by symmetry, the image will appear to align with the rod if the plane of the eye and the rod contains the axis of the cylinder or is perpendicular thereto; and his experiments confirm these cases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;388–9.&lt;/ref&gt; In intermediate cases, if the image of the tip of the rod is to fall on the cathetus, the line of sight and therefore the point of reflection must be in the plane of the eye and the cathetus, so that the point of reflection must be on the elliptical section of that cylinder by the plane—which is precisely what Alhacen claims,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;389–91 (par.&amp;#8239;2.15–18) and note 12 (p.&amp;#8239;489), referring to figure 5.2 on p.&amp;#8239;216 (other volume).&lt;/ref&gt; without checking the requirement that the normal to the cylinder at this point is in the same plane (that of the incident and reflected rays), as he stipulates in his statement of the law of reflection.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;300.&lt;/ref&gt;

After briefly claiming that the same procedure can be applied to convex conical mirrors, with the same results (!), Alhacen turns to concave spherical mirrors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;391–4.&lt;/ref&gt; Fashion a right circular cone whose slant height is equal to the radius of curvature of the mirror, mark a &quot;line of longitude&quot; (generating line) on the cone, and mount the cone on the mirror, so that the apex of the cone is at the center of curvature of the mirror; then, he says, the cone and the line of longitude will appear to extend into the mirror. Next, having placed the apex at the center of curvature, mount a thin rod on the mirror so that its tip is between the apex and the mirror while the image of the tip is in front of the mirror; then the image will be nearer to the eye (note the singular) than the apex is, and you will be able to bring the tip, the apex, and the image into a single line of sight. Finally he claims that the cathetus rule holds for concave cylindrical and conical mirrors, by the same flawed reasoning as for their convex counterparts.

In the account of the concave spherical mirror, modern readers will recognize the apparent continuation of the cone into the mirror as the virtual image of an object inside focus, and will recognize the image of the tip of the rod as the real image of an object-point between the focus and the center of curvature. Otherwise the above observations of Alhacen, in so far as they are correct, are trivial consequences of the axial symmetry of the surface about the cathetus or catheti; and in only one case—that in which we look along the cathetus, through the image of the rod-tip to the tip itself—does he establish that the image is on the cathetus and not merely in the plane of the cathetus and the eye.

For refraction, Alhacen rightly cites the floating-coin experiment as proof that the image is displaced from the object.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;274–5.&lt;/ref&gt; He then asserts the cathetus rule, and claims to prove it by a variant experiment in which a vertical diameter and a sloping diameter are marked on a vertical disk, which is immersed in water up to a point above the intersection (center of the disk), with the marked surface facing the eye (note the singular), which is best placed just above the water level. The vertical diameter then appears to continue vertically into the water, so that the point of intersection (the object-point) appears to lie on the continuation (the cathetus), while the sloping diameter appears to be kinked at the surface. He further recommends rotating the disk so as to interchange the roles of the two marked diameters.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;275–7.&lt;/ref&gt; But again he fails to explain why the image is on the cathetus and not merely in the plane of the cathetus and the eye.

This defect is not repaired by the next experiment (using the same disk, but no water), which is intended to interchange the places of the rare and dense media.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;277–80.&lt;/ref&gt; A rectangular glass block, with its top and bottom faces horizontal, is affixed to the disk near the top, covering a portion of each marked diameter. The observer's eyes are positioned so that one eye is close to the top face of the block and sees both diameters through the block, while the other eye sees the intersection without refraction (bypassing the block). Then the former eye perceives the entire vertical diameter (the cathetus) as vertical and aligned with the portion seen by the other eye without refraction, although the two eyes see the intersection at different points on this diameter. Thus the image of the intersection, as seen by the former eye, appears to be on the cathetus. But again this appearance follows from the weaker condition that each eye perceives the vertical diameter (or the relevant part thereof) to be in the ''plane'' of that eye and the vertical diameter: as these planes intersect on the vertical diameter, that diameter must appear in its true alignment, even if the eyes disagree on the positions of its constituent points (only one of which—the intersection—looks different from the others).

In the ''rational'' category, for reflection, Alhacen sets out to explain &quot;why visible objects are perceived through reflection where the image is located and why the image lies on the normal from the visible object to the surface of the mirror.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;394.&lt;/ref&gt; On the latter question, he first says that we judge the distance of an image by comparing its angular size with its absolute size.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;395.&lt;/ref&gt; For the purpose of establishing the cathetus rule, by which we propose to locate points on images and thence determine absolute sizes of images, this is a circular argument.

For plane mirrors, says Alhacen, &quot;since the image does not appear on the surface of the mirror but behind it, it is more appropriate and reasonable for it to appear upon rather than outside the normal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;395; ''cf''. [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;504.&lt;/ref&gt; Taking that as a ''premise'', he correctly locates the image. He adds that if the image were beyond or in front of the cathetus, then, since the image lies on the line of reflection, it would be further from or nearer to the eye and would therefore subtend a smaller or larger angle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;396.&lt;/ref&gt; But in fact, according to the law of reflection, it would subtend the ''same'' angle because the line of reflection from each point on the object would be unchanged. Kepler raises another objection: Alhacen &quot;says that when an image is perceived on the perpendicular, it has the proper magnitude belonging to the thing itself.&quot; But this magnitude, as Kepler notes, cannot be a necessary condition for the correct location of the image, because it does not hold for curved mirrors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;75.&lt;/ref&gt;

For a convex mirror, Alhacen argues verbosely but validly that the image of the center of the eye (note the singular) must be on the cathetus due to symmetry. But then he extends the argument to the image of any other point on the eye, although the symmetry is broken in that the image is no longer ''seen'' along the cathetus; and he briefly claims that the same logic applies to a concave spherical mirror and to a concave or convex conical mirror,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;396–7.&lt;/ref&gt; although in the conical case, even the surface is not axially symmetrical about the cathetus.

Just before the claim on concave and conical mirrors, Alhacen says in support of the cathetus rule:
&lt;blockquote id=&quot;alhacen-obj-img&quot;&gt;The state of natural things is in accordance with the situation of their principles, and the principles of natural things are hidden.&lt;ref&gt;Quoted in translation by Goulding ([[#goulding-18|2018]], p.&amp;#8239;505); ''cf''. [[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;397.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&quot;By these words he says two things,&quot; says Kepler. &quot;First, he repeats the very thing that was proposed to prove (for they say nothing different), and second, he says by way of appending the cause, that it is hidden. But this is not demonstrating.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;74–5.&lt;/ref&gt; And just ''after'' the claim on concave and conical mirrors, Alhacen continues:
&lt;blockquote&gt;And the place of the image will universally be on the perpendicular in any mirror, because there is no place outside the perpendicular in which the form maintains a likeness and identity of position.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;505; ''cf''. [[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;397.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Thus he seems to argue from the location of the thing seen to the location of the image; this mode of reasoning will reappear later.

Broadening the attack, Kepler adds: &quot;''But this fact further strongly confutes the Optical writers'', that they do not give the same cause of this matter in reflection as in refraction.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Italics in the Latin ([[#kepler-1604|Kepler, 1604]], p.&amp;#8239;58), not quite matching [[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;75.&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, in support of the cathetus rule for refraction, Alhacen apparently reasons that the motion of the light ray in the medium containing the object-point can be resolved into a component in the direction of the cathetus, and a component perpendicular thereto.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;280–82.&lt;/ref&gt; An obvious weakness in that argument, if we credit it with any relevance at all (which Kepler does not, as we shall see), is that we can choose the former direction differently and still perform the resolution. Kepler also argues, somewhat cryptically, that refraction further weakens Alhacen's connection between image size and correct image location, in that the size-distance relation for refraction is different from that for reflection.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;76.&lt;/ref&gt;

On three pillars—the cathetus rule, the correct law of reflection, and an incomplete law of refraction—Alhacen builds a comprehensive and largely correct theory of image location, magnification, and distortion in seven types of mirrors,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;204–5.&lt;/ref&gt; image location in plane and spherical refracting surfaces,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], chap.&amp;#8239;5, par.&amp;#8239;25–90 (p.&amp;#8239;282ff).&lt;/ref&gt; and magnification by spherical refracting surfaces.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], chap.&amp;#8239;7.&lt;/ref&gt; Taking the first pillar to imply that an object-point is perceived to lie on the cathetus from that point to the outer refracting surface of the ''eye'', he even offers an explanation why the eye perceives the direction of the object-point although light from that point strikes all points of the eye.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2010|Smith, 2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;303–4, par.&amp;#8239;6.22–3. ''Cf''. [[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], pp.&amp;#8239;76–78. Remarkably, this is the only context in which Lindberg (1981) mentions the cathetus rule (which he states but does not name). More remarkably, he says that in general the rule &quot;makes perfect sense, for it requires simply that the eye be unaware of the break in the ray… and therefore that it project the image backward along the incident ray&quot; (p.&amp;#8239;76). Apart from misidentifying the ray (an obvious and temporary slip), this explanation fails to explain ''how far'' the image should be projected back.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|But Alhacen does not question the ancient, erroneous doctrine that the glacial humor (lens) is the sensitive part of the eye ([[#smith-2001|Smith, 2001]], p.&amp;#8239;417, par.&amp;#8239;2.1). Nor does he deduce (as he would in any other context) that the image-point lies behind the center of the eye (as it does), because that would give an inverted image (as it does), which apparently would imply that we see upside-down! Instead, he concludes that there must be a diverging refraction at the back surface of the glacial humor, so that the cathetal rays from the various object-points do not cross each other ([[#smith-2001|Smith, 2001]], pp.&amp;#8239;419–20). ''Cf''. [[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], pp.&amp;#8239;76–78,&amp;#8239;80–81.}} Yet neither he nor anyone before him has offered a firm foundation for that first pillar.

[[File:Plane-mirror-opt-cropped.svg|thumb|300px|Location of the image{{mvar| P&amp;prime;}} of an object-point{{mvar| P}}&amp;#8202; in a plane mirror{{mvar| B}}.&amp;#8201; In this special case the cathetus rule follows simply and rigorously from the law of reflection (although Ptolemy and Alhacen still cite the cathetus rule independently).]]

&lt;span id=&quot;ingredients&quot;&gt;For the case of reflection in a plane mirror, however, the ''ingredients'' of a valid proof of the cathetus rule have been unwittingly served up by Ptolemy and Alhacen.&lt;/span&gt; From the law of reflection ''and the cathetus rule'', Ptolemy proves that the image-point is as far behind the mirror as the object-point is in front.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;155–6 (Theorem {{serif|III}}.5), summarized in [[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;13–14.&lt;/ref&gt; If the cathetus rule is not assumed ''a&amp;#8239;priori'', the same geometric argument simply shows that the reflected line of sight to the object-point, when produced from the eye through the mirror, intersects the cathetus as far behind the mirror as the object-point is in front (provided that the line of sight intersects the cathetus at all, as is obvious from the symmetry). By the generality of this line of sight, all such lines of sight intersect the cathetus at the same point, and therefore intersect each other at a common point—a ''[[w:Stigmatism|stigmatic]]'' image—which is ''on the cathetus''. But Ptolemy does not package the argument that way. Nor does Alhacen, who again shows that the line of sight intersects the cathetus as far behind the mirror as the image-point is in front.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;399 (pars.&amp;#8239;2.47–8 in Prop.&amp;#8239;4).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The three friars ===

In the West, as [[w:David C. Lindberg|David C. Lindberg]] explains,
&lt;blockquote&gt;the character of the twelfth-century revival of learning was dramatically transformed by a flood of translations from both Greek and Arabic; what was at first chiefly an intensification of interest in ancient Latin sources became a quest for new knowledge, previously unavailable in the West.&amp;#8239;… In optics, …&amp;#8239;it was not until the middle of the thirteenth century that the full corpus of Greek and Arabic works on the subject was at hand in the major European centers of learning, able to shape (and indeed revolutionize) the thought of Western scholars.&lt;ref&gt;[[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], pp.&amp;#8239;102–3.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Foremost in the &quot;corpus&quot; is Alhacen's ''Book of Optics'', translated into Latin circa 1200 as ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus''. This is the main source, albeit not the only source, for the three leading Western &quot;perspectivist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The term was coined by Lindberg ([[#lindberg-81|1981]], p.&amp;#8239;251, n.&amp;#8239;1) from the late medieval Latin equivalent.&lt;/ref&gt; works, namely
* [[w:Roger Bacon|Roger Bacon]]'s ''Perspectiva'', written circa 1263, and dispatched to the papal court as part 5 of his ''Opus Majus'' in 1267 or 1268,
* [[w:Vitello|Witelo]]'s ''Perspectiva'', written at the papal court, probably in the first half of the 1270s, and
* [[w:John Peckham|John Pecham]]'s ''Perspectiva Communis'', probably written at the papal court in the late 1270s, just before the author's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury.&lt;ref&gt;[[#lindberg-71|Lindberg, 1971]], pp.&amp;#8239;68–9,&amp;#8239;71 (on Bacon), pp.&amp;#8239;72–3 (on Witelo), pp.&amp;#8239;82–3 (on Pecham).&lt;/ref&gt;

Bacon, according to Lindberg, is the first Western optical writer to cite Ptolemy's ''Optics'', and only the third to use Alhacen's ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], p.&amp;#8239;253, n.&amp;#8239;28.&lt;/ref&gt; He also draws on Euclid's ''Catoptrics'' in a circular attempt to establish the cathetus rule, which he then applies in selected cases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;267–8.&lt;/ref&gt; Thus he becomes, as far as I have noticed in this brief inquiry, the first author to use the Latin term ''cathetus'' in the optical sense—mostly in the phrase ''cum catheto'' (&quot;with the cathetus&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;[[#bacon-combach-1614|Bacon/Combach, 1614]], is digitally searchable.&lt;/ref&gt;

Witelo is clearly familiar with Bacon's work, presumably through the patronage of the papal confessor (and prolific translator of ancient Greek treatises), [[w:William of Moerbeke|William of Moerbeke]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#lindberg-71|Lindberg, 1971]], pp.&amp;#8239;72–5.&lt;/ref&gt; But, whereas Bacon summarizes ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus'', Witelo expands on it, incorporating material from Euclid, [[w:Hero of Alexandria|Hero of Alexandria]], Ptolemy, al-Kindī, Alhacen's treatise on parabolic burning mirrors, and [[w:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani|Ibn&amp;#8239;Mu‘ādh]]'s essay on twilight, rearranging the content with a mathematical introduction and a consistent theorem-and-proof format—suitable for a textbook or reference—and adding a theological prolog for a Roman Catholic readership.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;273–5; [[#unguru-72|Unguru, 1972]].&lt;/ref&gt; And whereas the Latin text of Alhacen's ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus'' does not seem to contain the word ''cathetus'' or any inflected form thereof (although ''perpendicularis'' and ''perpendiculari'' are ubiquitous), Witelo's ''Perspectiva'' uses that word in some form more than 150 times, including at least 19 occurrences of ''cum catheto''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#risner-1572|Risner, 1572]], is digitally searchable.&lt;/ref&gt;

Pecham also is clearly familiar with Bacon's work, probably through personal acquaintance, both men having joined the [[w:Franciscans|Franciscan]] order at Oxford in the 1250s and been resident at the Franciscan convent in Paris in the 1260s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#lindberg-71|Lindberg, 1971]], pp.&amp;#8239;75–7.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Witelo, according to various modern sources, was also a friar; but I have not been able to establish the order to which he belonged, or whether this is known. Moerbeke was a [[w:Dominican Order|Dominican]].}} Pecham, like Bacon, summarizes Alhacen, but follows him more closely,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;273–5.&lt;/ref&gt; and again uses the expressions ''cathetus'' and ''cum catheto''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#pecham-gaurico-1504|Pecham/Gaurico, 1504]], and [[#pecham-hartmann-1542|Pecham/Hartmann, 1542]], are digitally searchable.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Lindberg ([[#lindberg-71|1971]], pp.&amp;#8239;66,&amp;#8239;77–83) offers evidence that Pecham was also indebted to Witelo through Moerbeke, but notes that the citations of Witelo in the ''Perspectiva Communis'' are spurious, having been introduced by [[w:Georg Hartmann|Georg Hartmann]], editor of the [[#pecham-hartmann-1542|1542 reprint]].}}

Bacon's work, although the first of the three to be written, was the last to be printed, in 1614. Pecham's ''Perspectiva Communis'', although the last to be written, spawned the largest number of manuscripts, was printed earliest (1482/3) and most often, and was clearly intended for the widest readership;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;328; Lindberg, [[#lindberg-81|1981]], pp.&amp;#8239;120–21.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;if it were published today,&quot; says Smith, it &quot;would probably be retitled ''Perspectiva ad asinos'' or ''Optics for Dummies''.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;282.&lt;/ref&gt; Witelo's ''Perspectiva'' was printed in 1535 and reissued in 1551. In 1572 it was printed for the third time, and Alhacen's ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus'' for the first time, in a single weighty volume under the title ''Opticae&amp;#8239;Thesaurus'', expertly edited—reconstructing diagrams and adding explanatory notes, citations of mathematical sources, proposition numbers and headings for Alhacen's work, and cross-references within and between the two works—by the mathematician [[w:Friedrich Risner|Friedrich Risner]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;328–9. Smith's translation of Alhacen ([[#smith-2001|Smith, 2001]], 2006, 2008, 2010) omits Risner's headings and uses a different section-numbering system.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|In the ''Opticae&amp;#8239;Thesaurus'' ([[#risner-1572|Risner, 1572]]), the two major treatises are separately paginated. Appended to Alhacen's treatise, at pp.&amp;#8239;283–8, is Ibn Mu‘ādh's&amp;#8202; essay on twilight—translated into Latin by [[w:Gerard of Cremona|Gerard of Cremona]] as ''De Crepusculis''—which was misattributed to Alhacen from the 14th century until 1967 ([[#sabra-67|Sabra, 1967]]). I have noticed that Risner's summarizing headings in Alhacen's work are also sometimes misattributed to Alhacen himself (e.g. in [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;169, n.&amp;#8239;51, citing [[#risner-1572|Risner, 1572]], p.&amp;#8239;129, §8).}} It was Risner's edition that brought the works of Alhacen and Witelo to the attention of Benedetti and Kepler.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;498''n'',&amp;#8239;504; [[#lindberg-81|Lindberg, 1981]], p.&amp;#8239;185; [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;322.&lt;/ref&gt; And according to Smith, it is Risner's edition that we should blame for changing the spelling of ''Alhacen'' to ''Alhazen'' and adding Latin endings thereto.&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2001|Smith, 2001]], p.&amp;#8239;xxi (in the Introduction).&lt;/ref&gt;

Witelo, in the second of two postulates (&quot;''petitiones''&quot;) in Book 5 of his ''Perpectiva'', says that the location of the object-point with respect to any mirror is taken along the cathetus. He uses this postulate only to establish the cathetus rule in Prop.&amp;#8239;36: &quot;In any type of mirror, any visible point is seen on the cathetus of its incidence.&quot; For the image must be seen according to the aforesaid location of the object-point, or else it will not be seen &quot;through the mode of image&quot; (''per modum imaginis''), presumably meaning &quot;as the image of an object&quot; and not, e.g., as an independent apparition.&lt;ref&gt;[[#risner-1572|Risner, 1572]], part 2 (''Vitellonis Opticae''), pp.&amp;#8239;190,&amp;#8239;207, cited by [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;506; the translations and the interpretation of ''per modum imaginis'' are Goulding's.&lt;/ref&gt;

Kepler rejects Witelo's logic: &quot;First, I say that he does not do well to argue from the location of the thing seen to the location of the image, that is, out of fear that the image might cease to exist if the image should not correspond to the object in position. And indeed, in this way he would easily overturn all of catoptrics. For many things of this sort are different in the image than in the object. Next, for my part, I do not understand the postulate which he repeats from the beginning of the book,&quot; except, says Kepler, for the hint given by Alhacen ([[#alhacen-obj-img|above]]) in claiming that the state of natural things is in accordance with the situation of their principles.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;74–5.&lt;/ref&gt;

In his next proposition, Witelo repeats the cathetus rule for any type of mirror, and tries to prove it by claiming that the image of each point of an extended object must be on the cathetus in order to reproduce the size and shape of the object. But this argument is applicable only to a ''plane'' mirror, and the resulting geometric transformation of the object is not the only one that would preserve size and shape; e.g., the geometric reflection could be combined with a translation.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;507.&lt;/ref&gt;

On the cathetus rule for ''refraction'', Witelo faithfully recites Alhacen's argument concerning the components of motion. &quot;It is hard to see the connection,&quot; says Kepler, &quot;and even if you admit it, a mathematical deduction of what was proposed to be proved will not be forthcoming.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;75.&lt;/ref&gt; Worse, Euclid's &quot;axiom&quot; reappears, adapted for refraction. As Kepler reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;To Alhazen's opinion, Witelo appends the view that we had noted above as irrelevant and false in Euclid. He says, &quot;If on the surface of a transparent body a point upon which there falls a perpendicular from the seen object, happens to be hidden by the interposition of something opaque between the seen object and the point, the object will not be seen.&quot; I say that this is false. For provided that the point be free, from which the ray from the seen object to the eye is refracted, the image of the radiating object in the depth will perforce be seen.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;76. The statement in quotation marks is italicized in the original Latin edition ([[#kepler-1604|Kepler, 1604]], p.&amp;#8239;59), where it is a paraphrase rather than quote from Witelo; ''cf''. [[#risner-1572|Risner, 1572]], part 2 (''Vitellonis Opticae''), p.&amp;#8239;415.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Thus Witelo, after striving through 400 dense pages to improve on Alhacen, regresses 15 centuries in one sentence for a last-ditch defense of the cathetus rule.

=== Benedetti: Binocularism reconsidered ===

Kepler has not been alone in his dissatisfaction with the ancient rule. In a letter to Kepler, written in late 1604 as a critique of the ''Paralipomena'', the physician Johannes Brengger proposes a modified rule, which amounts to replacing a reflective surface by its ''tangent plane'' at the point of reflection before applying the standard cathetus rule.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;533–5.&lt;/ref&gt;  A more sophisticated, independent modification is found in the optical writings of [[w:Simon Stevin|Simon Stevin]], published in 1605.&lt;ref&gt;Part of his ''Mathematical Memoirs'', first published in Dutch, then translated into Latin by Snell in 1608, and into French (more selectively) in 1608 and again in 1634 ([[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;535; [[#dijksterhuis-55|Dijksterhuis, 1955]], pp.&amp;#8239;10,&amp;#8239;30–32, works {{serif|XIa,&amp;#8239;XIb,&amp;#8239;XIII}}).&lt;/ref&gt; Stevin's rule is a sort of binocular version of Brengger's: each eye sees a &quot;true&quot; image in the place given by Brengger; but, in a curved mirror, convergence of the lines of sight might give the ''illusion'' of a single image in a third location.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;536–43.&lt;/ref&gt; Of course, what Stevin calls an illusion is what modern readers would regard as the true location of the binocular image.

A more rigorous critic than Brengger and Stevin, and a forerunner of Kepler, is [[w:Giambattista Benedetti|Giovanni Battista Benedetti]]. His ''Book of Various Mathematical and Physical Speculations'' (Turin, 1585) contains five treatises followed by a miscellany of letters. One of the letters, addressed to a certain Conradus Terl, recognizes the role of the retina in vision, and in so doing may have anticipated [[w:Felix Platter|Felix Platter]], although Platter was first to publish.&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], pp.&amp;#8239;296–7; [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;512.&lt;/ref&gt; Of interest here, however, is the series of eight undated letters headed &quot;on the reflections of rays&quot; and addressed to &quot;the most excellent philosopher [[w:Francesco Vimercato|Francesco Vimercato]]&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], pp.&amp;#8239;331–47.&lt;/ref&gt; which, according to [[w:Robert D. Goulding|Robert Goulding]], were probably written in the early 1570s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;512–13.&lt;/ref&gt;

The first letter of the series gives several examples showing that Hero's principle of least distance does not necessarily apply to a ''concave'' mirror. In the first example,&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;513–14.&lt;/ref&gt; Benedetti shows that if we have a concave spherical mirror, with the object-point ''n'' and the observation point ''q'' on the spherical surface (extended if necessary), and seek a reflection point ''b'' opposite the chord ''qn'', the position of ''b'' is that which ''maximizes'' the path length,{{efn|Provided, of course, that the two legs of the path—from the object-point to the reflection point, and from the latter to the observation point—are constrained to be straight; if they are allowed to be curved, the path length is never a local maximum, because it can always be increased by bending the legs (cf.&amp;nbsp;[[#born-wolf-02|Born &amp;amp; Wolf, 2002]], p.&amp;#8239;137''n''). Concerning the [[w:Fermat's principle|Hero/Fermat principle]], Goulding ([[#goulding-18|2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;513–14) makes two errors in passing. First, in his footnote 52, he fails to note that a refracted path may be a path of ''maximum'' time (again subject to the constraint that the legs are permissible ray paths) if the surface of the denser medium is sufficiently convex (consider, e.g., the refracted path through a small glass bead in the middle of the line of sight). Second, in his footnote 53, referring to the concave spherical mirror, the length of the reflected path &quot;through the unlabeled end of the diameter ''bc''&quot; is not, as he claims, the &quot;very shortest&quot; from ''q'' to ''n''; as the proposed point of reflection approaches ''q'' or ''n'', the path length approaches the length of the chord ''qn'', which is clearly shorter than the path via any other point on the sphere.}} contrary to Hero's teleological principle. Hence Benedetti prefers a ''mechanistic'' explanation of the law of reflection, which he offers in the third letter of the series.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;514–15, citing [[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], p.&amp;#8239;335.&lt;/ref&gt; That explanation is unconvincing by modern standards, but sets a fruitful precedent: in the same letter, Benedetti goes on to seek a similarly mechanistic explanation of the cathetus rule—assuming the use of ''two'' eyes.

Benedetti is not the first optician to consider [[w:Binocular vision|binocular vision]]; Ptolemy, Alhacen, and Witelo have all confronted it.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;507–9.&lt;/ref&gt; But, whereas his predecessors have treated it as a problem—how to avoid seeing double—Benedetti treats it as an opportunity: how to perceive depth. Like Alhacen, he understands that if an object-point is to be seen singly and most distinctly, the axes of the two eyes must converge on that point; but, unlike Alhacen, he explicitly associates this convergence of the visual axes with the ''distance'' at which an object is seen singly, and he recognizes it as the mechanism of distance perception. Idiosyncratically, he adds that the distance is still perceived when looking with one eye, because (he says) the object is still seen best when the axis of the other eye passes through it.&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], pp.&amp;#8239;335–6; [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;515–16.&lt;/ref&gt;

Armed with this new understanding of binocular vision, Benedetti considers the reflection of an object-point in a plane mirror, viewed with both eyes. Alhacen has used the cathetus rule to locate the image seen by each eye separately, and concluded that the two images coincide so that &quot;there will only be one image… and it will lie at the same place as it would if it were viewed by only one eye.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;401–3 (Prop.&amp;#8239;4), with notes on pp.&amp;#8239;492–3, and diagrams on p.&amp;#8239;221 (other volume); ''cf''. [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;509–12 (with diagrams).&lt;/ref&gt; Benedetti inverts this reasoning: because the two lines of sight, produced through the mirror, intersect the cathetus at the same point, they intersect ''each other'' at that point, which is therefore the image—and on the cathetus. Thus, for the special case of reflection in a plane mirror, Benedetti gives the ''first valid proof of the cathetus rule'' for lines of sight other than the cathetus itself.&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], p.&amp;#8239;336; [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;516–18.&lt;/ref&gt;

For a convex spherical mirror,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;431–2, with notes on pp.&amp;#8239;499–500, and diagrams on p.&amp;#8239;240 (other volume), pars.&amp;#8239;2.217–18.&lt;/ref&gt; and (more tersely) for a concave spherical mirror,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;475.&lt;/ref&gt; Alhacen again relies on the cathetus rule to show that each eye sees the image-point at the same location, provided that the eyes are placed symmetrically about a plane containing the cathetus.{{efn|A statement on binocular perception of images is found at the end of Alhacen's discussion of each mirror shape, with the unexplained exception of the convex cylinder ([[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;511–12). For a convex conical mirror, Alhacen says that &quot;the same form and the same location for the form is perceived by each eye…; sometimes they share precisely the same location, sometimes their locations overlap, and sometimes they are separated, but only a little bit&quot; ([[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;446), where this &quot;little bit&quot; is apparently small enough to allow &quot;a single image according to sense-deduction&quot; ([[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;431). For a concave cylindrical mirror, he baldly asserts that &quot;when both eyes are looking, one image will actually form two, but they will abut or overlap, so they will appear single&quot; ([[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;481). And he gives a similar statement on what happens when a second eye is opened to each of the images formed by a concave conical mirror ([[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;485).}} In the ''concave'' case, for which Alhacen does not even offer a diagram, Benedetti gives a detailed original argument, which again avoids using the cathetus rule as a premise. Supposing at first that the object-point and both eyes are ''on'' the reflecting sphere, Benedetti shows that both reflected lines of sight must intersect the cathetus. But only if the points of reflection are equidistant from the object-point will the intersections coincide, in which case there is a single image-point on the cathetus; otherwise, he says, the two eyes see separate images. We can see that the same reasoning applies if the eyes are moved forward, closer to the cathetus. But, as Benedetti notes, if they cross to the other side of the cathetus the object-point will be seen double and blurred (&quot;''confusè''&amp;#8202;&quot;), wherever the points of reflection may be.&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], pp.&amp;#8239;337–9; [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;518–20.&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, he says, if the two eyes are in the same plane of reflection (confusingly called the ''surface'' of reflection), then
&lt;blockquote&gt;the place of the image will not be on the cathetus of incidence, but outside it, because the intersection of the visual axes will not be on the cathetus but outside it—and in that intersection there takes place the vision of only one image, something that the ancients did not notice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;521, quoting [[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], p.&amp;#8239;339.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;span id=&quot;sixth&quot;&gt;Thus Benedetti ends the third letter by asserting a ''counterexample to the cathetus rule''. He does not give a proof here. In the sixth letter, however,&lt;/span&gt; he shows that a spherical burning mirror with an object-point beyond the center of curvature does not give a single focal point on the cathetus, and concludes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Whence it follows that the convergence of reflected rays from a concave spherical mirror is not at one and the same point on the cathetus of incidence, when they are reflected from points not equidistant from the same cathetus. From this reasoning it may also be seen that what I wrote to you in the third letter is true, namely that whenever the visual axes or reflected rays are in one and the same plane of reflection, then the image of the object will in no way be seen on the cathetus of incidence in a concave spherical mirror.&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], p.&amp;#8239;343; ''cf''. [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;521.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Indeed the violation of the cathetus rule in the third letter involves points of reflection that are not equidistant from the cathetus. Concerning the violation in the sixth letter, Benedetti apparently reasons that that if the reflected rays in a common plane of reflection intersect the cathetus at different points, then they must intersect ''each other'' at points ''off''&amp;#8202; the cathetus, as asserted in the third letter.

In the seventh letter (the last that deals with specular reflection), Benedetti gives another counterexample and another salvage, both for a ''convex'' spherical mirror. For the counterexample, he considers two rays from the same object-point in the same plane of reflection, and shows that if the reflected rays, when produced, intersect each other on the cathetus, then they cannot both satisfy the law of reflection.&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], pp.&amp;#8239;343–4, summarized in [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;523–5.&lt;/ref&gt; For the salvage, he takes an object-point ''b'', from which the foot of the cathetus is ''g'', and shows that if a ray from ''b'' is reflected with sufficiently glancing incidence at a point ''q'', the produced reflected ray intersects the cathetus ''bg'' in the air ''outside'' the sphere.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;525 &amp; Fig.&amp;#8239;15.&lt;/ref&gt; He concludes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Therefore, if the reflected rays from the object ''b'' come to both pupils from two points of such a mirror, as distant from point ''g'' as ''q'' is, then the common point of convergence of the visual axes will be on the cathetus… where the image will appear for the reasons given above, so that this can happen not only with concave, but also with convex mirrors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], p.&amp;#8239;344.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Of course the salvage does not depend on the point of convergence being outside the sphere. It depends only on the axial symmetry about the cathetus, which implies that each produced reflected ray intersects the cathetus ''somewhere'', and that if the points of reflection are equidistant from the foot of the cathetus, so are the points of intersection.{{efn|Goulding ([[#goulding-18|2018]], p.&amp;#8239;526) explains Benedetti's conclusion thus: &quot;from his analysis of the concave mirror he extrapolated the general principle that any image location predicted by the traditional theory could be saved by the binocular theory, if the eyes were symmetrically placed on either side of the older theory's plane of reflection&quot;. I should add that the symmetry of the surface needs to be axial about the cathetus, and that the lines of sight need to be related by a rotation about the cathetus. If the symmetry were merely bilateral about &quot;the older theory's plane of reflection&quot;, it would guarantee only that the image is in that plane—not that it is necessarily on the cathetus.}}

=== Kepler: Generalized lines of sight ===

So the first disproof-and-salvage of the cathetus rule, with the first explicit counterexamples, is due to Benedetti. But here we have heard from Kepler first, because it is to him that we owe the first rebuttals of traditional ''arguments'' for the rule. Having disposed of these arguments, Kepler introduces a series of propositions of his own, &quot;''in order to make evident the true cause of the place of the image'', ignorance of which is a disgraceful stain in a most beautiful science&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;76.&lt;/ref&gt; For Kepler, as for his predecessors, an image is essentially an illusion:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''The Optical writers say it is an image, when the object itself is indeed perceived along with its colors and the parts of its figure, but in a position not its own, and occasionally endowed with quantities not its own, and with an inappropriate ratio of parts of its figure.'' Briefly, an image is the vision of some object conjoined with an error of the faculties contributing to the sense of vision. Thus, the image is practically nothing in itself, and should rather be called imagination.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;77 (Definition&amp;#8239;1); ''cf''. Malet [[#malet-1990k|1990k]], p.&amp;#8239;6.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
But what is the location of this illusory thing? In Proposition 8, Kepler eventually informs us that the distance of the image from the eye(s) is judged by triangulation, &quot;as is more amply discussed below concerning [[w:Parallax|parallaxes]]&quot;, with a baseline given by the distance between the eyes, or motion of the head, by which &quot;a single eye stands in for two that are far apart&quot;, or, at worst, the breadth of the pupil, as elaborated in Propositions 9 and 14.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;79–83.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|The reference to parallaxes is, I submit, an admission that a small angle of convergence between the eyes may be judged with the aid of background objects rather than by any innate ability to sense the angle.}} Thus he follows Benedetti in referring to triangulation, but goes beyond Benedetti by ''allowing baselines other than those given by binocular vision''.

Also in Proposition 9, we read that Nature intended the edges of the eyelids, and the line connecting the eyes, to be in the plane of the horizon in order to maximize the baseline for triangulation within that plane. For that reason, according to Proposition 10, when you look at an object-point via a convex mirror or &quot;the flat surface of denser media,&quot; you try to position your eyes so that the respective lines of sight meet the surface at equal angles. If this condition is not met, says Kepler (again somewhat cryptically), the two lines of sight generally fail to intersect, so that you see two images, unless you strain your eyes so as to look along skew lines.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;80–81.&lt;/ref&gt; (Recall that Benedetti has noted the double vision for asymmetric placement of the eyes, but only for reflection, and only for a ''concave'' mirror.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;519–20.&lt;/ref&gt;)

For cases that meet the &quot;equal angles&quot; condition, Kepler salvages the cathetus rule.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;83–6.&lt;/ref&gt; In Definition 2, he introduces the plane of reflection or refraction (again confusingly called the ''surface'' of reflection or refraction), which earlier writers have defined as the plane containing the observation point (&quot;center of vision&quot;), the object-point, and the point of reflection&amp;#10744;refraction. This plane is perpendicular to the reflecting or refracting surface (Prop.&amp;#8239;16). Now let an object-point be viewed by both eyes via a plane or spherical reflecting or refracting surface ('''Prop.&amp;#8239;17'''). For each eye, there is an point of reflection or refraction, and a line of sight (&quot;visual ray&quot;) through that point. The image-point, if one exists for the given positions of the eyes, is the point where these lines of sight meet, which must be on the line of intersection of the respective planes of reflection&amp;#10744;refraction (since these contain the lines of sight). These planes contain the object-point and are perpendicular to the surface at the respective points of reflection&amp;#10744;refraction, and hence, by the symmetry, contain the cathetus, which is therefore their line of intersection, which (as already established) contains the image-point. Thus &quot;''all the images of the seen object will be on the perpendicular from the object to the surface, whether refracting or reflecting; and this will happen to such an extent that the distance of the points of the seen object is grasped in the manner described, whether by the two eyes, or by the diameter of the breadth of one eye''.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;86; Kepler's emphasis.&lt;/ref&gt; And it is grasped in that manner by the two eyes if the two lines of sight make equal angles with the surface (Prop.&amp;#8239;10).

Goulding initially describes Kepler's Prop.&amp;#8239;17 as a &quot;rapid proof to show that the image seen in a plane mirror would lie on the visible object's cathetus&quot;, this proof being &quot;identical to Benedetti's&quot; except in &quot;only two ways&quot;: first, Kepler does not repeat Benedetti's claim that monocular depth-perception involves the alignment of the other eye; and second, Kepler extends the argument to plane refraction. But, as Goulding adds on the same page, &quot;Kepler intended this argument to apply to any reflective or refractive surface of any shape,&quot; subject to appropriate symmetry in the placement of the eye(s).&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;529.&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed Kepler himself allows the surface to be spherical,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;86.&lt;/ref&gt; but in Prop.&amp;#8239;17 he does not say whether it is convex or concave; here his reasoning depends solely on axial symmetry about a well-defined cathetus and is otherwise indifferent to the shape of the surface or whether it is reflective or refractive.{{efn|Hence I do not understand how Goulding concludes that Kepler, unlike Benedetti, &quot;did not provide a proof&quot; for non-plane mirrors ([[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;531).}}

&lt;span id=&quot;new-salvage&quot;&gt;Here I should mention a case, not mentioned by Benedetti or Kepler, in which the cathetus rule holds although the &quot;equal angles&quot; condition does not.&lt;/span&gt; Recall that [[#takahashi-defense|Takahashi defends Euclid]] by noting that if you try to look along the cathetus at the reflection of an extended object, your line of sight is blocked. Now this problem does not arise with refraction. Accordingly, consider a smooth refracting surface with the object-point on one side and your eyes on the other, with one eye (the &quot;first&quot;) on the cathetus, so that the line of sight produced from the first eye through the surface ''is'' the cathetus. If the surface and media are axially symmetrical about the cathetus, or otherwise bilaterally symmetrical about the plane of the object-point and both eyes, then, by that symmetry, the line of sight produced from the ''second'' eye through the surface intersects the cathetus. And the point of intersection is the binocular image-point.

Kepler gives his first counterexample to the cathetus rule in Proposition 18.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;86–8; ''cf''. [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;530–31.&lt;/ref&gt; Unlike Benedetti, he does not consider a concave mirror in this connection. For a ''convex'' spherical mirror, like Benedetti, he considers two rays from the same object-point in the same plane of reflection. But, whereas Benedetti supposes that the two (produced) reflected rays meet on the cathetus, and shows that they cannot both satisfy the law of reflection, Kepler supposes the law of reflection and shows by a purely geometric contradiction argument that the (produced) reflected rays meet on the observer's side of the cathetus. Indeed, as he shows more simply, the point at which they meet moves outside the sphere as we approach grazing incidence. He concludes that the cathetus rule is not universally true, &quot;unless this restriction also be added, that the sense of vision be so located with respect to the mirror as nature shows&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;88.&lt;/ref&gt;—that is, unless the lines of sight make equal angles with the surface.&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;27,&amp;#8239;74''n''.&lt;/ref&gt; But, he adds, the departure from the cathetus is imperceptible if only one eye is used, because the lines of sight are so close together.

Kepler's theory of image location, including his disproof-and-salvage of the cathetus rule, was thought to be novel until 2018, when Benedetti's partial priority was revealed by Goulding. Kepler himself presents his theory as revolutionary, without citing Benedetti's ''Speculations''. Had he known this work, says Goulding, &quot;such an omission would have been out of character for the usually scrupulous Kepler.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;531.&lt;/ref&gt; On that score, I can easily believe that Benedetti and Kepler independently thought of proving the cathetus rule for a plane mirror by inverting Alhacen's binocular argument, because (pardon the anecdote) [[#ingredients|so did I]], before I knew that Alhacen had introduced a second eye or a second line of sight. I can even believe that Benedetti and Kepler (unlike me) independently thought of supporting their argument by citing the same proposition {{serif|XI}}.19 of Euclid's ''Elements'', because mathematicians of bygone centuries (unlike me) knew their Euclid and cited him slavishly. Like Benedetti, Kepler gives the counterexample of the convex mirror with the two eyes in the same plane of reflection; but Goulding concedes that Kepler's treatment is &quot;more concise and elegant&quot;, and I further submit that it gives more information. Like Benedetti, Kepler rejects Hero's least-distance explanation of the law of reflection (propagated through Alhacen and Witelo), but for different reasons: the variation of the path length is negligible for reflections of stars in ponds, and the argument fails completely for refraction, supporting Kepler's claim that &quot;these operations are not those of a form that acts deliberately or keeps a goal in mind, but of matter bound to its geometrical necessities.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;84; ''cf''. [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], pp.&amp;#8239;528–9,&amp;#8239;531.&lt;/ref&gt; There is a letter in which Kepler expresses a high opinion of Benedetti's mathematics—an opinion which, according to Goulding, he could hardly have formed from works other than the ''Speculations''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;531.&lt;/ref&gt; But if we accept that assessment, the evidence is still leaky because the letter dates from 16 Nov.&amp;#8239;1606, two years after the ''Paralipomena''; and even if Kepler encountered the ''Speculations'' earlier, there is still a plausible mechanism by which he could have overlooked Benedetti's innovations on the cathetus rule, namely by reading only the systematic treatises in the first part of the book, and not the diverse collection of letters in the second part, which is hard to navigate because Benedetti's book (unlike Kepler's) has no table of contents and no index. On that inconclusive note, I abandon this subplot and return to the ''Paralipomena''.

&lt;span id=&quot;first-counterex-refr&quot;&gt;In Proposition 19 of the third chapter, Kepler gives the first counterexample to the cathetus rule for ''refraction''.&lt;/span&gt; He considers a plane refracting surface, with the object-point in the denser medium and the two eyes in a common plane of refraction in the rarer medium, and shows that for sufficiently oblique incidence, the image departs from the cathetus toward the observer. He does this without knowing the exact law of refraction, by first supposing that the angle of deviation is the same for the two angles of incidence, and then showing that the departure from the cathetus is greater if, as in fact, a more oblique incidence causes a greater deviation.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;88–9; [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;530 &amp;amp; Fig.&amp;#8239;17. In the redrawings of Kepler's diagram by Donahue and Goulding, the incidence is not sufficiently oblique: to support the argument, point ''D''&amp;#8202; should be to the left of the (vertical) cathetus from ''E''; compare the original in [[#kepler-1604|Kepler, 1604]], p.&amp;#8239;73.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Of course, in the degenerate case in which one eye is on the cathetus, the binocular image is also on the cathetus; see [[#new-salvage|above]].}}

Ending Kepler's third chapter, in Proposition 20, is the ''reductio ad absurdum'' that begins the present paper: the cathetus rule implies that we can move (e.g.) a reflected image by deforming the reflective surface in the vicinity of the cathetus while preserving it in the vicinity of the point(s) of reflection—whereas in fact, as Kepler says, &quot;it makes no difference to the place of the image, what sort of mirror surface is placed opposite the object, since the proportions of image formation are all taken from that part of the mirror upon which are the two points of reflection of light to the two eyes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;90.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|The supporting example ([[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;90–91), in which Kepler seems to have invented what we now call the [[w:Osculating circle|osculating circle]], is more sophisticated than it needs to be.}}

The imprecision of the distance of the image as judged by ''one'' eye becomes crucial in the fifth chapter of the same work, where Kepler considers a distant object seen through a glass sphere filled with water. He admits that if the eyes are sufficiently far behind the sphere, the image is seen in the air when viewed stereoscopically with two eyes,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;191, 192 (Prop.&amp;#8239;1). In modern terms, of course, this image is ''real''.&lt;/ref&gt; but is seen on the facing surface of the sphere when viewed with one eye,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;194 (Prop.&amp;#8239;6), 208–9 (Prop.&amp;#8239;17).&lt;/ref&gt; and may be seen in two places on that surface if both eyes are trained on the surface.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;195, Prop.&amp;#8239;7; ''cf''. [[#malet-1990k|Malet, 1990k]], pp.&amp;#8239;10–12 &amp;amp; Fig.&amp;#8239;5.&lt;/ref&gt; As [[w:Alan E. Shapiro|Alan E. Shapiro]] points out, this case shows that the ''perceived'' image and the ''geometrical'' image (Shapiro's terms) of the same object-point may have different locations, the former image being located by a pair of rays, and the latter by a ''pencil'' of rays (Kepler's term).&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;106–7, 124–5 &amp;amp; n.&amp;#8239;58.&lt;/ref&gt;

Later in the same chapter, Kepler considers refraction of parallel rays by a spherical surface. For deviations less than 10 degrees, using the approximation that the deviations are proportional to the angles of incidence, he shows that the refracted rays cut the axis at very nearly the same point.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;205–6 (Prop.&amp;#8239;15).&lt;/ref&gt; Then he introduces what we call the real image, which he calls a ''picture'' (Latin ''pictura''), and which, by his definition, seems to require a screen upon which it appears:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''Since hitherto an Image has been a Being of the reason, now let the figures of objects that really exist on paper or upon another surface be called pictures''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;210 (&quot;Definition&quot;); ''cf''. [[#malet-1990k|Malet, 1990k]], p.&amp;#8239;14.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The subsequent Propositions 20 &amp;amp; 23, which concern the picture projected by a water-filled glass sphere, imply that in order to make an intelligible picture, the rays originating from one point on the object need not converge exactly to one point in the picture; ''near''-convergence is enough. In both cases, the &quot;last intersection&quot;—&amp;#8239;that is, the limit of the intersection of the refracted ray with the axis, as the incident ray deviates less and less from the axis—is recognized as an image, implying that an image need not be perfectly stigmatic.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;211–13.&lt;/ref&gt;

But, as noted by [[w:Antoni Malet|Antoni Malet]]—against the view of previous 20th-century scholars—it is not at all clear that Kepler regards a geometrical image as acting on the eye in the same way as an object. In his ''Paralipomena''&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;192 (Prop.&amp;#8239;1).&lt;/ref&gt; and in his ''Dioptrice'' of 1611, in cases where a real image is formed in the air, Kepler conspicuously fails to invoke it in explaining what is seen by the eye(s) without a screen,&lt;ref&gt;Malet, [[#malet-1990k|1990k]], p.&amp;#8239;5 (n.&amp;#8239;8), 21–23; [[#malet-2003|2003]], pp.&amp;#8239;118–20,&amp;#8239;134; [[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], p.&amp;#8239;35 (Fig.&amp;#8239;1.19).&lt;/ref&gt; although he ''does'' invoke it in explaining how an upright picture can be subsequently formed on paper through another lens.&lt;ref&gt;[[#malet-2003|Malet, 2003]], p.&amp;#8239;120 &amp;amp; Figure&amp;#8239;7.&lt;/ref&gt;

These three points—that the perceived and geometrical images may not coincide, that the convergence of the rays may be approximate, and whether a geometrical image is optically equivalent to an object—are revisited later in the century.

=== Mersenne, Roberval, Gregory: Images redefined ===

[[w:Marin Mersenne|Marin Mersenne]], in his posthumous ''L'Optique, et la Catoptrique'' (1651) edited by [[w:Gilles de Roberval|Gilles Personne de Roberval]], distinguishes between two images of the same object: the &quot;interior or sensible image&quot;, which is formed on the retina, and the &quot;exterior or apparent&quot; image, &quot;which our fantasy represents to us some place outside far or near from us, as if the object itself were in that place, from which it sends its rays to us to form the interior image...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Quoted and translated by Shapiro, [[#shapiro-2008|2008]], p.&amp;#8239;311.&lt;/ref&gt;

Roberval, in his editorial contribution, refers to
&lt;blockquote&gt;the apparent place of the exterior image of a point of an object in all manners of vision&amp;mdash;direct, reflected, or refracted&amp;mdash;both for one eye alone as for two, being the point where the rays that fall on the eyes concur really or potentially (French: ''en puissance'') immediately before the eyes&amp;hellip;&lt;ref&gt;Shapiro, [[#shapiro-2008|2008]], p.&amp;#8239;295.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
A point of &quot;potential&quot; concurrence is of course a ''virtual''&amp;#8202; image. Roberval also allows the rays to be ''very nearly'' concurrent,&lt;ref&gt;Shapiro, [[#shapiro-2008|2008]], p.&amp;#8239;294.&lt;/ref&gt; in agreement with Kepler; but the unification of the perceived and geometrical images in the &quot;external&quot; image, and their visual equivalence to an object, are new.

[[w:James Gregory (mathematician)|James Gregory]]'s ''Optica Promota'' (1663) is well known for the invention of [[w:Gregorian telescope|a reflecting telescope]] (in the Epilogue), the independent rediscovery of the law of refraction (Proposition 4),{{efn|Discussed at length by Malet ([[#malet-1990g|1990g]]), who also notes that James preferred to spell his surname &quot;Gregorie&quot;; indeed, he used this Scottish spelling in the dedication of the ''Optica Promota'', although the entire treatise, including its dedication, is in Latin.}} and the preface belatedly acknowledging [[w:René Descartes|Descartes]]' prior publication of this law, of which Gregory was unaware until he went to press.{{efn|Gregory's ignorance of Descartes' priority is one of several pieces of evidence suggesting that the propagation of the law of refraction was slow for the first twenty years after its publication by Descartes in 1637; see [[#dijksterhuis-04|Dijksterhuis, 2004]], p.&amp;#8239;173.}} Gregory likewise seems to have been unaware of the work of Mersenne and Roberval; for while he addresses the same three points, he parts with Kepler on all three. According to Gregory,
&lt;blockquote&gt;''An image is a similitude of a radiating body, arising from the divergence or convergence of the rays belonging to individual points of the radiating body, from individual points or to individual points of a single surface.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Imago est similitudo materiæ radiantis, orta ex divergentiâ, vel convergentiâ radiorum, singulorum materiæ radiantis punctorum, a punctis singulis, vel ad puncta singula unius superficiei.''&quot; —&amp;#8239;[[#gregory-1663|Gregory, 1663]], p.&amp;#8239;1 (Definition 9).&lt;/ref&gt;''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This definition, like Roberval's, allows no distinction between perceived and geometrical image-points and applies to both binocular and monocular viewing,&lt;ref&gt;[[#gregory-bruce-06|Gregory/Bruce, 2006]], Props.&amp;#8239;28,&amp;#8239;29,&amp;#8239;36; [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;128–30.&lt;/ref&gt; and attributes the &quot;similitude&quot; to the defining feature of a geometrical image: the convergence or divergence of the rays. But, unlike Roberval, Gregory does not allow the point of divergence or convergence to be an approximation or limiting case; concerning the image of an object-point ''B'' seen by reflection, Gregory writes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;From the points of the pupil [''A''], draw through the points of reflection all the lines of reflection, in whose concourse ''L'' (provided they concur) will be the apparent place of the image of the point ''B''. If, however, they do not concur in one point, no distinct and fixed place of the image of the visible point ''B'' will exist.&lt;ref&gt;End of Prop.&amp;#8239;36, as translated by Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;129).&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Although the diagram supporting this statement shows the point of concourse as being behind the mirror (giving a virtual image), the wording is equally applicable if the point is in front (giving a real image). Moreover, the initial statement of the problem indicates that the solution should be equally applicable to refraction,&lt;ref&gt;[[#gregory-bruce-06|Gregory/Bruce, 2006]], Prop.&amp;#8239;36.&lt;/ref&gt; which it is. And indeed the initial definition is applicable to both real and virtual images, and to both reflection and refraction. Gregory's insistence on exact concurrence may look like a loss of generality, but is understandable in view of his comprehensive coverage of the imaging properties of conic sections in reflection and refraction; indeed Malet has argued that &quot;no major printed optical text prior to James Gregory's ''Optica promota'' (London, 1663) offers the grounding work for the modem mathematical theory of optical images&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Malet, [[#malet-1990k|1990k]], p.&amp;#8239;5, n.&amp;#8239;8.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mersenne, Roberval, and Gregory have not directly addressed the cathetus rule; but their refinement of the concept of the image will be pivotal.

=== Tacquet: Affirmation and exception ===

According to Malet:
&lt;blockquote&gt;By the late sixteenth century it was a well-known fact that [distant] things perceived through convex lenses appear inverted or upright according to the distance from the eye to the lens. Empirical accounts of the properties of convex lenses, such as [[c:William Bourne (mathematician)|William Bourne]]'s 'Treatise on the properties and qualities of glasses for optical purposes' (1585),&lt;ref&gt;Printed in [[#halliwell-1839|Halliwell, 1839]], pp.&amp;#8239;32–47. &quot;1585&quot; is [[w:Albert Van Helden|Van Helden]]'s dating of the treatise, whereas [[w:Sven Dupré|Dupré]] dates it to 1579/80 ([[#dupre-10|Dupré, 2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;137–8).&lt;/ref&gt; did not fail to mention that&amp;#8239; (1) when the eye is removed from the lens beyond the 'burnynge beame', or focus, all [distant] things seen through the lens appear inverted, and&amp;#8239; (2) when the eye lies between the burning focus and the lens all things seen through the lens appear upright and enlarged, and the more so the closer the eye to the focus.&lt;ref&gt;[[#malet-2003|Malet, 2003]], p.&amp;#8239;116; &quot;[distant]&quot; is my addition, for context. Compare Bourne, chapters {{serif|VI}} to {{serif|VIII}}, in [[#halliwell-1839|Halliwell, 1839]], pp.&amp;#8239;42–4. On the contrivance mentioned at the end of chap.&amp;#8239;{{serif|VI}} and elaborated in chap.&amp;#8239;{{serif|IX}}, see [[#dupre-10|Dupré, 2010]].&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Here we are chiefly interested in Malet's point (2), under which we should also note that when the eye reaches the focus, as Bourne says, &quot;yow shall discerne nothinge thorowe the glasse: But like a myst, or water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#halliwell-1839|Halliwell, 1839]], p.&amp;#8239;44.&lt;/ref&gt;

Kepler explains point (2) in his ''Dioptrice''. He shows that when an object-point is viewed through a convex lens at such a distance that the refracted rays converge toward another point, with the eye between that point and the lens, the object is seen upright (Proposition 70) and blurred (&quot;''confusa''&quot;), the more blurred as the eye is further from the lens, since the convergence is greater (Prop.&amp;#8239;71), and most blurred when the eye reaches the point of convergence (Prop.&amp;#8239;74). Moreover the image is magnified (Prop.&amp;#8239;80), and the more so as the eye recedes from the lens toward the point of convergence (Prop.&amp;#8239;82).&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-1859|Kepler (1859)]], pp.&amp;#8239;542–7. The location of these passages was assisted by Darrigol ([[#darrigol-12|2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;34–5), Malet ([[#malet-2010|2010]], pp.&amp;#8239;283–6), Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;160 &amp;amp; n.&amp;#8239;184), and ''translate.google.com''. On Kepler's explanation of Prop.&amp;#8239;82, see [[#malet-2003|Malet, 2003]], p.&amp;#8239;114 &amp;amp; Figure 4. Props.&amp;#8239;80&amp;#8239;&amp;amp;&amp;#8239;82 are used in Kepler's subsequent explanation of the magnifying power of a Dutch telescope; see Malet, [[#malet-2003|2003]] at p.&amp;#8239;122, or [[#malet-2010|2010]] at p.&amp;#8239;286.&lt;/ref&gt;

Gregory, in the following passage, confirms the blur but is indifferent as to whether the convergence is caused by a lens or a mirror:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''Corollary 4.''

…&amp;#8239;[I]f the rays from one point converge toward another point behind the eye [''post oculum''], no place can be assigned to this point except (if we will) behind the eye at the concourse of the rays: hence the image formed of such points may conveniently be called an image behind the eye.

&lt;span id=&quot;gregory-prop-30&quot;&gt;'''Prop.&amp;#8239;30. Theorem.'''&lt;/span&gt;

''With the rays from one point converging toward a point situated behind the eye, it is impossible to make distinct vision.''

For every eye is so constructed as to see distinctly either remote [points], which radiate as if in parallel, or near ones, which send out diverging rays; but in no eye is the retina distinctly painted by the converging rays (which originate from artifice and not from nature), because the crystalline humor{{efn|That is, the lens.}} gathers [''congregat''] these rays into a point in the vitreous humor, and sends them disgregated to the retina, from which disgregation arises blurred vision—as shown by Kepler.&lt;ref&gt;Translated from [[#gregory-1663|Gregory, 1663]], p.&amp;#8239;41, and in some places differing from [[#gregory-bruce-06|Gregory/Bruce, 2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Kepler and Gregory do not mention the cathetus rule in this context. But the mirror version of the experiment—in which rays converge from a concave mirror toward a point behind the eye—is the only case in which the cathetus rule is ''not'' upheld by [[w:André Tacquet|André Tacquet S.J.]] in his ''Catoptrica Tribus Libris Exposita'' (Catoptrics explained in three books), posthumously published in 1669. At the end of Book 1, Tacquet says of the cathetus rule:
&lt;blockquote&gt;This theorem is the most fruitful of all of catoptrics, whereby nearly all the phenomena of plane and convex mirrors are demonstrated, as will become evident from all of book two and book three. Consequently, its truth is in turn extraordinarily established: for it cannot be false, since it agrees wonderfully with all phenomena without exception.&lt;ref&gt;[[#tacquet-1669|Tacquet, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;223, quoted in translation by Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;144).&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
But he immediately adds:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''Whether and when this proposition has a place with concave mirrors will be plain from what is to be said in Book 3''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#tacquet-1669|Tacquet, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;223, italics in the Latin.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
And in Book 3, just before Proposition 22,&lt;ref&gt;[[#tacquet-1669|Tacquet, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;256.&lt;/ref&gt; he warns that &quot;in concave ones we postulate this only for the moment, until the extent of its truth becomes apparent.&quot; In Props.&amp;#8239;29&amp;#8239;&amp;amp;&amp;#8239;30,&lt;ref&gt;[[#tacquet-1669|Tacquet, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;259.&lt;/ref&gt; he comes to the experiment just mentioned, in which the eye intercepts converging rays from a concave mirror. Here the cathetus rule locates the image ''behind'' the eye—in agreement with Gregory's terminology—whereas the mind inevitably construes any visible image as being ''in front'' of the eye, leading Tacquet to conclude:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''Therefore Alhazen, Witello, and other opticians following them err in considering that just as in plane and convex mirrors so in concave ones the image never appears outside the intersection of the reflected ray with the cathetus of incidence.''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The quote is translated by Shapiro,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;172, n.&amp;#8239;107; italics in the Latin.&lt;/ref&gt; who further reports that as late as 1735, [[w:Samuel Clarke|Samuel Clarke]] faulted Tacquet for making even that exception to the cathetus rule,&lt;ref&gt;[[#rohault-clarke-1735|Rohault/Clarke, 1735]], p.&amp;#8239;278''n''.&lt;/ref&gt; while [[w:Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] upheld the rule for two eyes provided that they were not in the same plane of incidence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;172, n.&amp;#8239;108.&lt;/ref&gt; In allowing the eyes to be asymmetrically placed in different planes of incidence, Wolff's proviso is too permissive—as Benedetti and Kepler knew.

=== Barrow &quot;destroys&quot; the doctrine ===

The Rev. [[w:Isaac Barrow|Isaac Barrow]], inaugural [[w:Lucasian Professor of Mathematics|Lucasian Professor]] at Cambridge, in the first of his ''Lectiones {{serif|XVIII}}'' (Eighteen Lectures) published in 1669, defines images thus:
&lt;blockquote&gt;…&amp;#8239;Images are clearly nothing other than light from objects so reflected or refracted that it is again collected in one place and in such a situation as it had when it flowed from the original object and proceeded in a direct path to the eye; whereby it happens that images represent objects similarly but as if they were located elsewhere.&lt;ref&gt;''Lectiones'' {{serif|I}}:5 ([[#barrow-1669|Barrow, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;4, quoted in translation by Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;107).&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
In the third lecture he reprises the idea:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Indeed by the term ''image'', I understand nothing but the place from which a number of rays (as many as suffice to affect vision) seem to diverge or spread in the same manner as when they are diffused by primary objects.&lt;ref&gt;''Lectiones'' {{serif|III}}:16 ([[#barrow-1669|Barrow, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;30), cited (not translated) by Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;166, n.&amp;#8239;6); my italics.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
As Shapiro explains,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;106–7 (&amp;amp; n.&amp;#8239;5), 124–5,&amp;#8239;165.&lt;/ref&gt; Barrow's principle of image location, which was rightly linked to him in the 18th century, was wrongly credited to Kepler in the 20th. In fact Barrow agrees with Roberval: he follows Roberval and Gregory, against Kepler, by strictly equating the perceived and geometrical images, and by recognizing the manner in which an image imitates an object; but, as we shall see, he follows Kepler and Roberval, against Gregory, by not requiring an image to be strictly stigmatic.

The case of the eye intercepting converging rays, whether from a convex lens as in Kepler's example, or from a concave mirror as in Tacquet's, is known as the &quot;Barrovian case&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;144,&amp;#8239;159–65.&lt;/ref&gt; because it is taken up by Barrow—citing Tacquet but, strangely, not Kepler in this connection—at the end of his lectures; the relevant passage has been translated from the Latin by [[w:George Berkeley|Berkeley]] and, independently, by Clarke.&lt;ref&gt;[[#berkeley-1901|Berkeley (1901)]], pp.&amp;#8239;137–40; [[#rohault-clarke-1735|Rohault/Clarke, 1735]], pp.&amp;#8239;260–61''n''.  Fay's recent translation of all eighteen lectures ([[#barrow-fay-87|Barrow/Fay, 1987]]) is apparently out of print.&lt;/ref&gt; Here Barrow notes that because diverging rays appear to come from a finite distance, and parallel rays from an infinite distance, converging rays ought to appear to come from beyond infinity,&lt;ref&gt;[[#berkeley-1901|Berkeley (1901)]], p.&amp;#8239;138.&lt;/ref&gt; whereas in fact, in the case in question, the image may seem closer than the object, and certainly seems to come closer as the rays become more convergent&lt;ref&gt;Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;160, line 6) erroneously has &quot;divergence&quot; instead of &quot;convergence&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;—that is, as the eye recedes toward the point of convergence—until &quot;the object appearing extremely near begins to vanish into mere confusion.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#berkeley-1901|Berkeley (1901)]], p.&amp;#8239;139.&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed the image seems to come closer because (as mentioned by Kepler but not Barrow) the magnification increases, and because (as mentioned by neither, but easily observed) the direction of the image becomes more sensitive to sideways movement of the eye—although the apparent movement of the image is the wrong way for an image in ''front'' of the eye. As Barrow notes, the looming of the image offends not only &quot;our Notion&quot; (his principle of image location), but also &quot;that antient and common one&quot; (the cathetus rule):
&lt;blockquote&gt;It seems so much to overthrow that antient and common one, which is more a-kin to ours than any other, that the learned Tacquett was forced by it to renounce that Principle, (upon which alone, almost all his Catoptricks depend) as uncertain, and not to be depended upon, whereby be overthrew his own Doctrine.&lt;ref&gt;[[#rohault-clarke-1735|Rohault/Clarke, 1735]], p.&amp;#8239;261''n''.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
After this caricature of Tacquet's position, Barrow immediately concedes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Which, nevertheless, I do not believe he would have done, had he but considered the whole matter more thoroughly, and examined the difficulty to the bottom.&lt;ref&gt;[[#berkeley-1901|Berkeley (1901)]], p.&amp;#8239;139; this statement is elided in Clarke's translation.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The concession is startling—the more so for its want of explanation—in that it seems to imply that Tacquet's purported counterexample to the cathetus rule is ''not'' a counterexample. That indeed is the position subsequently taken by Clarke, who argues that the cathetus rule is not in play, because the reflected rays, being intercepted by the eye, do not meet the cathetus.&lt;ref&gt;[[#rohault-clarke-1735|Rohault/Clarke, 1735]], p.&amp;#8239;278''n''.&lt;/ref&gt; In his commentary on the Barrovian passage, Clarke explains the apparent closeness of the image by noting that&amp;#8239; (i) if the eye is sufficiently close to the point of convergence, we cannot simultaneously train both eyes on the object-point through the glass (however large it may be), and with only one eye the judgment of distance is inferior and influenced by the proximity of the glass, and&amp;#8239; (ii) as the eye recedes, the increasing magnification (and brightness, in the case of a luminous object) makes the image seem to come closer.&lt;ref&gt;[[#rohault-clarke-1735|Rohault/Clarke, 1735]], p.&amp;#8239;262''n''.&lt;/ref&gt; Berkeley's explanation,&lt;ref&gt;[[#berkeley-1901|Berkeley (1901)]], pp.&amp;#8239;140–43 (§§&amp;#8239;31,&amp;#8239;35–6); ''cf''. [[#cardona-gutierrez-20|Cardona &amp;amp; Gutierrez, 2020]].&lt;/ref&gt; although earlier, is more modern, noting that that the convergence of rays via a lens or mirror is not the only reason why an object may appear blurred; another is that the object is too ''close''!

A late twist in the story of the &quot;Barrovian case&quot;—&amp;#8239;presumably unknown to all the characters from Bourne in the 16th century to Clarke in the 18th—is that the concave-mirror version, including the application of the cathetus rule, is discussed in Ptolemy's ''Optics''.&lt;ref&gt;Experiment {{serif|IV}}.1, translated in [[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], pp.&amp;#8239;194–5, with further commentary in [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;104–7.&lt;/ref&gt; For a given position of the eye and a given point of reflection, Ptolemy marks three object positions for which the cathetus rule will place the image respectively at the eye, behind the eye, and nowhere (or, as we would say, at infinity), and indicates the range of object positions for which the rule places the image behind the mirror. For the case in which the rule would place the image behind the eye, he claims that the object seems to be in front of the mirror (in violation of the rule) because the visual faculty is biased toward the surface from which the reflection comes. Similarly, when the rule places the image at infinity or at the eye, Ptolemy says it is perceived to be ''on the mirror''. Later, for a single spherical surface, Ptolemy gives what would amount to a refractive version of the experiment, if it were described in the same detail.&lt;ref&gt;Theorem {{serif|V}}.9, translated in [[#smith-1996|Smith, 1996]], p.&amp;#8239;252, with commentary in [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;119 &amp;amp; figure&amp;#8239;3.15.&lt;/ref&gt; Less likely to have escaped notice is the related example given by Alhacen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], p.&amp;#8239;451 (par.&amp;#8239;2.331) and figure 5.2.34b on p.&amp;#8239;254 (other volume); [[#risner-1572|Risner, 1572]], p.&amp;#8239;162, reprised by Witelo at his pp.&amp;#8239;314–5.&lt;/ref&gt; and cited by Bacon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#bacon-combach-1614|Bacon/Combach, 1614]], pp.&amp;#8239;139–40; [[#bacon-burke-1928|Bacon/Burke, 1928]], pp.&amp;#8239;553–5; [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;268.&lt;/ref&gt; for which the cathetus rule places one of the images behind the eye. Here Alhacen does not comment on the evident impossibility, whereas Bacon, like Ptolemy, blames the limitations of vision:
&lt;blockquote&gt;But in all these diversities of appearances the image is never truly apprehended unless its place is beyond the mirror, or between the sight and the mirror; hence what appears in the center of the eye or behind the head is not perceived there. For vision is not born to apprehend the positions of forms unless they are in front of it.&lt;ref&gt;[[#bacon-combach-1614|Bacon/Combach, 1614]], p.&amp;#8239;140; ''cf''. [[#bacon-burke-1928|Bacon/Burke, 1928]], p.&amp;#8239;555.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In the &quot;Barrovian case&quot;, in the words of Barrow's definitions of an image, the point toward which the rays converge is neither &quot;light… again collected in one place&quot;, because the light never gets there, nor a place from which rays &quot;seem to diverge&quot;, because they ''con''verge. (That is, in modern terms, it is neither a real image nor a virtual image.) Therefore, according to Barrow's criteria, it should not be the perceived image. But what should be? Barrow does not have an answer that passes the test of experiment. So we are forced to admit that in the &quot;Barrovian case&quot;, as in all the other cases surveyed by Tacquet (if he is to be believed), the ancient cathetus rule does no worse than Barrow's post-Keplerian principle of image location.{{efn|In modern terms, the point toward which the rays converge in the &quot;Barrovian case&quot; is a ''virtual object'' presented to the front surface of the eye, which refracts the rays toward a nearer point, which in turn becomes a virtual object presented to the interface between the cornea and the aqueous humor, and so on, until a real image is formed in front of the retina. From this image the rays diverge again to form a blurred picture ''on'' the retina (as Gregory notes in his [[#gregory-prop-30|Prop.&amp;#8239;30]], quoted above). What is presented to the observer's retina is thus easily explained and uncontroversial. What the observer makes of it is another matter: &quot;Insofar as I can determine&quot;, says Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;178, n.&amp;#8239;206), &quot;there is still no generally accepted explanation for the 'Barrovian case.'&amp;#8239;&quot;}}

However, Barrow's principle manifestly does better than &quot;that antient and common one&quot; in explaining another case: the location of the image seen by refraction in a plane surface, which Barrow analyzes by some inspired pre-calculus geometry and &quot;the most recently given law or hypothesis of refraction (discovered by the illustrious Descartes, but now, I believe, embraced by most of the better Opticians…)&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Translated from [[#barrow-1669|Barrow, 1669]] (introduction); ''cf''. [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;113.&lt;/ref&gt; Given an object-point ''A'' in the rarer medium, another point ''X'' in that medium, and the constraint that the (produced) refracted ray must pass through ''X'', Barrow seeks the refracted ray and finds that there are two solutions which merge under a certain condition, under which he renames ''X'' as ''Z'' and supposes that the eye looks along the refracted ray, which thereby becomes what he calls the &quot;principal ray&quot;—&amp;#8239;the ray through the center of the eye.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;130,&amp;#8239;132–3.&lt;/ref&gt; He then argues that ''Z'' is where the eye sees the image, because if two refracted rays from the same object-point ''A'' in the same plane of refraction, one on each side of the principal ray, are produced back through the interface, they intersect the principal ray on opposite sides of point ''Z''. And this point, as he has found, is ''beyond the cathetus'' with respect to the eye.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;133–4.&lt;/ref&gt; Whereas &quot;Alhazen and most of the multitude of opticians after him&quot; would place the image at the intersection of the produced principal ray and the cathetus, Barrow notes that only one ray from ''A'' is produced back through that intersection unless the eye is on the cathetus,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;134 &amp;amp; n.&amp;#8239;86, quoting ''Lectiones'' {{serif|V}}, §21, incorrectly numbered 20 in the original printing ([[#barrow-1669|Barrow, 1669]], pp.&amp;#8239;44–6).&lt;/ref&gt; in which case, as he shows in the previous lecture,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;131–2.&lt;/ref&gt; all refracted rays that enter the pupil will, when produced back through the interface, intersect the cathetus at nearly the same point.

For refraction at a plane surface with the eye ''off''&amp;#8202; the cathetus, the image-point found by Barrow is what we now call the ''tangential'' image because it is the point of tangency between the (produced) refracted ray and the ''[[w:Caustic (optics)|caustic]]'' (common tangent curve) of all the (produced) refracted rays originating from the same object-point in the same plane of refraction.&lt;ref&gt;[[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;73–4; [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;109,&amp;#8239;139. The term ''caustic''—but not the concept—was apparently coined in 1690 by [[w:Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus|Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus]] ([[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;28,&amp;#8239;74–5; [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;157–8 &amp;amp; n.&amp;#8239;165).&lt;/ref&gt; This tangency explains his procedure: for the given object-point, there can be two refracted rays produced through the target point ''X'' if it is off the caustic, but only one if it is on the caustic.&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;108, Figure 1.&lt;/ref&gt; With the eye ''on'' the cathetus, the image-point found by Barrow is the cusp of the caustic, which we now call the ''[[w:Paraxial approximation|paraxial]]'' image, and which ''satisfies the cathetus rule in the limiting case''.{{efn|Barrow finds the paraxial image before he finds the tangential image. That the former is the limit of the latter follows from the displayed equation on p.&amp;#8239;148 of [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], by letting {{mvar|i }}and{{mvar| r}} approach zero, so that their cosines approach 1, yielding the paraxial equation on p.&amp;#8239;147. These equations are for a spherical surface, but are easily adapted for a plane surface by putting ''&amp;rho;''&amp;#8239;&amp;rarr;&amp;#8239;&amp;infin;.}} Barrow refers to the tangential image as the &quot;relative&quot; image, which is &quot;mutable&quot; and &quot;less important&quot;, and to the paraxial image as the &quot;absolute&quot; image, which is &quot;simple&quot; and &quot;principal&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;109,&amp;#8239;136.&lt;/ref&gt; In both cases he applies the term &quot;image&quot; to a point that ''nearly'' coincides with all the intersections between rays entering the pupil from the same object-point; in this he follows Kepler and Roberval, against Gregory.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;128–30; [[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;211–13 (Props.&amp;#8239;20,&amp;#8239;23); [[#gregory-bruce-06|Gregory/Bruce, 2006]], Prop.&amp;#8239;36.&lt;/ref&gt;

Nowadays, of course, we tend to think of the tangential image in contradistinction to the '''sagittal''' image. The latter, Barrow ignores;&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;172, n.&amp;#8239;101.&lt;/ref&gt; where he says that only one (produced) refracted ray passes through the image-point alleged by the cathetus rule, he implicitly confines his attention to rays in the same plane of refraction on the same side of the cathetus. It is left to his successor and former student, [[w:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]], to point out that in consequence of the axial symmetry about the cathetus, a whole cone of refracted rays shares this property, giving a second image-point, which we now call the sagittal image, and which ''exactly satisfies the cathetus rule''.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;135–6.&lt;/ref&gt; Recall, however, that Newton's observation is partly anticipated by Kepler, who considers two rays in the said cone,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;85–6 (Prop.&amp;#8239;17); ''cf''. [[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], p.&amp;#8239;74, and [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;121.&lt;/ref&gt; but subsequently ignores the sagittal image.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;123–4.&lt;/ref&gt;

Interchanging the dense and rare media, we return to the [[#first-counterex-refr|case considered by Kepler]] in which (e.g.) one looks into still water from above, with the eyes in a common plane of refraction.&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;88–9 (Prop.&amp;#8239;19).&lt;/ref&gt; Here Barrow offers the following &quot;not inelegant&quot; experiment, which confirms the proposition of Kepler (not cited) and &quot;clearly destroys the doctrine of Alhazen and his followers&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;134–5 &amp;amp; n.&amp;#8239;89, quoting ''Lectiones'' {{serif|V}}, §22, incorrectly numbered 21 in the original printing ([[#barrow-1669|Barrow, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;46).&lt;/ref&gt; Attach a weight ''F''&amp;#8202; to a string and hang it from a pivot ''G'', with ''G'' above the water's surface and ''F''&amp;#8202; below, adjusting the height and depth so that, when your eyes are level and facing the string, the refracted image of ''F''&amp;#8202; appears just below the reflected image of ''G''. With your eyes in this natural attitude, the two images indeed appear aligned with the string and its reflected image—that is, on the cathetus. But now tilt your head so that both eyes are in a common plane of reflection&amp;#10744;refraction, and the refracted image of ''F''&amp;#8202; has moved toward you, away from the reflected image of ''G''—that is, away from the cathetus, in defiance of the ancient rule. Seeing is believing.{{efn|Yes, I ''did'' try this at home.}}

For oblique reflection in a convex spherical mirror, Barrow's &quot;relative&quot; image, like Kepler's image with the eyes in a common plane of reflection,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;86–8 (Prop.&amp;#8239;18).&lt;/ref&gt; is on the observer's side of the cathetus. Considering the object-point as a general point on an infinitely long line perpendicular to the mirror, Barrow shows that the image of the line is curved and angled to it, whereas the cathetus rule, &quot;gratuitously assumed and contrary to reason&quot;, would have the image in line with the object. But, in an apparent reference to Tacquet—who claims to have verified experimentally &quot;a hundred times&quot; that the image is in line, and backs the claim by appealing to the axial symmetry about the cathetus,&lt;ref&gt;[[#tacquet-1669|Tacquet, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;222 (Prop.&amp;#8239;19).&lt;/ref&gt; although the line of sight violates that symmetry—Barrow concedes that the deviation of this image from the cathetus is harder to observe than the deviation of the refracted image in the aforesaid plumb-line experiment, with the eyes in a common plane of refraction: there the reflected image marks the cathetus, and the refracted image is manifestly not on it.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;142–3, quoting Barrow, ''Lectiones'' {{serif|XVI}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Newton and the &quot;axiom&quot; of stigmatism ===

Newton's salvage of the cathetus rule for the sagittal image, in the case of axial symmetry about the cathetus, is relegated to his posthumously published ''Optical Lectures'' (originally delivered 1670–72). In his better-known ''Opticks'', the first 19 pages consist of eight definitions followed by eight &quot;Axioms and their Explications&quot;, by which he then claims to have given &quot;the sum of what hath hitherto been treated of in Opticks&quot; or at least &quot;what hath been generally agreed on&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#newton-2010|Newton (2010)]], pp.&amp;#8239;19–20.&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Despite his grandiose claim,&quot; says Shapiro,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;149.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;he did do a remarkable job of compressing elementary geometrical optics into nine pages.&quot; The compression begins with the following &quot;axiom&quot; on p.&amp;#8239;10:
&lt;blockquote&gt;'''Ax. {{serif|VI}}.'''

''Homogeneal Rays which flow from several Points of any Object, and fall perpendicularly or almost perpendicularly on any reflecting or refracting Plane or spherical Surface, shall afterwards diverge from so many other Points, or be parallel to so many other Lines, or converge to so many other Points, either accurately or without any sensible Error. And the same thing will happen, if the Rays be reflected or refracted successively by two or three or more Plane or Spherical Surfaces''.

The Point from which Rays diverge or to which they converge may be called their ''Focus''.&amp;#8239;…
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
In other words, for reflection or refraction by a plane or spherical surface, if the angles of incidence are not too large, the image of the object-point (although the term ''image'' has not yet been introduced) will be near enough to ''stigmatic'', at least for &quot;homogeneal&quot; (monochromatic) rays. This axiom leads to four rules, stated without proof, for locating the focus of the rays reflected or refracted by a plane surface (&quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;1&quot;), reflected by a spherical surface (&quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;2&quot;), refracted by a spherical surface (&quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;3&quot;), and refracted by a lens (&quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;4&quot;). Here we should emphasize, although Newton does not, that in the first three cases—those which involve a single surface and a single cathetus—the stated location of the focus is ''on the cathetus''.

In his next &quot;axiom&quot; (p.&amp;#8239;14), Newton gives the condition under which a set of foci makes a picture; but, unlike Kepler, he implicitly acknowledges the independent existence of the foci:
&lt;blockquote&gt;'''Ax. {{serif|VII}}.'''

''Wherever the Rays which come from all the Points of any Object meet again in so many Points after they have been made to converge by Reflection or Refraction, there they will make a Picture of the Object upon any white Body on which they fall''.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Thence he explains the [[w:Camera obscura|camera obscura]], the eye, long- and short-sightedness, and correcting spectacles.

In the final &quot;axiom&quot; of the set (p.&amp;#8239;18), he endorses Barrow's principle of image location without naming Barrow or using the word ''image'':
&lt;blockquote&gt;'''Ax. {{serif|VIII}}.'''

''An Object seen by Reflexion or Refraction, appears in that place from whence the Rays after their last Reflexion or Refraction diverge in falling on the Spectator's Eye''.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
For a plane mirror, he explains, if that place of divergence is point ''a'', &quot;these Rays do make the same Picture in the bottom of the Eyes as if they had come from the Object really placed at ''a''…&quot; As further examples he cites a prism with refracted rays diverging from ''d'', and a lens with refracted rays diverging from ''q''. Then he abruptly refers to the &quot;Image of the Object&quot; at ''q''&amp;#8202; as having a certain size, and goes on to use the term ''image'' routinely, without further introduction. But he has implied, immediately after Ax.&amp;#8239;{{serif|VI}}, that a place of divergence is a &quot;focus&quot;, allowing us to interpret that &quot;axiom&quot; as giving sufficient conditions for the approximate stigmatism of the image.

Now let us consider the implications of stigmatism. For brevity, we shall follow Barrow by using the term '''inflection''' to mean either reflection or refraction.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;130,&amp;#8239;136,&amp;#8239;171&amp;#8239;(n.&amp;#8239;78), citing [[#barrow-1669|Barrow, 1669]], pp.&amp;#8239;10&amp;#8239;(§&amp;#8239;11),&amp;#8239;22,&amp;#8239;111.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Not until 1675 was the term ''inflection'' hijacked for diffraction by [[w:Robert Hooke|Hooke]] and Newton; see [[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;92–3 &amp;amp; n.&amp;#8239;29.}}

If the image of an object-point in the inflecting surface is ''stigmatic'', it is the common point of intersection of all the inflected rays (for a real image), or of all the inflected ray-lines produced back through the surface (for a virtual image); in either case, it is a ''point of intersection of all lines of sight'' to the object-point via the surface (produced rectilinearly through the surface if necessary). Hence a ray incident along the cathetus, when &quot;inflected&quot; (and produced if necessary), passes through the same image-point. But that ray is ''undeviated'': it is transmitted without refraction or reflected back along itself, so that the &quot;inflected&quot; ray and the resulting line of sight remain on the cathetus. Thus the image-point lies at the intersection of the cathetus and any other line of sight (whether the image is real or virtual). Conversely, if the image-point lies at the intersection of the cathetus and the line of sight, then, if &quot;the&quot; image-point is to be consistent, all such lines of sight must intersect the cathetus at the same point, and therefore must intersect each other at that point, which is therefore a stigmatic image. In short:
:{{box|padding=1ex|The cathetus rule is equivalent to the proposition that ''the image of the object-point is stigmatic within the working aperture, which admits the cathetus''.}}
Notice that the derivation of this equivalence ''does not depend on any law of reflection or refraction'' except that a normally-incident ray is undeviated. Thus the equivalence, whatever its importance or lack thereof, may be rightly assigned a status that the ancients wrongly assigned to the cathetus rule itself: the status of being as fundamental as the laws of reflection and refraction.

In the case of the sagittal image formed by inflection at a surface axially symmetrical about the cathetus, the image is stigmatic within a working aperture consisting of two infinitesimal areas, one containing the foot of the cathetus and the other containing a circle with its axis on the cathetus.

The cathetus admitted by the working aperture may be notional provided that it is unambiguous, so that we cannot move the cathetus without moving the &quot;[[#active|active]]&quot; part of the surface. For example, while the conditions of Newton's &quot;Ax.&amp;#8239;{{serif|VI}}&quot; do not say that the working aperture admits the cathetus, they do say that the inflecting surface is plane or spherical, which implies that it can be uniquely produced (extended) so as to admit a unique undeviated ray—the &quot;notional&quot; cathetus—for a given object-point. And under these conditions, according to the &quot;axiom&quot;, the image is stigmatic &quot;either accurately or without any sensible Error.&quot;

So, after the cathetus rule has been reduced to a peculiarity of the sagittal image and dismissed from the elementary teaching of optics, a proposition implying wider conditions under which the rule holds &quot;either accurately or without any sensible Error&quot; is put up as ''axiomatic'' at the beginning of the introductory treatise by the highest authority on the subject!

In the statements and applications of the cathetus rule by ancient and medieval opticians, the assumption of stigmatism is always unrecognized and sometimes patently absurd. Alhacen's retention of the rule for cylindrical and conical mirrors may be consigned to the absurd category, except in cases of bilateral symmetry about the plane of reflection, for which the working aperture may be reduced to an infinitesimally narrow strip straddling that plane; in those cases the assumption of stigmatism may still be inexact, but is at least not absurd. In the unrecognized category, but ''almost'' recognized, are the cases which exploit the axial symmetry to claim that the image-point is on the cathetus although it is viewed from off the cathetus; this reasoning tacitly assumes that the image-point stays put as the line of sight moves off the cathetus, which is true if the various lines of sight have a common intersection. For example, Alhacen, having established that the image of the center of the eye in a convex spherical mirror is on the cathetus, extends the argument to another point on the eye, although that point is seen from off the cathetus;&lt;ref&gt;[[#smith-2006|Smith, 2006]], pp.&amp;#8239;396–7.&lt;/ref&gt; and Tacquet argues from the same symmetry that the image of a rod aligned with the cathetus is likewise aligned with the cathetus, although it is best seen from off the cathetus.&lt;ref&gt;[[#tacquet-1669|Tacquet, 1669]], p.&amp;#8239;222 (Prop.&amp;#8239;19).&lt;/ref&gt; Apparently the first writer to recognize the ''necessity'' of stigmatism is Benedetti, who, in his sixth letter to Vimercato (see [[#sixth|above]]), introduces the counterexample of the spherical burning mirror by saying &quot;I will prove to you that at no point can all the reflected rays meet each other.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#benedetti-1585|Benedetti, 1585]], p.&amp;#8239;342.&lt;/ref&gt;

But in the useful range of cases that satisfy the conditions of Newton's &quot;Ax.&amp;#8239;{{serif|VI}}&quot;—&amp;#8239;that the surface is plane or spherical, and that the angles of incidence are not too large—ancient and medieval investigators should indeed have found the cathetus rule to be true &quot;either accurately or without any sensible Error.&quot; That range of cases also includes the following:

* When we look nearly vertically into still water, the departure of the image from the cathetus is imperceptible, as conceded by Kepler,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], p.&amp;#8239;89, end of Prop.&amp;#8239;19.&lt;/ref&gt; confirmed by Barrow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;131–2, except that the diagram is upside-down for an air-water surface.&lt;/ref&gt; and implied in Newton's &quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;1.&quot;
* The same applies to looking nearly vertically ''out of''&amp;#8202; the water (also covered by &quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;1&quot;), as shown by Barrow, who further implies that the &quot;absolute&quot; image is the limit of the &quot;relative&quot; (tangential) image as the eye approaches the cathetus,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;132–4.&lt;/ref&gt; which he calls the &quot;axis&quot; or &quot;radiant axis&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;108.&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Not to be confused with what he calls the &quot;optical axis&quot;, which is synonymous with his &quot;principal ray&quot; and passes through the center of the eye ([[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;137,&amp;#8239;141,&amp;#8239;171&amp;#8239;n.&amp;#8239;79).}}
* Parallel incident rays refracted by a spherical surface, with small deviations, cut the axis at nearly the same point, as noted by Kepler,&lt;ref&gt;[[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;205–6 (Prop.&amp;#8239;15).&lt;/ref&gt; and by Barrow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;144.&lt;/ref&gt; who shows that an object-point at a finite distance gives the same result,&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;147.&lt;/ref&gt; in agreement with Newton's &quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;3.&quot;

These are some of the reasons why Newton's &quot;axiom&quot;, together with the case of the sagittal image, will prove useful enough to launch the cathetus rule on a second, incognito career.

== A cathetus by any other name… ==

=== Anon. ===

The equivalence between stigmatism and the cathetus rule is apparent in any diagram that shows a single surface bringing many rays from a single object-point to a focus at a single image-point, with one of the rays perpendicular to the surface. The (actual or assumed) stigmatism of the image is shown by the concurrence of the lines, and the point of concurrence is the point where every refracted or reflected ray (produced if necessary) meets the undeviated perpendicular ray—the cathetus. Such diagrams are offered in the widely-used text by Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]]) on pp.&amp;nbsp;47, 48, 49, and 100 (Fig.&amp;#8239;6B), the first and last being for an object at infinity. In each of these cases, the surface is taken to be spherical (so that the stigmatism is only approximate) and the perpendicular ray is identified only by its passing through the center of curvature.

If the image of an object-point is stigmatic, it is uniquely located by ''any two rays'' belonging to that object-point, and we might as well choose those rays for convenience. For a single surface, the most obvious convenience is to let one of the rays be the one along the cathetus, so that it is undeviated. The location of the image then becomes a straightforward but unacknowledged application of the cathetus rule. This is how the image-point is located in our [[#Introduction:_Undeniable_implausibility|Figure&amp;#8239;1]] above. This is how Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]], pp.&amp;#8239;56–7) and [[w:George S. Monk|Monk]] ([[#monk-63|1963]], pp.&amp;#8239;8–9) derive the &quot;Gaussian formula&quot; relating the object and image distances for a spherical refracting surface—without explaining that the generality of the angles implies the stigmatism of the image within the accuracy of the formula.

=== Axis ===

The convenience of choosing a ray along the cathetus is multiplied if the object-point is on the axis of a system with several coaxial surfaces, so that the axis is perpendicular to all the surfaces. Then the image formed by the first surface is on the axis, which is therefore the cathetus for the second surface, which therefore forms another image on the axis, and so on, so that the axis serves the common cathetus for all the surfaces, and the final image is where the final refracted or reflected ray cuts that common cathetus. Thus Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]]) explain how to locate the image of an object-point on the axis of two thin lenses (pp.&amp;#8239;68–9, Fig.&amp;#8239;4{{serif|I}}), or of one thick lens (pp.&amp;#8239;78–9, Fig.&amp;#8239;5A),&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#hecht-17|Hecht, 2017]], p.&amp;#8239;167, Fig.&amp;#8239;5.14 (b) &amp;amp; (c).&lt;/ref&gt; especially for an object-point at infinity (pp.&amp;#8239;84–5, Fig.&amp;#8239;5G); the intermediate steps need not detain us (yet), except that their purpose is to find where the final refracted ray cuts the axis, because &quot;the axis itself is considered as the second light ray&quot; (p.&amp;#8239;69; ''cf''.&amp;nbsp;p.&amp;#8239;79). The beginnings of this approach may be discerned in [[w:Bonaventura Cavalieri|Bonaventura Cavalieri]]'s &quot;Six Geometrical Exercises&quot; of 1647.&lt;ref&gt;[[#cavalieri-1647|Cavalieri, 1647]], p.&amp;#8239;464ff; [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;127–8.&lt;/ref&gt;

But Barrow calls the cathetus the axis where there is only one surface, axially symmetrical about it.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;108.&lt;/ref&gt; Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]]) do likewise in diagrams showing the focal points of a spherical refracting surface (p.&amp;#8239;46; four cases)&lt;ref&gt;Cases (b) and (d) are respectively equivalent to Figs. 5.11 and 5.10 in Hecht ([[#hecht-17|2017]], p.&amp;#8239;165), except that Hecht does not name the &quot;axis&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; and a spherical reflecting surface (p.&amp;#8239;99; two cases)&lt;ref&gt;Also in Fig.&amp;#8239;5.61 in Hecht ([[#hecht-17|2017]], p.&amp;#8239;196).&lt;/ref&gt;; and in those cases where the image is at a finite distance, its assumed stigmatism is seen from the concurrence of the ray-lines, and its location is seen to be consistent with the cathetus rule.

Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]], pp.&amp;#8239;56–7) and Monk ([[#monk-63|1963]], pp.&amp;#8239;8–9) even use the word ''axis'' in their derivations of the &quot;Gaussian formula&quot;, albeit only in the text. Here Jenkins &amp;amp; White make ad-hoc approximations from the outset, and Monk does so at the second step. For reasons which will become apparent, we shall now re-derive this formula in a more disciplined manner, introducing assumptions only as they are needed, after showing what can be deduced without them.&lt;span id=&quot;f-sagit&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

[[File:Refraction-at-spherical-surface.svg|thumb|720px|Distances and angles for refraction at a spherical surface.]]

Let {{mvar|O}} be an object-point facing a spherical refracting surface (separating two homogeneous isotropic media) whose radius of curvature is {{mvar|r}} (positive if convex as seen from{{mvar| O}}) with center{{mvar| C}}, so that {{mvar|OC}} is the cathetus ([[#f-sagit|Figure&amp;nbsp;3]]). Let {{mvar|V}} (for ''vertex'') be the foot of the cathetus, at a distance ''s'' from{{mvar| O}}.&amp;#8239; Let the point of refraction be{{mvar| P}}.&amp;#8239; The ''axial'' symmetry of the interface and media about the cathetus{{mvar| OC}}&amp;#8202; implies a bilateral symmetry about the plane of the cathetus and the incident ray{{mvar| OP}}, which in turn implies that the refracted ray must remain in that plane.{{efn|Alternatively we can argue that by the bilateral symmetry, the normal to the surface at{{mvar| P}}&amp;#8202; is in the plane of symmetry, which is therefore the plane of the incident ray and the normal, whence, by the law first articulated by Ptolemy, the refracted ray is in that plane. But I submit that the symmetry is enough, and that the law of Ptolemy follows from it.}} So let the point{{mvar| I}}, at a distance ''s&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202; from{{mvar| V}}, be the intersection of the refracted ray and the cathetus (if the refracted ray is parallel to the cathetus, we shall consider {{mvar|I}}&amp;#8202; to be at infinity). If angle {{mvar|OCP}} is called ''&amp;alpha;'', then, treating ''&amp;alpha;'' and ''ϕ'' (in [[#f-sagit|Figure&amp;nbsp;3]]) as exterior angles of triangles, we find that the remote interior angles at {{mvar|I}} and{{mvar| O}}&amp;#8202; are respectively ''&amp;alpha;&amp;minus;ϕ&amp;prime;'' and ''ϕ&amp;minus;&amp;alpha;'' (as labeled).

Now it is clear from the symmetry that ''s&amp;prime;'' is an ''even'' function of ''&amp;alpha;&amp;minus;ϕ&amp;prime;''. This, together with the smoothness of the function (apart from the [[w:Removable singularity|removable singularity]] at ''&amp;alpha;&amp;minus;ϕ&amp;prime;&amp;#8239;''&amp;equals;&amp;#8239;0), implies that the graph of ''s&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202; vs. ''&amp;alpha;&amp;minus;ϕ&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202; passes through the ''s&amp;prime;'' axis with a slope of zero, so that the intersection {{mvar|I}}&amp;#8202; is stationary as the observation point (on{{mvar| PI}}, beyond{{mvar| I}}&amp;#8202;) passes through the cathetus{{mvar| OC}}. For the given object-point{{mvar| O}}, this stationarity of{{mvar| I}} is the limit of the intersection of a refracted ray with the cathetus as ''&amp;alpha;&amp;minus;ϕ&amp;prime;&amp;#8239;''&amp;rarr;&amp;#8239;0 (as claimed by Barrow), hence the limit of the intersection of two refracted rays with each other as both approach the cathetus, hence the limit of the tangential image-point as the observation point approaches the cathetus (as shown by Barrow). The limiting position of{{mvar| I}}, by construction, is on the cathetus, salvaging the cathetus rule as an approximation for small angles; and because the limit is a stationarity, the deviation from the limit, measured along the cathetus, is at worst 2nd-order in the angles (in which case the ray aberration is of 3rd order, as expected). This implies near-stigmatism for sufficiently small angles—justifying Newton's &quot;axiom&quot;.

All this has been shown from symmetry and smoothness, without relying on the exact law of refraction—or even the exact sphericity of the surface, provided that it is axially symmetric about the cathetus and sufficiently smooth. But now let us invoke the sphericity with center{{mvar| C}}, so that the segment{{mvar| CP}} (in [[#f-sagit|Figure&amp;nbsp;3]]) has length{{mvar| r}}. Let the distances {{mvar|OP}} and{{mvar| PI}}&amp;#8202; be respectively ''&amp;sigma;'' and ''&amp;sigma;&amp;prime;'' (as shown). Then, by the [[w:Law of sines|sine rule]] in triangle{{mvar| OCP}}, we have
::&lt;math&gt;\frac{r}{\,\sigma\,} = \frac{\sin(\phi-\alpha)}{\sin{\alpha}}&lt;/math&gt;
or, after expanding the sine of the difference and simplifying,
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{r}{\,\sigma\,} = \sin\phi\,\cot\alpha - \cos\phi \,.
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|1}}}}
Similarly, applying the sine rule in triangle{{mvar| ICP}} (and noting that the exterior angle has the same sine as its supplementary interior angle), we have
::&lt;math&gt;\frac{r}{\,\sigma'} = \frac{\sin(\alpha-\phi')}{\sin{\alpha}} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
i.e.
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{r}{\,\sigma'} = \cos\phi' -\, \sin\phi'\cot\alpha \,.
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|2}}}}
To eliminate ''&amp;alpha;'', we multiply ({{EquationNote|1}}) by &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\sin\phi'}{r}&lt;/math&gt;,&amp;#8239; and ({{EquationNote|2}}) by &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\sin\phi}{r}&lt;/math&gt;,&amp;#8239; and add the results, obtaining
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{\sin\phi'}{\sigma} + \frac{\sin\phi}{\sigma'}
  \,=\, \frac{\sin\phi\,\cos\phi' -\, \cos\phi\,\sin\phi'}{r} \,.
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|3}}}}

For the purpose of locating{{mvar| I}}, let us rearrange ({{EquationNote|3}}) as
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{1}{\,\sigma'} \,=\, \frac{\sin(\phi-\phi')}{r\sin\phi}
                            - \frac{\sin\phi'}{\sigma\sin\phi} \,.
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|4}}}}
Then, for paraxial rays, the angles ''ϕ'' and ''ϕ&amp;prime;'' are small so that the sines may be approximated by their arguments, and ''&amp;sigma;'' and ''&amp;sigma;&amp;prime;'' may be approximated by ''s'' and ''s&amp;prime;'' respectively, the fractional errors being 2nd-order in the angles. Thus we have
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{1}{\,s'} \approx \frac{\,\phi-\phi'}{r\phi} - \frac{\,\phi'}{s\phi} \,.
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|5}}}}
As {{mvar|CP}} is the radius of the spherical interface ([[#f-sagit|Figure&amp;nbsp;3]]), it is the normal to the interface at{{mvar| P}}, whence ''ϕ'' and ''ϕ&amp;prime;'' are the angles of incidence and refraction. Kepler did not know the exact law of refraction (although he had corresponded with [[w:Thomas Harriot|Thomas Harriot]], who did&lt;ref&gt;[[#lohne-59|Lohne, 1959]]; [[#shirley-51|Shirley, 1951]].&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Apropos of our present inquiry, Harriot's rediscovery of the law of refraction, like [[w:Willebrord Snellius|Snell]]'s later rediscovery, seems to have been ironically assisted by the cathetus rule. See [[#vollgraff-1936|Vollgraff, 1936]], pp.&amp;#8239;722–4; [[#lohne-59|Lohne, 1959]], p.&amp;#8239;117; [[#schuster-00|Schuster, 2000]], pp.&amp;#8239;275–6; [[#goulding-18|Goulding, 2018]], p.&amp;#8239;543''n''.}}); but he was satisfied that for small angles, the ratios &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\,\phi{-}\phi'}{\phi}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\,\phi'}{\phi}&lt;/math&gt; are approximately constant,&lt;ref&gt;That he was aware of this fact as early as 1604 is shown in [[#kepler-donahue-00|Kepler/Donahue, 2000]], pp. 124, 127-9 (Prop.&amp;#8239;8), &amp;amp; 205–6 (Prop.&amp;#8239;15)—although he made greater use of it in his ''Dioptrice'' of 1611, where it is stated up-front as &quot;{{serif|VII}}. Axioma&quot; [&amp;zwj;[[#kepler-1859|Kepler (1859)]], p.&amp;#8239;529]. ''Cf''. [[#darrigol-12|Darrigol, 2012]], pp.&amp;#8239;34–5; [[#dijksterhuis-99|Dijksterhuis, 1999]], p.&amp;#8239;29; [[#malet-2003|Malet, 2003]], p.&amp;#8239;109; [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;126–7.&lt;/ref&gt; in which case, by ({{EquationNote|5}}), for given {{mvar|r}} and ''s'', the length ''s&amp;prime;'' is approximately constant. The same conclusion applies to ''reflection'', for which we put ''ϕ&amp;prime;&amp;#8239;&amp;equals;&amp;#8239;&amp;minus;ϕ'' in ({{EquationNote|5}}) and write ''&amp;minus;s&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202; for ''s&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202; (that is, change the positive direction of ''s&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202;), obtaining
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{\,1\,}{s} + \frac{1}{\,s'} \approx -\frac{2}{\,r\,} \,.
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|6}}}}
Barrow first published this result.&lt;ref&gt;Expressed as an equation by Shapiro ([[#shapiro-1990|1990]], p.&amp;#8239;140), and matching [[#jenkins-white-76|Jenkins &amp;amp; White, 1976]], p.&amp;#8239;103, Eq.&amp;#8239;(6b). On the priority of Barrow (vs. Huygens), see Shapiro, p.&amp;#8239;128, and [[#dijksterhuis-99|Dijksterhuis, 1999]], pp.&amp;#8239;39,&amp;#8239;86.&lt;/ref&gt;

Having seen what can be done ''without'' the exact law of refraction, let us now invoke it: if {{mvar|n}} and{{mvar| n'}} denote the refractive indices of the two media ([[#f-sagit|Figure&amp;nbsp;3]]), then the ratio&amp;#8239; &lt;math&gt;n/\sin\phi'&lt;/math&gt; is the same as&amp;#8239; &lt;math&gt;n'\big/\sin\phi&lt;/math&gt;.&amp;#8201; Multiplying the exact equation ({{EquationNote|3}}) by this ratio, in the first form for terms in&amp;#8202; &lt;math&gt;\sin\phi'&lt;/math&gt; and the second for terms in&amp;#8202; &lt;math&gt;\sin\phi&lt;/math&gt;, we get
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{n}{\,\sigma\,} + \frac{\,n'}{\,\sigma'}
  = \frac{n'\cos\phi' -\, n\cos\phi}{r} \,.
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|7}}}}
For paracathetal&amp;#10744;paraxial rays, the cosines may be replaced by 1&amp;#8239; while ''&amp;sigma;''&amp;#8202; and ''&amp;sigma;&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202; may be replaced by ''s''&amp;#8202; and ''s&amp;prime;''&amp;#8202; (the fractional errors again being 2nd-order in the angles), to obtain
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{n}{\,s\,} + \frac{\,n'}{\,s'} \approx \frac{n'\! - n}{r} \,,
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|8}}}}
which is well known as the '''Gaussian formula''' for a spherical refracting surface,&lt;ref&gt;[[#jenkins-white-76|Jenkins &amp;amp; White, 1976]], pp.&amp;#8239;48,&amp;#8239;56.&lt;/ref&gt; although Barrow again gives an equivalent result.&lt;ref&gt;[[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], p.&amp;#8239;147 (for refractive indices 1 and{{mvar| n}}).&lt;/ref&gt; For ''reflection'', we put ''ϕ&amp;prime;&amp;#8239;&amp;equals;&amp;#8239;&amp;minus;ϕ''&amp;#8239; and {{mvar|n'&amp;#8239;&amp;equals;&amp;#8239;&amp;minus;n}}&amp;#8239; in ({{EquationNote|7}}) and ({{EquationNote|8}}) and change the positive directions of ''&amp;sigma;&amp;prime;'' and ''s&amp;prime;'', obtaining
{{NumBlk|::|&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{1}{\,\sigma\,} + \frac{1}{\,\sigma'} = -\frac{2\cos\phi}{r}
&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|9}}}}
for the exact result, and ({{EquationNote|6}}) again for the paracathetal&amp;#10744;paraxial approximation.

For reflection in a ''plane'' mirror, we put {{mvar|r&amp;#8239;&amp;rarr;&amp;#8239;&amp;infin;}}&amp;#8202; in the exact equation ({{EquationNote|9}}), which then reduces to ''&amp;sigma;&amp;prime;&amp;#8239;&amp;equals;&amp;#8239;&amp;minus;&amp;sigma;'' for all ''ϕ'', confirming that the image is stigmatic, on the cathetus, and as far behind the mirror as the object-point is in front. Later we shall find other uses for the exact equations ({{EquationNote|7}}) and ({{EquationNote|9}}).

=== Auxiliary axis ===

From an object-point ''off''&amp;#8202; the axis of a coaxial system, a cathetus dropped to a facing spherical surface is not generally an axis of the whole system. But it is still an axis of that surface—wherefore it may be called an ''auxiliary axis'', while the axis of the system may be called the ''principal axis''—and a ray incident along that cathetus still offers the convenience of being undeviated by that surface. This convenience is exploited by Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]]) to find the image formed by refraction into a denser medium at a convex surface (p.&amp;#8239;51, Fig.&amp;#8239;3F) or a concave surface (p.&amp;#8239;52, Fig.&amp;#8239;3G), or by reflection at a concave surface (pp.&amp;#8239;100–101, Fig.&amp;#8239;6E) or a convex surface (p.&amp;#8239;101 &amp;amp; Fig.&amp;#8239;6F).&lt;ref&gt;The last two examples are also given by Hecht ([[#hecht-17|2017]], p.&amp;#8239;197, Fig.&amp;#8239;5.63), except that he does not use the term ''auxiliary axis'', but explains the concept using &quot;Ray-1&quot; in his Fig.&amp;#8239;5.62 (p.&amp;#8239;196).&lt;/ref&gt; In each case, one ray is chosen to pass through the center of curvature—that is, along the cathetus—and there are two candidates for a second ray, either of which (within the accuracy of the method) cuts the cathetus at the image-point.{{efn|The &quot;two candidates&quot;, one incident parallel to the principal axis and the other refracted parallel to that axis, would be enough by themselves, especially as the authors (Jenkins &amp;amp; White, [[#jenkins-white-76|1976]]) are describing what they call the ''parallel-ray method''; but, idiosyncratically, they mention the undeviated ray before the second parallel ray (p.&amp;#8239;51, and again on p.&amp;#8239;101).}}

For refraction at a single surface, as the same authors show (p.&amp;#8239;52 &amp;amp; Fig.&amp;#8239;3H), we can even use an auxiliary axis to locate the image of an object-point on the principal axis. First we construct the auxiliary axis parallel to the oblique incident ray from the object-point. This axis crosses the focal surface (which must be determined separately) at a point on the refracted oblique ray, fixing the direction of that ray, which then meets the principal axis at the desired image-point. In effect, the cathetus rule is used twice—first to find the image of a hypothetical object-point at infinity, fixing the direction of a refracted ray from the actual object-point, and second to find the image of that point on the cathetus from that point.{{efn|In the corresponding case for a concave mirror ([[#jenkins-white-76|Jenkins &amp;amp; White, 1976]], pp.&amp;#8239;101–2, Fig.&amp;#8239;6G), where the authors say &quot;If in place of ray 4 another ray were drawn through ''C'' and parallel to ray 3,&quot; they are referring to an auxiliary axis, but they do not actually draw it.}} The extension of the method to multiple surfaces is obvious.

The same authors, in a diagram already mentioned (p.&amp;#8239;48), show seven rays diverging from an object-point and refracted by a spherical surface to a real image-point, with one of the rays passing through the center of curvature but not otherwise labeled. In the corresponding diagram for reflection (p.&amp;#8239;100, Fig.&amp;#8239;6C), the ray through the center of curvature is labeled the auxiliary axis, and all the other rays are shown as cutting this ray at the image-point. In each case, the image as drawn (''assumed'' to be stigmatic) is located in accordance with the cathetus rule.

=== Undeviated ray ===

Wherever the cathetus rule holds—that is, wherever the image is stigmatic within a working aperture that includes the cathetus—the necessary and sufficient property of the cathetus is that ''a ray incident along the cathetus is undeviated''. Thus, if the image of an object-point is approximately stigmatic within a working aperture that admits an approximately undeviated ray, then, subject to those approximations, the image lies at the intersection of the undeviated ray and any other emergent ray (produced if necessary) from the same object-point. In short, the approximately undeviated ray plays the role of the cathetus.

[[File:ThinLens.png|thumb|374px|Location of the image{{mvar| B&amp;prime;}} of an object-point{{mvar| B}}&amp;#8202; due to a thin lens. The (approximately) undeviated ray{{mvar| BOB&amp;prime;}} plays the role of the ancient cathetus: the image may be taken to be at the intersection of this ray and any other ray from{{mvar| B}}.]]

A ray through the center of a ''thin'' lens—that is, a lens whose thickness is negligible compared with the object and image distances—may be considered undeviated even if it is oblique to the principal axis. This ray plays the same role in Newton's &quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;4&quot; that the cathetus plays in his &quot;''Cas''.&amp;#8239;2&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#newton-2010|Newton (2010)]], pp.&amp;#8239;11–13. More precisely, the nominated center is midway between the front and back focal points.&lt;/ref&gt; It plays the same role in Fig.&amp;#8239;4C of Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]], p.&amp;#8239;63) that the ray through the center of curvature plays in their Fig.&amp;#8239;3D (p.&amp;#8239;48), and (under the name &quot;chief ray&quot;) the same role in their Figs. 4B, 4D, &amp;amp; 4E (pp.&amp;#8239;62,&amp;#8239;63,&amp;#8239;64) that the cathetus respectively plays, anonymously in their Fig.&amp;#8239;3C (p.&amp;#8239;47) and as the &quot;auxiliary axis&quot; in their Figs. 3F &amp;amp; 3H (pp.&amp;#8239;51,&amp;#8239;53). More constructions reminiscent of the cathetus rule, with the ray through the center of the lens in the role of the cathetus, can be found in their Figs. 4F, 4G, 4H (for each lens), 4{{serif|I}} (ditto), and 7B, and in (e.g.) Figs. 5.23, 5.24, and 5.29 of Hecht ([[#hecht-17|2017]], pp.&amp;#8239;172,&amp;#8239;176).

For an object-point on the principal axis of the lens, the ray along that axis is ''exactly'' undeviated and serves as the cathetus for the entire lens, so that the cathetus rule applies to the entire lens if the image is stigmatic. Examples of this sort (again not mentioning the cathetus rule) can be discerned in Fig.&amp;#8239;4A of Jenkins &amp;amp; White, and in Fig. 5.15 of Hecht ([[#hecht-17|2017]], p.&amp;#8239;168).

== Off-axis astigmatism ==

The foregoing examples from Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]]) and Hecht ([[#hecht-17|2017]]) use [[w:Gaussian optics|Gaussian approximations]]. They can model [[w:Chromatic aberration|chromatic aberration]] if we allow for variation of refractive indices with wavelength. But if they are to model 3rd-order monochromatic aberrations in the [[w:Meridional ray|meridional]] plane ([[w:Spherical aberration|spherical aberration]], tangential [[w:Coma (optics)|coma]], curvature of the tangential focal surface, and [[w:Distortion (optics)|distortion]]), they must be modified—perhaps by resorting to trigonometric ray-tracing in the meridional plane,&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., [[#born-wolf-02|Born &amp;amp; Wolf, 2002]], pp.&amp;#8239;204–7.&lt;/ref&gt; in which case we still have the problem of assessing aberrations that involve rays outside that plane. For sagittal coma we can use the well-known proportionality (to leading order) between sagittal and tangential coma.&lt;ref&gt;[[#jenkins-white-76|Jenkins &amp;amp; White, 1976]], p.&amp;#8239;164.&lt;/ref&gt; For [[w:Astigmatism (optical systems)|astigmatism]], however, we need a sample of rays outside the meridional plane. With spherical surfaces, the easiest way to take such a sample is to exploit the exactness of the cathetus rule for the sagittal image formed by a surface axially symmetrical about the cathetus. And this is where we reap the reward for delaying approximations in the above derivation of the &quot;Gaussian formula&quot;.

In our [[#f-sagit|Figure&amp;nbsp;3]], suppose that the line {{mvar|OC}} is ''not'' the principal axis, but only an auxiliary axis. Let{{mvar| O}} be an off-axis object-point or an intermediate image thereof; and from{{mvar| O}}, let {{mvar|OPI}}&amp;#8202; be the path of the '''chief ray'''—that is, the ray through the center of the main aperture (wherever the main aperture stop happens to be). Then the sagittal image formed by the surface{{mvar| VP}}&amp;#8202; is{{mvar| I}}, whose position is given by equation ({{EquationNote|7}}) for a refractive surface, or ({{EquationNote|9}}) for a reflective surface. Equivalent results are given by Jenkins &amp;amp; White, citing the derivation by Monk,&lt;ref&gt;[[#jenkins-white-76|Jenkins &amp;amp; White, 1976]], p.&amp;#8239;169, Eqs.&amp;#8239;(9p), 2nd eq. (for refraction) and p.&amp;#8239;111, 2nd eq. (for reflection), citing [[#monk-63|Monk, 1963]], pp.&amp;#8239;424–6.&lt;/ref&gt; who begins by saying that &quot;if coma is absent, all the rays which have the same inclination… as{{mvar| OP}} with{{mvar| OC}} will intersect the line{{mvar| OC}}… in a point&quot; which we call{{mvar| I}}. The condition that &quot;coma is absent&quot; is redundant because the conclusion follows from the axial symmetry about{{mvar| OC}} (which Monk ignores, calling {{mvar|PC}}&amp;#8202; the axis). No such condition is assumed in the earlier derivation by [[w:Alexander Eugen Conrady|Conrady]], first published in 1929,&lt;ref&gt;[[#conrady-92|Conrady (1992)]], pp.&amp;#8239;409–10.&lt;/ref&gt; which duly invokes the auxiliary axis, and which, in spite of its different sign convention, is the main source for our derivation of ({{EquationNote|7}}) above. Conrady's equation (d) corresponds to our ({{EquationNote|7}}), and agrees with the result that [[w:Principles of Optics|Born &amp;amp; Wolf]] obtain by a longer process, involving a &quot;thin pencil&quot; of rays and a Hamiltonian characteristic function.&lt;ref&gt;[[#born-wolf-02|Born &amp;amp; Wolf, 2002]], p.&amp;#8239;186, Eq.&amp;#8239;(22).&lt;/ref&gt; None of these sources uses the word ''cathetus'' or refers to the cathetus rule.

Corresponding expressions for the distance of the ''tangential'' image along{{mvar| PI}}&amp;#8202; are given by the same authors and—most remarkably—by Barrow.&lt;ref&gt;On Barrow, and Newton's deference to him in this matter, see [[#shapiro-1990|Shapiro, 1990]], pp.&amp;#8239;135–6,&amp;#8239;147–8.&lt;/ref&gt; In principle, we locate the tangential image by moving{{mvar| P}} along the arc{{mvar| VP}} (by an infinitesimal distance if we want an analytical result, or a finite distance if we are tracing rays numerically) and finding the intersection of the new{{mvar| PI}} with the old. The distance between the tangential and sagittal images along the old{{mvar| PI}}&amp;#8202; is a measure of the astigmatism.

By the axial symmetry, as we scan the aperture by rotating the arc{{mvar| VP}} about the axis{{mvar| OC}}, the tangential image likewise rotates about that axis, tracing a circular arc; and as we scan the aperture by moving{{mvar| P}} away from{{mvar| V}}, the sagittal image can only move along that axis. So the tangential and sagittal focal lines are perpendicular to each other, and lie in planes that intersect perpendicularly along the chief ray{{mvar| PI}}; but the sagittal focal line is ''not'' generally perpendicular to the chief ray. Thus, as Born &amp;amp; Wolf note, it is not generally true that the focal lines are perpendicular to the chief ray &quot;as is often incorrectly asserted in the literature&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#born-wolf-02|Born &amp;amp; Wolf, 2002]], p.&amp;#8239;182. Earlier on the same page, Born &amp;amp; Wolf themselves may seem to have asserted what they now deny. But the exculpatory words are &quot;To the first order&quot;; for a ''thin'' pencil, if the distance between the focal lines measured along the central ray is first-order, then the obliquity of either focal line to the central ray is ''second-order''.&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed I have noticed that the offenders include Jenkins &amp;amp; White ([[#jenkins-white-76|1976]]), who state that the sagittal focal line, which they call ''S'', is perpendicular to what they call the ''sagittal plane'' (p.&amp;#8239;169), which contains the chief ray (see their Fig.&amp;#8239;9p). They go on to say that on the sagittal focal surface, the images are &quot;parallel to the spokes&quot; (p.&amp;#8239;169), whereas in fact the sagittal focal line for a point on a spoke need only be in the plane of the spoke and the axis. Their Fig.&amp;#8239;6N (p.&amp;#8239;112) is similarly misleading; the sagittal focal line ''S'' should be along the auxiliary axis—that is, parallel to the incoming rays (the object-point being at infinity).

In our [[#f-sagit|Figure&amp;nbsp;3]], the ''sagittal plane'' after refraction is the plane perpendicular to the plane of the diagram and containing the ray{{mvar| PI}}. If we leave the sagittal plane fixed and rotate the point of refraction about the axis (cathetus){{mvar| OC}}, the circle traced on the refracting surface is not identical to the intersection of that surface with the sagittal plane, but is tangential to that intersection, and the tangency is enough for calculating the astigmatism to leading order.&lt;ref&gt;Compare the corresponding remarks by Conrady ([[#conrady-92|1992]], top of p.&amp;#8239;410).&lt;/ref&gt; Thus Born &amp;amp; Wolf get the same sagittal equation as Conrady in spite of their radically different method. In a coaxial system, as {{mvar|P}} traces a circle with axis{{mvar| OC}}, the path traced by the intersection of the refracted ray{{mvar| PI}} with the ''next'' surface is not generally a circle with its axis on the cathetus from {{mvar|I}}&amp;#8202; to that surface, but again is tangential to such a circle. Hence equation ({{EquationNote|7}}) or ({{EquationNote|9}}) can be used with successive surfaces to find the successive positions of the sagittal image on the chief ray, and assess the final astigmatism, to leading order.

== Conclusion: Unreasonable in what sense? ==

It has been shown that there are conditions under which the cathetus rule is true or nearly so. Let it be conceded that under these conditions the rule must be, in some sense, effective, and that this effectiveness, as far as it goes, is by definition reasonable. One might object that these conditions—that the image is stigmatic or nearly so, and the cathetus unambiguous—seem narrow, and that the effectiveness of the rule, by comparison, seems unreasonably wide. In response, one could point out that surfaces forming stigmatic or nearly stigmatic images are useful and therefore likely to be encountered in practice, and likely to encourage propagation of any principle found applicable to them. Moreover, the shapes nominated by Newton as producing nearly stigmatic images—plane or spherical, or, let us add, nearly so—may exist for reasons unrelated to their imaging properties: I may see my face reflected in a teapot, though the teapot is not an optical device. For these reasons, examples of the effectiveness of the rule might reasonably be prevalent, or at least prominent.

When we delve into the history of that &quot;antient and common&quot; principle, however, any semblance of reasonableness evaporates.

The cathetus rule was unanimously upheld for nearly 19 centuries although there was not a single non-tautological case in which the rule had been validly demonstrated. Even the tautological case—that in which the line of sight is along the cathetus—was botched from the beginning (recall Euclid's &quot;postulates&quot;), and eventually put on a secure footing after 13 centuries when Alhacen posed the examples of the eye lining up a sharp tip with its reflection, and looking at its own reflection.

But, after Kepler's attack in 1604 sent the rule into decline, only one more century passed before it was rehabilitated, without acknowledgment, by Newton's widely applicable &quot;axiom&quot; of approximate stigmatism, whereby the cathetus—disguised as the axis or the auxiliary axis or (generalized) as the undeviated ray—made itself extremely useful in &quot;Gaussian&quot; optics. Meanwhile the ''exact'' application of the rule to the sagittal image, for axial symmetry about the cathetus, languished in Newton's lecture notes, to be published posthumously in Latin, and to reappear in the 20th century—unnamed and unsourced—for the evaluation of 3rd-order astigmatism in coaxial systems with spherical surfaces, yielding the same formula as Hamiltonian theory, with less labor and less conceptual difficulty.

For nearly nineteen centuries, until Benedetti (1585), the cathetus rule was a non-sequitur: the effectiveness of the rule, in so far as it was correctly described, was unreasonably unexplained. For the three centuries since Newton, it has been unreasonably unrecognized.

== Additional information ==

=== Acknowledgments ===

If my analysis of Benedetti ([[#benedetti-1585|1585]]) adds any value to Goulding's ([[#goulding-18|2018]]), much of the credit is due to [[w:Artificial intelligence|{{serif|AI}}]]—including not only [[w:Google Translate|Google Translate]], but also [[w:ChatGPT|ChatGPT]] 3.5 (with a few &quot;custom instructions&quot;), which expedited the correction of [[w:Optical character recognition|OCR]] errors in the plain text from [[w:Google Books|Google Books]], and then gave a second opinion on translation.

This article uses images from Wikimedia Commons.

=== Competing interests ===
None.

=== Ethics statement ===
This article does not concern research on human or animal subjects.

== Notes ==

{{notelist|25em}}

== References ==

{{reflist|16em}}

== Bibliography ==

&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 111%&quot;&gt;

{{refbegin|indent=yes}}

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*&lt;span id=&quot;shapiro-2008&quot;&gt;A.E. Shapiro, 2008, &quot;Images: Real and Virtual, Projected and Perceived, from Kepler to Dechales&quot;, ''Early Science and Medicine'', vol.&amp;#8239;13, no.&amp;#8239;3, pp.&amp;#8239;270–312; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20617731 jstor.org/stable/20617731].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;shirley-51&quot;&gt;J.W. Shirley, 1951, &quot;An early experimental determination of Snell's law&quot;, ''American Journal of Physics'', vol.&amp;#8239;19, no.&amp;#8239;9 (Dec.&amp;#8239;1951), pp.&amp;#8239;507–8; [https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1933068 doi.org/10.1119/1.1933068].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;smith-1996&quot;&gt;A.M. Smith (tr.), 1996, &quot;Ptolemy's theory of visual perception: An English translation of the ''Optics'' with introduction and commentary&quot;, ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', vol.&amp;#8239;86, no.&amp;#8239;2; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3231951 jstor.org/stable/3231951].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;smith-2001&quot;&gt;A.M. Smith (tr.&amp;#8239;&amp;amp;&amp;#8239;ed.), 2001, &quot;Alhacen's theory of visual perception: A critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of the first three books of Alhacen's ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus'', the medieval Latin version of Ibn&amp;#8239;al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāzir''&quot;, in ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', vol.&amp;#8239;91, no.&amp;#8239;4, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657358 jstor.org/stable/3657358] (vol.&amp;#8239;1: Introduction and Latin text), and no.&amp;#8239;5 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657357 jstor.org/stable/3657357] (vol.&amp;#8239;2: English translation).&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;smith-2006&quot;&gt;A.M. Smith (tr.&amp;#8239;&amp;amp;&amp;#8239;ed.), 2006, &quot;Alhacen on the principles of reflection: A critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus'', the medieval Latin version of Ibn&amp;#8239;al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāzir''&quot;, in ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', vol.&amp;#8239;96, no.&amp;#8239;2, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20020399 jstor.org/stable/20020399] (vol.&amp;#8239;1: Introduction and Latin text), and no.&amp;#8239;3, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20020403 jstor.org/stable/20020403] (vol.&amp;#8239;2: English translation).&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;smith-2008&quot;&gt;A.M. Smith (tr.&amp;#8239;&amp;amp;&amp;#8239;ed.), 2008, &quot;Alhacen on image-formation and distortion in mirrors: A critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 6 of Alhacen's ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus'', the medieval Latin version of Ibn&amp;#8239;al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāzir''&quot; (vol.&amp;#8239;2: English translation), ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', vol.&amp;#8239;98, no.&amp;#8239;1, sec.&amp;#8239;2; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757399 jstor.org/stable/27757399].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;smith-2010&quot;&gt;A.M. Smith (tr.&amp;#8239;&amp;amp;&amp;#8239;ed.), 2010, &quot;Alhacen on Refraction: A critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's ''De&amp;nbsp;Aspectibus'', the medieval Latin version of Ibn&amp;#8239;al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāzir''&quot; (vol.&amp;#8239;2: English translation), ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', vol.&amp;#8239;100, no.&amp;#8239;3, sec.&amp;#8239;2; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20787651 jstor.org/stable/20787651].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;smith-2017&quot;&gt;A.M. Smith, 2017, ''From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics'', University of Chicago Press, 2015 (paperback ed., 2017).&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;tacquet-1669&quot;&gt;A.&amp;#8239;Tacquet, 1669, ''Catoptrica Tribus Libris Exposita'', in ''Opera Mathematica'', Antwerp: Meursius, vol.&amp;#8239;2, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XHK2NgG3UfQC google.com/books?id=XHK2NgG3UfQC], pp.&amp;#8239;213–264ff.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;takahashi-92&quot;&gt;K.&amp;#8239;Takahashi, 1992, ''The Medieval Latin Traditions of Euclid's''&amp;#8202; Catoptrica: ''A Critical Edition of''&amp;#8201; De speculis ''with an Introduction, English Translation and Commentary'', Kyushu University Press.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;unguru-72&quot;&gt;S. Unguru, 1972, &quot;Witelo and thirteenth-century mathematics: An assessment of his contributions&quot;, ''Isis'', vol.&amp;#8239;63, no.&amp;#8239;4 (Dec.&amp;#8239;1972), pp.&amp;#8239;496–508; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/229773 jstor.org/stable/229773].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;vanHelden-et-al-10&quot;&gt;A.&amp;#8239;Van Helden, S.&amp;#8239;Dupré, R.&amp;#8239;van Gent, &amp;amp; H.&amp;#8239;Zuidervaart (eds.), 2010, ''The Origins of the Telescope'', Amsterdam: KNAW Press; [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/224188 dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/224188] (open access).&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;vollgraff-1936&quot;&gt;J.A.&amp;#8239;Vollgraff, 1936, &quot;Snellius' notes on the reflection and refraction of rays&quot;, ''Osiris'', vol.&amp;#8239;1 (Jan.&amp;#8239;1936), pp.&amp;#8239;718–25; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/301634 jstor.org/stable/301634].&lt;/span&gt;

{{refend}}

&lt;/div&gt;

== Further reading ==

Of all the authors cited above, Goulding ([[#goulding-18|2018]]), although his account ends early in the 17th century, has by far the most information on the cathetus rule, and he alone reports Benedetti's priority in disproving and salvaging it. On the modifications of the rule by Brengger and Stevin, Goulding gives ten pages where I give only a paragraph.

For a concise general history of optics over the life of the traditional cathetus rule, see A.&amp;#8239;Mark Smith, &quot;Optics to the time of Kepler&quot;, ''Encyclopedia of the History of Science'' (Nov.&amp;#8239;2022; rev. Jul.&amp;#8239;2023), [https://doi.org/10.34758/v9kd-ad56 doi.org/10.34758/v9kd-ad56]. For a more expansive version, see [[#smith-2017|Smith, 2017]].

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      <text bytes="54903" sha1="eo4awx9rpmxqj4978v4qgxpnsh2rr1l" xml:space="preserve">== Dressmakers, Modistes, Costumiers, Perruquiers and Jewelers ==

=== Not to Mention Seamstresses, Tailors, Lace-makers, Milliners, and Lady's Maids ===
Dominated as the social world was by women, fashion was an important part of the reportage on social events, with some reporters demonstrating knowledge of fabrics, cuts, laces, and so on. The Victorians had specialized terms for people who designed and made clothing, especially very fashionable clothes or haut couture, and specialized careers for those people who assisted women to acquire, manage and wear that clothing. Because of the popularity of fancy-dress or costume parties, some of the people assisting them were costumiers from the world of theatre and opera. The terminology and examples that follow are generally focused on the end of the 19th century in London.

== Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes ==
The ''Gentlewoman'' says, &quot;A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Among those who helped construct the costumes and wigs include the following:

=== Doucet ===
A gossipy article in ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' (citing the ''Daily Mail'') says, &quot;Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;“Derbyshire Sayings and Doings.” ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' 12 June 1897, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 2A. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000228/18970612/018/0005.&lt;/ref&gt; although she went as Cleopatra and not Zenobia (only the Duchess of Devonshire went as Zenobia).

=== Mme Durrant ===

Mme Durrant's concern, at the end of the 19th century, at least, was at 116 &amp; 117 New Bond-street, London W. An ad in ''The Queen'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Court Dressmaker and Milliner. The Latest Paris Models in Morning, Afternoon, Tailor, and Evening Gowns, Millinery, and Mantles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Madame Durrant, Court Dressmaker and Milliner.&quot; ''The Queen'' 15 April 1899, Saturday: 11 [of 88], Cols. 2–3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18990415/082/0011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mme Durrant made the costumes for the following guests at the ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry|Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lines for the Ladies.&quot; ''Daily Gazette for Middlesbrough'' Thursday 16 June 1898: 4 [of 4], Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000159/18980616/060/0004.&lt;/ref&gt; The dress and fabrics for the Marchioness of Londonderry as well as her quadrille, were made in Britain or Ireland.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;&quot;This Morning’s News.&quot; London ''Daily News'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 3b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970706/038/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mme Durrant made at least a couple of dresses for Queen Mary (early 20th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/278730664423122186/|title=1900 - 1919 Clothing panosundaki Pin|website=Pinterest|language=en|access-date=2023-03-08}} https://pin.it/2GUiBm7 and https://pin.it/2GUiBm7.&lt;/ref&gt; Also, perhaps early 20th-c, Durrant had an address on Dover Street.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html|title=queerplaces - Sir Edwin Hardy Amies|website=www.elisarolle.com|access-date=2023-03-08}} http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html.&lt;/ref&gt; ''The Queen'' also has ads for a &quot;Mr. Durrrant's Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker&quot; in Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1892.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Durrant Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker.&quot; [advertisement] ''The Queen'' 06 February 1892, Saturday: 5 [of 81], Cols. 2–3c [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18920206/043/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mrs. Mason ===
M. or Mrs. Mason, of 4, New Burlington Street, W.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* &quot;Dress and Fashion&quot; answer by Adern Holt in the ''Queen'' to queries posed by &quot;Correspondents&quot;: &quot;F&lt;small&gt;ANCY&lt;/small&gt; D&lt;small&gt;RESS&lt;/small&gt;. — For the beautiful ball such as you describe you cannot do better than go to Mrs Mason, New Burlington-street, for the costume about which you inquire. It needs very careful making and the most artistic designs, and these you would be sure to obtain there, for the dresses she made for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball were quite artistic masterpieces.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents.&quot; The ''Queen'' 17 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 97], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970717/231/0049.&lt;/ref&gt;
Mrs. Mason made costumes for the following guests at the ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Ashburton#Mabel, Lady Ashburton|Mabel, Lady Ashburton]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/de Trafford#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Violet, Lady de Trafford]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Sophie Scott|Lady Sophie Scott]]
# Lady Lurgan&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# [[Social Victorians/People/Leeds#Katherine, Duchess of Leeds|Katherine, Duchess of Leeds]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Sutherland#Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland|Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Meysey-Thompson#Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson|Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Edmonstone#Lady Ida Edmonstone|Lady Ida Edmonstone]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Goelet#Costumes at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Mary Goelet]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Cavendish#Lady Edward Cavendish|Lady Edward Cavendish]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Spencer-Churchill Wilson#Lady Sarah Wilson|Lady Sarah Wilson]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Derby#Constance Villiers Stanley, Countess of Derby|Countess of Derby]]
#Mrs [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Gwendolen Bourke]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
#Duchess of Roxburghe&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Morin-Blossier ===
The French &quot;tailoring workshop&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://fashion.mam-e.it/morin-blossier/|title=Morin-Blossier -|date=2016-02-05|language=it-IT|access-date=2022-04-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; of Morin-Blossier &quot;possibly&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; made the dress worn to  the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball]] by

* Alexandra, Princess of Wales&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* [[Social Victorians/People/Prince Charles of Denmark|Princess Maud of Wales]] (Princess Charles of Denmark)&lt;ref name=&quot;:43&quot;&gt;Harris, Russell. &quot;Prince and Princess Carl of Denmark, later King Haakon VII (1872-1957) and Queen Maud of Norway (1869-1938),  and Princess Victoria of Wales (1868-1935), as a 16th century Danish courtier, and Ladies-in-Waiting at to Marguerite de Valois.&quot; &quot;List of Sitters.&quot; ''In Calm Prose''. 2011 http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/denmark.html.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Duchess of York&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Princess Victoria&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Messrs Russell and Allen ===
Old Bond-street., W.

Made presentation dresses for 8 of the following in 1913&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Their Majesties' Court.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 17 May 1913, Saturday: 35 [of 64], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/19130517/296/0035. Same print title, p. 787.&lt;/ref&gt;:

* Mrs. A. C. Hardy, of Montreal
* Mrs. Thorburn
* Mrs. Ralph Berners
* Miss Spencer Warwick
* [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Miss [Daphne] Bourke]]
* Mrs. Henry Barran
* Miss D. Hickman
* Hon. Irene Molesworth
* The Hon. Edith Winn
* The Hon. Hilaria St. Aubyn
* The Hon. Mary Charteris
* Miss Grace Holley

=== Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin ===
Mrs Mary Sims, Dawson Street, Dublin

Mrs Sims made a dress decorated with beetle wings in c. 1880; this dress still exists and, according to Elaine Hewitt, is in the NMI collections.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, Naional Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks. Saturday 16th February 2013. https://www.academia.edu/2455567/The_material_culture_of_infancy_and_early_childhood_in_Ireland_c_1680_1830?auto=download.&lt;/ref&gt; Hewitt's precis for an exhibit called ''Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, National Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks'' says, &quot;Mary Sims was a court dressmaker by Royal appointment, who established herself from 1863 as the most prominent dressmaker in Dublin.&quot;

Mrs Sims made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:

* [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan|Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan]]

Other people Mrs Sims made clothes for:

* Alexandra, Princess of Wales, 1885: Kate Strasdin offers an example of Alexandra's strategic use of clothing: a gown Alexandra wore to a Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace was, according to the ''Times'', &quot;a dress of rich yellow satin and silver brocade, draped with silver lace, corsage to correspond, made by Mrs Sims of Dublin.&quot;{{rp|1885, p. 11}} What is strategic is the release of Mrs Sims's name, according to Strasdin, since &quot;[t]he communication of this detail can only have come from the royal household itself, demonstrating the control that Alexandra exerted over details released to the press relating to her appearance.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Strasdin, Kate, &quot;Reporting Royal Dress: Queen Alexandra and Royal Image Making.&quot; Falmouth University Research Repository. http://repository.falmouth.ac.uk.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Ishbel, Marchioness Aberdeen, 1886: &quot;Ishbel, Lady Aberdeen (1857–1939), [wore a &quot;costume of an Irish lady in the thirteenth century&quot;] in 1886 while presiding over a garden party at the Vice Regal Lodge in the Phoenix Park in Dublin, an event to which the 2,000 invited guests were expected to wear clothes of Irish manufacture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alex Ward, &quot;Dress and National Identity: Women’s Clothing and the Celtic Revival,&quot; ''Costume'', 48:2, 2014, 193-212, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/0590887614Z.00000000050.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|199}}

=== Smaller Concerns ===
* Madame Fréderic: made the costume for Princess Mary of Teck&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Jays, Ltd., Regent-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* M. Machinka, Conduit-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Maison Lucille: made Mrs. James's costume&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Mrs. Nettleship: made the Countess of Yarborough's costume&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Paquin, of Dover-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}: made the dress of Madame von André&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Worth, of Paris ===
Located in Paris, Maison Worth or the House of Worth — named for owner and designer Englishman Charles Frederick Worth — was a very influential couturier in the 2nd half of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th centuries.&lt;blockquote&gt;Worth’s designs are notable for his use of lavish fabrics and trimmings, his incorporation of elements of historic dress, and his attention to fit. While the designer still created one-of-a-kind pieces for his most important clients, he is especially known for preparing a variety of designs that were shown on live models at the House of Worth. Clients made their selections and had garments tailor-made in Worth’s workshop.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm|title=Charles Frederick Worth (1825–1895) and the House of Worth {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|last=Krick|first=Authors: Jessa|website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|language=en|access-date=2024-07-12}} https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;After having won design prizes at the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, which was housed at the Crystal Palace, and the 1854 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Worth opened his own design house in Paris in 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; The Empress Eugénie appointed him designer to the court of France&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-07-03|title=House of Worth|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Worth&amp;oldid=1232307431|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Worth.&lt;/ref&gt;:&lt;blockquote&gt;Worth’s rise as a designer coincided with the establishment of the Second Empire in France. The restoration of a royal house in 1852, with Napoleon III (1808–1873) as the new emperor, once again made Paris an imperial capital and the setting for numerous state occasions. Napoleon III implemented a grand vision for both Paris and France, initiating changes and modernization that revitalized the French economy and made Paris into a showpiece of Europe. The demand for luxury goods, including textiles and fashionable dress, reached levels that had not been seen since before the French Revolution (1789–99). When Napoleon III married Empress Eugénie (1826–1920), her tastes set the style at court .... The empress’ patronage ensured Worth’s success as a popular dressmaker from the 1860s onward.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Other patrons included women from Empress Eugénie's court, &quot;Elizabeth of Austria, Margherita of Italy, Mme. de Castiglione, Mme. de Pourtales, and every reigning star in the theatrical and operatic world.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[Worth, House of.] {{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfFeminineFashion|title=A History Of Feminine Fashion (1800s to 1920s)}} Before 1927. [Likely commissioned by Worth. Link is to Archive.org; info from Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worth_Biarritz_salon.jpg.]&lt;/ref&gt; (6) By the end of the 19th century, wealthy women from the US, the UK and around Europe were making their way to Maison Worth in Paris.

Besides his contributions to in developments in models of promotion and business for the couture fashion house, Worth's real influence took the form of a particular look, which for the end of the century we call the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Traditional Style|traditional Victorian style]]. After Charles Worth's death in 1895, his sons Gaston-Lucien and Jean-Philippe &quot;succeeded in maintaining his high standards,&quot; and Jean-Philippe especially &quot;follow[ed] his father’s aesthetic, with his use of dramatic fabrics and lavish trimmings.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; While we associate a particular look with it, the House of Worth designed its clothing for its customers, whose relationship with the traditional style could be nuanced and fluctuating. For example, Lillie Langtry sometimes purchased her gowns at Maison Worth, even at the time she was known not to be corseted, so the style of the House of Worth is also less static and extreme than the gowns of some of its customers might suggest.

==== Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball ====
The House of Worth made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]], although the costume was designed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#M. Comelli|Attilio Comelli]].
# Lady Randolph Churchill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Mrs. Arthur Paget&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Daisy, Countess of Warwick&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Costumiers for Theatres and Operas ==
At the end of the 19th century, the profession of costumier depended on a knowledge of the history of clothing, although the costumiers themselves  generally did not feel constrained by notions of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Historical Accuracy|historical accuracy]] for the productions they designed for. ['''until the industrial revolution women made fabrics and clothing, plus ppl wore clothing every day, so clothing was not considered important. Planché; actual history of clothing vs just looking at portraits. History of clothing: foundation garments, items specific to a particular time like a codpiece, fabrics changed and evolved over time, plus a greater variety of fabrics; fabric and empires. The idea of a coherent production design with costumes designed for the particular actor in that production may have been changing about this time; before this actors provided their own costumes; Ellen Terry was probably part of this, Gilbert and Sullivan.''']

Not present at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] but certainly very involved in it were the people who made or provided the clothing, hats, wigs, jewelry, and other accessories. Besides people who made the costumes (costumiers, dressmakers, and modistes) and wigs (perruquiers), embroiderers, jewelers and shoemakers are occasionally mentioned although almost never named in the newspaper accounts.

Not all of these may have been costumiers, at least professional ones; some of the less well known might have been [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes|clothiers]] instead.

=== Mr. Charles Alias ===
Mr. Charles Alias, 36 Soho Square

==== Personal Details ====

* Charles Georges Alias (1852 – 11 May 1921&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;Principal Probate Registry. ''Calendar of the Grants of Probate and Letters of Administration made in the Probate Registries of the High Court of Justice in England''. London, England © Crown copyright. Ancestry.com. ''England &amp; Wales, National Probate Calendar (Index of Wills and Administrations), 1858-1995'' [database on-line]. Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;)
* Sarah Alias ()

Notes

# Will probated on 6 October 1921, effects of £6376 18s. 5d. to Marie Alias, widow.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
# 1881 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 114 St Martins Lane in St Martin in the Fields; his occupation is listed as Costumier (Milliner); 2 boarders and a servant were living with them: Robert Soutar (age 51, comedian/actor), Harriet Morgan (age 28, comedian/actor) and the general domestic servant Lucy Ann Hewitt (age 23). Other servants' names follow, but apparently they were not living in 114 St Martins Lane.&lt;ref&gt;''Census Returns of England and Wales, 1881''. Kew, Surrey, England: The National Archives of the UK (TNA): Public Record Office (PRO), 1881. Class: ''RG11''; Piece: ''328''; Folio: ''42''; Page: ''27''; GSU roll: ''1341071''. Ancestry.com and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. ''1881 England Census'' [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2004.&lt;/ref&gt;
# 1891 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 36 Soho Square; his occupation is listed as Theatrical Costumier;

==== Costumier ====
[[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Comelli|M. Comelli]], designer and costumier at Covent Garden, designed the costumes that were constructed by Mr. Alias of Soho Square.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Several newspapers specifically name Mr. Alias as one of their sources of information about the costumes for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball: The London ''Echo''&lt;ref&gt;“A Jubilee Ball. Brilliant Scene at Devonshire House. Some of the Costumes Worn.” The London ''Echo'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Cols. 6a – 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0004596/18970703/027/0002.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 2, Col. 6a}}; the London ''Evening Standard'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
* The column &quot;Girls' Gossip&quot; names M. Alias in its discussion of the costumes:&lt;blockquote&gt;Herr von André was a splendid Benvenuto Cellini in brown and crimson, a perfect triumph of M. Alias's art. In fact, it was owing to the studious research and historical accuracy displayed by this clever costumier that so many of the dresses were so realistically pictorial. Alias dressed the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, Duke of York, Prince Christian, Lord Lathom, and about a hundred other great ones of our island for the occasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;“Girls’ Gossip.” ''Truth'' 8 July 1897, Thursday: 41 [of 70], Col. 1b – 42, Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002961/18970708/089/0041.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|42, Col. 2c}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;
*&quot;Charles Alias was French and very small. He had started as a traveller in artificial flowers and married a little dressmaker in Long Acre. They started making theatrical costumes and later moved to 36 Soho Square.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI|title=As You Were: Reminiscences|last=Byng|first=Douglas|date=1970|publisher=Duckworth|isbn=978-0-7156-0543-1|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In its Appendix of Royal Warrant Holders, the 1902 ''Debrett's'' also says &quot;Charles Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square. W.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PP7&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&amp;f=false|title=Debrett's Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage: Comprising Information Concerning All Persons Bearing Hereditary Or Courtesy Titles, Knights, and Companions of All the Various Orders, and the Collateral Branches of All Peers and Baronets|date=1902|publisher=Dean &amp; Son, Limited|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PP7&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&amp;f=false.&lt;/ref&gt; (n.p.; end of book)
* The ''Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'', Vol. 1, says, &quot;Alias &amp; Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major success with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'' [a comic opera by Alfred Cellier, libretto by B. C. Stephenson, &quot;transferred&quot; from the Gaiety to the Prince of Wales's Theatre in 1886 and then to the Lyric Theatre in 1888, the most successful of the productions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-03-25|title=Dorothy (opera)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorothy_(opera)&amp;oldid=1146605626|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_(opera).&lt;/ref&gt;], and on into the 1890s by which ...&quot;; &quot;The Aliases made their mark in the West End when they provided the costumes for the original London production of La Fille de ...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI|title=The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre|last=G?nzl|first=Kurt|date=1994|publisher=Schirmer Books|isbn=978-0-02-871445-5|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI.&lt;/ref&gt; (taking from snippets)
* BNA search: Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square, London: 1898 shows a lot of advertisements.
* In 1892 Mr. C. Alias, 36, Soho Square, W., was a director of the 13th Annual Dramatic Ball, at the Freemasons' Tavern.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/account/register?countrykey=0&amp;showgiftvoucherclaimingoptions=false&amp;gift=false&amp;nextpage=%2faccount%2flogin%3freturnurl%3d%252fviewer%252fbl%252f0001682%252f18920213%252f011%252f0004&amp;rememberme=false&amp;cookietracking=false&amp;partnershipkey=0&amp;newsletter=false&amp;offers=false&amp;registerreason=none&amp;showsubscriptionoptions=false&amp;showcouponmessaging=false&amp;showfreetrialmessaging=false&amp;showregisteroptions=false&amp;showloginoptions=false&amp;showcaptchaerrormessage=false&amp;isonlyupgradeable=false|title=Register {{!}} British Newspaper Archive|website=www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk|access-date=2023-04-28}} https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001682/18920213/011/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In a gushing piece written for the 15 December 1899 ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'', &quot;The Bohemian Girl&quot; says that Alias executed Comelli designs for a Christmas pantomime ''Triumph of Music''. She goes on to talk about Willie Clarkson's work for another pantomime and a visit by Mrs. Langtry.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bohemian Girl, The.&quot; &quot;Preparing for the Pantomime.&quot; ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'' 15 December 1899, Friday: 24 [of 60], Cols. 1b–c and 2b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002237/18991215/160/0024.&lt;/ref&gt;
Russell Harris quotes ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Blackwell, 1994. Vol. 1, p. 19.):&lt;blockquote&gt;ALIAS, Charles (b France, 184-?; d London, 11 May 1921). The most famous name in British theatrical costumery in the second half of the 19th century.

The son of a French doctor, the young Alias fought alongside his father in the Franco-Prussian war where he is said to have lost the sight in one eye. He visited Britain and the Philharmonic Theatre, Islington, shortly afterwards as a dresser with the French dance troupe, Les Clodoches, and there he met and married Miss Price, the theatre's costumer. Although Alias had no experience in the theatre, he joined his wife in setting up the freelance firm of M et Mme Alias &amp; Co, '''someties''' designing and manufacturing, or more often just making up from the designs of such artists as [Comelli or] Wilhelm or [[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin]], the costumes for an ever-extending series of musical shows.

The Aliases made their mark in the West End when theyprovided the costumes for the original London production of ''La Fille de Madame Angot'' (1873), and thereafter they costumes, either wholly or partly, many of London's most important musical productions including the burlesques at the Gaiety Theatre (''The Bohemian G'yurl, Little Dr Faust, Gulliver, Il Sonnambulo, Pretty Esmeralda'' etc), the Royalty (''Madcap, '''Pluto''''' '''etc'''), and the Strand (''The '''Lying''' Dutchman, L'Africaine, Nemesis, Loo, Antarctic, Champagne, The Baby, Intimidad''), Gilbert's early ''Tospyturveydom'' and ''Princess Toto'', Gilbert and Sullivan premières at the '''OPera''' Comique (''The Pirates of Penzance'') and the Savoy (''Iolanthe''), the vast spectaculars at the Alhambra (''La Poule aux oeufs d'or'' etc) and, most noticeably, the long string of French opéras-bouffes and opéras-comiques which were produced in Britain in the 1870s and 1880s. These included the record-breaking ''Trouillat (La Belle Normande), Le Jour et la nuit (Manola), La Timbale d'argent (The Duke's Daughter), La Marjolaine, Les Prés St Gervais'' and most of the long string of adaptations from the French made by Alias's close friend Henry Farnie, and produced by Alexander Henderson.

Alias maintained a close connection with his homeland. His home at 48 Soho Square became well known as a first stopping place for Frenchmen new to London and a congenial gathering place for theatricals, and he as a useful and friendly intermediary in various theatrical dealings between London and Paris. Hervé, Planquette, Chassaigne, Audran and Lecocq were all guests at Soho Square and the little costumier was said to have been instrumental in the brothers Mansell bringing Hervé and his ''Chilpéric'' (1870) to London, and thus helping set off the craze for opéra-bouffe which dominated the 1870s musical theatre in England. He also encouraged Planquette to work with H B Farnie on an original musical for Britain - the result of which was the enduring ''Rip van Winkle''.

Alias &amp; Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major succss with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'', and on into the 1890s by which stage they had become largely costume-makers rather than designers. Alias himself had by this time become one of the 'characters' of the London theatre, always anxiously asking 'What time de répétition générale?' as an opening approached, but always punctually ready with the show's costumes on dress-rehearsal night.

When Mme Alias died, Charles remarried and continued the business with his new wife, Mme Marie Wallet Floret from the Paris Opéra wardrobe, up to his death.&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html|title=King Edward VII at the Devonshire House Ball 1897, by Lafayette|website=lafayette.org.uk|access-date=2024-07-23}} Lafayette Negative Archive http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html.  Quoting ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Vol. 1, Blackwell, 1994, p. 19).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball'''

Mr. Alias made costumes for the following guests at the Duchess of Devonshire’s 1897 fancy-dress ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales|Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]
# The [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught|Duke of Connaught]]
# The [[Social Victorians/People/George and Mary|Duke of York]]
# Duke of Fife&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;Harris, Russell. &quot;Costumes by Named Dressmakers.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/|title=The Devonshire House Ball 1897 photographed by Lafayette|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2024-05-21}} 2011. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/.&lt;/ref&gt;
# The Duke of Devonshire&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# [[Social Victorians/People/Stonor#Julia Caroline Stonor, Marquise of Hautpoul|Julia Stonor, Marquise of Hartpoul]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Mar and Kellie#Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie|Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Tweedmouth#Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth|Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught#Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught|Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Douglas-Hamilton Duke of Hamilton|Mary, Dowager Duchess of Hamilton]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Portland|The Duchess of Portland]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]]
# Adolf von André&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Lady St. Oswald&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Earl of Rosebery&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Faustin Bedbeter ===
[[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin Bedbeter]] was a caricaturist and painter who left France after Bismarck's seige of Paris and settled in London, working for the ''London Figaro'' and ''Punch''. He was a costumier beginning at least in 1875. He designed the costumes for a 1909 revival of [[Social Victorians/People/Gilbert|Gilbert]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Sullivan]]'s ''The Pirates of Penzance''.

=== Willie Clarkson ===
Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street

Clarkson is also listed among the [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Perruquiers|perruquiers]]. Clarkson made the costumes for the following guests at the ball:

* Grand Duke Michael of Russia&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4A–8 Col. 2B. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* The Duke of Manchester&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* [[Social Victorians/People/Gleichen#Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe Langenburg|Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* Princess Louise&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== M. Comelli ===
Attilio Giuseppe de Comelli von Stuckenfeld (1858-1925).

Comelli &quot;was appointed house designer to the Royal Opera House in the 1890s&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Attilio Comelli Design Collection.&quot; ''Royal Opera House''  https://www.rohcollections.org.uk/collectionComelli.aspx (retrieved February 2024).&lt;/ref&gt; continuing &quot;to the early 1920s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Drury Lane Design Collection|url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/|date=1915|accessdate=2024-02-13|first=Attilio|last=Comelli}}. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/.&lt;/ref&gt; At the same time, &quot;He was credited as Artist in Chief at the Alhambra, Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and the Royal Opera House in London, and also found time to provide costumes for some of the Savoy operas and for Christmas pantomimes in London and Australia.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; After coming &quot;to London in the late 19th century [he] quickly established himself as one of the most prolific designers for the London stage.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

He described his research process for costume design for the July 1902 ''Cassell's Magazine'':&lt;blockquote&gt;When I get the order to prepare designs for a new play … [sic ellipsis] I first spend some weeks in studying, at the British and South Kensington [now the Victoria &amp; Albert] Museum, every available authority on the period, and I frequently send my brother to Paris and Berlin, if there is a chance of getting information there that is not available in London’. (‘The Art of Theatrical Disguise’ by Sidney Dark, ''Cassell’s Magazine'', July 1902, pp.162–7).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;According to the Royal Opera House, he &quot;appears to have had several siblings, including possibly Emilio Andrea Comelli (1862–1929).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;  Also, perhaps another relative, Italian painter Dante Comelli (1880–1958) designed for the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden later.

Comelli's designs for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:
* Comelli designed the costumes that were constructed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mr. Charles Alias|Mr. Alias of Soho Square]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

* Comelli designed the costumes of the attendants of [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]] as well as her own costume. Alias did not construct her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#The House of Worth|the House of Worth]] did.
* Comelli may have designed the costumes of the entourage of [[Social Victorians/People/Pless#Daisy, Princess Henry of Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]], although Mrs. Mason made Daisy's dress.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dresses Worn at the Duchess of Devonshire's Ball on July 2. Made by Mrs. Mason, 4 New Burlington Street, W.&quot; The ''Queen'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 98 BNA; p. 74 print page), Col. 1a–3c [of 3]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18970710/168/0048?browse=true.&lt;/ref&gt; George Cornwallis-West says his costume was &quot;designed by a famous theatrical designer of the day.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Qtd. in Martin Spies, &quot;&quot;Late Victorian Aristocrats and the Racial Other: The Devonshire House Ball of 1897.&quot; ''Race &amp; Class'' April–June 2016 (57.4): 95–103.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|97}}
[[File:Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth.jpg|thumb|''Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth'', Sargent 1889]]

=== Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship ===
According to Smallhythe Place, the &quot;beetle wing dress&quot; for Ellen Terry's 1888 performance as Lady Macbeth was designed by Alice Comyns Carr and constructed by Ada Nettleship, the &quot;team&quot; that made Ellen Terry's costumes for perhaps 2 decades.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;&quot;'Beetle Wing Dress' for Lady Macbeth.&quot; Smallhythe Place, Kent. The National Trusts Collections. Object NT 1118839.1 (1888) https://www.nationaltrustcollections.org.uk/object/1118839.1.&lt;/ref&gt; John Singer Sargent's 1889 portrait of Terry in this dress is at right. (Smallhythe Place, Kent, part of the National Trust, was Terry's home from 1899 to her death. This dress is part of that collection.)

Nettleship crocheted the sleeves and skirt of Terry's costume to resemble &quot;soft chain armour,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; which she overlaid with wing cases from 1,000 beetles.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://womenwhomeantbusiness.com/2021/01/21/ada-nettleship-1856-1932/|title=Ada Nettleship (1856-1932)|last=B|first=Lizzie|date=2021-01-21|website=Women Who Meant Business|language=en|access-date=2025-06-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;p&gt;
Comyn Carr and Nettleship's beetle-wing costume was not the only or even the first dress decorated with the iridescent wings. Ada Nettleship had used beetle wings in &quot;an 1886 dress and an 1887 hat for Constance Lloyd that were oversewn with iridescent green beetle wings&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Ada Nettleship|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Nettleship&amp;oldid=1286707541|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; — and [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin|Mrs Sims]] had used some for a dress in c. 1880.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

==== Personal Details ====
Alice Laura Vansittart Comyns Carr designed costumes, and dressmaker Adaline Cort Nettleship constructed Comyns Carr's designs. They were a &quot;costume team&quot; separate from those who did the costumes for &quot;the rest of the Lyceum company.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; They appear to have maintained individual establishments, with Nettelship often constructing costumes for Terry that were designed by Comyns Carr.

Alice Comyns Carr (1850–1927) was married to J. Comyns Carr, &quot;drama and art critic, author, playwright and director of the Grosvenor Gallery.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Alice Comyns Carr|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alice_Comyns_Carr&amp;oldid=1286707345|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; She was associated with the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress movement]] and was friends with Edward Burne-Jones and John Singer Sargent as well as Lawrence Alma-Tadema, &quot;the writers Robert Browning and Henry James and composers Hubert Parry and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;

Ada (Adaline) Cort Nettleship (1856 – 19 December 1932&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;) was married to painter John Trivett Nettleship. Some of her &quot;[n]otable clients included the soprano Marie Tempest, and the actors Ellen Terry, Winifred Emery, Sarah Bernhardt, and Mrs Patrick Campbell.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; Like Comyns Carr, Nettleship was an advocate of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress design]], making dresses for Constance Lloyd in that progressive style, including her dress for her wedding to [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]]. Nettleship &quot;in her youth had been a noted ‘art-embroiderer’ in the style of May Morris.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;

Alice Comyns Carr published her ''Reminiscences'' in 1926, the year before her death. Ada Nettleship was covered by the newspapers from time to time (&quot;''St James Gazette'' 30/5/1883; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 7/7/1884; ''Morning Post'' 16/10/1886; ''The Queen'' 13/8/1887; ‘Ellen Terry’s gowns and the woman who makes them’ by Bessie O’Connor in ''Harpers Bazaar'' 9th Jan 1897; ‘What Actresses Pay For Their Dresses’ in ''New Zealand Herald'' 25/08/1900; ''South Wales Daily News'' 25/1/1902; ''Leeds Mercury'' 13/2/1914.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;)

=== Miss Mary E. Fisher ===
Mme. or Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street, Covent-garden&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA3-PR2&amp;dq=Mr.+May,+Garrick-street,+Covent-garden&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;redir_esc=y|title=The Play-pictorial|date=1908|publisher=Greening &amp; Company, Limited|language=en}} P. ADVT ii. ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
*Miss Mary E. Fisher is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}

=== Charles H. Fox ===
Fox: &quot;perruquier and costumier Charles H. Fox. Since 1878, Fox had been a major supplier of wigs and costumes for private theatricals and fancy dress balls.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;B. J. Simmons &amp; Co.: An Inventory of Its Costume Design Records at the Harry Ransom Center.&quot; ''B. J. Simmons &amp; Co. Costume Design Records''. Harry Ransom Center. The University of Texas. 2023. Retrieved February 2024. https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=01440.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Harrison ===
Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* In a chatty column written as a letter to &quot;Dearest Amy,&quot; the article in ''Truth'' on the ball says, &quot;Princess Henry of Pless was another [Queen of Sheba], and her dress was absolutely magnificent. The conception of it was both poetic and artistic, and is due, I believe, to the genius of Mrs. Harrison.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42, Col. 1b}}
* There are ads for Harrison's.

=== May ===
Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

* Mr. May is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}

=== Nathan ===
Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; 17, Convent-street, Picadilly

*Messrs. L. and H. Nathan is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
*Mr. Karl, artist, designed the costumes made by Messrs. L. and H. Nathan of Coventry-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
*Messrs Nathan made the costumes for the following people:
**[[Social Victorians/People/Harcourt#Elizabeth Harcourt|Elizabeth, Lady Harcourt]]
**[[Social Victorians/People/Rothschild Family#Emma, Lady Rothschildand Nathan Mayer, Lord Rothschild|Emma, Lady Rothschild]]

=== Simmons and Sons ===
Messrs. John Simmons and Sons, Coventry House, Haymarket.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Simmons, 7 and 8, King Street, Covent Garden.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Possibly there are 2 Simmonses?

The Harry Ransom Center has a collection on this firm:&lt;blockquote&gt;The London costumier B. J. Simmons &amp; Co. was founded in 1857 by a Mr. B. J. Simmons and operated by his direct descendants well into the 1930s. Simmons' costumes were known for their correctness of period, sophisticated design, and high quality. ... In their busy Covent Garden workshop, dressmakers turned out immaculately constructed stage apparel, often from renderings by leading costume designers. Successful theater managers repeatedly turned to Simmons for historical costumes, especially Herbert Beerbohm Tree whose magnificent stagings of Shakespeare were often outfitted by Simmons.

While best known as a historical costumier for the London stage, Simmons' output was diverse. The company created costumes for a variety of shows in the West End, the provinces, and overseas, ranging from Victorian pantomime to the &quot;kitchen sink&quot; dramas of the 1960s. ... In addition to making new costumes for professional productions, Simmons operated a thriving rental business which allowed operatic and dramatic societies across England to hire beautifully made garments for amateur productions. Like many theatrical costumiers, Simmons maintained a substantial nontheatrical trade.

Simmons began as a family-run outfit known variously as B. J. Simmons, J. B. Simmons, John Simmons &amp; Son/Sons, Simmons/Symmons/Simmonds Brothers, G. B. Simmons, and B. &amp; G. Simmons. The force majeure seems to have been John Simmons, whose name appears in ''The London Stage'' and in London newspapers until 1922. According to J. P. Wearing, between 1890 and 1899 Simmons provided costumes for at least forty-two theatre productions in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Simmons' contributions to costumes for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:
* Messrs. John Simmons and Son is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
* Simmons and Sons made costumes for the following guests at the ball:
** [[Social Victorians/People/Ellesmere#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Francis Egerton, 3rd Earl of Ellesmere]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** The Duke of Somerset&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** The Marquis of Winchester&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Beauchamp&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Carrington&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Essex&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Viscount Esher&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
** Lord Ampthill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
** Lady Ampthill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
Simmons and Sons is also sometimes listed as having made clothing for other social events:

* For the [[Social Victorians/1892-02-10 Alington Leigh Wedding|very fashionable February 1892 wedding between Henry Sturt, Lord Alington and Evelyn Leigh]] — the &quot;most important social event of last week in the social world&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot;&gt;&quot;Lord Alington to Miss Leigh.&quot; ''Gentlewoman'' 20 February 1892, Saturday: 21 [of 46], Cols. 1a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18920220/092/0021. Same print title, p. 237.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|Col. 1a}} — &quot;Messrs. Simmons &amp; Sons, of Coventry House, Haymarket, made the charming little suits for the pages, which were so much admired.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Col. 3a}}

=== Smaller Concerns ===
* Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Mr. W. Clarkson, 44, Wellington Street (costumes and wigs)&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

=== Unknown Whether Costumier or Dressmaker ===
*Mme. Ellis: &quot;The pretty costumes of Merlin and Vivian worn by [[Social Victorians/People/Walker|Mr and Mrs Willie Walker]] at the Devonshire House Ball, were made by Mme. Ellis, 16, Upper George-street, Bryanston-square.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents.&quot; The ''Queen'' 24 July 1897, Saturday: 54 [of 88], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970724/271/0054.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor Place
* &quot;and many others&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

== Perruquiers ==
Mr. W. Clarkson &quot;supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:&lt;blockquote&gt;At the Duchess of Devonshire's ball, on the 2d inst., the Prince of Wales looked as if he had stepped out of a masterpiece by one of the old painters. His wig, which completed a correct make-up as Knight of Malta, was specially made and fitted by that favoured &quot;Royal Perruquier&quot; Mr Willie Clarkson, who also had the honour of making and fitting the wigs worn by Prince Charles of Denmark, the Duke of York, and the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, and of dressing the hair of the Duchess of York and the Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein. Mr Clarkson also supplied a number of the costumes, including those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, Princess Louise, and the Duke of Manchester. It would not be safe to say how many crowned heads have literally &quot;passed through the hands&quot; of Mr Clarkson. The art of the perruquier is a very difficult one, requiring historical knowledge, patient research, and great taste. It is most essential to the success of any theatrical performance or of an historical ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;“Foreign Plays and Players.” ''The Era'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 15 [of 28], Col. 3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000053/18970710/032/0015.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Clarkson also provided costumes and wigs for the [[Social Victorians/Royals Amateur Theatricals|amateur theatricals]] that the royals took part in to entertain themselves.

== Jewelers ==
After naming costumiers for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the ''Gentlewoman'' specifically mentions the Parisian Company for its jewelry and Mr. Norman of Bond Street for the shoes he made:&lt;blockquote&gt;Among other firms [than the costumiers] who lent their aid to make the great ball a huge success was the Parisian Company, whose sparkling gems and jewels, and whose ropes of pearls and precious stones, enhanced the charms of many a fair dame in her dainty old-world costume, and the firm of Mr. Norman, 69, New Bond-street, who designed and made the shoes for the Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Buccleuch, &amp;c., &amp;c.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3c}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;According to the ''Westminster Gazette'', &quot;One very great lady indeed had been lent, by a jeweller, diamonds worth about £13,000.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;“The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 2c}}

== People Who Made Costumes for the Ball ==
The ''Queen'' often mentions the dressmaker or costumier in its reports on the costumes at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball at Devonshire House]] as well as in general.

The ''Gentlewoman'' covered this topic explicitly in its report on the ball:&lt;blockquote&gt;Very great credit is due to the taste and artistic powers of the designers of these dresses, and particular mention must be made of M. Comelli, of Covent Garden Theatre, whose facile pen designed most of the superb toilettes so ably carried out by Messrs. Alias, of Soho-square. Other theatrical costumiers who brought all their special talents to bear on the historical and fancy costumes required for this function were Messrs. Nathan (artist, Mr. Karl), of Coventry-street; Messrs. John Simmons &amp; Sons, Haymarket; Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street; Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street; Simmons, 7 and 8, King-street; Mr. Clarkson, 44, Wellington-street; Mme. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street; and many others. A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses. Amongst these we chronicle M. Mason, New Burlington-street; M. Machinka, Conduit-street; Paquin, of Dover-street; Jays, Ltd., Regent-street; Messrs. Durrant, 116, Bond-street (who made Lady Londonderry's magnificent gown), and numerous others.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The London ''Evening Standard'' cites the sources of its information about the costumes:&lt;blockquote&gt;We are indebted for some of the particulars of the dresses to Mr. Charles Alias, Soho-square; Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; Messrs. John Simmons and Son, Coventry House, Haymarket; Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden; Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26 Bedford-street, Covent-garden; and the ''Lady'' newspaper.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Morning Post'' also addressed the costumiers. It named Mr. Alias in association with the royals, as well as mentioning several other costumiers by name:&lt;blockquote&gt;The costumes worn by the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, and the Duchess of Connaught, as well as many others were supplied by Mr. Alias, of Soho-square. Those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, the Duke of Manchester, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and others were made by Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street, who also supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family. Messrs. Simmons and Sons, of the Haymarket, made a large number of costumes, including those of the Duke of Somerset, the Marquis of Winchester, Earls Beauchamp, Carrington, Ellesmere, and Essex. Nathan, of Coventry-street, and Simmons, of King-street, Covent-garden; Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor-place, and Mrs. Mason, of New Burlington-street, also made some of the principal costumes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;On 3 July 1897, the day after the ball, the ''Belfast News-letter'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;For weeks past all the leading London dressmakers and costumiers had been hard at work executing the orders for this great ball. At Alias Nathan's, Clarkson's, Auguste's, and Simmons' all hands set to with a will, and it is gratifying to know that the dresses entrusted to them more than held their own with those sent over from Paris.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram.&quot; ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9c [of 9]–6, Col. 1a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

According to the ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'', citing the ''Daily Mail'',&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear, while Worth also is making a great many costumes; but the greatest number are being made in England. The Duchess of Portland, the Duchess of Hamilton, Lady Mar and Kellie, and [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]] are all going to the costumier in Soho-square, and Alias has also been summoned to Marlborough House for a consultation.
&lt;p&gt;
Mr. Caryl Craven, who is so clever in such matters, is helping the Duchess of Leeds with her dress; in fact, everyone seems pressed into the service, and the result will be one of the most brilliant sights that ever was seen.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Notes and Questions ==

# Which costumier was this? &quot;A well-known West End dressmaker booked for the Duchess of Devonshire's fancy dress ball orders representing £27000.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London Letter.&quot; ''Western Daily Press'' 15 July 1897, Thursday: 8 [of 8], Col. 7c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000264/18970715/146/0008.&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
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      <text bytes="27951" sha1="qrxzupmh4qw1vtu55cg0oacmhgyvwfp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|News and emotion:&lt;br&gt;What role does emotion play in the presentation and consumption of news?}}
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:1st Boston Marathon blast seen from 2nd floor and a half block away.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Spectators helping victims at the 2013 Boston marathon bombings.]]

On the fateful day of 15 April 2013, tragedy struck in Boston. As hundreds of marathon runners crossed the finish line, 2 bombs exploded killing 3 people and injuring hundreds more. A study of mental health conducted by Holman and colleagues at the University of California confirmed the expected - that those who had witnessed the event (see Figure 1) had suffered a decline in their mental health. However, another group had been even more badly shaken: Those who did not witness the explosion firsthand, but had consumed 6 or more hours of news coverage per day in the week afterwards. Curiously, having been in the vicinity during the bombing or knowing someone who was injured or died in it were not as predictive of high acute stress than the nature of one’s news consumption habits during this terrible time (Gorvett, 2020).
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

News is a significant part of everyday life. It has many functions and is evolving. Emotion of both the journalist and the audience create a feedback cycle where bias is almost unavoidable and shapes the presentation of news{{g}}. Consumption of news is driven by someone's understanding of and emotions about the topic, the perceived negativity and threat level and their personal connection to it. The resulting consumption habits help to determine what sells and what doesn't. This calls into question journalistic integrity. The reach and power of news in it's{{g}} current state suggest a crisis of a depressed and dependent population, and an increase in the spread of misinformation is responsible for vast negative outcomes. 

{{RoundBoxTop}}
;Focus questions
* What factors determine the way news is presented and the effect it has on our emotions?
* What is the relationship between news and emotion? How does one affect the other?
* How can this relationship be harnessed for effective, accurate communication of information?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is news?==
Every day people are faced with various events, ideas and processes, many of which clash with one another. News monitors and interprets these concepts, conveying them to the population. The earliest news was delivered by word of mouth. Merchants, sailors and travellers brought news to the mainland upon their return. Pedlars spread this information across towns and ancient scribes recorded it. The invention of the printing press revolutionized the transmission and reliability of news. Newspapers were the primary journalistic medium of the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century (see '''Figure 2'''), followed by radio and television in the 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; (Reese, 2016).The definition of “news” is becoming looser with time, being that it is strategically or even unconsciously embedded into our everyday lives in ways we may not otherwise consider (like [[w:_advertising|advertising]]) but consistently demonstrate reach and impact (Sivek, 2018).

[[File:Land on the Moon 7 21 1969-repair.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Young girl reading newspaper article on moon landing,  1969.|200x200px]]

=== Why do we consume news? ===
{{expand}}{{f}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!'''Reason''' 
!'''Example'''
|-
|'''Staying informed:'''
To learn about current events and what is happening in the world.
|During the height of the covid-19 pandemic, many people relied on the news to keep them updated on case numbers, vaccine availability, testing site locations and rules about mask wearing and isolation periods.
|-
|'''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Positive education|Education]]:'''
To gain knowledge and understanding of different topics.
|Consuming a news segment about an endangered animal will likely make someone more educated about and aware of the animal and nature of their endangerment. 
|-
|'''Entertainment:'''
Some news stories are interesting or entertaining.
|[https://time.com/6550164/neil-the-seal-tasmania-background-instagram-tiktok/ This story about a seal playfully destroying a town's traffic cones each year] (Moench, 2023).
|-
|'''Perspective:'''
To see different viewpoints and opinions.
|Someone who is unsure who to vote for can access a variety of different information and outlooks through the news to inform their judgment.
|}
(Reach Out, n.d)

=== The impact of news ===
News is very powerful and prevalent. It shapes understanding of people, places and events, and therefore:

* Determines people's attitudes and opinions.
* Can change the content of people's dreams.
* Can lead to miscalculated risks and misinformed decisions, whether at an individual or governmental level.
* Increases one’s risk of developing PTSD, depression and anxiety disorders, mostly due to repeated exposure to negative and traumatizing stories.
* Increases one’s risk of having a heart attack or developing health conditions later in life.
* Contributes to societal divide and pressures such as classism and [[w:racism|Racism]].
* Poses personal and global financial and economic risks.
(Global Affairs Explained, n.d.)

==Journalism ==
Competition is intense in the news world right now. Rivals are everywhere, endless and in disguise. Information and diverse modalities of accessing it are more available than ever before, and journalists have a much smaller chance of capturing audience attention, or even having their news stories seen at all. A tried, tested and common method of effectively doing this is by appealing to audience emotion, which concerningly blurs the lines of integrity and manipulates consumption habits and rates. Accurate, reliable news sources are not fulfilling their potential. 

=== Objectivity vs. emotion ===
News companies/journalists may believe a certain narrative is interesting, engaging, and important but be restricted in their presentation of it due to practical pressures, limited resources and deadlines. They need to turn complex real events into formulaic, understandable, accessible and consumable items of media. A traditional and integral principal of journalism is the idea that it presents an account that is balanced, fact-checked, including context and not including the distortion of a journalists feelings.

[[File:Sensitive news cycle.jpg|thumb|253x253px|'''Figure 3.''' The news cycle of &quot;sensitive&quot; content creation.]]

However, journalists are not immune to the impact of news, and have different factors shaping their worldview and their understanding of particular circumstances, the same way every human does. It is almost impossible to have no bias in a piece. Seemingly small details in the way news is presented- like which parts of the story are included and excluded out of a large amount of information and footage- indicate subjectivity, even when two sides of a story are acknowledged (Beckett, 2015). As such, emotion has always been at the core of the way a journalist presents news to an audience, the reception of the audience and the way this feedback informs the presentation of the news segments that follow.

This is represented in the news cycle of &quot;sensitive&quot; content creation (see '''Figure 3'''). The journalist inevitably creates an affective narrative following their professional process in interpreting the event. They then learn what the audience responds to, which tends to be the more emotional, flashy news portrayals{{f}}. The audience shares the news more when they feel emotionally driven to{{f}}. This feedback is adopted and used to appeal to the audience. Emotional stories are making people emotional, and emotional people are (invertedly) making emotional stories by their consumption indicating the value to the news provider of emotion in both the portrayal and reception of the news they shared (Beckett, 2015).

This is demonstrated originally by [[w:yellow_journalism|yellow journalism]]. This term emerged in the 1980s when 2 New York-based newspapers were battling for the top spot. It is characterized by the tactical use of exaggerated headlines, unverified claims, partisan agendas, and a focus on topics like crime, scandal, sports, and violence {{g}} It is associated with exaggerating facts and spreading rumours, and yet produces results in favour of the news source (Kennedy, 2019). The push towards emotionally charged news combined with the increasingly difficult economic and attentional demand to fulfill may entice and ultimately influence journalists to compromise objectivity and integrity. 

=== Ethics ===
Content distributed on social media platforms faces unique challenges within itself as these platforms accept very little responsibility for what takes place on them. Twitter, now known as X, has faced controversy for years over the showing of hateful and violent content{{f}}. Their responses have been largely slow, inadequate and in the interest of corporate success rather than morality{{f}}. After allowing racist and homophobic rhetoric and visually distressing depictions of gore for many years, X has only recently enacted stricter policies regarding hateful speech and imagery{{f}}. Prior to this, many users have reported seeing content intending to incite violence, even without seeking it out{{f}}. When shown to someone experiencing strong emotions in and emotional way, this has been successful. Journalists are additionally faced with increased efforts and decreased motivations to align with their ethical standards when it is socially acceptable, easier and more monetarily beneficial to stoop to level of misinformation and unnecessarily triggering negative emotions for more audience engagement (Sivek, 2018). 

'''Quiz'''

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{When did &quot;yellow journalism&quot; emerge? 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- 1970s
+ 1980s

{Consuming more emotional news increases risk of heart attacks:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==A big shift in the format of news==
According to recent research conducted by the Australian Communications and Media Authority (2024), Australians are going to fewer sources to access news. In 2023, Australians used on average 3.1 different sources of news, down from 3.5 in 2022. It also found that more Australians are choosing [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media engagement motivation|social media]] as their primary source of news content. 20% of Australians nominated social media as their main source of news in 2023, up from 17% in 2022. 

=== Social media &amp; technology ===
The increasing take-over of social media and modern technology mean the modern metric for news consumption are ”shares&quot; and &quot;likes&quot;, which rely heavily on audience approval and engagement, factors that are determined almost entirely by their emotions. This adaptation has created a shift from more formal reporting to the utilization of humor, convenience, relatability, popular figures and trends in media.{{f}}

=== Biases ===
Since social media is arguably a representation of oneself- via personalised profiles and the messages one chooses to project on them- people share the things that they believe are the “right answer” ([[w:_Participation_bias|participation bias]]) (Elston, 2021) or make them look better ([[w:_Social_desirability_bias|social desirability bias]]) (Nikolopoulou, 2022), which is not necessarily &quot;the truth&quot;. Further, people may feel more driven to gain approval from others now than ever before due to lack of self-esteem or positive emotions induced by the increasingly hopeless and negative state of the world that the news paints a picture of. [[w:_Confirmation_bias|Confirmation bias]] (Simkus, 2023) is reinforced by the algorithms that monitor online activity by feeding users more and more of what they seem to like, regardless of the morality and validity of the information that's presented. 

=== Misinformation and &quot;the algorithm&quot; ===
Online dialogue is more about affirming one’s own perspective than seeking accurate information. This puts people at risk of getting stuck in echo chambers projecting only more and more extreme versions of the things they &quot;like&quot; and connecting them to similar others who will reinforce the ideas during their interactions. The news one receives via devices, advertising and social media is delivered to them based on their emotions, and is designed to achieve higher user satisfaction and therefore higher user engagement. This means the more content one consumes presenting a particular ideology, the more they will be fed that content, causing them to thus grow deeper beliefs about and emotional connection to the idea and creating a dangerous cycle that can easily perpetuate [[w:_misinformation|misinformation]] (Beckett &amp; Deuze, 2016). 

News that makes someone feel good, and therefore more driven to share it, may not necessarily be reliable facts. People generally are less receptive to information that challenges their beliefs. As data scientist Gilad Lotan wrote (2014): ''“The better we get at modeling user preferences, the more accurately we construct recommendation engines that fully capture user attention. In a way, we are building personalized propaganda engines that feed users content which makes them feel good and throws away the uncomfortable bits.&quot;''

== Relationships between emotion and news consumption ==
* There is a causal effect of negative and emotional words on news consumption.
* Negativity in news increases physiological arousal and, as such, is more likely to be remembered by users.
* Emotions are suggested to differentially impact judgement and perception, particularly of fake [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Political psychology and emotion|political]] news.{{f}}

=== Negativity presented in news increases consumption ===
A study examining 105,000 different variations of news stories from &quot;Upworthy.com&quot; (that generated 5.7million clicks amongst 370 million overall impressions) found that even though positive words were slightly more prevalent than negative words, negative words in news headlines increased consumption rates (and positive words decreased consumption rates). For a headline of average length, each additional negative word increased the click-through rate by 2.3%. The effect of &quot;fear&quot; was significantly related to article consumption due to it creating a more memorable full-body response (Robertson et al., 2023). For example, news telling someone they may be in danger of contracting a virus will stimulate their awareness, monitoring and thus consumption of related news. Where a threat is perceived, more attention is drawn. {{g}} Which can lead news stories to imply a threat to an audience when there may not rationally be one. 

A longitudinal analysis conducted by Roazdo et al identified similar mechanisms. 23 million headlines from 47 popular news media outlets in the United States between 2000 and 2019 were processed using a Transformer language model. This model was designed to detect sentiment as positive or negative and to automatically categorise headlines according to Ekman’s 6 basic emotions- anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise- with an additional category of “neutral”. Results showed an increase of negative sentiment in headlines over time. A higher proportion of headlines represented anger, fear, disgust and sadness, while headlines considered neutral were shown to be reducing in frequency. Headlines denoting anger were, on average, more prevalent in right-leaning news companies and stories than left-leaning (Rozado et al., 2020). {{g}} Which confirms the dangerous political outcomes that can occur through the emotionality of a reader and the manipulation of emotion by a news outlet, especially when they have an agenda. Emotion clearly plays a very powerful role in today’s political climate. 

=== Emotional states predict belief in fake news ===
In 1994, Bodenhausen et al discovered that anger elicits greater reliance on heuristic cues in a persuasion paradigm, whereas sadness promotes a decreased reliance. Literature on the relationship between emotion and gullibility generally observes that a negative mood can increases skepticism, whereas a positive mood increases gullibility and the ability to identity deception. 

Within the realm of political fake news, anger is believed to promote politically-aligned motivated belief in misinformation, and anxiety is seen to increase belief in politically incongruous fake news due to increased feelings of doubt that cloud their perception{{f}}. For instance, faith in institutions (such as the government or church) and one's general confidence (including when unwarranted and incorrect) in their information processing capacity are associated with belief in information and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy theory motivation|conspiracy theories]] that contradict scientific research{{f}}. Anger and anxiety [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|prime]] belief in and responses to news, especially when someone feels passionately about the’ topic as typically seen in politics (Martel et al, 2020). People don’t want to accept that the government, their religion or their own knowledge and analytic capacities are unfaithful, and this is something that can be easily harnessed or exploited in pushing a narrative{{f}}.

A study released in 2020 utilized the [[w:positive_and_negative_syndrome_scale|PANSS (positive and negative syndrome scale)]]- a self-report medical resource used in the assessment of schizophrenia. For nearly every emotion evaluated on the scale, an increase correlated to an increase in belief in fake news. Furthermore, almost every emotion was found to have a significant interaction with the type of news headline in that greater emotionality also predicts decreased discernment between real and fake news. The only emotions that didn't produce significance for the context were &quot;interested, alert, determined and attentive&quot; which reflect the notion that emotions related more to analytic thinking than emotionality play an important role in critical evaluation of the validity of news presented, and consequently being able to correctly identify fake news (Martel et al., 2020). 

Delving deeper into emotions and decision making, people use an “affect heuristic” to form preferences{{f}}. People are automatically cognitively tasked with placing information into an affective frame of reference that combines emotion with facts in order to form preferences. The shaping of decisions through emotion operates in an interval so brief that it is possible for the person to have no recognition or recall of the stimulus- a time frame as short as 1/250&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; of a second while scrolling is all it takes for one to have an emotional reaction or opinion{{f}}. Representations of emotion may only be subliminal{{g}} perceived, yet still affect an audience’s evaluation of the information. With the epidemic of provocative content, it is easy to be conditioned even by unconscious psychological processes to believe events went a different way than reality. Someone’s individual affect heuristic can be activated by emotion so easily that their analytical capacity can’t keep up (Sivek, 2018). Emotion consequently plays a facilitative role in the number of “informed citizens” in society- a number that must not fall too low for society to continue to function (Bas &amp; Grabe, 2015). 

'''Quiz'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Fear leads to increased news consumption:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Which headline is likely to get more attention?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- &quot;Cooking made easy: 10 minute meals to get you through Summer&quot;
+ &quot;Young woman tragically shot at Shopping Centre&quot;
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Emotion plays a crucial role in the presentation and consumption of news. Due to the evolving climate of technology, news and competition, reader attention is a limited resource and more extreme, tactical lengths are being gone to {{awkward}} in order to capture it. Negativity and fear attract consumption: Feedback journalists use to inform their future pieces{{g}}. Higher emotionality and faith in institution{{g}} mean less analytical thinking and higher susceptibility to believing fake news: {{g}} Which in itself is a factor driving further misinformation due to the workings of algorithms. Emotional news tends to gain more traction, particularly when it has a negative sentiment and invokes anger and fear. 

The future of news is bleak: Integrity will be fighting with more and more advanced and extreme versions of yellow journaling, and society will be filled with less informed citizens if the trends continue {{ic|bold claims!}}, potentially having huge political and economic effects. More regulations around news platforms and news sharing need to be established. News programs about misinformation should be shown more often and can be strategically appealing to the emotion of the audience by listing the shocking potential global outcomes of fake news and the utility of critical thinking.  Media companies should be required to state their sources and admit that they cannot guarantee 100% factual basis. Workshops in schools and on social media before you can access the app or pass the subject on identifying falsehoods and using analytical tools when processing information could be helpful, as well as increasing practices of mindfulness to avoid incorrect subliminal ideas being formed by becoming more aware (Sivek, 2018).

{{tip|&quot;For most folks, no news is good news; for the press, good news is not news&quot; - Gloria Borger, 1952.}}

==See also==
* [[w:_advertising|Advertising]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:_Confirmation_bias|Confirmation bias]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Conspiracy theory motivation|Conspiracy theory motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020)
* [[w:_misinformation|Misinformation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:_Participation_bias|Participation bias]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Political psychology and emotion|Political psychology and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:positive_and_negative_syndrome_scale|Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Positive education|Positive education]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[w:racism|Racism]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:_Social_desirability_bias|Social desirability bias]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media engagement motivation|Social media engagement motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subliminal priming and motivation|Subliminal priming and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020)
* [[w:_yellow_journalism|Yellow journalism]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Australin{{sp}} Communications and Media Authority. (2024, February 21) ''ACMA research reveals Australian news consumption trends''. Australian Government. https://www.acma.gov.au/articles/2024-02/acma-research-reveals-australian-news-consumption-trends

Bas, O., &amp; Grabe, M. E. (2015). Emotion-Provoking Personalization of News: Informing Citizens and Closing the Knowledge Gap? ''Communication Research'', 42(2), 159-185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213514602

Beckett, C. (2015, September 10). ''How journalism is turning emotional and what that might mean for news''. The London School Of Economics And Political Science. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/polis/2015/09/10/how-journalism-is-turning-emotional-and-what-that-might-mean-for-news/

Beckett, C., &amp; Deuze, M. (2016). On the Role of Emotion in the Future of Journalism. ''Social Media + Society'', 2(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116662395

Elston, D. M. (2021). Participation bias, self-selection bias, and response bias. ''Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology''. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2021.06.025

Global Affairs Explained. (n.d.). ''6 Reasons Why The News Is Important''. Retrieved August 20, 2024, from https://globalaffairsexplained.com/why-news-important/

Gorvett, Z. (2020, May 13). ''How the news changes the way we think and behave''. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200512-how-the-news-changes-the-way-we-think-and-behave

Ingram, D., &amp; Henshall, P. (2008). ''What is news? Famous quotes on journalism''. The News Manual. https://thenewsmanual.net/Resources/what_is_news_00.htm

Kennedy, L. (2019, August 22). ''Did Yellow Journalism Fuel the Outbreak of the Spanish American War''. History. https://www.history.com/news/spanish-american-war-yellow-journalism-hearst-pulitzer

Lotan, G. (2014, August 4). ''Israel, Gaza, War &amp; Data – The Art of Personalizing Propaganda''. Global Voices. https://globalvoices.org/2014/08/04/israel-gaza-war-data-the-art-of-personalizing-propaganda/

Martel, C., Pennycook, G. &amp; Rand, D. G. (2020). Reliance on emotion promotes belief in fake news. ''Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications'', 5(47). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00252-3

Moench, M. (2023. December 22). ''The Internet’s Newest Sensation is Neil the Seal From Tasmania''. Time. https://time.com/6550164/neil-the-seal-tasmania-background-instagram-tiktok/

Nikolopoulou (2022, June 24). ''What is Social Desirability Bias: Definition &amp; Examples''. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/research-bias/social-desirability-bias/

Reach Out. (n.d.). ''The news and critical thinking: Why is it important?'' Retrieved August 20, 2024, from https://au.reachout.com/challenges-and-coping/the-big-issues/the-news-and-critical-thinking-why-is-it-important

Reese, S. (2016). Theories of Journalism. ''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication''. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.83

Robertson, C. E., Pröllochs, N., Schwarzenegger, K., et al. (2023). Negativity drives online news consumption. ''Nature Human Behaviour'', 7, 812-822. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01538-4

Rozado, D., Hughes, R. &amp; Halberstadt, J. (2022). Longitudinal analysis of sentiment and emotion in news media headlines using automated labelling with Transformer language models. ''Plos One'',17(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276367

Simkus, J. (2023, June 22). ''Confirmation Bias In Psychology: Definition &amp; Examples''. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/confirmation-bias.html

Sivek, S. C. (2018). Both Facts and Feelings: Emotion and News Literacy. ''Journal of Media Literacy Education,'' 10(2), 123 – 138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213514602

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.acma.gov.au/articles/2024-02/acma-research-reveals-australian-news-consumption-trends ACMA research reveals Australian news consumption trends] (Australian Communications and Media Authority)
* [https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/polis/2015/09/10/how-journalism-is-turning-emotional-and-what-that-might-mean-for-news/ How journalism is turning emotional and what that might mean for news] (The London School of Economics and Political Science)
* [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200512-how-the-news-changes-the-way-we-think-and-behave How the news changes the way we think and behave] (BBC)
* [https://globalvoices.org/2014/08/04/israel-gaza-war-data-the-art-of-personalizing-propaganda/ Israel, Gaza, war and data: The art of personalisng propaganda] (Global voices)
* [https://au.reachout.com/challenges-and-coping/the-big-issues/the-news-and-critical-thinking-why-is-it-important The news and critical thinking: Why is it important?] (Reach Out)
* [https://thenewsmanual.net/Resources/what_is_news_00.htm What is news? Famous quotes on journalism] (The News Manual)
* [https://globalaffairsexplained.com/why-news-important/ 6 reasons why the news is important] (Global Affairs Explained)

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# [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}}

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# [[/Aversion to happiness/]] - What are the psychological mechanisms behind aversion to happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}}
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# [[/Tattoo regret/]] - What causes tattoo regret and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Wayfinding and emotion/]] - What are the affective aspects of wayfinding? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/World happiness/]] - What are the global determinants of happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Psychological determinants of endurance performance/]] - What are the psychological determinants of endurance performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reward prediction error/]] – How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Warm-glow giving, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional aspects of warm-glow giving? {{ME-By|User Name}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2718453</id>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-14T10:07:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Motivation */ Semaglutide -&gt; GLP-1 receptor agonists</comment>
      <origin>2718453</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="8907" sha1="8w48ai47jz7rafnyvbl5vs979tg5zln" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- {{/Banner}} --&gt;

==Motivation==
# [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates individuals to participate in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercion and therapeutic alliance/]] - How do coercive practices in mental health care undermine trust and therapeutic relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercive control in intimate partner violence/|Coercive control in intimate partner violence]] - What role does CC play in IPV and how can it be addressed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes/]] – What is the role of cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dark triad and power seeking motivation/]] - How do dark triad traits influence power seeking motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit/]] - What is defensive avoidance and how does it impact goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive pessimism and performance/]] - What is defensive pessimism and how does it impact performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] – How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies can mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Hunger and satiety cue awareness/]] - How do psychological processes affect our ability to recognise and respond to internal eating cues? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] – What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What is the relationship between mindsets and stigma? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mobile phone use motivation/]] - What are the motivations for mobile phone use? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Procrastination and temporal discounting/]] – How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Role-playing game motivation/]] - What are the key psychosocial elements of RPGs that enhance player engagement? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure motivation/]] – What motivates people to share personal information with others? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/GLP-1 receptor agonists and hunger/]] – How do GLP-1 receptor agonists such as semaglutide affect subjective feelings of hunger and appetite regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers motivate long-term retention of employees? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Theory of basic human values/]] – What is the theory of basic human values and how does it explain motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation/]] - What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Types of impulsivity/]] – What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How do unexpected financial gains influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Emotion==
# [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Aversion to happiness/]] - What are the psychological mechanisms behind aversion to happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Biofeedback and emotion/]] - How does awareness of physiological states influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does viewing one's body neutrally influence emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] – How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation/]] - How do psychological defence mechanisms regulate emotion under stress? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation/]] - How does DBT help in managing and regulating emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Emotional usability/]] - What is emotional usability and how can it be enhanced? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Guided meditation and emotion regulation/]] - How can guided meditation be used to regulate emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Inner voice in anxiety/]] – What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mindful eating and food satisfaction/]] - How does mindfulness in eating enhance satisfaction and reduce compulsive eating behaviors? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Music and social bonding/]] – How does shared musical experience foster emotional connection and group cohesion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Neurodiversity and emotion/]] - How does neurodiversity affect emotion and emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Noise and emotion/]] - What are the typical emotional responses to different types of noise? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Polyvagal theory/]] - What is polyvagal theory, how does it explain the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and emotion regulation, and what are its applications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|Username}}
# [[/Responsiveness and trust/]] - How does responsiveness influence the development and maintenance of trust? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure and well-being/]] – What is the relationship between self-disclosure and psychological well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-transcendent emotions/]] - What are self-transcendent emotions and how can they be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Social media and happiness/]] – What is the relationship between social media use and happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Spirituality and mental health/]] - How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Stockholm syndrome emotion/]] - What are the emotional aspects of Stockholm syndrome? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tattoo regret/]] - What causes tattoo regret and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Wayfinding and emotion/]] - What are the affective aspects of wayfinding? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/World happiness/]] - What are the global determinants of happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Psychological determinants of endurance performance/]] - What are the psychological determinants of endurance performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reward prediction error/]] – How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Warm-glow giving, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional aspects of warm-glow giving? {{ME-By|User Name}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2718472</id>
      <parentid>2718453</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-14T10:32:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion */ # [[/Lighting and mood/]] – How does exposure to different lighting conditions affect mood?</comment>
      <origin>2718472</origin>
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      <text bytes="9023" sha1="bis99tunrl3gasgciuh1v83ol51xd2r" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- {{/Banner}} --&gt;

==Motivation==
# [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates individuals to participate in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercion and therapeutic alliance/]] - How do coercive practices in mental health care undermine trust and therapeutic relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercive control in intimate partner violence/|Coercive control in intimate partner violence]] - What role does CC play in IPV and how can it be addressed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes/]] – What is the role of cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dark triad and power seeking motivation/]] - How do dark triad traits influence power seeking motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit/]] - What is defensive avoidance and how does it impact goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive pessimism and performance/]] - What is defensive pessimism and how does it impact performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] – How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies can mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Hunger and satiety cue awareness/]] - How do psychological processes affect our ability to recognise and respond to internal eating cues? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] – What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What is the relationship between mindsets and stigma? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mobile phone use motivation/]] - What are the motivations for mobile phone use? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Procrastination and temporal discounting/]] – How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Role-playing game motivation/]] - What are the key psychosocial elements of RPGs that enhance player engagement? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure motivation/]] – What motivates people to share personal information with others? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/GLP-1 receptor agonists and hunger/]] – How do GLP-1 receptor agonists such as semaglutide affect subjective feelings of hunger and appetite regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers motivate long-term retention of employees? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Theory of basic human values/]] – What is the theory of basic human values and how does it explain motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation/]] - What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Types of impulsivity/]] – What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How do unexpected financial gains influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Emotion==
# [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Aversion to happiness/]] - What are the psychological mechanisms behind aversion to happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Biofeedback and emotion/]] - How does awareness of physiological states influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does viewing one's body neutrally influence emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] – How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation/]] - How do psychological defence mechanisms regulate emotion under stress? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation/]] - How does DBT help in managing and regulating emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Emotional usability/]] - What is emotional usability and how can it be enhanced? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Guided meditation and emotion regulation/]] - How can guided meditation be used to regulate emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Inner voice in anxiety/]] – What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lighting and mood/]] – How does exposure to different lighting conditions affect mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} 

# [[/Mindful eating and food satisfaction/]] - How does mindfulness in eating enhance satisfaction and reduce compulsive eating behaviors? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Music and social bonding/]] – How does shared musical experience foster emotional connection and group cohesion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Neurodiversity and emotion/]] - How does neurodiversity affect emotion and emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Noise and emotion/]] - What are the typical emotional responses to different types of noise? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Polyvagal theory/]] - What is polyvagal theory, how does it explain the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and emotion regulation, and what are its applications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|Username}}
# [[/Responsiveness and trust/]] - How does responsiveness influence the development and maintenance of trust? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure and well-being/]] – What is the relationship between self-disclosure and psychological well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-transcendent emotions/]] - What are self-transcendent emotions and how can they be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Social media and happiness/]] – What is the relationship between social media use and happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Spirituality and mental health/]] - How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Stockholm syndrome emotion/]] - What are the emotional aspects of Stockholm syndrome? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tattoo regret/]] - What causes tattoo regret and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Wayfinding and emotion/]] - What are the affective aspects of wayfinding? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/World happiness/]] - What are the global determinants of happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Psychological determinants of endurance performance/]] - What are the psychological determinants of endurance performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reward prediction error/]] – How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Warm-glow giving, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional aspects of warm-glow giving? {{ME-By|User Name}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2718473</id>
      <parentid>2718472</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-14T10:33:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Emotion */</comment>
      <origin>2718473</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9022" sha1="o1srgx0s0q74jpbeudk6vb9f0ycxslo" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- {{/Banner}} --&gt;

==Motivation==
# [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates individuals to participate in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercion and therapeutic alliance/]] - How do coercive practices in mental health care undermine trust and therapeutic relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercive control in intimate partner violence/|Coercive control in intimate partner violence]] - What role does CC play in IPV and how can it be addressed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes/]] – What is the role of cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dark triad and power seeking motivation/]] - How do dark triad traits influence power seeking motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit/]] - What is defensive avoidance and how does it impact goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive pessimism and performance/]] - What is defensive pessimism and how does it impact performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] – How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies can mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Hunger and satiety cue awareness/]] - How do psychological processes affect our ability to recognise and respond to internal eating cues? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] – What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What is the relationship between mindsets and stigma? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mobile phone use motivation/]] - What are the motivations for mobile phone use? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Procrastination and temporal discounting/]] – How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Role-playing game motivation/]] - What are the key psychosocial elements of RPGs that enhance player engagement? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure motivation/]] – What motivates people to share personal information with others? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/GLP-1 receptor agonists and hunger/]] – How do GLP-1 receptor agonists such as semaglutide affect subjective feelings of hunger and appetite regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers motivate long-term retention of employees? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Theory of basic human values/]] – What is the theory of basic human values and how does it explain motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation/]] - What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Types of impulsivity/]] – What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How do unexpected financial gains influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Emotion==
# [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Aversion to happiness/]] - What are the psychological mechanisms behind aversion to happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Biofeedback and emotion/]] - How does awareness of physiological states influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does viewing one's body neutrally influence emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] – How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation/]] - How do psychological defence mechanisms regulate emotion under stress? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation/]] - How does DBT help in managing and regulating emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Emotional usability/]] - What is emotional usability and how can it be enhanced? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Guided meditation and emotion regulation/]] - How can guided meditation be used to regulate emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Inner voice in anxiety/]] – What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lighting and mood/]] – How does exposure to different lighting conditions affect mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Mindful eating and food satisfaction/]] - How does mindfulness in eating enhance satisfaction and reduce compulsive eating behaviors? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Music and social bonding/]] – How does shared musical experience foster emotional connection and group cohesion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Neurodiversity and emotion/]] - How does neurodiversity affect emotion and emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Noise and emotion/]] - What are the typical emotional responses to different types of noise? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Polyvagal theory/]] - What is polyvagal theory, how does it explain the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and emotion regulation, and what are its applications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|Username}}
# [[/Responsiveness and trust/]] - How does responsiveness influence the development and maintenance of trust? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure and well-being/]] – What is the relationship between self-disclosure and psychological well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-transcendent emotions/]] - What are self-transcendent emotions and how can they be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Social media and happiness/]] – What is the relationship between social media use and happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Spirituality and mental health/]] - How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Stockholm syndrome emotion/]] - What are the emotional aspects of Stockholm syndrome? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tattoo regret/]] - What causes tattoo regret and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Wayfinding and emotion/]] - What are the affective aspects of wayfinding? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/World happiness/]] - What are the global determinants of happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Psychological determinants of endurance performance/]] - What are the psychological determinants of endurance performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reward prediction error/]] – How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Warm-glow giving, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional aspects of warm-glow giving? {{ME-By|User Name}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025]]</text>
      <sha1>o1srgx0s0q74jpbeudk6vb9f0ycxslo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2718474</id>
      <parentid>2718473</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-14T10:38:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion */ # [[/Self-blame and trauma/]] – How does self-blame affect emotional recovery from traumatic experiences?</comment>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates individuals to participate in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercion and therapeutic alliance/]] - How do coercive practices in mental health care undermine trust and therapeutic relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercive control in intimate partner violence/|Coercive control in intimate partner violence]] - What role does CC play in IPV and how can it be addressed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes/]] – What is the role of cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dark triad and power seeking motivation/]] - How do dark triad traits influence power seeking motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit/]] - What is defensive avoidance and how does it impact goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive pessimism and performance/]] - What is defensive pessimism and how does it impact performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] – How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies can mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Hunger and satiety cue awareness/]] - How do psychological processes affect our ability to recognise and respond to internal eating cues? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] – What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What is the relationship between mindsets and stigma? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mobile phone use motivation/]] - What are the motivations for mobile phone use? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Procrastination and temporal discounting/]] – How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Role-playing game motivation/]] - What are the key psychosocial elements of RPGs that enhance player engagement? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure motivation/]] – What motivates people to share personal information with others? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/GLP-1 receptor agonists and hunger/]] – How do GLP-1 receptor agonists such as semaglutide affect subjective feelings of hunger and appetite regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers motivate long-term retention of employees? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Theory of basic human values/]] – What is the theory of basic human values and how does it explain motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation/]] - What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Types of impulsivity/]] – What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How do unexpected financial gains influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Emotion==
# [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Aversion to happiness/]] - What are the psychological mechanisms behind aversion to happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Biofeedback and emotion/]] - How does awareness of physiological states influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does viewing one's body neutrally influence emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] – How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation/]] - How do psychological defence mechanisms regulate emotion under stress? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation/]] - How does DBT help in managing and regulating emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Emotional usability/]] - What is emotional usability and how can it be enhanced? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Guided meditation and emotion regulation/]] - How can guided meditation be used to regulate emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Inner voice in anxiety/]] – What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lighting and mood/]] – How does exposure to different lighting conditions affect mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Mindful eating and food satisfaction/]] - How does mindfulness in eating enhance satisfaction and reduce compulsive eating behaviors? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Music and social bonding/]] – How does shared musical experience foster emotional connection and group cohesion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Neurodiversity and emotion/]] - How does neurodiversity affect emotion and emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Noise and emotion/]] - What are the typical emotional responses to different types of noise? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Polyvagal theory/]] - What is polyvagal theory, how does it explain the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and emotion regulation, and what are its applications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|Username}}
# [[/Responsiveness and trust/]] - How does responsiveness influence the development and maintenance of trust? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-blame and trauma/]] – How does self-blame affect emotional recovery from traumatic experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure and well-being/]] – What is the relationship between self-disclosure and psychological well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-transcendent emotions/]] - What are self-transcendent emotions and how can they be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Social media and happiness/]] – What is the relationship between social media use and happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Spirituality and mental health/]] - How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Stockholm syndrome emotion/]] - What are the emotional aspects of Stockholm syndrome? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tattoo regret/]] - What causes tattoo regret and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Wayfinding and emotion/]] - What are the affective aspects of wayfinding? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/World happiness/]] - What are the global determinants of happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Psychological determinants of endurance performance/]] - What are the psychological determinants of endurance performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reward prediction error/]] – How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Warm-glow giving, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional aspects of warm-glow giving? {{ME-By|User Name}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Emotion */ # [[/Social media and emotion regulation/]] – How is social media used to manage and regulate emotions?</comment>
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      <text bytes="9276" sha1="s700lxguatvl7b6mn49gotmfq8usqds" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- {{/Banner}} --&gt;

==Motivation==
# [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates individuals to participate in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercion and therapeutic alliance/]] - How do coercive practices in mental health care undermine trust and therapeutic relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Coercive control in intimate partner violence/|Coercive control in intimate partner violence]] - What role does CC play in IPV and how can it be addressed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes/]] – What is the role of cognitive dissonance and balance theory in social attitudes? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dark triad and power seeking motivation/]] - How do dark triad traits influence power seeking motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit/]] - What is defensive avoidance and how does it impact goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defensive pessimism and performance/]] - What is defensive pessimism and how does it impact performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] – How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies can mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Hunger and satiety cue awareness/]] - How do psychological processes affect our ability to recognise and respond to internal eating cues? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] – What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What is the relationship between mindsets and stigma? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Mobile phone use motivation/]] - What are the motivations for mobile phone use? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Procrastination and temporal discounting/]] – How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Role-playing game motivation/]] - What are the key psychosocial elements of RPGs that enhance player engagement? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure motivation/]] – What motivates people to share personal information with others? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/GLP-1 receptor agonists and hunger/]] – How do GLP-1 receptor agonists such as semaglutide affect subjective feelings of hunger and appetite regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers motivate long-term retention of employees? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Theory of basic human values/]] – What is the theory of basic human values and how does it explain motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation/]] - What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Types of impulsivity/]] – What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How do unexpected financial gains influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Emotion==
# [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Aversion to happiness/]] - What are the psychological mechanisms behind aversion to happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Biofeedback and emotion/]] - How does awareness of physiological states influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does viewing one's body neutrally influence emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] – How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation/]] - How do psychological defence mechanisms regulate emotion under stress? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation/]] - How does DBT help in managing and regulating emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Emotional usability/]] - What is emotional usability and how can it be enhanced? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Guided meditation and emotion regulation/]] - How can guided meditation be used to regulate emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Inner voice in anxiety/]] – What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Lighting and mood/]] – How does exposure to different lighting conditions affect mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} 
# [[/Mindful eating and food satisfaction/]] - How does mindfulness in eating enhance satisfaction and reduce compulsive eating behaviors? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Music and social bonding/]] – How does shared musical experience foster emotional connection and group cohesion? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Neurodiversity and emotion/]] - How does neurodiversity affect emotion and emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Noise and emotion/]] - What are the typical emotional responses to different types of noise? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Polyvagal theory/]] - What is polyvagal theory, how does it explain the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and emotion regulation, and what are its applications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|Username}}
# [[/Responsiveness and trust/]] - How does responsiveness influence the development and maintenance of trust? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-blame and trauma/]] – How does self-blame affect emotional recovery from traumatic experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-disclosure and well-being/]] – What is the relationship between self-disclosure and psychological well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Self-transcendent emotions/]] - What are self-transcendent emotions and how can they be cultivated? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Social media and emotion regulation/]] – How is social media used to manage and regulate emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Social media and happiness/]] – What is the relationship between social media use and happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Spirituality and mental health/]] - How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Stockholm syndrome emotion/]] - What are the emotional aspects of Stockholm syndrome? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Tattoo regret/]] - What causes tattoo regret and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Wayfinding and emotion/]] - What are the affective aspects of wayfinding? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/World happiness/]] - What are the global determinants of happiness? {{ME-By|User Name}}

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Psychological determinants of endurance performance/]] - What are the psychological determinants of endurance performance? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Reward prediction error/]] – How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}}
# [[/Warm-glow giving, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional aspects of warm-glow giving? {{ME-By|User Name}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cosmic Influx Theory/Chapter 1</title>
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[[File:CITbanner via Paint.png|center|1000px]]

= Chapter 1: The Foundations of Cosmic Influx Theory =

== Introduction ==
The '''Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT)''' introduces a new way to understand gravity, planetary structuring, and cosmic evolution. It suggests that celestial bodies experience an ongoing influx of energy from an ether-like universal field. This influx is responsible for:
* A continuous increase in mass-energy.
* The structuring of planetary systems at predictable distances.
* A deeper connection between gravitational effects and the '''Lorentz Transformation of Mass-Energy (LTME)''' [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.1.1|[8.1.1]]]

The Lorentz Transformation plays a fundamental role in CIT by explaining mass-energy influx and gravitational dynamics. This idea aligns with previous theoretical work on the unity of space-time and relativistic mass increase. See [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.4.12|[8.4.12]]]  for Schwinger, J. (1986) ''Einstein's Legacy - The Unity of Space and Time''.


This chapter explores the key theoretical foundations of CIT, linking it to classical physics, relativity, and alternative gravitational models.

----

&lt;span id=&quot;1.1&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;== 1.1 The Root Mean Square Velocity (VRMS) ==

The '''Root Mean Square Velocity (VRMS)''' represents the remnant orbital motion of planets from the early protoplanetary disk. It is derived from the '''total kinetic energy (KE) of all planets''' in a system and their total mass [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.1.2|[8.1.2]]] .
[[File:2.1 IMAGE VRMS WITH DPREF IN SOLAR SYSTEM.png|thumb|The  remnant Root Mean Square Velocity of the protoplanetary disk of our solar system]]
The formula for '''VRMS''' is:

&lt;math&gt;
V_{\text{RMS}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \sum KE}{\sum M_{\text{planets}}}}
&lt;/math&gt; ........(1.1.1)

where:

* &lt;math&gt;KE = \frac{1}{2} M v^2&lt;/math&gt; is the '''kinetic energy''' of each planet.
* &lt;math&gt;\sum KE&lt;/math&gt; is the '''total kinetic energy''' of all planets.
* &lt;math&gt;\sum M_{\text{planets}}&lt;/math&gt; is the '''total mass of all planets''' in the system.
[[File:2.1A IMAGE EXCELFILE VRMS CALCULATION SOLAR SYSTEM.png|thumb|Screenshot from Excel file calculating the VRMS of the planets in our solar system]]

This equation shows that '''VRMS is influenced by the total energy distribution of the planetary system''', making it a key factor in CIT's planetary structuring model [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.3.4|[8.3.4]]] .
----

&lt;span id=&quot;1.2&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;== 1.2 The Limitations of Traditional Gravitational Models ==

Mainstream physics describes gravity using:
* '''Newtonian Gravity''': A force of attraction between masses.
* '''General Relativity''': Gravity as the curvature of spacetime.

While both models accurately describe many phenomena, they do not explain:
* The nature of gravity itself.
* Why planetary and stellar bodies are structured in specific patterns.
* The possible relation between gravity and an '''energy influx'''.

CIT addresses these gaps by proposing an '''ongoing flow of energy''' into all mass-bearing objects.

----

&lt;span id=&quot;1.3&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;== 1.3 The Concept of an Energy Influx ==
CIT builds on older ideas such as:
* '''Le Sage’s Push Gravity''' – the idea that an external pressure causes objects to be pushed toward each other [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.5.1|[8.5.1]]]  

* '''Ether Theories''' – suggesting space is filled with an unseen energy medium.

In CIT, this influx:
* '''Enters planetary bodies from all directions.'''
* '''Is partially converted into mass-energy (via LTME).'''
* '''Leads to a slow outward expansion of planetary structures.'''

This explains why:
* Planets may experience internal heating.
* Tectonic activity and planetary growth occur.
* The arrangement of celestial bodies follows specific distances.

----

&lt;span id=&quot;1.4&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;==1.4 Lorentz Transformation and Planck-Based Influx Concepts==

In this section, two important building blocks of Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT) are presented.  
First (1.4.1), we explore how the Lorentz Transformation implies that moving objects experience an increase in mass-energy relative to their velocity. This relativistic behavior forms a foundation for understanding mass accumulation over cosmic time.  
Second (1.4.2), we derive a quantum of influx — termed the &quot;Plinflux&quot; — directly from Planck units and Planck-scale geometry. This provides a natural scaling for the energy influx processes proposed by CIT, rooted in fundamental physical constants.

&lt;span id=&quot;1.4.1&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;=== 1.4.1 Lorentz Transformation and Mass-Energy Increase ===

The Lorentz transformation describes how measurements of time, space, and mass-energy change for an observer moving relative to an object. This transformation is fundamental in special relativity and plays a crucial role in understanding how mass-energy evolves when an object is in motion [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.4.12|[8.4.12]]] .

One key result of the Lorentz transformation is the '''relativistic mass increase''', which states that the mass-energy of an object in motion is greater than its rest mass ''M₀''. The relationship is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;M_v = M_0 (\gamma - 1)&lt;/math&gt; ........'''(1.4.1)'''

where:

* ''M_v'' is the additional mass-energy due to motion,
* ''M₀'' is the rest mass,
* ''γ'' (the Lorentz factor) is:

:&lt;math&gt;\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}&lt;/math&gt;............'''(1.4.2)'''

* &lt;math&gt; v_{\text{RMS}} &lt;/math&gt; is the root mean square velocity of planetary systems (~12,278 m/s in our Solar System).
* &lt;math&gt; c &lt;/math&gt; is the speed of light.
* &lt;math&gt; \pi &lt;/math&gt; is the mathematical constant.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;border: 2px solid red; background-color: #fff8f0;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:120%;&quot; | 🔔 '''Important Note for Researchers'''
|-
| Wherever the expression '''(γ − 1)''' is used in Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT), it refers to the '''Lorentz factor derived from the Root Mean Square Velocity (VRMS)''' of planetary motion in our Solar System.

The precise value of '''VRMS''' used is:

&lt;math&gt;v_{\text{RMS}} = 1.227824570057950 \times 10^{4} \ \text{m/s} = 12{,}278 \ \text{m/s}&lt;/math&gt;  
or approximately '''12.3 km/s'''.

Using this velocity, the value of:

&lt;math&gt;\gamma - 1 = 8.38689562243644 \times 10^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;  

and when divided by &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt;, it yields:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{\gamma - 1}{4\pi} = 6.67407947753298 \times 10^{-11} \ \text{m}^3/(\text{kg} \cdot \text{s}^2)&lt;/math&gt;

This result matches the value of the '''Gravitational Constant (G)''' to extraordinary precision.

⚠️ '''Please use these exact values''' when verifying equations involving relativistic mass-energy influx within CIT.
|}


At '''low velocities''' (relative to ''c''), the Taylor expansion of ''γ'' gives:

:&lt;math&gt;\gamma - 1 \approx \frac{1}{2} \frac{v^2}{c^2}&lt;/math&gt; ..........'''(1.4.3)'''

which leads to:

:&lt;math&gt;M_v \approx \frac{1}{2} M_0 \frac{v^2}{c^2}
&lt;/math&gt; ......'''(1.4.4)'''

This resembles the classical kinetic energy formula, emphasizing that '''relativistic mass-energy increase behaves as an energy accumulation process'''.
[[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.1.1|[8.1.1]]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8fff8; border: 2px solid #228B22; width: 100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;padding: 8px;&quot; | 🟢 '''Identity check passed:''' Using the defined value for '''VRMS = 12,278.2457 m/s''', the expression:
&lt;math&gt;\frac{\gamma - 1}{4\pi}&lt;/math&gt; results in:
&lt;math&gt;6.67407947753298 \times 10^{-11} \, \text{m}^3/\text{kg}\cdot\text{s}^2&lt;/math&gt;,  
which matches '''Newton’s Gravitational Constant (G)''' to extraordinary precision:
&lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{LHS}}{\text{RHS}} = 1.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000&lt;/math&gt;
|}

'''The expression''' &lt;math&gt;(\text{gamma} - 1)/4\pi&lt;/math&gt; '''takes the place of the gravitational constant''' &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; '''in Cosmic Influx Theory. To ensure consistent calculations and correct physical units, we assign it the same dimensional identity as Newton’s constant:'''

&lt;math&gt;[G] = \frac{\text{m}^3}{\text{kg} \cdot \text{s}^2}&lt;/math&gt;

While &lt;math&gt;(\text{gamma} - 1)&lt;/math&gt; is dimensionless, '''it represents a real relativistic energy difference associated with motion or orbital dynamics.''' Dividing this by''' &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; '''introduces spherical geometry into the equation, expressing a directional influx per unit surface area. In CIT, the units of''' &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; '''are not just formal—they are interpreted as a measure of spatial influx:''' '''cubic meters per kilogram per second squared'''. '''This gives the gravitational constant a new physical meaning: it expresses how much directional energy or volume flow occurs per unit mass and per unit time squared.

&lt;span id=&quot;1.4.2&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;=== 1.4.2 The Plinflux: Deriving the Influx Quantum from Planck Geometry ===

In subsection '''1.4.1''', the influx quantum was introduced as the fundamental mass-energy increase arising from relativistic motion:

:&lt;math&gt; M_v = M_0(\gamma - 1) \quad \text{(1.4.1)} &lt;/math&gt;

While this influx quantum was initially supported through empirical and orbital analysis, it can also be derived directly from Planck units and the gravitational constant, offering a theoretical foundation independent from observational models.

The gravitational constant &lt;math&gt; G &lt;/math&gt; can be expressed in terms of Planck units:

:&lt;math&gt; G = \frac{\ell_{\text{Pl}}^3}{M_{\text{Pl}} t_{\text{Pl}}^2} &lt;/math&gt;  ........(1.4.2.1)
Where:
* '''&lt;math&gt;\ell_{\text{Pl}}&lt;/math&gt;''' is the Planck length (approximately &lt;math&gt;1.616255 \times 10^{-35} \, \text{m}&lt;/math&gt;)
* '''&lt;math&gt;M_{\text{Pl}}&lt;/math&gt;''' is the Planck mass (approximately &lt;math&gt;2.176434 \times 10^{-8} \, \text{kg}&lt;/math&gt;)
* '''&lt;math&gt;t_{\text{Pl}}&lt;/math&gt;''' is the Planck time (approximately &lt;math&gt;5.391247 \times 10^{-44} \, \text{s}&lt;/math&gt;)


From earlier reasoning within Cosmic Influx Theory, we know:

:&lt;math&gt; G = \frac{\gamma - 1}{4\pi} &lt;/math&gt;  ........(1.4.2.2)

Combining these expressions, we get:

:&lt;math&gt; \gamma - 1 = \frac{4\pi \cdot \ell_{\text{Pl}}^3}{M_{\text{Pl}} t_{\text{Pl}}^2} &lt;/math&gt; ........(1.4.2.3)

Substituting into equation (1.4.1):

:&lt;math&gt; M_v = M_{\text{Pl}} \cdot (\gamma - 1) = M_{\text{Pl}} \cdot \frac{4\pi \cdot \ell_{\text{Pl}}^3}{M_{\text{Pl}} t_{\text{Pl}}^2} &lt;/math&gt;  ........(1.4.2.4)

:&lt;math&gt; \Rightarrow \Delta_{\text{PlInflux}} = \frac{4\pi \cdot \ell_{\text{Pl}}^3}{t_{\text{Pl}}^2} &lt;/math&gt;  ........(1.4.2.5)

This expression defines the '''Plinflux''': the geometric energy influx per Planck time associated with a Planck mass. It has the units:

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{\text{m}^3}{\text{s}^2} &lt;/math&gt;

and numerically evaluates to:

:&lt;math&gt; \Delta_{\text{PlInflux}} \approx 1.8254 \times 10^{-17} \ \text{m}^3/\text{s}^2 &lt;/math&gt;  ........(1.4.2.6)

This confirms that the energy-mass increase from motion (via &lt;math&gt; \gamma - 1 &lt;/math&gt;) has a deep geometric origin in the structure of spacetime itself.

The result confirms that gravity, as described by CIT, is not a force in the classical sense, but the manifestation of a continuous geometric influx governed by Planck-scale spacetime properties.

'''Conclusion:''' The influx quantum is theoretically equivalent to the Planck-level influx &lt;math&gt; \Delta_{\text{PlInflux}} &lt;/math&gt;, supporting the core hypothesis of CIT that gravitational phenomena emerge from continuous influx at the most fundamental scale of nature.

'''Note:'''  
An independently developed framework, known as ''[https://www.liberabaci.net/post/emergent-gravity Mo Theory]'' and presented by Randy Evangelista, introduces a quantum value for an identity called '''Mo'''. In this subsection ('''1.4.2''') '''Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT)''' proposes the same quantum, indicated with '''Delta PlInflux''', arriving at the same numerical value but through a different derivation, inspired by Randy Evangelista's use of Planck units.

Please mind the different meanings of '''Mo''' in both theories. In '''CIT''', ''mo'' refers to the rest mass of an object, whereas in ''Mo Theory'' it is a unitless quantum that adapts its units depending on the presented equations.

In addition, Mo Theory defines a velocity ''vo'' that numerically matches the ''VRMS'' (Root Mean Square velocity) proposed in '''CIT'''. Both values converge around &lt;code&gt;12278 meters per second&lt;/code&gt;, suggesting a possible shared physical reality underlying the motion and mass-energy influx in gravitational systems.

While Mo Theory and CIT have been developed separately and maintain independent frameworks, the numerical convergence of their key quantities highlights an intriguing parallel in their interpretation of gravitational phenomena. No integration is yet implied; both theories follow their own development paths.

&lt;span id=&quot;1.4.3&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
==== '''1.4.3 From Field Equations to Surface Gravity: A Practical Role for 𝜅 and Influx''' ====

The Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT) offers a novel perspective on gravitation, positing that gravitational effects arise from a directional energy influx. This influx interacts with mass-energy distributions, leading to observable gravitational phenomena. Central to this theory is a reinterpretation of Einstein's field equations, emphasizing a more intuitive understanding of the proportionality constant, '''𝜅''' — the '''Einsteinian proportionality constant in the original form of his Einstein Field Equations'''.
[[File:EFE formula Einstein.jpg|thumb|Equation (69) Note: Einstein chooses cm and gram instead of meter and kilogram which is why he counts on 10^-27. Capital K stands for G the Gravitational Constant.]]

=== '''Energy Influx Field Equation''' ===

In the Cosmic Influx Theory, gravitational effects arise from a continuous directional influx of energy or mass. This influx can be described as the amount of mass entering a given surface area per unit time, expressed as:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta M_{\text{influx}} = g \cdot A&lt;/math&gt;  ........(1.4.3.1)

where:
* &lt;math&gt;\Delta M_{\text{influx}}&lt;/math&gt; is the mass influx (in kg/s),
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is the gravitational acceleration (in m/s²),
* &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is the surface area through which the influx occurs (in m²)

The divergence of this influx is proportional to the local energy density:

&lt;math&gt;v^2 = \frac{1}{4\pi} \cdot \frac{8\pi G}{c^2} \cdot \frac{0.5 M c^2}{D} = \frac{G M}{D}&lt;/math&gt; ........(1.4.3.2)


where:
* &lt;math&gt;T_{\mu\nu}&lt;/math&gt; is the stress-energy tensor (J/m³),
* &lt;math&gt;\kappa = \frac{8\pi G}{c^2}&lt;/math&gt; ........(1.4.3.3) 
is the Einsteinian proportionality constant 
See also video [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.5.2|[8.5.2]]] &quot;Einstein Field equations uncovered&quot;.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #aaa;&quot;
| '''Note on Einstein’s Original Gravitational Constant'''
|-
| In Einstein’s original 1915 formulation of the field equations, the gravitational constant is given as:
:&lt;math&gt;\kappa = \frac{8\pi G}{c^2}&lt;/math&gt;
With this definition, the stress–energy tensor &lt;math&gt;T_{\mu\nu}&lt;/math&gt; has units of '''mass density''' (kg/m³) rather than energy density (J/m³).

This is the form used in Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT), because it aligns directly with the concept of a directional '''mass-energy influx''' rather than curvature driven by energy pressure.

(See [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations Wikipedia Note 6].)
|}

In a spherically symmetric, stationary field:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{r^2} \frac{d}{dr} \left( r^2 \cdot \Delta M_{\text{influx}}(r) \right) = \kappa \cdot \rho_E(r)&lt;/math&gt; .......(1.4.3.4)

with:

:&lt;math&gt;\rho_E(r) = \frac{1}{2} \rho_m c^2&lt;/math&gt; .......(1.4.3.5)

where:
* &lt;math&gt;\rho_E(r)&lt;/math&gt; is the energy density at radius &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; (in J/m³),
* &lt;math&gt;\rho_m&lt;/math&gt; is the mass density (in kg/m³),
* &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the speed of light (in m/s)

This directly connects the '''observable gravitational acceleration''' to the '''directional mass-energy influx''', forming the foundation of CIT's reinterpretation of gravitational interaction.

=== '''Equation of Motion from Influx Gradient''' ===

The acceleration of a test mass &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; within the influx field is determined by the gradient of the influx:

:&lt;math&gt;\vec{a} = -\frac{1}{m} \nabla \cdot \Delta M_{\text{influx}} = -\frac{\kappa}{m} T_{\mu\nu}&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.5)

For a two-body system with central mass &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt;, the influx at distance &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt; from the center:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta M_{\text{influx}}(D) = \frac{\kappa}{4\pi} \cdot \frac{0.5 M c^2}{D^2}&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.6)

Then the acceleration becomes:

:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{\Delta M_{\text{influx}}(D)}{m} \sim \frac{G M}{D^2}&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.7)

This is the well-known Newtonian equation for the acceleration of a planet at distance &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt; in any star system.

=== '''Orbital Velocity from Influx Equilibrium''' ===

Assuming the influx sustains orbital motion:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{v^2}{D} = \frac{\kappa}{4\pi} \cdot \frac{0.5 M c^2}{D^2}&lt;/math&gt; .......(1.4.3.8)

Solving for &lt;math&gt;v^2&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;v^2 = \frac{\kappa}{4\pi} \cdot \frac{0.5 M c^2}{D}&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.9)

Substituting &lt;math&gt;\kappa = \frac{8\pi G}{c^2}&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;v^2 = \frac{1}{4\pi} \cdot \frac{8\pi G}{c^2} \cdot \frac{0.5 M c^2}{D} = \frac{G M}{D}&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.10)

=== '''Surface Acceleration and Influx Distribution''' ===

In this formulation, gravitational acceleration at a planet’s surface emerges from:

:&lt;math&gt;G_{\mu\nu} = a \cdot 4\pi R^2 \quad \text{and} \quad T_{\mu\nu} = 0.5 M c^2&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.11)

so that:

:&lt;math&gt;\kappa = \frac{G_{\mu\nu}}{T_{\mu\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.12)

Solving for &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{\kappa \cdot 0.5 M c^2}{4\pi R^2}&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.13)

Let’s compute this for Earth:

* &lt;math&gt;M = 5.972 \times 10^{24} \, \text{kg}&lt;/math&gt;  
* &lt;math&gt;R = 6.371 \times 10^6 \, \text{m}&lt;/math&gt;  
* &lt;math&gt;c = 3.00 \times 10^8 \, \text{m/s}&lt;/math&gt;  
* &lt;math&gt;\kappa = \frac{8\pi G}{c^2} \approx 1.866 \times 10^{-26} \, \text{m}^3/\text{J}&lt;/math&gt;

Substituting:

:&lt;math&gt;a \approx \frac{1.866 \times 10^{-26} \cdot 0.5 \cdot 5.972 \times 10^{24} \cdot 9 \times 10^{16}}{4\pi \cdot (6.371 \times 10^6)^2} \approx 9.8 \, \text{m/s}^2&lt;/math&gt;  .......(1.4.3.14)
[[File:Influx with Kappa.jpg|thumb|Cosmic Influx Theory with kappa expansion constant]]

This confirms that the influx-based model naturally recovers the observed gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface.  
Rearranging, we — again — find the well-known Newtonian equation for the acceleration at the surface of a planet in any star system:

:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{G \cdot m_p}{R_p^2}&lt;/math&gt;   .......(1.4.3.15)

where &lt;math&gt;m_p&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the planet and &lt;math&gt;R_p&lt;/math&gt; is its radius.

=== '''Interpretation''' ===

The gravitational acceleration &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is the result of the total influx (in m³/s²) being evenly distributed over the surface area (in m²):

:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{\text{Total influx}}{\text{Surface area}}&lt;/math&gt;  .......'''(1.4.3.15)'''

This expression reinforces the view that '''influx density creates acceleration''', which is central to the Cosmic Influx Theory.


&lt;span id=&quot;1.5&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;== 1.5 Understanding VRMS and Its Significance ==
The '''Root Mean Square Velocity (VRMS)''' is a statistical measure of the average velocity of particles or objects within a system. In planetary formation:
* The '''original protoplanetary disk''' had a characteristic VRMS.
* This velocity reflects the '''kinetic energy distribution''' of gas, dust, and proto-planets.
* Planets tend to '''align themselves at distances determined by VRMS'''.

=== Relating Lorentz Mass-Energy to the Gravitational Constant ===  

The factor ''(γ - 1)'' has a fundamental connection to gravity. It can be expressed in terms of the gravitational constant ''G'' as:

:&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{(\gamma - 1)}{4\pi}&lt;/math&gt; ........'''(1.5.1)'''

where the denominator ''4π'' arises due to the '''spherical symmetry''' of force distributions. This term is commonly found in physics equations where a force or field extends radially in three-dimensional space.

Note: This formulation does not reproduce Newton’s G directly, but provides a proportional relation under CIT assumptions, linking G to relativistic corrections in a spherically symmetric field.

A particularly striking result emerges when using a '''specific velocity''' in the beta factor of the gamma factor:

:&lt;math&gt;v = 1.227824570058 \times 10^4 \text{ m/s}&lt;/math&gt;  .....'''(1.5.2)'''

:&lt;math&gt;(\gamma - 1) = \frac{v_{\text{rms}}^2}{2c^2}&lt;/math&gt; .....'''(1.5.3)'''

At this VRMS velocity, the left-hand side (LHS) and right-hand side (RHS) of the equation result in an '''exact numerical match''' [[Cosmic_Influx_Theory/Chapter_8#8.3.4|[8.3.4]]] . This velocity closely corresponds to the '''Root Mean Square Velocity (VRMS)''' of planets in the solar system, reinforcing the idea that planetary motion and gravitational interactions may be inherently linked through relativistic transformations.

For practical purposes, planetary velocities are typically expressed in familiar units. Therefore, '''the values 12,278 m/s or 12.3 km/s will be used in most calculations'''. 
CIT derives the '''Newtonian Gravitational Constant (G)''' using the '''Root Mean Square Velocity (VRMS)''' of planetary systems.

An alternative expression is derived by combining equation (3) and (5):

&lt;math&gt; G = \frac{v_{\text{RMS}}^2}{8\pi c^2} &lt;/math&gt;........'''(1.5.4)'''

based on the exact equability between &lt;math&gt;\gamma - 1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\frac{V_{\mathrm{RMS}}^2}{2 c^2}&lt;/math&gt;

Although this expression is unitless, its '''exact equality with the traditional definition of G''' implies that it should carry the same units: &lt;math&gt; \text{m}^3 / (\text{kg} \cdot \text{s}^2) &lt;/math&gt;. A similar transformation applies to &lt;math&gt; \frac{v_{\text{RMS}}^2}{2 c^2} &lt;/math&gt;.

== Summary ==
This chapter introduced:
* The idea that mass '''continuously gains energy''' from an external influx.
* The role of the '''Lorentz Transformation of Mass-Energy (LTME)'''.
* How the '''VRMS of a system''' determines planetary positions.
* How '''CIT refines traditional gravitational models'''.

In the next chapter, we will explore '''how VRMS and planetary motion reveal deeper gravitational dynamics'''.
== Key Equations Summary ==

# (1.1.1) VRMS from total KE and total mass
&lt;math&gt;V_{\text{RMS}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \sum KE}{\sum M_{\text{planets}}}}&lt;/math&gt;

# (1.4.1) Relativistic mass-energy increase
&lt;math&gt;M_v = M_0 (\gamma - 1)&lt;/math&gt;

# (1.5.1) Gravitational constant from Lorentz factor
&lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\gamma - 1}{4 \pi}&lt;/math&gt;

----
'''Navigation:'''  
[{{fullurl:Cosmic_Influx_Theory}} {{Button|← Back to Main Page|blue}}]  
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  <page>
    <title>Cray J90 (computer)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>321906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2718438</id>
      <parentid>2718335</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-13T23:58:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mu301</username>
        <id>3705</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Startup */ ce</comment>
      <origin>2718438</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19208" sha1="9rt098ktubweq0nrlni9juxhwczljy2" xml:space="preserve">{{Under construction|This page is under construction. Content is likely to be revised significantly until September 2025}}
[[File:Cray J90 Series.jpg|thumb|right|A Cray J90 series system. The CPU/memory mainframe cabinet is at right; the IO Subsystem cabinet is at left.]]

The [[w:Cray J90|Cray J90]] series was a [[w:minisupercomputer|minisupercomputer]] manufactured by [[w:Cray|Cray Research]] from 1994 - 1998. This learning resource documents the restoration of a model J916 that was donated to the [[commons:Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island|Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island]] (RCS/RI) historic computer collection. 

These systems have multiple [[w:Scalar processor|scalar]]/[[w:Vector processor|vector]] parallel processors.  Unlike larger, more powerful, supercomputers that required [[w:Computer_cooling#Liquid_cooling|liquid cooling]], these used [[w:Computer_cooling#Air_cooling|air cooling]].

Index of Cray J90 Wikiversity subpages:
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Cray J90 (computer)/|hideredirect=1|stripprefix=1}}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== Hardware ==

[[File:Cray J90 Service WorkStation.jpg|thumb|right|The SPARCstation 5 System WorkStation is the console for the Cray J90.]]

=== System WorkStation (SWS) ===

* [[w:SPARCstation 5|SPARCstation 5]] (for jumpers see: [http://www.obsolyte.com/sun_ss5/ Sun SparcStation 5 / SparcServer 5])
** Node: &lt;code&gt;hbar&lt;/code&gt;
*** Two internal 4 GB drives
*** [[w:SBus|SBus]]
***# 10base5 / 10base2 Ethernet
***# quad fast Ethernet
***# graphics
***#* See: Sun 501-2337 S24 (TCX) 24-Bit Color Frame Buffer - X323A or X324A

=== IO Subsystem (IOS) ===

* [[w:VMEbus|VMEbus]]

# IOP-0 - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950023
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 6B 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050023&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios0&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
#** tape drive
#** CDROM
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# EI-1 – System Ethernet
#* Rockwell Int'l/CMC Network Products P/N 320057-06
# DC-6S - Disk Controller (SCSI) 
#* 2c x 2t x 9.11 GB (36.44 GB formatted) specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; for each disk:
#** [https://dbgweb.net/product/90360800-a2/ Interphase H4220W-005] SCSI-2 Fast Wide High Voltage Differential controller
#** [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/seagate/scsi/elite/83328860C_ST410800_Elite_9_Product_Manual_Vol_1_199409.pdf Seagate ST410800WD Elite 9] 
#** 10.8 GB unformatted capacity
#** 9.08 GB formatted capacity
#** 5,400 rpm
#** 7.2 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#** 4.2 – 6.2 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#** 1.7 – 23.5 ms access time (11.5 ms average)
#** Aggregate transfer rate capacity of controller is unknown
#** Maximum number of drives per controller is unknown
#* SCSI array: [https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19696-01/805-2624-12/805-2624-12.pdf Sun StorEdge D1000]. (6 X [https://www.seagate.com/support/disc/manuals/scsi/29471c.pdf Seagate ST150176LC], 50 GB, 7,200 rpm, SE/LVD)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# IOP-1 - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950078
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 9E 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050078&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios1&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# DC-5I - Disk Controller (IPI)
#* Xylogics SV7800 IPI-2 controller “The DC-5I disk controller is an intelligent and high-performance controller that can sustain the peak rates of four drives simultaneously to mainframe memory. You can attach up to four DD-5I drives to a DC-5I controller.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; 
#** PE-5I disk tray 2c x 2t x 3.4 GB (13.6 GB) Specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;, For each DD-5I disk:
#*** Seagate ST43200K Elite 3
#*** 2.96 GB formatted
#*** 3.4 GB unformatted
#*** 5,400 rpm
#*** 12.4 MB/s peak transfer rate (unformatted)
#*** 9.5 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#*** 6 - 8.5 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#*** 1.7 – 24 ms access time (11.5 average)
# FI-2 system FDDI
#* Interphase H04211-004 
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
* Allied Telesis CentreCOM 470 MAU with 4 AUI and 1 10bse2

For jumpers on VME boards see the hardware reference manual.&lt;ref name=hardware /&gt;

VME slots are labeled C1 – C20 in a 6-4-6-4 slot arrangement. Any of the four sections could be (but are not) jumpered to an adjacent section.

* VME0 C1 – C6
* VME1 C7 – C10
* VME2 C11 – C16 (unused)
* VME3 C17 – C20 (unused)

Note: the disk controller notation used here is [c]ontroller, SCSI [t]arget address, and [GB] capacity.

The IOS (IO Subsystem) contains two IOPs (IO Processors, each with its own VME backplane) running the [[w:VxWorks|VxWorks]] IOS-V operating system.

Need to check the MAC addresses on the Themis IOPs to see if they match our custom config file. Also, document IP address mappings for MACs. The IOPs use the 10/8 private subnet.

[[File:Cray J90 Central Control Unit.jpg|thumb|right|A CCU showing an LED lamp test.]]

=== Central Control Unit (CCU) ===

* On the Cray Y-MP EL and EL98 the LED panel batteries take 36 hours to charge and last for 72 hours. The J90 uses four Eveready CH50 cells; these are standard D size Ni-Cd cells at 1.2 V and 1.8 Ah. These will be replaced with EBL Ni-MH cells at 1.2 V and 10.0 Ah. With these new batteries it takes about 10 hours to fully charge discharged batteries with a standard charger. There is a switch on the back of the CCU to disable the batteries to prevent them from discharging while the system is off.

=== Mainframe ===

Serial number: 9109. Node: &lt;code&gt;boson&lt;/code&gt;
# MEM0
# MEM1
# CPU0 with two Y1 channels
# CPU1
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)

[[File:Cray J90 CPU module.jpg|thumb|right|A 4 CPU scalar/vector Cray J90 processor module.]]

* Our specific model is J916/8-1024 (J90 series with a backplane that has space for eight modules. The backplane is only wired for four modules. There are two boards with a total of eight CPUs and two memory boards with a total of 1 GB RAM total. (We need to verify RAM size.) Based on the IOP JTAG boundary scan results, all of the eight processors are enabled.
* J90 Series: “The allowable backplane types are 1x1, 2x2, 4x4, and 8x8. There can be up to 8 processor modules with each module containing 4 CPUs. There can be up to 8 memory modules with a combined range of 0.25 to 4 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; It is not clear if Cray ever manufactured or sold a 1x1 J916 backplane.
* J90se series: “The Cray J90se mainframe runs the UNICOS operating system. It allows backplane types of 2x2, 4x4, or 8x8 processor modules. A Cray J98 system has up to 2 processor modules for a total of 8 CPUs. A Cray J916 system has up to 4 processor modules for a total of 16 CPUs. A Cray J932 system has up to 8 processor modules for a total of 32 CPUs. The combined memory capacity of these configurations ranges from 0.50 to 32 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; (J90se is “scaler enhanced; the scaler processors are upgraded from 100 to 200 MHz, but the vector processors are still 100 MHz.)
* &quot;Memory has a peak bandwidth of 32 words per clock period (CP) (25.6 Gbytes/s) for a 4 X 4 backplane (J916) configuration and 16 words per CP (12.8 Gbytes/s) for a 2 X 2 backplane (J98) configuration.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;
* &quot;Data travels from a peripheral device, across a data channel to the device controller and then from the device controller, across the VMEbus to the I/O buffer board (IOBB). From the IOBB, data travels to the mainframe memory through the 50-Mbyte/s data channel.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;

== Installed software ==

=== CDROM install media ===

* CrayDocs for UNICOS 8.0.3 March 1994
* J90 Console Install v 1.3 3/14/95
* UNICOS 10.0.0.5 Install May 1999
{Note: the CrayDocs and Console Install are seriously incompatible with UNICOS v. 10.}

* Support System and IOS-E Installation Guide SG-560A
* Cray J90 (unknown version SWS software and IOS software)
* [[iarchive:cray-cd1|UNICOS 10.0.0.2]] May 1998

* CrayDoc Documentation Library 3.0 (UNICOS 10.0.1.2, SWS 6.2, NQE 3.3,)
* UNICOS 10.0.1.2 (May not support J90 &quot;Classic&quot;)
* SWS 6.2
* NQE 3.3.0.15 Modules 2.2.2.3 CAL 10.1.0.6

=== Software versions ===

* SWS
** Solaris 7 / SunOS 5.7 / November 1998
** Cray console software

* IOS
** IOS-V Kernel 3.0.0.5 97/10/16 15:44:46 (installed)

* Mainframe
** UNICOS

== Installation ==

“If you need to power-cycle the machine, you must press the CPU reset button first followed by the VME reset button on the control panel. Failure to press the reset buttons in this order will cause the power-up diagnostic tests to fail.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; This is an important note that I missed.

Release contents:
* IOS tar file
* Install tar file
* Generic UNICOS file system
* Generic system files
* UNICOS binaries

Read in the files from the install CD:
* Usage of the &lt;code&gt;/src&lt;/code&gt; partition is decreasing; the &lt;code&gt;/opt&lt;/code&gt; partition is used to store the installation and IOS-related files
* The install script is &lt;code&gt;./setup&lt;/code&gt; and it asks for the four digit serial number. This can be found on a plate on the back of the mainframe cabinet. The EL series serial numbers are 5nnn. Serial numbers 9nnn are J916 backplane; serial numbers 95nn are J932 backplane. &quot;In 1996 350 Cray J90 systems where shipped the large part of the total of 415 J90 systems. Some J90 systems are being converted to SV1 chassis just to keep the records complicated.&quot;&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt; Serial numbers 3nnn are SV-1.&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt;
* There is a &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account and an &lt;code&gt;ios&lt;/code&gt; group account
* “Loads the opt. tar file from the CD into &lt;code&gt;/opt/install&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;/opt/local&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;/opt/packages&lt;/code&gt;”
* “Establishes the J90 Console script (&lt;code&gt;jcon&lt;/code&gt;) script for the master lOS”
* “Sets up the &lt;code&gt;BOOTPD&lt;/code&gt; daemon”
* “Updates the following Solaris network files in &lt;code&gt;/etc&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;code&gt;inetd.conf&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;services&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;/code&gt;hostname.le1&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;netmasks&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;hosts&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;nsswitch.conf&lt;/code&gt;”
* Reboot
* Log in with the &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account using the password of &lt;code&gt;initial0&lt;/code&gt;.

Cray Load Optional Async Product Relocatables. Versions of UNICOS 9.0 and later automatically load this optional software.
* User Exits
* Tape Daemon
* Ultra
* Kerberos / Enigma
* Secure - Id
* NQS
* Accounting user - exits

Use &lt;code&gt;fold -80 logfile | more&lt;/code&gt; to view &lt;code&gt;/opt/install/log/xxxx&lt;/code&gt;, where xxxx is the serial number. Otherwise, vi and other editors will truncate the long lines of text making it unreadable.

Right mouse click on the OpenWindows root X window will show menu options for J90 Console and J90 Install Menu.

“If you are performing an initial install starting from CD-ROM, after running the Load Binaries procedure, you must quit the J90 Install Utility and restart it before continuing the installation. This avoids an lOS reset problem between the CD-ROM version of Load Binaries and the J90 UNICOS 9.0.2 version.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; Another important note that I missed.

Configuration files containing the ASICs chip information.
&lt;pre&gt;
/sys/pm0.cfg	# Processor Module configuration
/sys/mem0.cfg	# Memory Module Configuration
&lt;/pre&gt;

The UNICOS &lt;code&gt;root&lt;/code&gt; password is &lt;code&gt;initial&lt;/code&gt;. Run &lt;code&gt;mkfs /core&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;mkdump&lt;/code&gt;. 

After installation there are two disk partitions &lt;code&gt;roota/usra/srca&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;rootb/usrb/srcb&lt;/code&gt; for both a live boot and an alternate root used for upgrade. We need to install double the original disk space to accommodate the archive of the original disk arrays and a fresh install.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Recommended minimum partition sizes
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Partition
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4k blocks
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | MB
|-
| root
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 110,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 440
|-
| usr
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 190,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 760
|-
| src
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 120,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 480
|-
| opt
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 150,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 600
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | total
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 570,000
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,280
|}

Use &lt;code&gt;CONTROL-A&lt;/code&gt; to toggle between the IOS-V and UNICOS consoles.

== Administration ==

“Device recommendations: To avoid contention, you should configure the /usr file system on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the root (/) file system resides.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“On baseline systems however, only swap is recommended as a striped disk. Striping is best used only for large I/O moves, such as swapping.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“Device recommendations: If two or more lOSs are present, to avoid contention, you should configure /tmp and /home on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the frequently accessed system file systems and logical devices reside. This file system is best handled by allocating slices from several different disks to compose the logical file system. This disk allocation strategy is called banding.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

Banding is striping a bunch of disks to create a logical disk. Unlike striping, the banded disks can vary in size. Striping requires disks that are closely identical in raw capacity. I’ve seen no indication that the cray can do other levels of RAID.

Banding partitions / file systems:
&lt;pre&gt;
/usr/src
/tmp
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Startup ==

From: [https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMU-200-0-CRAY_J916_2X2_to_4X4_Backplane_Upgrade_Procedure-June_1995.pdf]

Power Up CRAY J916 System
# Reconnect the mainframe cabinet AC power plug to its source.
# Using the right mouse button, click on any open working space. The Workspace menu will appear.
# Select the J90 Console menu item.
# Move the circuit breaker on the back of the mainframe cabinet to the ON position first, and then move the circuit breaker on the back of the I/O cabinet to the ON position.
# Press the Alarm Acknowledge button on the CCU.
# Press the CPU RESET button on the CCU.
# Press the VME RESET button on the CCU.
# Observe any errors on the console screen.
# Ensure that the DC enable indicators for the memory and processor modules are green.
# Verify that the SYSTEM READY light on the control panel illuminates.
# Close the rear door of the cabinet by swinging the door shut and turning the two door-locking fasteners.
# Replace the backplane cover and the cover below it and tighten the retaining screws.
# Install and close the front door of the cabinet by reconnecting the ground wire and swinging the door shut, ensuring that the door latches are connected.

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=
* &lt;ref name=admin&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Basic Administration Guide for CRAY J90 and CRAY EL Series |origyear=1994 |origmonth=March |url=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-2416_UNICOS_Basic_Administration_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_and_CRAY_EL_Series_8.0.3.2_Feb95.pdf  |accessdate=24 March 2025 |date=February 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-2416 8.0.3.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=install&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Installation Guide for Cray J90 Series |origyear=1995 |origmonth=March |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-5271_UNICOS_Installation_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_Series_9.0.2_Apr96.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1996 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-5271 9.0.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=overview&gt;{{cite book |title=CRAY J98 and CRAY J916 Systems Hardware Overview |origyear=1995 |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMM-094-A-Hardware_Overview_for_CRAY_J916_System-April_1998.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1998 |publisher=Cray Research / Silicon Graphics |id=HMM-094-B }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=faq3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://0x07bell.net/WWWMASTER/CrayWWWStuff/Cfaqp3.html#TOC3 |title=Cray Research and Cray computers FAQ Part 3 |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date=December 2003 |website=Cray Supercomputer FAQ and other documents |publisher= |access-date=28  May 2025 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=hardware&gt;{{cite book | title=Cray J90 I/O Cabinet Hardware Reference Book | date=November 1995 | url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMQ-261-0-CRAY_J90_Series_IO_Cabinet_Hardware_Reference_Booklet-November_1995.pdf |accessdate=9 June 2025 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc.|location=Chippewa Falls, WI|id=HMQ-261-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==

=== Wikimedia resources ===

* [[Scientific computing]] &lt;small&gt;General info about scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Scientific computing/History]] &lt;small&gt;A brief history of scientific computing through the mid-1970s.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Cosmological simulations]] &lt;small&gt;An example of one type of scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
{{Wikipedia | lang=en |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island}}

=== Cray documentation ===

* {{cite book |title=CRAY IOS-V Commands Reference Manual |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SR-2170_CRAY_IOS-V_Commands_Reference_8.0.3.2_Mar95.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=March 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SR2170 8.0.3.2 }}
* {{cite book |title=CF77 Compiling System, Volume 3: Vectorization Guide |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/UNICOS/5.0_1989/SG-3073_5.0_CF77_Vol3_Vectorization_Guide_Aug91.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=August 1991 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG 3073 5.0 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://cray-history.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/J90_JustRightForYou.pdf |title=The CRAY J916 System - Just Right For You |date=1994 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |access-date24 May 2025= }}
* {{cite journal |last=Qualters |first=Irene M. |year=1995 |title=Cray Research Software Report |journal=CUG 1995 Spring Proceedings |url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S95PROC/3_5.PDF |accessdate=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/ |title=Index of /cray_docs/hw/j90/ |last=Tantos |first=Andras |date=2021-07-01 |website=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator |publisher=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator
 |access-date=24 May 2025 }}

=== Informational sites ===

* {{cite web |url=https://cray-history.net/cray-history-front/fom-home/cray-j90-range/ |title=Cray J90 Range |website=Cray-History.net |access-date=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://fornaxchimiae.blogspot.com/p/cray-j90.html |title=Cray Jedi |last=Umbricht |first=Michael L. |author-link=User:Mu301 |date=August 15, 2019 |website=Fornax Chimiæ |publisher=Retro-Computing Society of RI |access-date=24 May 2025 |quote=&lt;small&gt;Restoration of a Cray J90 series parallel vector processing system at RCS/RI&lt;/small&gt; }}

[[Category:Cray J90|*]]
[[Category:Retrocomputing]]
[[Category:Frequently asked questions]]
[[Category:Howtos]]</text>
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      <text bytes="19473" sha1="1r2q0lgvdys10bag4dzy7ouixn5q48g" xml:space="preserve">{{Under construction|This page is under construction. Content is likely to be revised significantly until September 2025}}
[[File:Cray J90 Series.jpg|thumb|right|A Cray J90 series system. The CPU/memory mainframe cabinet is at right; the IO Subsystem cabinet is at left.]]

The [[w:Cray J90|Cray J90]] series was a [[w:minisupercomputer|minisupercomputer]] manufactured by [[w:Cray|Cray Research]] from 1994 - 1998. This learning resource documents the restoration of a model J916 that was donated to the [[commons:Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island|Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island]] (RCS/RI) historic computer collection. 

These systems have multiple [[w:Scalar processor|scalar]]/[[w:Vector processor|vector]] parallel processors.  Unlike larger, more powerful, supercomputers that required [[w:Computer_cooling#Liquid_cooling|liquid cooling]], these used [[w:Computer_cooling#Air_cooling|air cooling]].

Index of Cray J90 Wikiversity subpages:
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Cray J90 (computer)/|hideredirect=1|stripprefix=1}}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== Hardware ==

[[File:Cray J90 Service WorkStation.jpg|thumb|right|The SPARCstation 5 System WorkStation is the console for the Cray J90.]]

=== System WorkStation (SWS) ===

* [[w:SPARCstation 5|SPARCstation 5]] (for jumpers see: [http://www.obsolyte.com/sun_ss5/ Sun SparcStation 5 / SparcServer 5])
** Node: &lt;code&gt;hbar&lt;/code&gt;
*** Two internal 4 GB drives
*** [[w:SBus|SBus]]
***# 10base5 / 10base2 Ethernet
***# quad fast Ethernet
***# graphics
***#* See: Sun 501-2337 S24 (TCX) 24-Bit Color Frame Buffer - X323A or X324A

=== IO Subsystem (IOS) ===

* [[w:VMEbus|VMEbus]]

# IOP-0 - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950023
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 6B 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050023&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios0&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
#** tape drive
#** CDROM
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# EI-1 – System Ethernet
#* Rockwell Int'l/CMC Network Products P/N 320057-06
# DC-6S - Disk Controller (SCSI) 
#* 2c x 2t x 9.11 GB (36.44 GB formatted) specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; for each disk:
#** [https://dbgweb.net/product/90360800-a2/ Interphase H4220W-005] SCSI-2 Fast Wide High Voltage Differential controller
#** [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/seagate/scsi/elite/83328860C_ST410800_Elite_9_Product_Manual_Vol_1_199409.pdf Seagate ST410800WD Elite 9] 
#** 10.8 GB unformatted capacity
#** 9.08 GB formatted capacity
#** 5,400 rpm
#** 7.2 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#** 4.2 – 6.2 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#** 1.7 – 23.5 ms access time (11.5 ms average)
#** Aggregate transfer rate capacity of controller is unknown
#** Maximum number of drives per controller is unknown
#* SCSI array: [https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19696-01/805-2624-12/805-2624-12.pdf Sun StorEdge D1000]. (6 X [https://www.seagate.com/support/disc/manuals/scsi/29471c.pdf Seagate ST150176LC], 50 GB, 7,200 rpm, SE/LVD)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# IOP-1 - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950078
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 9E 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050078&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios1&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# DC-5I - Disk Controller (IPI)
#* Xylogics SV7800 IPI-2 controller “The DC-5I disk controller is an intelligent and high-performance controller that can sustain the peak rates of four drives simultaneously to mainframe memory. You can attach up to four DD-5I drives to a DC-5I controller.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; 
#** PE-5I disk tray 2c x 2t x 3.4 GB (13.6 GB) Specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;, For each DD-5I disk:
#*** Seagate ST43200K Elite 3
#*** 2.96 GB formatted
#*** 3.4 GB unformatted
#*** 5,400 rpm
#*** 12.4 MB/s peak transfer rate (unformatted)
#*** 9.5 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#*** 6 - 8.5 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#*** 1.7 – 24 ms access time (11.5 average)
# FI-2 system FDDI
#* Interphase H04211-004 
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
* Allied Telesis CentreCOM 470 MAU with 4 AUI and 1 10bse2

For jumpers on VME boards see the hardware reference manual.&lt;ref name=hardware /&gt;

VME slots are labeled C1 – C20 in a 6-4-6-4 slot arrangement. Any of the four sections could be (but are not) jumpered to an adjacent section.

* VME0 C1 – C6
* VME1 C7 – C10
* VME2 C11 – C16 (unused)
* VME3 C17 – C20 (unused)

Note: the disk controller notation used here is [c]ontroller, SCSI [t]arget address, and [GB] capacity.

The IOS (IO Subsystem) contains two IOPs (IO Processors, each with its own VME backplane) running the [[w:VxWorks|VxWorks]] IOS-V operating system.

Need to check the MAC addresses on the Themis IOPs to see if they match our custom config file. Also, document IP address mappings for MACs. The IOPs use the 10/8 private subnet.

[[File:Cray J90 Central Control Unit.jpg|thumb|right|A CCU showing an LED lamp test.]]

=== Central Control Unit (CCU) ===

* On the Cray Y-MP EL and EL98 the LED panel batteries take 36 hours to charge and last for 72 hours. The J90 uses four Eveready CH50 cells; these are standard D size Ni-Cd cells at 1.2 V and 1.8 Ah. These will be replaced with EBL Ni-MH cells at 1.2 V and 10.0 Ah. With these new batteries it takes about 10 hours to fully charge discharged batteries with a standard charger. There is a switch on the back of the CCU to disable the batteries to prevent them from discharging while the system is off.

=== Mainframe ===

Serial number: 9109. Node: &lt;code&gt;boson&lt;/code&gt;
# MEM0
# MEM1
# CPU0 with two Y1 channels
# CPU1
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)

[[File:Cray J90 CPU module.jpg|thumb|right|A 4 CPU scalar/vector Cray J90 processor module.]]

* Our specific model is J916/8-1024 (J90 series with a backplane that has space for eight modules. The backplane is only wired for four modules. There are two boards with a total of eight CPUs and two memory boards with a total of 1 GB RAM total. (We need to verify RAM size.) Based on the IOP JTAG boundary scan results, all of the eight processors are enabled.
* J90 Series: “The allowable backplane types are 1x1, 2x2, 4x4, and 8x8. There can be up to 8 processor modules with each module containing 4 CPUs. There can be up to 8 memory modules with a combined range of 0.25 to 4 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; It is not clear if Cray ever manufactured or sold a 1x1 J916 backplane.
* J90se series: “The Cray J90se mainframe runs the UNICOS operating system. It allows backplane types of 2x2, 4x4, or 8x8 processor modules. A Cray J98 system has up to 2 processor modules for a total of 8 CPUs. A Cray J916 system has up to 4 processor modules for a total of 16 CPUs. A Cray J932 system has up to 8 processor modules for a total of 32 CPUs. The combined memory capacity of these configurations ranges from 0.50 to 32 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; (J90se is “scaler enhanced; the scaler processors are upgraded from 100 to 200 MHz, but the vector processors are still 100 MHz.)
* &quot;Memory has a peak bandwidth of 32 words per clock period (CP) (25.6 Gbytes/s) for a 4 X 4 backplane (J916) configuration and 16 words per CP (12.8 Gbytes/s) for a 2 X 2 backplane (J98) configuration.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;
* &quot;Data travels from a peripheral device, across a data channel to the device controller and then from the device controller, across the VMEbus to the I/O buffer board (IOBB). From the IOBB, data travels to the mainframe memory through the 50-Mbyte/s data channel.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;

== Installed software ==

=== CDROM install media ===

* CrayDocs for UNICOS 8.0.3 March 1994
* J90 Console Install v 1.3 3/14/95
* UNICOS 10.0.0.5 Install May 1999
{Note: the CrayDocs and Console Install are seriously incompatible with UNICOS v. 10.}

* Support System and IOS-E Installation Guide SG-560A
* Cray J90 (unknown version SWS software and IOS software)
* [[iarchive:cray-cd1|UNICOS 10.0.0.2]] May 1998

* CrayDoc Documentation Library 3.0 (UNICOS 10.0.1.2, SWS 6.2, NQE 3.3,)
* UNICOS 10.0.1.2 (May not support J90 &quot;Classic&quot;)
* SWS 6.2
* NQE 3.3.0.15 Modules 2.2.2.3 CAL 10.1.0.6

=== Software versions ===

* SWS
** Solaris 7 / SunOS 5.7 / November 1998
** Cray console software

* IOS
** IOS-V Kernel 3.0.0.5 97/10/16 15:44:46 (installed)

* Mainframe
** UNICOS

== Installation ==

“If you need to power-cycle the machine, you must press the CPU reset button first followed by the VME reset button on the control panel. Failure to press the reset buttons in this order will cause the power-up diagnostic tests to fail.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; This is an important note that I missed.

Release contents:
* IOS tar file
* Install tar file
* Generic UNICOS file system
* Generic system files
* UNICOS binaries

Read in the files from the install CD:
* Usage of the &lt;code&gt;/src&lt;/code&gt; partition is decreasing; the &lt;code&gt;/opt&lt;/code&gt; partition is used to store the installation and IOS-related files
* The install script is &lt;code&gt;./setup&lt;/code&gt; and it asks for the four digit serial number. This can be found on a plate on the back of the mainframe cabinet. The EL series serial numbers are 5nnn. Serial numbers 9nnn are J916 backplane; serial numbers 95nn are J932 backplane. &quot;In 1996 350 Cray J90 systems where shipped the large part of the total of 415 J90 systems. Some J90 systems are being converted to SV1 chassis just to keep the records complicated.&quot;&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt; Serial numbers 3nnn are SV-1.&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt;
* There is a &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account and an &lt;code&gt;ios&lt;/code&gt; group account
* “Loads the opt. tar file from the CD into &lt;code&gt;/opt/install&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;/opt/local&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;/opt/packages&lt;/code&gt;”
* “Establishes the J90 Console script (&lt;code&gt;jcon&lt;/code&gt;) script for the master lOS”
* “Sets up the &lt;code&gt;BOOTPD&lt;/code&gt; daemon”
* “Updates the following Solaris network files in &lt;code&gt;/etc&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;code&gt;inetd.conf&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;services&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;/code&gt;hostname.le1&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;netmasks&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;hosts&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;nsswitch.conf&lt;/code&gt;”
* Reboot
* Log in with the &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account using the password of &lt;code&gt;initial0&lt;/code&gt;.

Cray Load Optional Async Product Relocatables. Versions of UNICOS 9.0 and later automatically load this optional software.
* User Exits
* Tape Daemon
* Ultra
* Kerberos / Enigma
* Secure - Id
* NQS
* Accounting user - exits

Use &lt;code&gt;fold -80 logfile | more&lt;/code&gt; to view &lt;code&gt;/opt/install/log/xxxx&lt;/code&gt;, where xxxx is the serial number. Otherwise, vi and other editors will truncate the long lines of text making it unreadable.

Right mouse click on the OpenWindows root X window will show menu options for J90 Console and J90 Install Menu.

“If you are performing an initial install starting from CD-ROM, after running the Load Binaries procedure, you must quit the J90 Install Utility and restart it before continuing the installation. This avoids an lOS reset problem between the CD-ROM version of Load Binaries and the J90 UNICOS 9.0.2 version.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; Another important note that I missed.

Configuration files containing the ASICs chip information.
&lt;pre&gt;
/sys/pm0.cfg	# Processor Module configuration
/sys/mem0.cfg	# Memory Module Configuration
&lt;/pre&gt;

The UNICOS &lt;code&gt;root&lt;/code&gt; password is &lt;code&gt;initial&lt;/code&gt;. Run &lt;code&gt;mkfs /core&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;mkdump&lt;/code&gt;. 

After installation there are two disk partitions &lt;code&gt;roota/usra/srca&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;rootb/usrb/srcb&lt;/code&gt; for both a live boot and an alternate root used for upgrade. We need to install double the original disk space to accommodate the archive of the original disk arrays and a fresh install.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Recommended minimum partition sizes
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Partition
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4k blocks
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | MB
|-
| root
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 110,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 440
|-
| usr
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 190,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 760
|-
| src
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 120,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 480
|-
| opt
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 150,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 600
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | total
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 570,000
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,280
|}

Use &lt;code&gt;CONTROL-A&lt;/code&gt; to toggle between the IOS-V and UNICOS consoles.

== Administration ==

“Device recommendations: To avoid contention, you should configure the /usr file system on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the root (/) file system resides.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“On baseline systems however, only swap is recommended as a striped disk. Striping is best used only for large I/O moves, such as swapping.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“Device recommendations: If two or more lOSs are present, to avoid contention, you should configure /tmp and /home on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the frequently accessed system file systems and logical devices reside. This file system is best handled by allocating slices from several different disks to compose the logical file system. This disk allocation strategy is called banding.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

Banding is striping a bunch of disks to create a logical disk. Unlike striping, the banded disks can vary in size. Striping requires disks that are closely identical in raw capacity. I’ve seen no indication that the cray can do other levels of RAID.

Banding partitions / file systems:
&lt;pre&gt;
/usr/src
/tmp
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Startup ==

Power up procedures:&lt;ref name=upgrade /&gt;

Power Up CRAY J916 System
# Reconnect the mainframe cabinet AC power plug to its source.
# Using the right mouse button, click on any open working space. The Workspace menu will appear.
# Select the J90 Console menu item.
# Move the circuit breaker on the back of the mainframe cabinet to the ON position first, and then move the circuit breaker on the back of the I/O cabinet to the ON position.
# Press the Alarm Acknowledge button on the CCU.
# Press the CPU RESET button on the CCU.
# Press the VME RESET button on the CCU.
# Observe any errors on the console screen.
# Ensure that the DC enable indicators for the memory and processor modules are green.
# Verify that the SYSTEM READY light on the control panel illuminates.
# Close the rear door of the cabinet by swinging the door shut and turning the two door-locking fasteners.
# Replace the backplane cover and the cover below it and tighten the retaining screws.
# Install and close the front door of the cabinet by reconnecting the ground wire and swinging the door shut, ensuring that the door latches are connected.

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=
* &lt;ref name=admin&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Basic Administration Guide for CRAY J90 and CRAY EL Series |origyear=1994 |origmonth=March |url=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-2416_UNICOS_Basic_Administration_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_and_CRAY_EL_Series_8.0.3.2_Feb95.pdf  |accessdate=24 March 2025 |date=February 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-2416 8.0.3.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=install&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Installation Guide for Cray J90 Series |origyear=1995 |origmonth=March |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-5271_UNICOS_Installation_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_Series_9.0.2_Apr96.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1996 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-5271 9.0.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=overview&gt;{{cite book |title=CRAY J98 and CRAY J916 Systems Hardware Overview |origyear=1995 |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMM-094-A-Hardware_Overview_for_CRAY_J916_System-April_1998.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1998 |publisher=Cray Research / Silicon Graphics |id=HMM-094-B }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=faq3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://0x07bell.net/WWWMASTER/CrayWWWStuff/Cfaqp3.html#TOC3 |title=Cray Research and Cray computers FAQ Part 3 |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date=December 2003 |website=Cray Supercomputer FAQ and other documents |access-date=28 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=hardware&gt;{{cite book | title=Cray J90 I/O Cabinet Hardware Reference Book | date=November 1995 | url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMQ-261-0-CRAY_J90_Series_IO_Cabinet_Hardware_Reference_Booklet-November_1995.pdf |accessdate=9 June 2025 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Chippewa Falls, WI |id=HMQ-261-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=upgrade&gt;{{cite book |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |title=CRAY J916 2 X 2 to 4 X 4 Backplane Upgrade Procedure |date=June 1995 |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMU-200-0-CRAY_J916_2X2_to_4X4_Backplane_Upgrade_Procedure-June_1995.pdf |accessdate=13 June 2025 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Chippewa Falls, WI |id=HMU-200-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==

=== Wikimedia resources ===

* [[Scientific computing]] &lt;small&gt;General info about scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Scientific computing/History]] &lt;small&gt;A brief history of scientific computing through the mid-1970s.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Cosmological simulations]] &lt;small&gt;An example of one type of scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
{{Wikipedia | lang=en |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island}}

=== Cray documentation ===

* {{cite book |title=CRAY IOS-V Commands Reference Manual |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SR-2170_CRAY_IOS-V_Commands_Reference_8.0.3.2_Mar95.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=March 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SR2170 8.0.3.2 }}
* {{cite book |title=CF77 Compiling System, Volume 3: Vectorization Guide |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/UNICOS/5.0_1989/SG-3073_5.0_CF77_Vol3_Vectorization_Guide_Aug91.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=August 1991 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG 3073 5.0 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://cray-history.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/J90_JustRightForYou.pdf |title=The CRAY J916 System - Just Right For You |date=1994 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |access-date24 May 2025= }}
* {{cite journal |last=Qualters |first=Irene M. |year=1995 |title=Cray Research Software Report |journal=CUG 1995 Spring Proceedings |url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S95PROC/3_5.PDF |accessdate=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/ |title=Index of /cray_docs/hw/j90/ |last=Tantos |first=Andras |date=2021-07-01 |website=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator |publisher=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator |access-date=24 May 2025 }}

=== Informational sites ===

* {{cite web |url=https://cray-history.net/cray-history-front/fom-home/cray-j90-range/ |title=Cray J90 Range |website=Cray-History.net |access-date=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://fornaxchimiae.blogspot.com/p/cray-j90.html |title=Cray Jedi |last=Umbricht |first=Michael L. |author-link=User:Mu301 |date=August 15, 2019 |website=Fornax Chimiæ |publisher=Retro-Computing Society of RI |access-date=24 May 2025 |quote=&lt;small&gt;Restoration of a Cray J90 series parallel vector processing system at RCS/RI&lt;/small&gt; }}

[[Category:Cray J90|*]]
[[Category:Retrocomputing]]
[[Category:Frequently asked questions]]
[[Category:Howtos]]</text>
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      <text bytes="19546" sha1="d0ahmrb4szqc7lf3tw09woc4kz0kfb3" xml:space="preserve">{{Under construction|This page is under construction. Content is likely to be revised significantly until September 2025}}
[[File:Cray J90 Series.jpg|thumb|right|A Cray J90 series system. The CPU/memory mainframe cabinet is at right; the IO Subsystem cabinet is at left.]]

The [[w:Cray J90|Cray J90]] series was a [[w:minisupercomputer|minisupercomputer]] manufactured by [[w:Cray|Cray Research]] from 1994 - 1998. This learning resource documents the restoration of a model J916 that was donated to the [[commons:Commons:Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island|Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island]] (RCS/RI) historic computer collection. 

These systems have multiple [[w:Scalar processor|scalar]]/[[w:Vector processor|vector]] parallel processors.  Unlike larger, more powerful, supercomputers that required [[w:Computer_cooling#Liquid_cooling|liquid cooling]], these used [[w:Computer_cooling#Air_cooling|air cooling]].

Index of Cray J90 Wikiversity subpages:
{{Special:PrefixIndex/Cray J90 (computer)/|hideredirect=1|stripprefix=1}}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== Hardware ==

[[File:Cray J90 Service WorkStation.jpg|thumb|right|The SPARCstation 5 System WorkStation is the console for the Cray J90.]]

=== System WorkStation (SWS) ===

* [[w:SPARCstation 5|SPARCstation 5]] (for jumpers see: [http://www.obsolyte.com/sun_ss5/ Sun SparcStation 5 / SparcServer 5])
** Node: &lt;code&gt;hbar&lt;/code&gt;
*** Two internal 4 GB drives
*** [[w:SBus|SBus]]
***# 10base5 / 10base2 Ethernet
***# quad fast Ethernet
***# graphics
***#* See: Sun 501-2337 S24 (TCX) 24-Bit Color Frame Buffer - X323A or X324A

=== IO Subsystem (IOS) ===

* [[w:VMEbus|VMEbus]]

# IOP-0 - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950023
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 6B 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050023&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios0&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
#** tape drive
#** CDROM
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# EI-1 – System Ethernet
#* Rockwell Int'l/CMC Network Products P/N 320057-06
# DC-6S - Disk Controller (SCSI) 
#* 2c x 2t x 9.11 GB (36.44 GB formatted) specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; for each disk:
#** [https://dbgweb.net/product/90360800-a2/ Interphase H4220W-005] SCSI-2 Fast Wide High Voltage Differential controller
#** [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/seagate/scsi/elite/83328860C_ST410800_Elite_9_Product_Manual_Vol_1_199409.pdf Seagate ST410800WD Elite 9] 
#** 10.8 GB unformatted capacity
#** 9.08 GB formatted capacity
#** 5,400 rpm
#** 7.2 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#** 4.2 – 6.2 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#** 1.7 – 23.5 ms access time (11.5 ms average)
#** Aggregate transfer rate capacity of controller is unknown
#** Maximum number of drives per controller is unknown
#* SCSI array: [https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19696-01/805-2624-12/805-2624-12.pdf Sun StorEdge D1000]. (6 X [https://www.seagate.com/support/disc/manuals/scsi/29471c.pdf Seagate ST150176LC], 50 GB, 7,200 rpm, SE/LVD)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# IOP-1 - Themis SPARC 2LC-8 D1 S26950078
#* Ethernet: &lt;code&gt;00 80 B6 02 9E 40&lt;/code&gt;
#* Host ID: &lt;code&gt;FF050078&lt;/code&gt;
#* Node: &lt;code&gt;sn9109-ios1&lt;/code&gt;
#* Fujitsu SPARC MB86903-40 CPU Processor IOSV BOOT F/W REV 1.4
#* A/B serial
#* AUI Ethernet
#* SCSI
# IOBB-64 - Y1 Channel (Connection to processor board) 
# DC-5I - Disk Controller (IPI)
#* Xylogics SV7800 IPI-2 controller “The DC-5I disk controller is an intelligent and high-performance controller that can sustain the peak rates of four drives simultaneously to mainframe memory. You can attach up to four DD-5I drives to a DC-5I controller.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt; 
#** PE-5I disk tray 2c x 2t x 3.4 GB (13.6 GB) Specs&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;, For each DD-5I disk:
#*** Seagate ST43200K Elite 3
#*** 2.96 GB formatted
#*** 3.4 GB unformatted
#*** 5,400 rpm
#*** 12.4 MB/s peak transfer rate (unformatted)
#*** 9.5 MB/s peak transfer rate (formatted)
#*** 6 - 8.5 MB/s sustained transfer rate (formatted)
#*** 1.7 – 24 ms access time (11.5 average)
# FI-2 system FDDI
#* Interphase H04211-004 
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
# (empty)
* Allied Telesis CentreCOM 470 MAU with 4 AUI and 1 10bse2

For jumpers on VME boards see the hardware reference manual.&lt;ref name=hardware /&gt;

VME slots are labeled C1 – C20 in a 6-4-6-4 slot arrangement. Any of the four sections could be (but are not) jumpered to an adjacent section.

* VME0 C1 – C6
* VME1 C7 – C10
* VME2 C11 – C16 (unused)
* VME3 C17 – C20 (unused)

Note: the disk controller notation used here is [c]ontroller, SCSI [t]arget address, and [GB] capacity.

The IOS (IO Subsystem) contains two IOPs (IO Processors, each with its own VME backplane) running the [[w:VxWorks|VxWorks]] IOS-V operating system.

Need to check the MAC addresses on the Themis IOPs to see if they match our custom config file. Also, document IP address mappings for MACs. The IOPs use the 10/8 private subnet.

[[File:Cray J90 Central Control Unit.jpg|thumb|right|A CCU showing an LED lamp test.]]

=== Central Control Unit (CCU) ===

* On the Cray Y-MP EL and EL98 the LED panel batteries take 36 hours to charge and last for 72 hours. The J90 uses four Eveready CH50 cells; these are standard D size Ni-Cd cells at 1.2 V and 1.8 Ah. These will be replaced with EBL Ni-MH cells at 1.2 V and 10.0 Ah. With these new batteries it takes about 10 hours to fully charge discharged batteries with a standard charger. There is a switch on the back of the CCU to disable the batteries to prevent them from discharging while the system is off.

=== Mainframe ===

Serial number: 9109. Node: &lt;code&gt;boson&lt;/code&gt;
# MEM0
# MEM1
# CPU0 with two Y1 channels
# CPU1
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)
# (empty / disabled)

[[File:Cray J90 CPU module.jpg|thumb|right|A 4 CPU scalar/vector Cray J90 processor module.]]

* Our specific model is J916/8-1024 (J90 series with a backplane that has space for eight modules. The backplane is only wired for four modules. There are two boards with a total of eight CPUs and two memory boards with a total of 1 GB RAM total. (We need to verify RAM size.) Based on the IOP JTAG boundary scan results, all of the eight processors are enabled.
* J90 Series: “The allowable backplane types are 1x1, 2x2, 4x4, and 8x8. There can be up to 8 processor modules with each module containing 4 CPUs. There can be up to 8 memory modules with a combined range of 0.25 to 4 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; It is not clear if Cray ever manufactured or sold a 1x1 J916 backplane.
* J90se series: “The Cray J90se mainframe runs the UNICOS operating system. It allows backplane types of 2x2, 4x4, or 8x8 processor modules. A Cray J98 system has up to 2 processor modules for a total of 8 CPUs. A Cray J916 system has up to 4 processor modules for a total of 16 CPUs. A Cray J932 system has up to 8 processor modules for a total of 32 CPUs. The combined memory capacity of these configurations ranges from 0.50 to 32 Gbytes.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; (J90se is “scaler enhanced; the scaler processors are upgraded from 100 to 200 MHz, but the vector processors are still 100 MHz.)
* &quot;Memory has a peak bandwidth of 32 words per clock period (CP) (25.6 Gbytes/s) for a 4 X 4 backplane (J916) configuration and 16 words per CP (12.8 Gbytes/s) for a 2 X 2 backplane (J98) configuration.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;
* &quot;Data travels from a peripheral device, across a data channel to the device controller and then from the device controller, across the VMEbus to the I/O buffer board (IOBB). From the IOBB, data travels to the mainframe memory through the 50-Mbyte/s data channel.&quot;&lt;ref name=overview /&gt;

== Installed software ==

=== CDROM install media ===

* CrayDocs for UNICOS 8.0.3 March 1994
* J90 Console Install v 1.3 3/14/95
* UNICOS 10.0.0.5 Install May 1999
{Note: the CrayDocs and Console Install are seriously incompatible with UNICOS v. 10.}

* Support System and IOS-E Installation Guide SG-560A
* Cray J90 (unknown version SWS software and IOS software)
* [[iarchive:cray-cd1|UNICOS 10.0.0.2]] May 1998

* CrayDoc Documentation Library 3.0 (UNICOS 10.0.1.2, SWS 6.2, NQE 3.3,)
* UNICOS 10.0.1.2 (May not support J90 &quot;Classic&quot;)
* SWS 6.2
* NQE 3.3.0.15 Modules 2.2.2.3 CAL 10.1.0.6

=== Software versions ===

* SWS
** Solaris 7 / SunOS 5.7 / November 1998
** Cray console software

* IOS
** IOS-V Kernel 3.0.0.5 97/10/16 15:44:46 (installed)

* Mainframe
** UNICOS

== Installation ==

“If you need to power-cycle the machine, you must press the CPU reset button first followed by the VME reset button on the control panel. Failure to press the reset buttons in this order will cause the power-up diagnostic tests to fail.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; This is an important note that I missed.

Release contents:
* IOS tar file
* Install tar file
* Generic UNICOS file system
* Generic system files
* UNICOS binaries

Read in the files from the install CD:
* Usage of the &lt;code&gt;/src&lt;/code&gt; partition is decreasing; the &lt;code&gt;/opt&lt;/code&gt; partition is used to store the installation and IOS-related files
* The install script is &lt;code&gt;./setup&lt;/code&gt; and it asks for the four digit serial number. This can be found on a plate on the back of the mainframe cabinet. The EL series serial numbers are 5nnn. Serial numbers 9nnn are J916 backplane; serial numbers 95nn are J932 backplane. &quot;In 1996 350 Cray J90 systems where shipped the large part of the total of 415 J90 systems. Some J90 systems are being converted to SV1 chassis just to keep the records complicated.&quot;&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt; Serial numbers 3nnn are SV-1.&lt;ref name=faq3 /&gt;
* There is a &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account and an &lt;code&gt;ios&lt;/code&gt; group account
* “Loads the opt. tar file from the CD into &lt;code&gt;/opt/install&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;/opt/local&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;/opt/packages&lt;/code&gt;”
* “Establishes the J90 Console script (&lt;code&gt;jcon&lt;/code&gt;) script for the master lOS”
* “Sets up the &lt;code&gt;BOOTPD&lt;/code&gt; daemon”
* “Updates the following Solaris network files in &lt;code&gt;/etc&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;code&gt;inetd.conf&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;services&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;/code&gt;hostname.le1&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;netmasks&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;hosts&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;nsswitch.conf&lt;/code&gt;”
* Reboot
* Log in with the &lt;code&gt;crayadm&lt;/code&gt; account using the password of &lt;code&gt;initial0&lt;/code&gt;.

Cray Load Optional Async Product Relocatables. Versions of UNICOS 9.0 and later automatically load this optional software.
* User Exits
* Tape Daemon
* Ultra
* Kerberos / Enigma
* Secure - Id
* NQS
* Accounting user - exits

Use &lt;code&gt;fold -80 logfile | more&lt;/code&gt; to view &lt;code&gt;/opt/install/log/xxxx&lt;/code&gt;, where xxxx is the serial number. Otherwise, vi and other editors will truncate the long lines of text making it unreadable.

Right mouse click on the OpenWindows root X window will show menu options for J90 Console and J90 Install Menu.

“If you are performing an initial install starting from CD-ROM, after running the Load Binaries procedure, you must quit the J90 Install Utility and restart it before continuing the installation. This avoids an lOS reset problem between the CD-ROM version of Load Binaries and the J90 UNICOS 9.0.2 version.”&lt;ref name=install /&gt; Another important note that I missed.

Configuration files containing the ASICs chip information.
&lt;pre&gt;
/sys/pm0.cfg	# Processor Module configuration
/sys/mem0.cfg	# Memory Module Configuration
&lt;/pre&gt;

The UNICOS &lt;code&gt;root&lt;/code&gt; password is &lt;code&gt;initial&lt;/code&gt;. Run &lt;code&gt;mkfs /core&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;mkdump&lt;/code&gt;. 

After installation there are two disk partitions &lt;code&gt;roota/usra/srca&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;rootb/usrb/srcb&lt;/code&gt; for both a live boot and an alternate root used for upgrade. We need to install double the original disk space to accommodate the archive of the original disk arrays and a fresh install.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Recommended minimum partition sizes
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | Partition
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 4k blocks
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | MB
|-
| root
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 110,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 440
|-
| usr
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 190,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 760
|-
| src
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 120,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 480
|-
| opt
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 150,000
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 600
|+
! style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | total
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 570,000
! style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | 2,280
|}

Use &lt;code&gt;CONTROL-A&lt;/code&gt; to toggle between the IOS-V and UNICOS consoles.

== Administration ==

“Device recommendations: To avoid contention, you should configure the /usr file system on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the root (/) file system resides.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“On baseline systems however, only swap is recommended as a striped disk. Striping is best used only for large I/O moves, such as swapping.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

“Device recommendations: If two or more lOSs are present, to avoid contention, you should configure /tmp and /home on a different controller, disk, and lOS than the one on which the frequently accessed system file systems and logical devices reside. This file system is best handled by allocating slices from several different disks to compose the logical file system. This disk allocation strategy is called banding.”&lt;ref name=admin /&gt;

Banding is striping a bunch of disks to create a logical disk. Unlike striping, the banded disks can vary in size. Striping requires disks that are closely identical in raw capacity. I’ve seen no indication that the cray can do other levels of RAID.

Banding partitions / file systems:
&lt;pre&gt;
/usr/src
/tmp
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Startup ==

{{cquote|
'''Power Up CRAY J916 System'''
# Reconnect the mainframe cabinet AC power plug to its source.
# Using the right mouse button, click on any open working space. The Workspace menu will appear.
# Select the J90 Console menu item.
# Move the circuit breaker on the back of the mainframe cabinet to the ON position first, and then move the circuit breaker on the back of the I/O cabinet to the ON position.
# Press the Alarm Acknowledge button on the CCU.
# Press the CPU RESET button on the CCU.
# Press the VME RESET button on the CCU.
# Observe any errors on the console screen.
# Ensure that the DC enable indicators for the memory and processor modules are green.
# Verify that the SYSTEM READY light on the control panel illuminates.
# Close the rear door of the cabinet by swinging the door shut and turning the two door-locking fasteners.
# Replace the backplane cover and the cover below it and tighten the retaining screws.
# Install and close the front door of the cabinet by reconnecting the ground wire and swinging the door shut, ensuring that the door latches are connected.
|source=''CRAY J916 2 X 2 to 4 X 4 Backplane Upgrade Procedure'', June 1995.&lt;ref name=upgrade /&gt;}}

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=
* &lt;ref name=admin&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Basic Administration Guide for CRAY J90 and CRAY EL Series |origyear=1994 |origmonth=March |url=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-2416_UNICOS_Basic_Administration_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_and_CRAY_EL_Series_8.0.3.2_Feb95.pdf  |accessdate=24 March 2025 |date=February 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-2416 8.0.3.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=install&gt;{{cite book |title=UNICOS Installation Guide for Cray J90 Series |origyear=1995 |origmonth=March |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SG-5271_UNICOS_Installation_Guide_for_CRAY_J90_Series_9.0.2_Apr96.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1996 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG-5271 9.0.2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=overview&gt;{{cite book |title=CRAY J98 and CRAY J916 Systems Hardware Overview |origyear=1995 |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMM-094-A-Hardware_Overview_for_CRAY_J916_System-April_1998.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=April 1998 |publisher=Cray Research / Silicon Graphics |id=HMM-094-B }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=faq3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://0x07bell.net/WWWMASTER/CrayWWWStuff/Cfaqp3.html#TOC3 |title=Cray Research and Cray computers FAQ Part 3 |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date=December 2003 |website=Cray Supercomputer FAQ and other documents |access-date=28 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=hardware&gt;{{cite book | title=Cray J90 I/O Cabinet Hardware Reference Book | date=November 1995 | url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMQ-261-0-CRAY_J90_Series_IO_Cabinet_Hardware_Reference_Booklet-November_1995.pdf |accessdate=9 June 2025 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Chippewa Falls, WI |id=HMQ-261-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;ref name=upgrade&gt;{{cite book |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |title=CRAY J916 2 X 2 to 4 X 4 Backplane Upgrade Procedure |date=June 1995 |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/HMU-200-0-CRAY_J916_2X2_to_4X4_Backplane_Upgrade_Procedure-June_1995.pdf |accessdate=13 June 2025 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Chippewa Falls, WI |id=HMU-200-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==

=== Wikimedia resources ===

* [[Scientific computing]] &lt;small&gt;General info about scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Scientific computing/History]] &lt;small&gt;A brief history of scientific computing through the mid-1970s.&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Cosmological simulations]] &lt;small&gt;An example of one type of scientific computing.&lt;/small&gt;
{{Wikipedia | lang=en |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Cray J90}}
{{commons |position=left |Retro-Computing Society of Rhode Island}}

=== Cray documentation ===

* {{cite book |title=CRAY IOS-V Commands Reference Manual |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/J90/SR-2170_CRAY_IOS-V_Commands_Reference_8.0.3.2_Mar95.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=March 1995 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SR2170 8.0.3.2 }}
* {{cite book |title=CF77 Compiling System, Volume 3: Vectorization Guide |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/cray/UNICOS/5.0_1989/SG-3073_5.0_CF77_Vol3_Vectorization_Guide_Aug91.pdf |accessdate=24 May 2025 |date=August 1991 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |id=SG 3073 5.0 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://cray-history.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/J90_JustRightForYou.pdf |title=The CRAY J916 System - Just Right For You |date=1994 |publisher=Cray Research, Inc. |location=Mendota Heights, MN |access-date24 May 2025= }}
* {{cite journal |last=Qualters |first=Irene M. |year=1995 |title=Cray Research Software Report |journal=CUG 1995 Spring Proceedings |url=https://cug.org/5-publications/proceedings_attendee_lists/1997CD/S95PROC/3_5.PDF |accessdate=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://cray.modularcircuits.com/cray_docs/hw/j90/ |title=Index of /cray_docs/hw/j90/ |last=Tantos |first=Andras |date=2021-07-01 |website=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator |publisher=Modular Circuits: The Cray X-MP Simulator |access-date=24 May 2025 }}

=== Informational sites ===

* {{cite web |url=https://cray-history.net/cray-history-front/fom-home/cray-j90-range/ |title=Cray J90 Range |website=Cray-History.net |access-date=24 May 2025 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://fornaxchimiae.blogspot.com/p/cray-j90.html |title=Cray Jedi |last=Umbricht |first=Michael L. |author-link=User:Mu301 |date=August 15, 2019 |website=Fornax Chimiæ |publisher=Retro-Computing Society of RI |access-date=24 May 2025 |quote=&lt;small&gt;Restoration of a Cray J90 series parallel vector processing system at RCS/RI&lt;/small&gt; }}

[[Category:Cray J90|*]]
[[Category:Retrocomputing]]
[[Category:Frequently asked questions]]
[[Category:Howtos]]</text>
      <sha1>d0ahmrb4szqc7lf3tw09woc4kz0kfb3</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Social Victorians/Stewart-Stavordale Wedding 1902-01-25</title>
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      <text bytes="38312" sha1="ryh3l5wqlqxg3rdjg28p27siddxalxr" xml:space="preserve">=Event=
Wedding of Lady Helen Stewart and Lord Stavordale, son of the Earl and Countess of Ilchester

==Overview==

==Logistics==
* Saturday, 25 January 1902, 2:00 p.m., St. Peter’s Church, Eaton-square, London
* Bride's bouquet, made by
* Bride's dress, made by
* Embroidery
* Bride's traveling dress, made by
* Bridesmaids' dresses
* Bridesmaids' hats
* Bridesmaids' bouquets
==Related Events==
* Reception
* Honeymoon
==Who Was Present==
===Bride and Bridesmaids===
====Bride====
====Bridesmaids====
====Pages====
===Groom and Best Man===
===People Who Attended===

# 
==What People Wore==
# 
==Gifts==
Lady Helen Stewart received a lot of very valuable jewelry, including a diamond and turquoise brooch from King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra and a pearl and diamond bracelet from the tenantry on the family county Down estate and the inhahitants of Newtownards, Ireland.

===Books===

*

===Unusual or Interesting Gifts===

*

==Anthology==
From the ''Londonderry Standard'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Marriage of Lady Helen Stewart. A Brilliant Gathering.

The marriage of Lady Helen Stewart, only daughter of the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, Londonderry House, Park-lane, London, with Lord Stavordale, son of the Earl and Countess of Ilchester, Holland House, Kensington, London, took place in St. Peter’s Church, Eaton-square, London, on Saturday at two o’clock. The bride, who was given away by her father, wore a dress made of a lovely shade of rich ivory duchesse satin. The skirt was embroidered with graduated true lover's knots on the same satin, veined with a silver thread. The train was an original one, as it formed, and was part of, the skirt, and . [sic] was made with an exquisite flounce of Limerick lace, caught up with bows of the same embroidery. The bodice was very prettily arranged with old lace, forming a fichu at the back, with insertions of the same lace in front. The sleeves were of transparent chiffon and lace. The bride wore a wreath of orange blossorns and myrtle grown from that used in her mother's wedding bouquet, and also a veil of Brussels lace, which was worn by Lady Londonderry and her sisters, and by the Hon. Mrs. Beckett at their weddings, and by the Dowager Lady Shrewsbury. The bride’s ornaments were a pearl and diamond collar, a gift from the county of Durham, and a diamond riviere, the gift of her father. She was attended by ten bridesmaids, viz., Miss Marion Beckett, Miss Gladys Beckett, Miss Margaret Beaumont, Miss Aline Beaumont, Lady Muriel Fox-Strangways, Lady Edith Dawson, Lady Viola Talbot, Miss Muriel Chaplin, Miss Madeleine Stanley, and Miss Eleanor Hicks-Beach. The four first-named were little girls, and they wore Empire frocks, to the ground, of old lace, over ‘‘quicksilver” silk, with high sashes of cloth of gold. Gold shoes and stockings and white mittens completed this quaint costume. The remaining and elder bridesmaids wore gowns of white ‘‘quicksilver” silk, draped with old lace over chiffon, the deep flounce headed by crescents of Russian sable. The bodices had deep lace collars bordered with the sable, and were fastened at the waist with sashes of cloth of gold tied at the side and falling in long ends. They wore long biscuit coloured suede gloves and white felt hats, trimmed with bouquets of white and yellow jonquils and green and brown leaves. The bridesmaids carried baskets of jonkils [sic] and lilies of the valley, and wore diamond birds, the gifts of the bridegroom. The officiating clergy were the Primate of Ireland, the Rev. Canon Body (Durham), the Rev. H. A. V. Boddy (vicar of Grindon, county Durham, and chaplain to Lord Londonderry at Wynyard Park), and the Rev. J. Storrs (vicar of St. Peter’s, Eaton-square). The bridegroom was attended by Lord Hyde as best man. The ceremony over, a reception was held at Londonderry House, and later the bride and bridegroom left for Ingestre, Stafford, the residence of the Earl of Shrewsbury, uncle of the bride, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride's travelling dress was of creamy white cloth, the skirt being made with a garniture of deep ecru embroidered lace, opening in front over an underdress of creamy white panne velvet, a border of which was shown all round the bottom of the skirt, and edged with sable. The corsage, with a vest of lace to match the skirt, the cloth slashed down each side, with little straps of panne velvet fastened with tiny gold studs, showing the lace underneath, a double collar round the shoulder, the under one in panne velvet, the outer one in cloth, with lace applique and slashed similar to bodice in order to show the panne collar underneath. A shaped belt of gold fabric, made high back and front, and slashed into little bands, showing the white dress underneath, the sleeves finished with transparent full undersleeves of lace and wristbands embroidered gold, neckband to match. Large cream beaun picture hat, with two large ostrich feathers round the mount, '''a whole sable arranged on the crown''', the sable’s head just showing to the face; on one side a cluster of creamy roses nestling on the hair under the brim. She wore a black sable muff and boa, given her by the Marchioness of Londonderry, and a cape to match, the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Dunville, of Redburn, county Down.

The bride’s bouquet was made at Wynyard by '''Mr. H. E. Gribble''', head gardener, and was composed of gardineres, lilies of the valley, with orange blossom and myrtle. The Marchioness of Londonderry wore a silver grey crepe de chine dress, with valenciennes lace, toque, ruffle, and muff to match.

The bride’s dress was made by '''Madame Kate Reily''', No. 10, Dover-street, Piccadilly. The whole of the embroidery, &amp;c., was made and arranged in England by Madame Reily’s own workers. Bride's travelling dress — '''Madame E. Durrant''', 116, New Bond-street, W. Bridesmaids’ dresses — '''Madame Oliver Holmes''', 61, New Bond-street, W. Bridesmaids’ hats — '''Madame Cecil''', 43, South Molton-street, W. Bridesmaids’ bouquets — '''Madame Escourt''', Wigmorestreet, London.

Presents to the Bride. 

* Marquis of Londonderry — Diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond riviere, three diamond brooches, pearl and diamond ring, '''pony phaton and harness'''.
* Marchioness of Londonderry — Diamond arrow, sable muff and boa, set of Cambrai point lace, set of Irish rose point, two flounces of Irish lace.
* Earl of Ilchester — Pearl necklace, with diamond clasp.
* Countess of Ilchester — Emerald and diamond necklace, with large emerald and diamond pendant, emerald and diamond comb, two emerald and diamond brooches.
* Lord Stevordale — Diamond brooch, ruby and diamond bracelet, turquoise and diamond earrings, emerald and diamond ring.
* Their Majesties the King and Queen — Diamond and turquoise brooch.
* H.R.H. Princess Victoria — Turquoise and diamond pendant.
* Prince and Princess of Wales — Diamond and sapphire crescent.
* T.H.R. The Duke and Duchess of Connaught — Mirror.
* The Duke and Duchess of Fife — Travelling bag.
* Prince Christian — Crystal and emerald umbrella handle.
* Prince and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar — Silver mirror.
* Belfast Conservative Association — Emerald and diamond bracelet.
* Officers of Second Durham Artillery Volunteers — Silver salver.
* '''Tenantry on county Down estate and inhahitants of Newtownards, Ireland''' — Pearl and diamond bracelet.
* Friends in the county of Durham — Pearl and diamond dog collar.
* The ladies of Belfast — Carrickmacross lace robe.
* County Down Staghounds’ Hunt Club — Silver tea and coffee set.
* North-Eastern Agricultural Society (county Down) — Silver candlebra.
* Officials General Post Office — Silver inkstand.
* Mr. George Hardy and workmen of Londonderry Engine Works — [sic.]
* Servants at Londonderry House — Gold and velvet pincushion.
* Employees at Wynyard — Gold mirror.
* Seaham Harbour Primrose League — Three silver rose bowls.
* Tenants on Wynyard Park and Longnewtown estate — Silver salver.
* Employees on Mount Stewart estate — Gold necklace, with pearl ornament.
* North Durham tenants — Silver bowl.
* Tradespeople of Stockton-on-Tees — '''Writing cabinet'''.
* Mothers’ Union at New Seaham — Writing-case.
* G.F.S. at Wynward — Silver and leather blotter.
* Wynyard school children — Silver and leather paper case.
* Wynyard choir — Visitors’ book.
* Mountstewart school children — Two satin covers.
* Downger Marchioness of Londonderry — Gold tea service. [Col. 1c–2a]
* Dowager Countess of Shrewsbury — Pearl and diamond cluster ring.
* Earl of Shrewsbury — Gold-mounted and tortoiseshell dressing-case.
* Mr. and Lady Aline Beaumont — Pearl and diamond comb and sapphire ring.
* Lord Henry Vane-Tempest — Turquoise and diamond bracelet.
* Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest — Enamel pearl muff chain.
* Viscount and Viscountess Helmsley — Emerald and pearl necklet and ornament and enamel comb.
* Viscount and Viscountess Castlereagh — '''Dinner service'''.
* Mr. and the Hon. Mrs. G. Beckett — Pearl and diamond earrings.
* Marquis of Salisbury — Jewelled and emerald necklace.
* Baroness Burdett-Coutts — Emerald and pearl necklace and emerald and diamond buckle.
* Lord and Lady Rothschild — Sapphire and diamond star brooch.
* Lord and Lady Lurgan — Sapphire and diamond bracelet and emerald and diamond ditto.
* Marquis and Marchioness of Zetland — Muff chain.
* Mr. and Lady Isabel Larnach — Sapphire and diamond horseshoe bracelet.
* General the Hon. R. Talbot and Mrs. Talbot — Holbein pendant and gold and pearl chain.
* Earl and Countess Brownlow — Sapphire and diamond buckle.
* The Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal — Blue enamel buckle.
* Lord and Lady Tweedmouth — Ruby and emerald pendant.
* Duke and Duchess of Marlborough — Ruby and diamond locket and chain.
* Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon — Diamond bow brooch.
* Lady Margaret Orr-Ewing — Turquoise and gold muff chain.
* Sir William and Lady Eden — Emerald and pearl bracelet.
* Duke and Duchess of Portland — Diamond and pearl brooch.
* Mr. C. D. Rose — Amethyst and gold chain.
* Count Koziebrodzki — Gold chain bracelet.
* Lord Willoughby de Eresby — Ruby and diamond bangle.
* Lady Maria Hood — Paste buttons.
* Sir Samuel and Lady Sophie Scott — Turquoise and diamond ring.
* Mr. and Hon. Mrs. Maguire — Hat pin.
* Earl and Countess of Scarborough — Brooch.
* Lady Brabourne—Brooch.
* Mr. and Mrs. Beaumont — Enamel brooch.
* Sir Ernest Cassel — Brooch.
* Mr. and Mrs. Wilfrid Ashley — Brooch.
* Countess Camilla Hoyos — Antique Viennese watch.
* Right Hon. George Wyndham — Emerald and diamond shamrock brooch.
* Lord and Lady Iveagh — Diamond and sapphire pendant.
* Sir Thomas and Lady Wrightson — Antique gold chatelaine.
* Earl Cadogan — Antique French box.
* Earl and Countess Cadogan — '''Antique table'''.
* Right Hon. St. John Brodrick — '''Bureau'''.
* Right Hon. Walter Long and Lady Doreen Long — Silver inkstand.
* Earl Mansfield — Silver bowl.
* Earl and Countess of Crewe — Emerald and diamond ornament.
* Sir Henry and Lady Drummond Wolff — Pair of antique silver vases.
* Lord and Lady Burton — Ormulu inkstand.
* Lord and Lady Annesley—Empire gold tea service.
* Duke and Duchess of Abercorn — Jade ornament.
* Marquis and Marchioness of Waterford — Silver coffee pot.
* Lady Savile and Miss Helyar — Pair silver sconces.
* Marquis and Marchioness of Lansdowne — Four silver candlesticks.
* Right Hon. James Lowther — Four silver candlesticks.
* Dr. Mahaffy — Silver gipsy kettle.
* Earl and Countess of Erne — Silver vase.
* Lord Rowton — Silver bowl.
* Marchioness of Headfort — Silver box.
* Lord George Scott — Six silver menu holders.
* Mr. and the Misses Parkin and Miss Bowser — Silver dish and spoon.
* The Lord Mayor of Belfast and Lady Dixon — Silver bread basket.
* Lord and Lady O’Neill — Silver fruit basket.
* Right Hon. Henry and Mrs. Asquith — Four silver salt cellars.
* Lady Susan Beresford — Silver tea strainer.
* Earl and Countess of Coventry — Pair of silver candlesticks.
* Duchess of Montrose — Silver mirror.
* Countess of Suffolk — Silver box.
* Sir Francis Mowatt — Four silver dishes.
* Mr. and Mrs. John Mulhall — Silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks.
* Miss Montgomerie — Two silver menu holders.
* Mr. and Mrs. John Hopper — Silver rose bowl.
* Mr. and Mrs. Hamerton — Silver mirror.
* Count Albert Mensdorff — Silver bonbonniere.
* Mrs. Boddy — Carved silver waistband.
* Mr. Robert Yeoman — Antique Venetian buttons.
* Prince and Princess Alexis Dolgorouki — Silver bowl.
* Earl and Countess of Carnarvon — Gilt inkstand.
* Miss Madeline Stanley — Silver bowl.
* Duke and Duchess of Sutherland — Two silver sauce boats.
* Mr. and Mrs. Eminson — Silver bridge box.
* Earl of Durham — '''Writing table'''.
* The Chancellor of the Exchequer — '''Fur rug'''.
* Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach — Green leather despatch box.
* Mr. Bathurst — '''Book''' on gardening.
* Lord and Lady Grey — Set of '''books''' — George III.
* Lord Errington — Silver box.
* Miss Chandos-Pole — Gold sugar castor.
* Lady Cynthia Graham — Old basket brooch.
* Mr. and Mrs. D. Cooper — Fan, with mother of pearl stick.
* General Stracey — Silver shoe.
* Miss Farquharson — Gold heart-shaped brooch.
* Captain Ponsonby — Riding whip (hippo).
* Lord and Lady Ribblesdale — Paste buckle.
* Mr. and Mrs. R. Houston — Two fire screens.
* Captain snd Mrs. Behrens — Mother of pearl and feather fan.
* Lord and Lady Burton — lnkstand, &amp;c.
* Lord and Lady Londesborough — '''Rosewood table''' and box.
* Mr. and Mrs. Dunville — '''Brown fur rug'''.
* Lady Selkirk — Tortoiseshell fan.
* Dowager Lady Scarborough — Two silver candlesticks.
* Lady Hindlip — Twelve silver knives.
* Mr. J. L. Wharton — Two silver vases.
* Mr. J. B. Houston — Mezzotint of Lord Castlereagh.
* Lord and Lady Annaly — Silver gilt tea service.
* Lord Kerry — Silver '''aneroid'''. 
* Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller — Two antique fans.
* Mr. Watson — Two silver frames.
* Mr. and Mrs. Oppenheim — Two gold boxes.
* Lady Mabel Crichton — Green leather blotter (Dreyfous).
* Mr. and Lady Sophia Montgomerie — Enamel plaques in frame.
* Mr. H. Fetherstonhaugh — Trivet and toasting fork.
* Mr. Spender Clay — White enamel buckle.
* The Moss Family — Two painted panels.
* Canon Tristram — '''Book''' on Japan. 
* Mr. Smalley — '''Jane Austen’s novels'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Lecky — Silver clothes brush.
* Sir Berkeley and Miss Sheffield — Blue cloth and white fur rug.
* Mr. Francis Jeune — '''Volumes of poetry'''. 
* Mr. Brinsly Marley — Gilt handglass.
* Lord and Lady William Cecil — '''Boswell’s Life of Johnson''' — 5 volumes. 
* Mrs. Boreham — Lace collar and cuffs.
* The Ladies Northcote — Prayer '''Book'''. 
* Mr. Coventry — Driving whip.
* Lord Cole — Cushion.
* Miss B. Houston — Gold penknife.
* Lady Garvagh — Seal.
* Colonel F. Rhodes — '''Electric clock'''. 
* Lady Leila Egerton — Crystal umbrella handle.
* Mr. V. Hussey-Walsh — Silver shoe.
* Miss Gooday — Painted China umbrella handle. [Col. 2c–3a]
* Lieutenant-Colonel O'Shaughnessy — Trefoil silver pincushion.
* Lady Antrim — Two &quot;Punch'’ '''books'''. 
* Lord and Lady Farquhar — Two stands and lamps.
* Major Wynne Finch — En tout case.
* Lord and Lady Cowper — China box.
* Mrs. Arthur James — '''Screen'''. 
* Captain and Lady Sarah Wilson — Two turquoise pins.
* Lady Fort — Silver and velvet pincushion.
* Lord and Lady Wenlock — '''Bellows'''. 
* Bishop of Rochester — '''Book'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Allhusen — '''Merriman's Novels'''. 
* Sir H. and Lady Meysey-Thompson — Dreyfous tray.
* The Misses Meysey-Thompson — Penholder.
* Duchess of Manchester — Seal.
* Mr. and Mrs. Ernest Villiers — Dresden China inkstand.
* Princess Henry of Pless — Cameo ornament.
* Lord and Lady Elcho — lnlaid wooden tray.
* Mr. and Mrs. M‘Neile — Blotter and paper case.
* Mr. and Mrs. Apperley — '''Card table'''. 
* Miss Dorothy Hood — Amethyst seal.
* Captain Hicks-Beach — Two silver frames.
* Lady Edith Ashley — Silver corkscrew and seal.
* Lady Mildred Allsopp — '''Screen'''. 
* Dr. M‘Kendrick — '''Twenty-five volumes poetry'''. 
* Dowager Lady Tweedmouth — Silver muffineers.
* Captain Brinton — '''Six volumes Rudyard Kipling'''. 
* Sir Francis and Lady Jeune — '''Screen'''. 
* Sir W. and Lady Harcourt — Enamel jar.
* Lady De Ramsey — Red leather blotter.
* Rev. Edgar Shepperd — Shooting stick.
* Mrs. M'Donald — '''Screen'''. 
* Mrs. A. Meysey-Thompson — Gold box.
* Lady Hamilton — '''lndian embroidery'''. 
* Miss Brassey — Gold frame.
* Lord and Lady Halsbury — '''Two books'''. 
* Mrs. and Miss Vernon — Fan.
* Sir Hedworth Williamson — Four scent bottles in gilt stand.
* Mr. and Miss Parkin — Silver dish and spoon.
* Lady Constance Butler — Enamel box.
* Mr. and Mrs. Meiklejohn — Tortoiseshell and gold card case.
* Mrs. Watkins — Sketch.
* Mrs. G. Fowler — Paste buckle.
* Mrs. Farquharson — Purse.
* Sir Daniel and Lady Dixon — Silver bread basket.
* Duchess of Devonshire — White sunshade.
* Mrs. Charrington — Gold chain purse.
* Masters Stirling — Silver box.
* Miss Winsonme Wharton — '''Book''' (Mme. Ricomier). 
* Lady Helen Vincent — '''Book''' (Bacon’s Essays). 
* Duchess of Roxburghe — Fire '''screen'''. 
* Mr. R. Lucas — '''Book'''. 
* Lord and Lady Bathurst — Enamelled box.
* Mrs. Maurice Glyn — '''Book tray and stand'''. 
* Lord and Lady Knutsford — '''Book'''. 
* Mrs. Battey — Frame.
* Lord Cairns — Gold and china box.
* Captain and Lady V. Villiers — Two crystal jugs.
* Lady Beatrice Meade — Four cups and saucers.
* Prince and Princess Bismarck — Three scent bottles.
* Lady Kilmorey — Lamp.
* Mr. Frank Chaplin — Sunshade.
* Mr. and Mrs. Graham Menzies — Silver box.
* Lady Mary Willoughby — '''Shelley's Poems'''. 
* Mr. and Lady Clodagh Anson — Silver box.
* Countess Isabelle Deym — Tortoiseshell and crystal umbrella top.
* Miss Sturmfels — '''Russian leather hymn-book'''. 
* The Duchess of Westminster — Tortoiseshell and lace fan.
* Miss Dorothy Wilson — Twelve shamrock buttons.
* Lord and Lady Minto — Lamp and shade.
* Mrs. G. Cornwallis West — Gold inkstand.
* Major and Mrs. M‘Kenzie — Twelve amethyst buttons.
* Lord and Lady Annesley — '''Bookslide and stand'''. 
* Lord and Lady Ancaster — '''Embroidered firescreen'''. 
* Lady Huntingdon — '''Book stand'''. 
* Lady Katherine Somerset — Work basket.
* Mr. De Pledge — Print of Lord Castlereagh.
* Major Arthur Doyle — Two carved pictures.
* Lady Parker and Captain Matthews — '''Book case'''. 
* Lord and Lady Barnard — '''Screen'''. 
* Sir Charles Cust — Enamel frame.
* Mr. James Mackenzie — Silver ornament.
* Miss Wrightson — Picture in frame.
* Mr. Ottley — '''Book (Browning)'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. W. James — '''Table'''. 
* Mr. Charles Pollen — Walking-stick.
* Miss Knatchbull Hugessen — '''Matthew Arnold’s Poems'''. 
* Miss B. and Miss W. Paget — Smelling salts bottle.
* Lord and Lady Duncannon — Frame.
* Mr. and Mrs. John Delacour — Gold trinket tray.
* Viscount Ridley — '''Enamel letter rack'''. 
* Miss Ridgeway — '''Carved wood table'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. George Gregson — Lace fan.
* Lady Inchiquin — Silver frame.
* The Bishop of Durham — '''Book'''. 
* General Albert Williams — '''Silver telegraph case'''. 
* Mr. Ward Cook — Silver inkstand.
* Rev. H. Boddy — '''Bible and Prayer Book'''. 
* Lady Helen Graham — '''Book, Tennyson'''. 
* Lady Charlotte Montgomery — Blotter.
* '''Mr. Edmund Gosse''' — '''Book'''. 
* The Hon. E. and the Hon. A. Cadogan — Silver bottle.
* Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor — '''Vitrine table'''. 
* Colonel Swaine — Gilt box.
* Mr. and Mrs. Hall-Walker — Two silver sugar casters.
* Captain and Mrs. Colin Keppell — '''Book'''. 
* Mrs. C. Vane-Tempest — White feather fan.
* Lady Sybil Gray — Enamel hatpin.
* Mr. Algernon Peel — lnlaid gold box.
* General and Miss Thesiger — Six tea knives.
* Lord and Lady Falmouth — Enamel box.
* Mr. Ruggles-Brise — '''Thirty-one volumes Carlyle’s works'''. 
* Lord and Lady Henry Nevill — '''Two safety pins'''. 
* Lady Muril Parsons — Silver box.
* The Misses Daisy and Aline and Master Wentworth Beaumont — '''Prayer Book'''. 
* Dr. and Mrs. Dillon — Beer glass.
* Mr. and Mrs. Pirrie — '''Writing cabinet'''. 
* Sir John Willoughby — Mirror.
* Sir F. and Lady Milner — Leather box.
* Lady Milton — Umbrella.
* Major Stracey Clitheroe — Driving whip.
* Mr. and Mrs. Webster — Silver mirror.
* Lord Hugh Cecil — Clock.
* Lord and Lady Enniskillen — Tortoiseshell umbrella handle.
* Rev. H. Martin and Mrs. Martin — Bible.
* Mrs. Seton—Six d’oyleys [sic].
* Dr. and Mrs. Blandford — Brown feather fan.
* Lord Crofton — '''MS. music book'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Jameson — Emerald hatpin.
* Misses Trefusis — Pair of vases.
* Mr. and Lady Evelyn Eyre — Pair of links.
* Mrs. Strong — Cushion.
* Duke and Duchess of Teck — Silver salver.
* Lord Crichton — Tortoiseshell box.
* Captain and Mrs. Greville — Sunshade.
* Mrs. Huhn — '''German album'''. 
* Mrs. and Miss Falconer — '''Tennyson (six volumes)'''. 
* Lady Wilton and Mr. Prior — Gold and turquoise pen, pencil, &amp;c.
* Miss Meerworth — '''German book'''. 
* Miss Curzon — '''Birthday book'''. 
* Messrs. Rothschild — Tortoiseshell paper knife.
* Mr. Herbert Praed — Four gold ornaments.
* Lady Beatrix Taylour — '''Two volumes poetry'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Brown — '''Book, Keble's poems'''. 
* Mr. Robert Vyner — Topaz hatpins.
* Archdeacon and Mrs. Long — Painting.
* Mr. Wright — Silver and glass bowl.
* Mr. and Mrs. Corbett — Silver mirror.
* Duke of Roxburghe — '''Fur rug'''. 
* Mrs. Sowler — Satin satchet.
* Colonel and Mrs. Ropner — Two scent bottles in silver case.
* Dr. and Mrs. Jackson — Picture.
* The Misses Warham — Table cover.
* Mrs. Van Raalte — Ornament.
* Lady Magheramorne — Crystal bowl.
* Lord and Lady Chesham — '''Bookstand'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Fitzgerald — China punchbowl.
* Mrs. Meiklejohn — Gold penholder.
* Miss Gibson — Green and silver blotter.
* Lord and Lady O'Brien—Lace fan. [Col. 3c–4a]
* The Misses O'Brien — Lace handkerchief.
* Baron Heyking — Hatpin.
* Mrs. Bone — Silver ornament.
* Miss Dale-Copeland — '''Book'''. 
* Mr. C. P. Little — '''Screen'''. 
* Mr. Thomas Egerton — Two silver ornaments.
* Miss Gully — '''Book'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Sim — '''Gong'''. 
* Sir G. and Lady Murray — Brown Ieather bag.
* Lord Rosebery — Shagreen and silver box.
* Mr. and Miss Brownlow — Round silver mirror.
* Duke and Duchess of Somerset — Embroidered box.
* Mr. and Mrs. Brydon — Gilt candlesticks.
* Sir E. and Lady Carson — Silver mirror.
* Miss Carson — Silver manicure set.
* Mr. Barry — Silver calendar.
* Lady Limerick — Silver and glass box.
* Lady Marjorie Wilson — Grey bag.
* Miss Buddy — Silver thermometer.
* Captain Fortescue — Fan.
* Miss Cockerell — Antique box.
* Sir Andrew and Lady Reid — Silver box.
* Mr. Arthur Portman — Oxidised inkstand.
* Lady Mar and Kellie — Gold box.
* Lord Hyde and Lady E. Villiers — '''Three turquoise safety pins'''. 
* Miss Freda Villiers — Enamel box.
* Lady Galway and Miss Monckton — Round tortoiseshell box.
* Mr. Reade — '''Book'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Sinclair — Fan.
* Lord and Lady Hopetoun — Diamond kangaroo.
* Captain and Mrs. Greer — Seal.
* Sir John and Lady Milbanke — Photo frame.
* Mrs. Claud Lambton — Tortoiseshell and silver box.
* Mr. and Lady Getrude Langford — Photo frame.
* Sir William and Lady Carrington — Crystal and gold box.
* Mr. Guy Rennie — Gold Penholder (with stones).
* Sir Howard and Lady Vincent — '''Silver Prayer Book'''. 
* Lady Constance Hatch — Crystal and turquoise penholder.
* Dowager Lady Howe — Silver basket.
* Colonel and Mrs. Crawford — Box.
* Lord Dufferin — '''Book (18th Century)'''. 
* Mr. Olphert — Two silver mice.
* Mr. Stone and Miss Stone — Silver rose bowl.
* Mrs. Dudley Field — Gold scent bottle.
* Lady Naylor-Leyland — Purse.
* Sir James Montgomery — Silver and tortoiseshell mirror.
* Mr. Sampson Walters — Silver frame.
* Lord and Lady Clonbrock — China box.
* Mrs. Arthur Pakenham — '''Electric lamp'''. 
* Duke and Duchess of Newcastle — '''Work table'''. 
* Dowager Lady Esher — Fan.
* Lord and Lady Arthur Hill — Case and four scent bottles.
* Major Edward Beaumont — Umbrella.
* Misses Vivian — Enamelled box.
* Hon. Mrs. Oliphant — '''Paper case and book'''. 
* Mr. Ivor Guest — Seal.
* The Countess of Ravensworth — Diamond hairpin.
* The Hon. T. and Mrs. Dundas — Ornament.
* Mr. and Mrs. John Dunville — Driving whip.
* [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs. Algernon Bourke]] — Box. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Harris — '''Four volumes of Shakespeare'''. 
* Mr. Harold Brassey — Old silver box.
* Mr. and Mrs. Hohler — '''Screen'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Ord — Silver teapot, cream and sugar basin.
* Lord and Lady Pirbright — Silver cup and saucer.
* Lady Arran and Miss Stopford — Seal.
* Sir R. and Lady B. Pole-Carew — Paper case and blotter.
* Mr. and Mrs. Young — Silver blotter.
* Mrs. Percy Mitford — Silver photo frame.
* Colonel and Mrs. M'Calmont — Lace scarf.
* Mr. and Mrs. T. J. Andrews — Silver paper knife.
* Mr. and Mrs. Goldsmith — Two lace handkerchiefs.
* Sir Henry Ewart — Driving whip.
* Mr. and Mrs. T. Brough — Mirror.
* Mr. James Knowles — '''Jane Austen’s works — 6 volumes'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. Robinson — '''Book'''. 
* Sir F. Dixon-Hartland — Silver waist belt.
* Mr. Leonard — '''Brassey table'''. 
* Mr. and Mrs. F. Wrench — Silver jug.
* Major Little — Green leather bag.
* '''Mr. Thomas Hardy''' — '''Book'''. 
* Sir Edward Hamilton — Silver basket.
* Lady Anne Lambton — '''Fire screen'''. 
* Lord and Lady de Ros — '''d'Oyleys''' [sic]. 
* Lady Lilian Wemyss — Box.
* Miss Cadogan — Silver stamp case.
* Dowager Lady Rosslyn — '''Shagreen''' box. 
* Lady Annable Milnes — Paper box.
* Sir Donald Wallace — Writing case.
* Mr. and Mrs. C. Chaplin — '''Two books'''. 
* Lady Aberdeen — Tray.
* Lord and Lady Downshire — lnkstand.
* Lord and Lady Boyne — Fan.
* '''H. E. The Portuguese Minister''' — lnkstand. 
* Mrs. Laverton — Two silver photo frames.
* Mr. and Mrs. William West — Gold ring box.
* Mr. Hope Hawkins — '''Books'''. 
* Hon. and Mrs. Eric North — Box.
* Mr. and Mrs. J. B. Leigh — '''Screen'''.
* Sir James and Lady Miller — Silver urn.
* Lord and Lady Ashbourne — Three silver sugar casters.
* Mr. Hugh Owen — Parasol top.
* Colonel and Mrs. Fludyer — Scent bottle.
* Lady Doxford — Two China vases.
* Lady Emma Talbot — Seal.
* Lady Florence Astley — '''Book'''.
* Mrs. Charlton Lane — Copper jug.
* Lord and Lad Yarborough — Clock.
* Miss Gurwood —Two China vases.
* Miss Murray — '''Book'''.
* Mr. and Mrs. Bampfylde — Gold scent bottles.
* Mr. and Mrs. Jarvis — Mother of pearl box.
* Lord and Lady Alice Stanley — '''Writing table'''.
* Lord and Lady Templetown — Two silver candlesticks.
* Lord and Lady Westmoreland — Six tea knives.
* Lord and Lady Robert Cecil — Butter knife.
* Dowager Lady Airlie — Gold tray.
* Dowager Lady Annaly — Address book.
* Mr. and Mrs. F. Lambton — Green bag.
* M. and Male. Dominguez — '''Fur rug'''.
* Mr. and Mrs. Bourchier —Silver box.
* Mr. and Mrs. Warham — Lace and mother of pearl fan.
* Lord and Lady Penrhyn — Enamel bracelet.
* Captain H. Lambton — Enamel brooch.
* Lady De L'lsle — Card case.
* Mr. and Mrs. Dance — Silver calendar.
* Lady B. Herbert — Silver box.
* Lord and Lady Henry Fitzgerald — Silver buttons, [sic]
* Lord and Lady Selborne and Lord and Lady Cranborne — '''Corner cupboard'''.
* Lord Ingestre — Green jewel case.
* Mr. Vere Chaplin — Blue blotter.
* Captain Markham — Leather bridge box.
* Mr. and Mrs. W. Ridley — Jay feather fan.
* Mr. and Mrs. C. Hunter — Links.
* Mr. and Mrs. Atkinson Clarke — China box.
* Captain and Mrs. Fowler — Antique fan.
* Dowager Lady Ampthill — Clock.
* Mr. and Mrs. Hopkins ——
* Sir R. and Lady Graham — '''Silver shoe'''.
* Major Mackenzie — Whist markers.
* Mr. Mclntyre — Two silver and glass bonbonnieres.
* Miss Russell — White satin cushion.
* Miss Green — White scarf.
* Mr. and Mrs. Vane-Tempest — Bangle.
* Mr. and Lady Isobel Hardy, and Mr. Stanley — '''Karosse''' [sic].
* Mr. and Mrs. R. Gerard —Twelve spoons.
* Mr. Clarence Wilson — Embroidered silk cloth.
* Dr. Maclagan — Silver box.
* Lady Bradford — Four glass vases.
* Mr. Rupert Guinness — '''Table'''.
* Lady Ashburton — '''Book'''.
* Duchess of Bedford — Frame in case.
* Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot — Two scent bottles.
* Mr. H. Milner — '''Book'''.
* Mr. James Gray — Clock.
* Lord Herbert — Tortoiseshell inkstand.
* Mr. Rabone — '''Table'''.
* Mrs. Alston — Walking stick.
* Lord and Lady Howe — Silver bowl. [Col. 4c–5a]
* Lady Norreys—'''Table'''.
* Lord and Lady Hamilton — Gilt mirror.
* Miss Ord — Two sketches.
* Lord and Lady Gerard — '''Diamond sword'''.
* Lady G. Little—Gilt letter-case.
* General and Mrs. Godfrey Clark — Spray with gilt top.
* Mrs. Blizzard — White embroidered cloth.
* Mrs. Craigie — '''Book'''.
* Mr. and Lady Victoria Grenfell — Glass and silver tray.
* Mr. and Lady F. Sturt — '''Two tables'''.
* Mr. Hope — Tea basket.
* Lady Emma Crichton —Silver pepper pot.
* Major Murrough O'Brien — Silver pen tray.
* General and Mrs. Montgomery — Green blotter and paper case.
* Mr. W. H. Grenfell — Green letter case.
* Mr. F. Curzon — Large green blotter.
* Mr. Venning——
* Mr. and Mrs. Richardson — Coffee cups and saucers and spoons.
* Misses Griffiths — Carved oak tray.
* Lord and ladg North——
* Miss Smith — Silver shoehorn and buttonhook.
* Lord and Lady Derby — Necklace and pearl drop.
* Right Hon. C. J. Rhodes — Turquoise and diamond necklace.
* Lady Isabella Wilson — Silver box.
* Mrs. Corry — Frame.
* Lord and Lady St. Oswald — '''Two tables'''.
* Mr. R. Gillart — Mirror.
* Rev. J. G. Nash — Gold pen.
* Mr. A. Strong — '''Book'''.
* Lord and Lady Shaftesbury — Enamel card case.
* Colonel Duncombe — Paperknife and bookmarker.
* Lady Sherborne — China box.
* Lord and Lady Wolverton — Ruby and diamond ring.
* Mrs. Hartmann — Tortoiseshell paperknife.
* Viscount and Viscountess Wolseley — Two china elephants.
* Lord and Lady Essex — Fan.
* Mr. McDonnell — Cigarette case.
* Mr. and Mrs. Clinton Dawkins — Buttons.
* Miss Reynardson — Writing block.
* Colonel Forster — Umbrella.
* Lord and Lady Dudley — Dessert service.
* Mrs. Cockerell — Fan.
* Mrs. Gramshaw — Cushion.
* Miss Muriel White — Grey bag.
* Mrs. Parker — Carved ivory box.
* Admiral and Mrs. Carpenter — Old silver box.
* Miss Alexander — Silver box.
* Sir Bache and Lady Cunard — Silver vase.
* Lord and Lady Binning — '''Vitrine'''.
* Sir M. Fitzgerald — Whip.
* Sir Edgar Vincent—Diamond necklet. Colonel Chaudos Pole—Silver sugar sifter. Mrs. Murray Guthrie—Crystal penholder. : s IRight I;on. Joseph and Mrs. Chamberlainilver coffee pot. Mrs. Gmn[:l)l—Bnttom. Mrs. Arthur Paget—Jewel box. Lady Grosvenor—Silver cigarette box. E[ﬁlg F :lvenha.m——S‘iJNr basket, and Countess Wargrave—Crystal jar, Lord and Lad{‘Cmden-Vitrin‘. Mr. and Mrs. Wharton—Paper knife. Mr. Ker—Two crystal bowls. B:‘.lmd Mrs. Hi:((l}—Whip. S Ellesmere stal pen seal. | Sir ;‘.lix and Lady amou-Addn- book. | Mrs. Arthur Henniker—Books, Mr. and Miss Weir—Silver potato bowl. Captain and L dy Edith Trotter—Card case. Mrs. Chaine—Enamel frame. Lady Jane Levett—Six tea kn ves. Lady Maud Warrender—Glass jar with gold brnrd Huntingfield—Umbrella. Mr. and Mrs, Carlisle—Silver box. Mr. and Mrs. R. Nm—&amp;lm milk jug. Dowager Lady Lonsddle—Worcester china jug. Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Hay—Silver frame. Mr. and Mrs. F. Bibby—Six buttons. Duchess of Weuminmr—Dnglm tray. Lord and Lady Llangattock—Silver vase. Mr. and Mrs. Aap!oby—'l‘u set. Lord and Lady Gosford—Crystal workcase. Lady Alwyne Compton—Antique fan. Mrs. Kerr—Card case. Sirl Francis and Lady Knollys—Life of Napoleon I. Mr. énd Mrs. R. Spencer—Five vols. Spenser's Poems. Mrs. Spence—Stamp box. Mr. Borthwick—Enamel vinaigette. Mr. Wiener—Tea set. Dr. and Mrs. Davies— Rev. James Colling—Silver salver, Earl and Countess of Eglinton—Two large pelm vases. Miss Nellie Lu-nch—nxf. Lady Helen Forbes— .

- PRESENTS TO THE BRIDEGROOM, The bride—Pearl and diamond solitaire stud and gold cigarette case. The Earl of Ilchester—Brougham. The Marquis of mmnm guns. Viscount Castlereagh— Li case. Lady Maria Hood—Chippendale bureau. Tenants at Melbury—Dutch n-mh bureau, Tensnts at Dorchester—Silver and ad- Tenants on the Redlynch Estate—Silver bowl and address. Tenants at Abho‘m—-eilvu basket. Servants at H House, Melbury, and Abbotsbary—Silver inkstand. mbkmﬂl at Melbury—Pair of silver candlesticks. Garden employees at Holland House—Silvermounted blotting book. -lEmployn- on the Melbury Estate—Silver ver. Emﬂoynu on Redlynch Estate—Four silver S enapte st Plaitford Wilts—Silver box s , Wi ver box. lmrico Hood—Letter rack. Gapain 3. Ponscabye- Hitso. hide r J. Ponsonby— Hippo. cane. Hon. E. Fitzgerald—lnkstand. Lord Villiers—Two silver sweetmeat dishes, Commander Hon. G. Digby—Snuff box. Mr. and lad; Sybil Smith—Paper knife. Mr. Baird—Four antique silver salt cellars. Mr. and Mrs. Dawkins—Two newspaper stands. Dr. and Mrs. Williamson—Gold I-Jl-ldl case. Mr. and Mrs. Kmoel-l’lm ver box. Lord and Lady Digby— and gilt clock. Lord Beaucham ix silver-mounted wine corks. Mr. Hope Vere—Four glass decanters. Mrs. and Miss Magnac—Revolving book table. Lord Elphinstone—Silver lighter. Mr. and Mrs. Hanbury—Silver loving bowl. Lord and Lady Lansdowne—Two candlesticks. Lord nmnon-—[.? silver bowl. Captain and Lady E. Dawson and Mr. and Mrs. Dawson—Two silver salvers. Mr. and Mrs. A. Sassoon—Silver inkstand. Miss B{Nl Hood--Case of tea knives. Lord Shrewsbury—Luncheon case. Miss Roche—Book (Josephine Impl.). Mr, Rice—Telegraph book. Lady Edith and Lady Mary Dawson—Breakfast service, Major Wynne Finch—Dutch silver box. i . snd Ldy Bt e Bir A. and Lady Book (Prince Charles Edward). Mr. :::l. Mrs. Sackville West—Twelve Crown Derby rt 3 Sir H. and l&amp;l“l‘;.l‘ring—mlm gilt ash tray. Lord and Lady Savile—Cigar case. Mr. Maurice Glyn—Six tea knives. Colonel aud Lady E. Digby—Twosilver candle_ Major and Mrs. Clayton—Glass and ormulu jar, _ Lord and Lady Baring—Two glass and silver ,‘ﬁh- Maclagan—lnk bottle. Hon. A. Meade—Claret jug. - Arnold Morley—Barograph. | Mlkn. Hope-Vere—Blotting book and paper |’ {nrd sndl%l:ly Yl-l)'lb:mh—&amp;n links., Viscount Ridley— and spoon, Mr. Gibh-—-wzitwon bnw;’::. Hon. Cecil Brownlow—Blotting book., Colonel Jerycise—Silver basin, 3. i'n‘ Mrs. A. Wilson—Walnut seat. Mr. Clarence Wilson—Green u' Mr. and Mrs. K. Wilson—Book slide. Lady Aberdeen—Nest and ?- n Mr. and Mrs. F. Sassoon—Watch in case, Hon. Thomas Egerton—Umbrella. Mr. Gillett—Cake knife. Lady Clanwilliam—Gold pencil. Mr. and Mrs. L. de Rothschild—Bleeve links, hl'nd and Lady Breadalbane—Deersfoot match- Mrs. Bischoffsheim—Silver box. Mr. and Mrs. H. Cook—Two salt cellars and casters, m Markham 811 a‘;‘&amp;“{&amp;‘ ver h%ot Hon. E. St. Aubyn—Silver-mounted Mr. R. Dawson—SBilver tankard. Mr. and Mrs. A. Dawson—Fruit dish and &quot; eppe-_Chins ek ikt o ina can Misses M. and N. Dawson—Card table, Mr. Bradley Martin, jun.—Silver inkstand, Rev. R. Bo{-ru—(}hu ink bottle. Mr. R. Charteris—Automatic stamp box. ey e ] on. b — . Mr, G. Lane Fox—Silmnqudled umbrella, Mr. and Mrs. Bradley Martin—Gold cigarette case. Mr. W. Burns—O)d silver cup. Lord Dum:-—'l‘urqnoinwd diamond pin, Mr. and N Emn—l’bot@hmo. il ol Loks GOOB raven ver cigarette box, Messrs. G. -ns L. Digby—Glass paper rack. g.ou. Ml’;I Rsmuyp— &amp;;ng glass. n Heneage— . l(rp'l‘il Harris—Silver candlesticks, Mr. and Mrs. Dudleil:igh—silvar corkscrew, ; Mr. and Mrs. G. Jjoribanks—Champagne ui!on. E. and Mrs. Stonor—Writing desk. Lord Cecil Manners—Ash tray. Lord and Lad Dn.rtu{)—-Smsu plate chest. Colonel V. uu( Colonel D. Dawson—Coldstream star pin. Dol;rqer Lady Ashburton and Miss Baring— Silver salver, Mr. and Mrs. Wells—Books (Shakespeare). Dowager Lady Tweedmouth—Sixsilver liqueur ’ Captain and Mrs. Amory—Liquer stand. Mrs. F. Wombwell—Four dessert spoons, Mr. H. Milner—Walking stick. Mrs. Sheridan—Two silver candlesticks. Mr. M. Drummond-—Six menu holders, Mr. and Mrs. Atkinson Clarke—Silver cigarette case. Lady Clandeboye—Letter weight. Lady Carnarvon—Cigarette case. Mr. Levita—Silver box. Mrs. Macdonald—Silver cigarette box, diamond and ruby pin, Major M‘Ad’nm—Woodoock pin. Lord Hamilton of Dalzel—Silver inkstand. Rev. R. B. and Mrs. Roe—Two silver menu holders. bo:(kr' Maurice Egerton—Tortoiseshell blotting | (l}: C. Gru(:}t—ogilver ﬂrmu l)o‘x‘;l ptain G. Crichton—Asparagus . Mr. W. M‘Ewan —Silver salver. - Mr. Gervase Beckett—Four bottle stands. Captain Hon. Guy Baring—Silver inkstand.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Lady Helen Stewart.&quot; ''Londonderry Standard'' 27 January 1902, Monday: 8 [of 8], Col. 1a–6b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005986/19020127/161/0008. Print title: ''The Derry Standard'', p. 8.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Notes and Questions ==
# 

==References==
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="4311" sha1="m3fn9uup24x0ask67zo59xfgysga1eo" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
! style=&quot;background-color:#e0f7fa; color:#006064; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; font-weight:bold; padding:25px;&quot; | allostasissy:studio
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | (sis)
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | {sissy}
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | [allostasis]
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | &lt;allostasissy&gt;
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | (sis)
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | https://www.washingtoncountyor.gov/
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | B1
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | C1
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | D1
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | {sissy}
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | A2
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | B2
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | C2
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | D2
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | [allostasis]
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | A3
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | B3
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allostasis
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | D3
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | &lt;allostasissy&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | A4
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | B4
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | C4
| style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allostatic_load
|-
| style=&quot;background-color:pink; color:#006064; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; font-weight:bold; padding:15px;&quot; | allostasissy:studio
| style=&quot;background-color:pink; color:#006064; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; font-weight:bold; padding:15px;&quot; | allostasissy:studio
| style=&quot;background-color:pink; color:#006064; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; font-weight:bold; padding:15px;&quot; | allostasissy:studio
| style=&quot;background-color:pink; color:#006064; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; font-weight:bold; padding:15px;&quot; | allostasissy:studio
| style=&quot;background-color:pink; color:#006064; text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; font-weight:bold; padding:15px;&quot; | allostasissy:studio
|}
[[File:Allostatic load sketch.svg|thumb|center|1111px|Allostatic load concept diagram]]
[[File:Allostatic load sketch.svg|thumb|center|300px|Allostatic load concept diagram]]

''Image: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allostatic_load_sketch.svg Allostatic load sketch] by [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Roberto_Ferrazzano Roberto Ferrazzano], licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC BY-SA 4.0].''

A &quot;lively polka&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Lyrics for Michael Finnegan&lt;br&gt;
There was an old man named Michael Finnegan&lt;br&gt;
He had whiskers on his chinnegan&lt;br&gt;
The wind came along and blew them in again&lt;br&gt;
Poor old Michael Finnegan&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;begin again!&lt;br&gt;
There was an old man named Michael Finnegan&lt;br&gt;
He went fishing with a pin again&lt;br&gt;
Caught a fish but it flopped back in again&lt;br&gt;
Poor old Michael Finnegan&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;begin again!&lt;br&gt;
There was an old man named Michael Finnegan&lt;br&gt;
He ran a race and tried to win again&lt;br&gt;
He fell down and bumped his shin again&lt;br&gt;
Poor old Michael Finnegan&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;begin again!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Once again, it's time to start over.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
But this is the first time I've done so knowing what to do next!&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allostasis&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allostatic_load&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Having grown up in the church of the Nazarene, we are imbued with the concept of &quot;trinity&quot;. At 25 after many years of miscarriages and other infertility issues, I gave birth to triplets that incredible summer of 2001.&lt;br&gt; The little girl who I watched on the playground at church since diapers was named Trinity and she was killed with two of her friends by a man named Juan Rodriguez who had been drinking and driving. My world revolves around threes for no reason except that I am me.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
This educational journey can't be extracted from me, the human whose story I get to tell.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
There are more good things to remember than bad, but the bad, just like errors in code, tell us what to do next. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
My Ecclesiastical approach to allostatic regulation is encoded here and attributed to the creative commons: https://github.com/allostasissy/seaOfNought.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
And like most academics, I like working into tables so this is where I will start:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;


venmo - paypal - tiktok - youtube - discord</text>
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== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark.
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings.
* The tension between predestination (''Taqdir'') and moral accountability.
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator.

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

'''Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'''''  This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

'''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''  Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

'''Humayun Azad, ''Amar Obisshash'''''  Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

'''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''  Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

'''Aroj Ali Matubbar, ''Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''''  Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

'''Salman Rushdie, ''The Satanic Verses'''''  Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

=== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ===

# How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
# What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
# How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
# What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

=== Licensing ===
''This essay is licensed under [[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)]].''</text>
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== About this resource ==
This essay is part of an open educational project on '''Freedom of Thought, Critical Inquiry, and Personal Narratives'''. It is intended to serve as a reflective resource to encourage discussion and critical thinking about belief, unbelief, human rights, and personal freedom. Learners and educators may use this essay as a starting point for exploring broader issues related to freedom of expression, secularism, and human rights education.

== Related learning project ==
This resource contributes to the [[Freedom of Thought and Expression Project]] on Wikiversity, which collects essays, discussions, and learning materials that explore issues of belief, unbelief, freedom, and human rights.

== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark.
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings.
* The tension between predestination (''Taqdir'') and moral accountability.
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator.

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

'''Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'''''  This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

'''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''  Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

'''Humayun Azad, ''Amar Obisshash'''''  Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

'''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''  Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

'''Aroj Ali Matubbar, ''Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''''  Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

'''Salman Rushdie, ''The Satanic Verses'''''  Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

=== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ===

# How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
# What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
# How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
# What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

=== Licensing ===
''This essay is licensed under [[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)]].''

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== About this resource ==
This essay is part of an open educational project on '''Freedom of Thought, Critical Inquiry, and Personal Narratives'''. It is intended to serve as a reflective resource to encourage discussion and critical thinking about belief, unbelief, human rights, and personal freedom. Learners and educators may use this essay as a starting point for exploring broader issues related to freedom of expression, secularism, and human rights education.

== Related learning project ==
This resource contributes to the [[Freedom of Thought and Expression Project]] on Wikiversity, which collects essays, discussions, and learning materials that explore issues of belief, unbelief, freedom, and human rights.

== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark.
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings.
* The tension between predestination (''Taqdir'') and moral accountability.
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator.

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

'''Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'''''  This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

'''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''  Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

'''Humayun Azad, ''Amar Obisshash'''''  Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

'''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''  Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

'''Aroj Ali Matubbar, ''Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''''  Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

'''Salman Rushdie, ''The Satanic Verses'''''  Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

=== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ===

# How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
# What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
# How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
# What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

=== Licensing ===
''This essay is licensed under [[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)]].''

&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Category:Freedom of thought]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Category:Human rights education]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Category:Critical thinking]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Category:Personal reflections]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
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== Freedom of Thought and Expression Project ==
The '''Freedom of Thought and Expression Project''' is an open educational initiative on Wikiversity. It collects essays, discussions, learning materials, and personal narratives that explore issues related to belief, unbelief, free thought, secularism, and human rights.

The project encourages learners to reflect on how freedom of thought and expression shape personal development and society. Participants are invited to contribute essays, questions, and educational resources on these themes.

== Learning materials and resources ==

* [[When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief]] — a personal reflection and educational essay by Nafis Sadique Shatil

== About this resource ==
This essay is part of the Freedom of Thought and Expression Project. It is intended to serve as a reflective resource to encourage discussion and critical thinking about belief, unbelief, human rights, and personal freedom. Learners and educators may use this essay as a starting point for exploring broader issues related to freedom of expression, secularism, and human rights education.

== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings
* The tension between predestination (Taqdir) and moral accountability
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

* '''Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion'''

This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

* '''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''

Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

* '''Humayun Azad, Amar Obisshash'''

Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

* '''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''

Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

* '''Aroj Ali Matubbar, Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''

Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

* '''Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses'''

Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ==

* How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
* What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
* How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
* What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

== Licensing ==
This essay is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0).</text>
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{{learning project resource}}

== Freedom of Thought and Expression Project ==
The '''Freedom of Thought and Expression Project''' is an open educational initiative on Wikiversity. It collects essays, discussions, learning materials, and personal narratives that explore issues related to belief, unbelief, free thought, secularism, and human rights.

The project encourages learners to reflect on how freedom of thought and expression shape personal development and society. Participants are invited to contribute essays, questions, and educational resources on these themes.

== Learning materials and resources ==

* [[When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief]] — a personal reflection and educational essay by Nafis Sadique Shatil

== About this resource ==
This essay is part of the Freedom of Thought and Expression Project. It is intended to serve as a reflective resource to encourage discussion and critical thinking about belief, unbelief, human rights, and personal freedom. Learners and educators may use this essay as a starting point for exploring broader issues related to freedom of expression, secularism, and human rights education.

== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings
* The tension between predestination (Taqdir) and moral accountability
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

* '''Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion'''

This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

* '''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''

Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

* '''Humayun Azad, Amar Obisshash'''

Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

* '''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''

Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

* '''Aroj Ali Matubbar, Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''

Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

* '''Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses'''

Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ==

* How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
* What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
* How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
* What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

== Licensing ==
This essay is licensed under &lt;nowiki&gt;[[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
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== Freedom of Thought and Expression Project ==
The [[Freedom of Thought and Expression Project]] is an open educational initiative on Wikiversity. It collects essays, discussions, learning materials, and personal narratives that explore issues related to belief, unbelief, freethought, secularism, and human rights.

The project encourages learners to reflect on how freedom of thought and expression shape personal development and society. Participants are invited to contribute essays, questions, and educational resources on these themes.

== Learning materials and resources ==

* [[When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief]] — A personal reflection and educational essay by '''Nafis Sadique Shatil'''

== About this resource ==
This essay is part of the [[Freedom of Thought and Expression Project]]. It is intended to serve as a reflective resource to encourage discussion and critical thinking about belief, unbelief, human rights, and personal freedom. Learners and educators may use this essay as a starting point for exploring broader issues related to freedom of expression, secularism, and human rights education.

== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings
* The tension between predestination (''Taqdir'') and moral accountability
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

'''Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'''''  This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

'''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''  Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

'''Humayun Azad, ''Amar Obisshash'''''  Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

'''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''  Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

'''Aroj Ali Matubbar, ''Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''''  Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

'''Salman Rushdie, ''The Satanic Verses'''''  Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

=== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ===

# How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
# What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
# How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
# What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

== Licensing ==
''This page is released under the [[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-SA 4.0)]].''</text>
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This essay is part of the [[Freedom of Thought and Expression Project]].

== Learning materials and resources ==

* [[When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief]] — A personal reflection and educational essay by '''Nafis Sadique Shatil'''

== About this resource ==
This essay is part of the [[Freedom of Thought and Expression Project]]. It is intended to serve as a reflective resource to encourage discussion and critical thinking about belief, unbelief, human rights, and personal freedom. Learners and educators may use this essay as a starting point for exploring broader issues related to freedom of expression, secularism, and human rights education.

== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings
* The tension between predestination (''Taqdir'') and moral accountability
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

'''Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'''''  This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

'''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''  Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

'''Humayun Azad, ''Amar Obisshash'''''  Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

'''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''  Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

'''Aroj Ali Matubbar, ''Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''''  Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

'''Salman Rushdie, ''The Satanic Verses'''''  Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

=== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ===

# How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
# What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
# How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
# What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

== Licensing ==
''This page is released under the [[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-SA 4.0)]].''</text>
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== About this resource ==
This essay is part of the [[Freedom of Thought and Expression Project]]. It is intended to serve as a reflective resource to encourage discussion and critical thinking about belief, unbelief, human rights, and personal freedom. Learners and educators may use this essay as a starting point for exploring broader issues related to freedom of expression, secularism, and human rights education.

== When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief ==
''A personal reflection by Nafis Sadique Shatil''

=== Introduction ===
Since childhood, I have been filled with relentless curiosity. I wasn’t seeking rebellion — I simply wanted to understand the world around me. But in the environment where I grew up, asking certain questions was often discouraged, especially those concerning religion.

This essay reflects on my personal journey toward freethought — a path shaped by doubt, books, and the bravery of thinkers before me. My goal is not to convert or confront, but to offer insight for anyone navigating similar questions.

=== The Questions That Would Not Rest ===
My earliest confusions began with the concept of the sky. Science taught me that what we call “sky” is an optical illusion caused by the scattering of light in Earth’s atmosphere — not a physical structure. Yet religious texts described Allah residing above seven heavens. If the sky itself is not a tangible entity, what then are these seven heavens?

Another early question involved the story that humans were created from clay. The complexity of the human body — its diverse organs and systems — seemed incompatible with the idea of a single, simple material origin.

Answers were rarely satisfying. More often, they were deferred or discouraged.

=== Confronting Fear and Logic ===
In fifth grade, I received a book titled ''Punishment in the Grave After Death'', filled with frightening descriptions of post-mortem torments. One passage claimed that the grave's walls would crush the body so completely that every bone would break. Yet archaeologists and medical students routinely recover intact skeletons. How could both be true?

The book also described two angels who would interrogate the dead. I wondered: if an all-knowing deity already knows a person's moral state, why test them with questions after death? Would not such a test be redundant?

As I grew older, more inconsistencies emerged:

* The implausibility of fitting every species onto Noah’s Ark
* The challenges posed by the idea of jinns as literal beings
* The tension between predestination (''Taqdir'') and moral accountability
* The question of why multiple, conflicting religions exist if there is one creator

=== The Books That Transformed My Thinking ===
Rather than silencing these doubts, I pursued them — through science, philosophy, and literature.

'''Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'''''  This book marked a turning point. Dawkins exposed the inconsistencies and unfounded assumptions within many religious systems, replacing blind faith with a reverence for science and reason.

'''Bertrand Russell and the Teapot'''  Russell’s analogy — the famous teapot orbiting the sun — clarified the principle that the burden of proof lies on the claimant. This profoundly shaped my approach to evaluating religious claims.

'''Humayun Azad, ''Amar Obisshash'''''  Azad’s fearless questioning resonated deeply. His courage to challenge deeply ingrained beliefs, especially within my own Bangladeshi culture, was both inspiring and validating.

'''Avijit Roy’s Writings'''  Books like ''Bishwasher Virus'' and ''Obishwasher Dorshon'' revealed not only the flaws of religious dogma but also the dangers of uncritical belief. Roy’s tragic murder underscored the high stakes of defending reason and free inquiry.

'''Aroj Ali Matubbar, ''Shoytaner Jobanbondi'''''  Matubbar’s accessible, common-sense critiques showed me that one does not need formal credentials to ask meaningful questions about religion and society.

'''Salman Rushdie, ''The Satanic Verses'''''  Learning about the fatwa against Rushdie taught me a critical lesson: a belief system that fears a novel is fundamentally fragile. His resilience inspired me to value free expression even more.

=== Conclusion: Toward Freethought ===
Today, I no longer identify as a believer, but as a freethinker. My skepticism arose not from arrogance but from honest inquiry. It was shaped by books, thinkers, and a refusal to accept unsatisfying answers.

To anyone questioning their beliefs: know that you are not alone. Asking questions is an act of courage, and seeking truth is a lifelong journey.

If you have your own story, share it — even anonymously if needed. Let us continue to question, learn, and speak.

=== Suggested Discussion Questions for Learners ===

# How do cultural and religious environments influence our willingness to question?
# What is the role of books and literature in shaping personal beliefs?
# How can we foster environments where questioning is encouraged rather than silenced?
# What ethical considerations arise when publicly challenging religious ideas?

== Licensing ==
''This page is released under the [[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-SA 4.0)]].''</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot; == Freedom of Thought and Expression Project == The '''Freedom of Thought and Expression Project''' is an open educational initiative on Wikiversity. It collects essays, discussions, learning materials, and personal narratives that explore issues related to belief, unbelief, freethought, secularism, and human rights.  The project encourages learners to reflect on how freedom of thought and expression shape personal development and society. Participants are invited to co...&quot;</comment>
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== Freedom of Thought and Expression Project ==
The '''Freedom of Thought and Expression Project''' is an open educational initiative on Wikiversity. It collects essays, discussions, learning materials, and personal narratives that explore issues related to belief, unbelief, freethought, secularism, and human rights.

The project encourages learners to reflect on how freedom of thought and expression shape personal development and society. Participants are invited to contribute essays, questions, and educational resources on these themes.

== Learning materials and resources ==

* [[When Questions Become Freedom: A Story of Unbelief]] — A personal reflection and educational essay by '''Nafis Sadique Shatil'''

== How to contribute ==
Participants and learners are encouraged to contribute:

* Personal reflection essays
* Educational resources
* Discussion questions
* Case studies
* Recommended readings

To contribute, please create a relevant page or essay on Wikiversity and link it here.

== Licensing ==
''This page and its linked resources are released under the [[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-SA 4.0)]].''</text>
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|Description=VLSI.Arith: Carry Lookahead Adders 1A (20250612 - 20250611)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
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{{Information
|Description=VLSI.Arith: Carry Lookahead Adders 1A (20250612 - 20250611)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2025-06-14
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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|Description=VLSI.Arith: Carry Lookahead Adders 1A (20250613 - 20250612)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
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{{Information
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|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2025-06-14
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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== Licensing ==
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